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*mt*m*m**m+***¥* N^CURY MAT, 1800 VOL., XVII NO. 3 I*** GETTYSBURG COLLEGE GETTYSBURG, PA. C9MPILIR PRINT HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y. Makers of CAPS AND GOWNS To Gettysburg College. Lafayette, Lehigh. Dickinson, State College, Univ. of Penn sylvanin, Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Wellesley, Bryn Mnwr imd the others. Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods *• Degrees To The Glass of '09. We have begun our college campaign for Dext Spring and Summer. Over 25,000 employers look to Hapgoods for their men in sales, offices and technical positions in all departments. Most of these firms use college men. They arrange with us to cover the entire college world for them. We have a unique proposition of immediate interest to any college man who will be open for a propo-sition. Let us tell you about it. Write to-day. TJIJJ Commonwealth Trust Building, Philadelphia, Pa JWATMOJYAl, Ott6UIJVlZ«*TfOJV OM> BUJWJY BKOKERtj. 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REILE, Clothing, Cent's Furnishings Sole Agent for the CRAWFORD SHOES, 13-15 Chambersburg St; Come'and Have a Good Shave or Hair Cut —AT— HARRY I. SEFTON'S BARBER SHOP 35 Baltimore St. Barber's Supplies a Specialty. Also choice line of Cigars. Shoes Repaired —BY— CHAS. HARTDAGEN, Middle St., Opp. Court House, GUARANTEE ALL WORK THE GETTYSBURG DEPARTMENT STORE Successors to the I,. M. Alleman Hardware Co., Manufacturer's Agent and Jobber of HARDWARE, OILS, PAINTS AND QUEENSWARE, GETTYSBURG, PA. The only Jobbing House in Adams County. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. ftftftftftftftU «*** com-munity who will deal with us for a Piano or Organ. WEAVER ORGANS AND PIANOS have no question mark to the quality. MAIL THIS COUPON TO US. Send me special proposition for the purchase of a Piano. Name Address. WEAVER ORG*N AND PIANO CO., MANUFACTURERS, YOKK, PA , U S A. '■.! t* "f •I-ft '•!■' *'E '& 'V. ■■i- 'V. •& .1-. '± .* ■•i t ■$ ■\i■%t■■ & •F •r Headquarters —FOR— HATS, SHOES, AND GENT'S FURNISHINGS. Sole Agent for WAEK- OVER SHOES ECKEHT'S STORE, Prices Always Right Ttie Lutheran PuMcaliori Society No. 1424 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Colleges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and develop one of the church in-stitutions with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. Address HENEY 8. BONER, Supt, THE: KA ERCURV The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XVII GETTYSBURG, PA., MAY, 1909 No. 3 CONTENTS. THE IRON CROSS 2 BY EMIL FEOMMEL. AN EXTENSIVE OB' INTENSIVE ACQUAINTANCE WITH GBEAT AUTHORS 5 SAMUEL FAUSOLD, '10. NEW ENGLAND RAMBLES 7 EEV. CHAELES W. HEATHCOTE, A.M., '05. THE CATACOMBS 12 MCCLEAST DAVIS, '11. OUTWITTED 17 ELMEE STOUFFEE, '11. NAPOLEON IN LITERATURE 19 CHAELES SHINDLEE, '10. A GREAT TEACHER 22 E. H. HINTEENESCH, '13. THE EDUCATION OP THE INDIAN 25 H. S. HOSHOUB, '10. MAY—Poetry. (Submitted by 1911.) 27 EDITORIALS 29 EXCHANGES 31 THE MEPGUKY THE IRON CROSS. BY EMIL FEOiniEL. (Translated, from the German by Earl Bowman, '11.) iJSTE morning about a year after the Franco-Prussian War a Pomeranian landlord notices among his work-men a sturdy day-laborer who was wearing the Iron Cross upon his breast. When the hour of leisure comes be calls him, and in order that the taciturn Pomeranian might be induced to speak, he first gives him something substan-tial to eat, for then the mill begins to run. Then he asked him how he came into possession of the Iron Cross. "Yes," remarked the Pomeranian, "that is a long story—for I have got it from King William himself, and that too for pegging away." Thereupon the Pomeranian takes a draught from the pitcher and proceeds. "It was after the battle of Champigny in which the Wiirten-burgers bad conducted themselves so bravely and were driven back only by greater numbers. Our regiment is ordered to ad-vance. My company was to swarm out, and I sought shelter that I might shoot comfortably. "Now for a fight, boys," said our captain as the French, who had to be kept back until our comrades had come up to us, were coming out thicker and thicker. "Shoot away to your heart's desire." "I pour my cartridges out before me, all to the right so that I can easily reach them, and shoot away. Here, however, more Frenchmen were coming; conditions appear to the colonel to be rather critical and he gives orders to retreat. I hear it,—but think: "To pack up all the cartridges is not pleasant, and to let these dear and costly goods lie, that you can't do either,— therefore you just let the fellow blow his bugle, remain here and shoot away your cartridges, and then you have time enough to take your heels." I am busily engaged in shooting, when the adju-tant of our regiment comes galloping up and shouts: "Back, THE MEBCUBY. 3 boys, don't you have any ears?" "Never mind," says I," turn-ing myself halfway around, "not until I shoot my cartridges." And gone was the adjutant, nowhere to be seen At last I was entirely alone and before me everything was red with French-men, barely twenty paces away. As I shot the last cartridge I think to myself, "Now it's high time that you break away" So I take to my heels and run behind the regiment like a deer. The French were shooting after me like a hailstorm but all their bul-lets were too high and I got to the regiment hale and hearty, Just as I am about to enter the lines I see the adjutant parley-ing with the colonel and pointing to me with his hand. "Now,"' think I, "a charge is made against me for disobeying orders." Our colonel, a downright good man, comes riding up to me, laughs heartily about the whole affair, and said: "Fellow, are your bones all together?" "Please Your Honor," says I. Here he laughed again and says: "Well, now you can eat more than bread." "Ah, this time," I mused, "the affair turned out all right and the tale-bearing of the adjutant didn't do any harm. The next the report goes around: "His Majesty, the King, is coming." What a joy there was when the old hero came. He rode by and I had already procured a few potatoes, for I had an enormous hunger. Then suddenly our adjutant conies gallop-ing up to me and says that at once I am to report at His Ma-jesty's headquarters. "Now," think I, "that's the last of you." But I took cour-age and said: "Please, Your Honor, you know I have'nt done anything bad." But the adjutant had an expression on his face as if he were about to say: "Just wait, I've got you for not obeying orders and you shall not get off so easily." I indeed did not think that a person could be so spiteful. My knees tottering, I was led into a house, then into a hall where there was such an odor that my mouth watered, so good it was. I am just thinking: "0 happy the man who can have his dinner here,—" when I am called into an adjoining room. Then the king who is as friendly as the sun comes up to me and says: THE MEECUET. "My son, how was that affair yesterday with the cartridges ? Tell me all you know about it, just exactly as it was." "Please Your Majesty," says I, "and tell everything just as it ■happened and that I had indeed heard the signal, but that I had not been willing to leave behind the costly goods when the adjutant had come up and shouted: "Go back, boys" Then I thought indeed that there was no time to pay compliments and said: "Oh! I'll first shoot my cartridges. That is the whole -affair, King, I have done no other wrong." His face aglow with a smile, the king said: "That you did •well, my son." I think to myself, "Now it's all right, now the adjutant may say whatever he will." "Have you had your din-ner, my son?" asked His Majesty. "Please, Your Majesty," says I, "I am still quite empty." "You are probably very hungry," His Majesty again re-marked. "Yes, and also very thirsty," says I. The king again laughed and said that I was to take dinner with them. So I sit down to the fine large table with all the high officials and generals. We had soup, pea-soup, extra fine. But my plate was only half full, so I thought: "If only you could have more of this soup." When I had almost finished with it, the king called to me: "My son, do you care for any more soup?" "Please, Your Majesty," say I, "if there is enough of it." This caused the men to laugh and one of the waiters brought me another plate full. Sir, I can taste that soup with my pal-ate to-day! Next a servant comes in and brings a portion of roast veal almost as large as a joint of an ox, another takes a large knife and carves one piece after another from it upon a large platter. "This fellow," thought I," "undertsands his business better than the one with the soup." The large platter comes to me first and I put it before me, and aside of it also a small plate with potatoes. I think to my-self: "It is a little too much, but you must show yourself equal to the occasion," and begin to eat. Bright drops of per-spiration were standing upon my forehead by the time all the thin slices of meat were eaten. While the gentleman at my THE MEECUHT. 0 •side uninterruptedly kept filling a glass that I might wash it ■down, His Majesty, the King, asked me: "How about it my son, will you have some more?" "Please, Your Majesty," I say, "if there is enough of it." All the men gave a hearty laugh and the King himself was holding his sides. Why, I did not know. But the King said: "No, this is enough for to-day, my son, now we shall have an-other course." Well, I was glad we were done with the roast veal, and was thinking to myself: "Kow what's coming,— when a high officer with epaulets comes up and fastens upon me the Iron Cross. When I returned to my regiment again the adjutant laughed all over his face, twisted his mustache and gave me his hand. I was glad that he was again reconciled, that his lively talking with His Majesty had after all been of no use, and that for peg-ging away at the banquet, I even got the Iron Cross from His Majesty himself. That is the way it happened and not otherwise—. Note.—The Iron Cross is a military decoration bestowed upon the soldiers of the German army who had distinguished them-selves for bravery during the war of 1870-71. AN EXTENSIVE OR INTENSIVE ACQUAINTANCE WITH GREAT AUTHORS. SAMUEL FAUSOLD, '10. 0 sound the depths of the world's literary artists from Homer to Tennyson is well nigh impossible. To make a slight acquaintance with all of them is possible but hardly desirable. The better plan is: know as many great authors as possible intensively and then seek, at least, a slight acquaintanceship with the rest. The tendency of the day seems to be an extensive rather than an intensive acquaintance with the world's great authors. What college man of mediocre ability does not have a passing acquaintance with Homer, Horace, Goethe, Milton, Shakespeare 6 THE MERCURY. and Tennyson, and yet very few of us can call one of these men a comrade in any sense. What pleasure it must be to forget the present and turn back the hands of time to Shakespeare's day and catching the spirit of the seventeenth century, see the world as Shakespeare saw it; and read his masterpieces through spectacles uncolored by pre-judice and pre-conceptions. Such a process must ultimately end in giving us that comradeship with Shakespeare which deepens the insight into the workings of the human heart, broad-ens the vision immeasurably and quickens one's sympathy for humanity. Such results are not attainable by a slip-shod ac-quaintance with the greatest play-writer of English literature. We must know tlie man and his work. To have drunk deep of the springs of Shakespeare's genius is a requisite of true culture. AVhat Las been said of Shakespeare can be applied with pe-culiar fitness to Milton. The great blind poet must, in fact, be known intensively', if we would know him at all. Of course his genius has given to the world more than one production and yet his "Paradise Lost" stands out conspicuously as the high-water mark of his achievement and to know Milton we must be familiar with this poem—the grandest and greatest epic of Eng-lish literature. To be familiar with "Paradise Lost" means ex-tended study and thoughtful meditation which has but one logical sequence, viz, intensive acquaintance. Having cultivated an intensive acquaintance with these two giants of English literature, I would recommend the same pro-cess with respect to the other poets, if time permits. If time forbids an intimate acquaintance, we should learn to know the rest, at least, in a slight way. It is well for us to know our Burns to keep our dispositions sweet; Macaulay to teach us perspicuity, and Bacon for his logic. It is well to come in contact with the melancholy Poe and then to be entertained by the quaint and kindly verse of Whittier. Neither can we afford to miss the rare and spicy descriptions of Washington Irving or the vivid character portraitures of Dick-ens. Again, the author of Hiawatha should be known to all of us; also the master hand that penned Thanatopsis. We may close by saying that if you learn to know any one of these, your desire shall be whetted to know them all. THE MERCURY. NEW ENGLAND RAMBLES. EEV. CHARLES WILLIAM HEATHCOTE, A.M., '05. ARTICLE III. JHEEE are many outlying districts of Boston which are very interesting from the historical viewpoint. They have been in many cases annexed to Boston proper, but they still retain their interesting characteristics. Charleston is famous from the revolutionary period. It was settled in 1629. Almost the entire town was burned during the battle of Bunker Hill. The Navy Yard, which is close to Charleston, is certainly worthy of a visit. Visitors are admit-ted and there is much to be seen. One will be very anxious to see "Old Ironsides" of the famous navy of the 1812 War. She performed glorious service for the country and she now lies very quietly at her anchor. From the Navy Yard one should go to the Bunker Hill monument on Breed's Hill. The monument is placed on the southeast corner of the "old redoubt behind which the Ameri-cans stood on the seventeenth of June, 1775." "The obelisk measures thirty feet square at its base, and rises to the apex, two hundred and twenty feet. The observatory at the top is reached by a spiral flight of two hundred and ninety-four stone steps. It is a long climb, but the magnificent views from the windows amply repay one for the effort. In the lodge at the base of the monument is a statue of General Warren." The monument was dedicated on June 17, 1843. President Tyler and his cabinet officials were present and Mr. Webster was the orator of the oc-casion. The monument stands near the spot where the hero, Warren, fell. The spot is also marked where Prescott stood at the opening of the fight. In Charleston we ought to visit the old graveyard. It is closed to the general public but admission can be secured. The oldest slab bears the date of 1643. There is a piece chipped from the corners which was done by a shot from a British war vessel. The Harvard monument, a granite shaft was erected in 1828 by alumni of the university. The following inscriptions are upon it: 8 THE MERCURY. (On the eastern face.) "On the twenty-sixth day of Septem-ber, A. D. 1828, this stone was erected by the graduates of the "University of Cambridge in honor of its founder, who died at Charleston on the twenty- sixth day of September, A. D. 1638." (Western face. In Latin.) "That one who merits so much from our literary men should no longer be without a monument, however humble, the graduates of the University of Cambridge, New England, have erected this stone nearly two hundred years after his death, in pious and perpetual remembrance of John Harvard." There are many beautiful suburbs around Boston but none can compare with Cambridge. It is the largest of Boston's su-burbs, having a population of 92,000. It is famous as the cen-ter of Harvard University. The following inscription taken from an old London pamphlet published in 1643, which is near the college gate reads: "After God had carried us safe to New England and we had builded.our houses provided necessaries for our livili hood reared convenient places for God's worship and settled the civill government one of the next things we longed for and looked after was to advance learning and perpetuate it to posterity dreading to leave an illiterate ministery to the churches when our present ministers shall lie in the dust." Another interesting inscription reads: "By the General Court of Massachusetts Bay 28 October 1636, Agreed to give 400 £ towards the schole whearof 200 £ to be paid next yeare & 200 £ when the worke is finished & the next Court to appoint wheare & wt bvilding THE SiJSKCUKY. » 15 November 1637. The College is ordered to bee at Newe Towne 2 May 1638 It is ordered that Newe Towne Shall henceforward be called Cambridge 15 March 1638 It is ordered that the colledge Agreed vpon formerly to bee built at Cambridge Shallbee called Harvard Colledge." An unique tablet in the entry of Massachusetts Hall states a number of illustrious men who were its occupants: "William Ellery, 1747, signer Declaration of Independence. Artemas "Ward, 1743, commander Massachusetts forces, 1775. Eobert Treat Paine, 1751, signer Declaration of Independ-ence. William dishing, 1751, chief Justice of Massachusetts. John Lowell, 1760, chief justice United States Circuit Court. Elbridge Gerry, 1762, Vice-President of the United States. Francis Dana, 1762, first minister to Eussia. Theophilus Parsons, 1769, chief justice of Masaschusetts. Joseph Story, 1798, justice of Supreme Court of the United States. Charles Henry Davis, 1825, admiral of the United States Navy. Eobert Gould Shaw, 1860, soldier." "Mather Byles, 1751, clergyman and wit. Jeremy Belknap, clergyman and historian. Samuel Gillman, 1811, author of "Fair Harvard." James Walker, 1814, president of Harvard College and his, torian. Jared Sparks, 1815, president of Harvard College and his-torian. John G. Palfrey, 1815, professor and historian. George Bancroft, 1817, statesman and historian. Horatio Greenough, 1825, sculptor. Eichard Hildreth, 1826, historian. Francis Parkman, 1844, historian. Phillips Brooks, 1855, bishop of Massachusetts." 10 THE MERCURY. The tablet on the face of the building is thus inscribed: "Massachusetts Hall Built by the Province 1720. Occupied by the American Army 1775-177G. Used for students' rooms until 1870-71." Harvard presents many things -which are interesting to the tourist. Her beautiful and stately buildings are worthy of close inspection and study. On Cambridge Common can be seen cannon which were cap-tured by Ethan Allen at Crown Point in 1775. During the fol-lowing winter they were brought by General Henry to Cam-bridge, being drawn across country by eight yokes of oxen. Then there is the famous "Washington Elm which bears an in-scription thus: "Under this tree Washington first took command of the American Army, July 3rd, 1775." One should also view the Longfellow and Lowell houses which are located in one of the most beautiful parts of Cambridge. Mount Auburn Cemetery should be visited as a sort of a pil-grimage for the following reasons which we quote from a pamph-let: "It is impossible to think of Cambridge and Harvard with-out having Mount Auburn also in view, and at least a part of the day assigned to Cambridge and its attractions should be kept for this spot. The entrance is at the junction of Mount Auburn and Brattle Streets, Watertown. The grounds contain over thirty miles of avenues and paths, and half a day would be too short a time to visit the most distinguished among its thou-sands of graves. The grounds are beautified by many trees, flowers and shrubs, and costly sculptures and statuary are to be seen on all hands. Passing through the Egyptian entrance gate a short distance a turn to the left leads to the Longfellow sarchopagus, on Indian Path, and close at hand is the tomb of THE MEKCURY. 11 Motley. The grave of Oliver W. Holmes is just beyond, on Lime Avenue, and on Fountain Avenue, at the base of Indian Eidge, under tall pines is the grave of James Bussel Lowell. To the right of the gate a curving main avenue leads past the Ball Hughes' bronze statue of Nathaniel Bowditch to the mort-uary chapel, in which are the marble statues designed to rep-resent the Colonial and Eevolutionary periods, the Eepublic, and Law; the first, a sitting figure of John "Winthrop, by Horatio Greenough; the second, a standing figure of James Otis, by Thomas Crawford; the third, John Adams, by Eandolph Eog-ers; the fourth, Judge Joseph Story, by his son, William W. Story. In front of the chapel, beyond, is the granite Sphynx, by Martin Milmore. which commemorates the dead of the Civil War, with the inscription: "American Union preserved American slavery destroyed By the uprising of a great people By the blood of fallen heroes." A short distance from the chapel to the right, on Menoza Path, is the grave of the "Good Bishop," Phillips Brooks. On Spruce Avenue Anson Burlingame and Dr. Thomas G. Morton, the discoverer of ether, are buried. On Walnut avenue may be found the graves of Eufus Choate and N. P. Willis. On Greenbriar Path is William Ellery Channing's grave. On Sweetbriar Path are the graves of Josiah Quincey and John G. Palfrey. In the neighborhood of the tower, is the monument to Margaret Puller. Truly New England is a part of the nation which is rich in history and tradition. It is a beautiful part of the country which is worth all the time we can give to study and view. Her people are hospitable, kind and cultured. We owe her a debt of gratitude for her part she played so well in the history of our nation. We owe her much for her determined stand in the cause of liberty. May her influence never cease! Chambersburg, Pa. 12 THE MEKCURY. THE CATACOMBS. C. MCLEAN DAVIS, '11. 3WS IHE hills which surround Borne are formed of three' strata of volcanic tufa. The topmost stratum is com-posed of volcanic ashes called pozzolana which are not. solidified, next comes a harder rock called tufa grano-lare, and lowest of all is found a solid and compact conglomerate called tufa lithoid. The last was used for building purposes and because of its hardness, the early Jews chose the softer middle-stratum in which to cut out their burial places. These were long narrow passages, not more than three or four feet wide, and intersecting and crossing each other again and again. If drawn out into a straight line these passages would extend for a distance of three or four hundred miles, a line long enough to stretch from one end of Italy to the other. On each side there are niches for bodies, and occasionaly we find little chambers called cubicula, or bed chambers, which were used as family vaults. The darkness and gloom of the place were re-lieved by light and air passages in the roof which were concealed above in the fields by bushes. As before stated, these underground passages, or catacombs,, were used as burial places. Prom Old Testament history we full well know that it was the custom of the Jews to bury their dead in caves and rock-hewn tombs. Consequently when the Jews were dispersed throughout the Eoman Empire, they car-ried this custom with them; and those who settled in Eome it-self, found that the only available place for their tombs was irr the underground stratum of rock. Accordingly we find that be-fore the birth of Christ catacombs had been excavated for burial' places, and the Eoman's careful protection of the right of sepul-ture permitted of no interference. But the coming of Christ and the early persecution of the- Christians in Borne changed the purpose and character of the catacombs. No longer could the Christians practice their re-ligion openly; no longer had they even the right to exist. They fled to the catacombs to live and worship according to their faith. Then did Valerian in A. D. 257, forbid the observance of their- THE MEECUKT. 13 religion even in the catacombs. Like the hunted hare closely fol-lowed by its pursuers, seeks safety in the secret passages under-ground, so did the Christians pursued by the relentless and. merciless Eoman soldiers, seek their safety in the depths of the-catacombs. The old entrances were walled up and many pas-sages were closed. On the other hand new passages were made,, narrower and more intricate than the former ones, and secret winding stairs approached by a ladder movable from within, led. to the open air. Small chapels also were made in which the hid-ing bishops conducted worship. Wells were dug for water, and. store rooms were made for corn and wine; many lamps have been found which were used for lighting up the dreary passages. Hither were the bodies of the martyrs brought for burial, and in a short time hundreds of graves bore testimony to the spirit of the early Christian Church. Sometimes the inscriptions state that a whole family lies buried here, strangled to death for the cause of righteousness; and again we read that here lies the bones of ten, twenty, thirty or forty martyrs. Is not this holy ground, a place consecrated by the bones of the martyrs interred there ? Is it any wonder then, that during the period of toleration which was ushered in by the coming of Constantine in A. D. 312, the Christians continued to use the catacombs as a place of' burial, and moreover made them an object of pilgrimages? In life the catacombs were to them not a series of dark gloomy passages, but a place of inspiration, a place filled with the mem-ory of loving sacrifice and holy zeal, a place glorified by the true faith; and in death it was a source of great joy and peace to know that their bodies would rest near those of the saints. Dur-ing this period the catacombs were reconstructed. The passages which had been closed up were opened again. Parian marble-was used for doorways; silver tablets were put on the walls, dedi-cated to the memory of the saints; chapels were built and old ones remodeled; new passages for air and light were created and these underground chambers took on an entirely different aspect. But in the year A. D. 410 disaster again befell them. Alaric with his barbarian hordes fell upon Eome and despoiled it Prom this time until; the sixteenth century was a period of dis- 14 THE AIEBCURY. mantling, and finally of utter neglect of them. The popes in the first years of this period carried away many of the remains of the saints to sanctify the churches, and relics were carried forth in abundance; and in the last centuries the catacombs were utterly forgotten. Finally in the latter part of the sixteenth century Antonio Bassio rediscovered them, and spending thirty-six years in groping around in their crypts, he desciphered many of the inscriptions and copied many of the pictures. These inscriptions and pictures reveal to us much of the be-lief of the early Christians, and it is very interesting to know their character. There are two series of biblical pictures, the first dealing with Old Testament scenes, and the second with those of the New Testament. Under the first we find pictured the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the garden, the sacrifice of Isaac, Moses taking off his shoes, Moses receiving the law, Moses striking the rock, the sufferings of Job, the translation of Elijah, Daniel in the lion's den, the three Hebrew children in the fiery furnace, and the main incidents in the life of Jonah. Under the second series we find illustrations of the adoration of the magi, Christ with the doctors, and various other incidents and some of the miracles of Christ's life. Once is the nativity shown, and once the crowning of Christ with thorns. No fur-ther into the sufferings of Christ do these pictures go. The early Christians shrank from the horrors of the scourging and the mockery, and from the agonies of the cross. But the most important consideration in regard to these pic-tures is not the amount of art evidenced in them, but the pe-culiar facts concerning the belief of the early Church which are brought out through them. It has long been supposed that the cross was the earliest emblem of the Church. Now in the cata-combs the cross does not appear at all in the first two centuries. Moreover, the Virgin Mary does not appear until the fourth century, and then only as a human mother, sometimes with the infant Jesus, and sometimes in the attitude of prayer. In the latter case it is well to note also that her head is simply covered with a veil, and not with a nimbus such as is given to saints and angels. Here surely we can find mo grounds for the adoration of the Virgin. THE MEKCUEY. 15 Light also is thrown on the question of the primacy of St. Peter. This apostle is represented in two different scenes; oftencst with the cock at his feet indicating the denial, and fre-quently he is standing on one side of Christ with St. Paul on the other. Nowhere is he represented as being the rock on which the Church is founded, and nowhere is he shown as hav-ing the keys in his possession. Now while we do not hold that the inscriptions and the pictures of the catacombs portray fully the faith of the early Christians, nevertheless it is not probable that the early Church, if it had believed in the primacy of St. Peter, would make him an equal with St. Paul in their paint-ings. But brightest and most inspiring of all is their portrayal of their blessed Lord and Master. Here they dwelt with a fond-ness that evidences their great love for Him His miracles, His works of healing, His acts of love and mercy are here recorded. Christ the good shepherd with the lamb upon His shoulders, and with his sheep about Him, is frequently found. Again He is leaning upon a shepherd's crook or seated at a well. Never do we see Him being scourged or hanging upon the cursed tree. Always He is the gentle, loving and kind shepherd of the sheep, caring for His flocks, leading them into green pastures and be-side still waters up into an eternal vale of peace. Moreover the hopeful character of the early faith is attested by the 11,000 inscriptions which commemorate the dead. Here breathes the sweet atmosphere of the Christian love. The affec-tion of husband and wife, of parents and children, and of the Christian fathers for each other is here beautifully set forth. Moreover prayers to the dead are not infrequent. But in reality these prayers are more to the living than to the dead, more to those who have gone on a little farther, for whose love and assist-ance they implore. No evidence is found of belief in a Purga-tory. To them death seemed indeed but the portal of.eternal life, and an eternal life of joy and peace. They had no fear of Hell or future punishment for sins; in fact their sins no longer caused them anxiety, for, the blood of Christ had cleansed them from all sin. Heaven was secured them by the sacrifice upon Calvary. Thus we see that in the catacombs we find no grounds for the 16 THE MERCURY. supposition that the cross was the earliest emblem of the Church, for the adoration of the Virgin Mary, for the primacy of St. Peter, or for the belief in Purgatory. Moreover there are no representations of the Trinity, the Atonement, the Last Judg-ment, Satan and punishments in the underworld, and Christ is no where shown as one of the Trinity, but rather as the good shepherd, the true vine, the bread of life, and the fountain of truth. This was the sum and substance of their theology. This was sufficient for them to live righteous lives, and die martyr's deaths, if need be. Love rather than theological controversy righteousness rather than scruples concerning creed, character-ized them. They were the believers in the one Supreme God, and the man of Galilee was to them "Jesus Christ, the Son of God, Saviour of the living." Under such conditions gloom could not reign in these under-ground passages. Where so much of life and light are revealed, gloom can not be. These are indeed glorious abodes where the saints sleep the peaceful sleep of the righteous. The light of the hope of an eternal day shines here, and these passages, these crypts, these halls loudly proclaim:— t "ISTo, no, it is not dying, The Shepherd's voice to know; His sheep He ever leadeth, His peaceful flock He feedeth, Where living pastures grow. Oh, no, this is not dying, Thou Saviour of mankind! There streams of love are flowing, No hindrance ever knowing; Here only drops we find." * THE MEKCUUY. OUTWITTED. 17 i ELMEK STOUFFER, '11. HEN" James Bryce, police captain of West Hampton came into his office last evening, everybody from the janitor to the sergeant saw that something which was pleasing to him must have happened. To-night the usually exacting chief seemed to be pleased with everything and everybody. But no wonder he felt happy. For his orchard of young peach trees which were now loaded with the choicest fruit were the special pride of his heart. And ever since the opening of the fall term of Hope College the orchard had suffered from nightly raids by some of the students, and try as he would he couldn't catch them at work or find out who they were. But that morning he had met with a piece of rare good fortune which it seemed to him would discover the culprits for when he went into his orchard he found the Sophomore class roll-book lying under a tree of his choicest peaches. This was the cause -of Captain Bryce's unusual good spirits. He knew that the boys. would never lose that book yet whoever came to get is must ex-plain how it came to be lost in his peach orchard. Accordingly he put an advertisement in the evening paper announcing the rinding of the class roll book and that the same could be pro-curred by calling upon Capt. Bryce at City Hall. Meanwhile there was consternation in the Sophomore class. They never would lose that book. Yet how was it to be recov-ered without someone going to the police captain for it? And to go to Bryce would be giving himself away entirely. What should they do? Hammond, to whom the book was entrusted, volunteered to go to police headquarters, confess to stealing the peaches and get the book, but his classmates wouldn't permit such a procedure. They thought there must be some way to outwit the captain. That night a meeting was held in the class president's room and various means of recovering their roll were discussed. JSTone of the plans proposed seemed satisfactory until at last Hammond suggested what they thought would do the trick. So the meeting adjourned and the boys retired to their rooms. 18 THE MEltCUEY. An hour later two young men wearing slouch hats pulled low over their eyes stole out of the shadows of the dormitory and walked rapidly up town. They came to Eyan's barber shop just as Byan was closing up for the night. The boys exchanged greetings with the little barber and Hammond said, "Say Byan, how much will you take for your barber pole?" Eyan stared at the boys a moment bu t when they assured him that they were in earnest, he replied: "Well its beginning to look pretty shabby so you may have it for two dollars and a half. I need a new one at any rate." The boys paid the money, got a receipt and then marched away carrying what had been Eyan's barber pole. After they had gone several blocks they met a policeman, who thinking them up to some prank, arrested them and took them to police headquarters. Here the boys showed the receipt which they got from the barber and were promptly set free with apolo-gies from the captain. Soon after they ran into the arms of an-other policeman who also arrested them and took them to head-quarters with the same result as before. A third arrest followed and an hour later the chief was again confronted by two youths who were charged with stealing and carrying off someone's bar-ber pole. Captain Bryce now lost all patience. Calling a ser-geant he said to him: "Wagner, reach every officer on duty and tell him not to arrest any fool college students who are carrying a barber pole around town." The sergeant immediately departed upon his errand and so far as the boys with the barber pole were concerned, the captain had peace for the night. The next morning there was a lively scene about police head-quarters. No less than the two dozen barbers of the town were clamouring about the theft of their barber poles some time dur-ing the night before. "Nice state of affairs," said one irate old fellow. "A crowd of young vandals carry off half the town while the police are in league with them." "Why don't you complain to the officer on your beat," asked the captain. "I did complain," answered the barber, "but he said that he had posi-tive orders from you not to arrest anyone stealing barber poles." Bryce was in a dilemma. He saw that he had been outwitted by the students. But as for a solution of his own difficulties he was at sea entirely. While pondering upon his position a solu-tion came in an unexpected manner. The postman brought in THE MERCURY. 19 the morning mail, and among it he found a short typewritten note which ran, "You have our roll book. We have the barber poles. We are willing to exchange on even terms. If you wish to see the barber poles returned, deliver the class roll book to the colored messenger boy whom we shall send to you this after-noon." Signed, The Sophomores. Bryce saw that this was al-most his only relief, so when the messenger came he at once gave the book to him, soon afterwards a dray loaded with barber poles drove into town and a pair of carpenters soon replaced them all. X NAPOLEON IN LITERATURE CHARLES SHINDLER, '10. | HE literary genius is often'considered a dreamer and a man of little worth in other realms. In fact, the world is prone to place upon him the brand of imprac-ticability. However just such a characterization may be, we have had men of great literary talent who have been in-tensely practical. So practical that as statesmen, soldiers, and civilians, they have won imperishable fame. Such men were Caesar and Grant. The commentaries of Caesar were written by him when in the midst of stirring ac-tivities. His information was first hand and the resulting liter-ary production has never wearied the world. Grant, too, pre-eminently a general, wielded a facile pen. At the end of a stirring life, he lived over again the events of his crowded career and his "Memoirs" have been added to the world's masterpieces of literature. We now turn to another soldier with whose military exploits we are so familiar and yet whom we have, perhaps, failed to* meet in the fields of literary achievement. Napoleon has not given us a great commentary but the orations delivered to his soldiers disclose the genius of the man and reveal the secret of his power. Even as Caesar held his legions by the eloquence of his speech, so Napoleon prodded on the emotional Frenchmen to greater and greater efforts. It is not extravagant to say that 20 THE ME11CUEY. the marvelous success of the Corsican can be attributed more to the personality and cogent speech of the man than to his cun-ning on the battlefield. Napoleon is irresistible. The enthu-siasm of the man is contagious. Eead his speeches and then cease to wonder that he fired the hearts of the quick-tempered warm -hearted Frenchmen. Imagine yourself in his army when he delivered the following speech upon entering Milan.: "Soldiers: You have rushed like a torrent from the top of the Apennines; you have overthrown and scattered all that op-posed your march. Piedmont, delivered from Austrian tyranny, indulges her material sentiments of peace and friendship to-ward France. Milan is yours and the republican flag waves throughout Lombardy. The dukes of Parma and Madena owe their political existence to your generosity alone. The army which so proudly threatened you can find no barrier to protect it against your courage; neither the Po, the Ticino, nor the Adda could stop you for a single day. These vaunted bulwarks of Italy oppose you in vain; you passed them as rapidly as the Apennines. These great successes have filled the heart of your country with joy. Your representatives have ordered a festival to com-memorate your victories, which has been held in every district of the republic. There your fathers, your mothers, your wives, sisters, and mistresses rejoiced in your good fortune and proudly boasted of belonging to you. Yes, soldiers, you have done much—but remains there noth-ing more to do? Shall it be said of us that we knew how to conquer but not how to make use of victory? Shall posterity reproach us with having found Capua in Lombardy? But I see you already hasten to arms. An effeminate repose is tedious to you; the days which are lost to glory are lost to your happiness. Well, then, let us set forth! We have still forced marches to make, enemies to subdue, laurels to gather, in-juries to revenge. Let those who have sharpened the daggers of civil war in France, who have basely murdered our ministers and burnt our ships at Toulon, tremble! The hour of vengeance has struck; but let the people of all countries be free from apprehension; we are the friends of the people everywhere, and those great men whom we have taken for THE MERCOKY 21 our models. To restore the capitoL to replace the statues of the heroes who rendered it illustrious, to rouse the Eoman people, stupefied by several ages of slavery—such will be the fruit of our victories; they will form an era for posterity; you will have the immortal glory of changing the face of the finest part of Eu-rope. The French people, free and respected, by the whole world, will give to Europe a glorious peace, which will indem-nify them for the sacrifices of every kind which for the last six years they have been making. You will then return to your homes and your country. Men will say as they point you out, "He belonged to the Army of Italy." The ability of Napoleon in persuading men to follow him in the most hazardous attempts was extraordinary. He could make the most difficult task appear as child's play and by the offer of rich rewards allured the undecided. This is seen in the following: "Soldiers: You are naked and ill-fed! Government owes you much and can give you nothing. The patience and cour-age you have shown in the midst of this rocky wilderness are admirable; but they gain you no renown; no glory results to you from your endurance. It is my design to lead you into the-most fertile plains of the world. Eich provinces and great cities will be in your power; there you will find honor, glory, and wealth. Soldiers of Italy, will you be wanting in courage or perseverance? " In ability to shame his "soldiers and secure better service, Napoleon reminds us of Caesar. Soldiers: I am not satisfied with you; you have shown neither bravery, discipline, nor perseverance; no position could rally you; you abandoned yourselves to a panic of terror; you suffered yourselves to be driven from situations where a hand-ful of brave men might have stopped an army. Soldiers of the Thirty-ninth and Eighty-fifth, you are not French soldiers. Quartermaster-General, let it be inscribed on their colors, "They no longer belong to the Army of Italy." 22 THE JIEKCUKT. A GREAT TEACHER. E. H. HINTERNESCH, '13. N" the Chinese race we have the mightiest aggregation of human beings in any one nation on earth "with a written history extending as far back as that of any other which the world has known, the only nation that has throughout retained its nationality, and has never been ousted from the land where it first appeared." How can this be explained? Greece and Eome have lived and died, the Per-sian Empire has long since passed away, the map of Europe has changed a hundred times, yet China is much the same as in hoary antiquity. Investigators of this subject are most thoroughly united in declaring the result to be due to the fact that, whereas other nations have depended on physical force, China alone, has re-lied on moral force. Whence has come this moral force? Dr. Williams says, "It would be hard to overestimate the influence of Confucius in his ideal princely scholar, and the power for good over his race which this conception has ever since ex-erted. The immeasurable influence in after ages of the charac-ter thus portrayed proves how lofty was his own standard " Realizing the great influence which this one man has exerted on after ages we cannot help but anticipate profit in the study of his life. From the middle of the sixth to the end of the seventh cen-tury there swept over this earth one of those tidal waves of rea-son, "when the nations were full of unrest, and the mountains of thought were shaken with discontent." Then lived Themisto-des, Leonides, Cyrus the Great, Miltidates, Cambysese, Xerxes and Darius. Of course then occurred the battles of Marathon, Salamis and Thermopolye. Then, too, lived Budda Gantauma. Lo-Tesse, Ezekiel, Hazzai, Daniel, Zachariah, Pythagoras, Pin-dar, Aeschylus and Anacreon. It was then that Confucius K'ung-foo-tsze," "the master K'ung"—was born, B. C. 551. Confucius was the result of a peculiar union, a man of seventy married to a girl of seventeen. When the boy was three years old his father died, and his care and education was left upon the shoulders of his girl mother. THE MERCURY. 23 Though the son of a governor and of royal birth, he was brought up in the village like other boys of his time, not being allowed to think himself better than his playmates. As a boy he showed his superiority; at fifteen he was considered a phe-nomenal musician. He himself tells us that at that age his mind was set on learning. At nineteen he married, and in the same year was given his first public trust, that of keeper of the herds. This made him a sort of government overseer. He collected rents, enforced the laws and settled disputes between rival herders. At first he rode about much as an itinerant judge, but after a little sum-moned the disputants to him and gave to them a series of talks, or lectures on the absurdity of quarrelling and the necessity of getting together in complete understanding. He taught them the "Golden Eule." At twenty-two he commenced his career as a teacher. His pupils were not school boys but young and inquiring souls, who had a thirst for knowledge. He charged no fees, but like Plato accepted the goodly honorarium left by an admiring pupil. Yet no pittance was too small to be acceptable to the master. Sin-cerity and ability were the main requirements. The chief men of the state gradually became aware that a "prophet" had risen among them, and gave their sons into his keeping. His fame now quickly increased and we find him soon surrounded by a host of disciples. In B. C. 516, the marquis of the province of Lu, his patron, having been worsted in a struggle fled from the country. Con-fucius followed him but finding he could do him no good, re-turned. He now continued without official employment until B. C. 500, when at the age of fifty-one he was appointed "chief magistrate of the town of Chung-tu, and a marvellous reforma-tion in the manner of the people took place." He was now pro-moted from position to position until he held the office of Min-ister of Crime, in the province. The appointment made an end of crime. The existing laws did not need to be enforced. No offender showed himself. His administration was so wise that the neighboring states began to take alarm. At length, through intrigue, Tsze-Lu, the governor, was induced to forsake his wise counsel and say to him, "It is time for you to leave." 24 THE MEKCUKY. The sage was now fifty-six. He traveled from state to state, offering his service, and though many a prince would have gladly given him office, yet not one was ready to accept and prac-tice his principles. In B. C. 483, he returned to his native land and in the five last years of his life wrote several of his works. He died B. C. 478. He was pre-eminently a teacher and reformer. He taught rhetoric, mathematics, economics, the science of government and political and natural history. He pointed out the foibles of society and the wrongs visited upon the people by those who pre-tended to serve them. He denounced hypocracy, selfishness, vanity and pretense. Let us now consider some of the teachings of this wonderful man. He taught filial piety; that we should serve our parents while living and adore them when dead. Of the future the master knew nothing, in fact he was accus-tomed to say, that as man knows very little of the past, how can he expect to know the future? He knows not whence he has come, how can he expect to know where he is going ? In regard to worship his advice was to "reverence the gods, but to keep at a distance from them," and, "to respect spiritual things, but to keep aloof from them, may be called wisdom.'" The word "God" he does not use, but is constantly speaking of "Heaven," of "doing the will of Heaven" and says, "He who sins against Heaven has none to whom he can pray." "Heaven is speaking through you." Heaven to him was a principle. The word is used in the Chinese classics in such a way as to convey the idea of a personality or a will. He did not claim divinity, not even divine revelation. He was not a religious teacher, but rather a teacher of ethics. Perhaps D. Legg's words give a better statement: "He was unreligious rather than irreligious; yet by the coldness of his temperament and intellect in this matter his influence is un-favorable to the development of true religious feelings among the Chinese people in general." Did he live to-day he would undoubtedly be one of the world's THE MERCURY. 25 foremost peace advocates; for it was one of his sayings, that, "To fight decides who is the stronger, the younger and most skill-ful in the use of arms, but it does not decide who is right. That is to be settled by Heaven in your own heart." He spoke in parables and was an epigramist. These then are some of his words: "Beware of ever doing that which you a,re likely, sooner or later, to repent of having done." The cultivator of the soil may have his fill of good things, but the cultivator of the mind will enjoy a continual feast. "Be slow in speech, but prompt in action." "He whose principles are thoroughly established, will not be easily led from the right path." "The cautious are generally to be found on the right side." "By speaking when we ought to keep silence, we waste our words." "If you would escape vexation, reprove yourself liberally and others sparingly." "Disputation often breeds hatred. "Make friends with the upright, intelligent and wise; avoid the licentious, talkative and vain." THE EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN. H. S. HOSHOUR, '10. | HE Indian sat a"ione on the vast prairie meditating his own miserable fate, a shadow fell across the path of his vision. He looked up and saw a white man. The white man told him that it had been decided that por-tions of the corintry,—the Indian country—were set apart for the exclusive use of the Indians "Where," said the white man, "you shall be taught the white man's ways, and once more be happy." "You would teach us?" repeated the Indian thought-fully. He gazed intensely in all directions. As he turned to-ward the north, a ray of hope came over his dusky brow. "There is a valley yonder, there I will take my people." The Great 26 THE MERCURY. Father hesitated. "Some of the white men have taken a fancy-to that valley. See the hilltops yonder. There is your reser-vation." A mighty passion shook the whole frame of the In-dian, He stretched his arms fiercely towards the north. "My country," he gasped, and stood mute, rigid, motionless. The Great Father had gone. The Indian was alone, plun-dered, forsaken. His head dropped upon his breast. "It is as I thought," he muttered. All was lost. The furrows once more seamed his weather-beaten face—deeper than before. Fifty years of the American Indian's story lies in the reserva-tion. There they are grouped and dare not leave. The Indian is taught such things as beadwork, pottery, basketry and the like. White men generally disdain the Indian. Such condi-tions can only take away from the Indian the self-respect and manhood which is innate in him. Some thirty years ago the maltreatment of the Indians impressed itself forcibly upon Colonel Pratt, an old Indian fighter, who determined to do something whereby the condition of the Indian might be better-ed. Out of this resolution came the Carlisle school, which has been the American Indian's greatest boon. It is not my pur-pose to describe the system of education which has stood the test for so many years and has become so famous, as to be known the world over. It has been assailed frequently but a large propor-tion of the criticism against the "Carlisle idea" is only of the class which proves the system's real efficiency. Though the In-dian is by nature proud and haughty, no person will respond more readily to a genial and kindly interest, than he. It has been said that the educated Indian returns to his people and takes up their ways and thus his education has been worthless. This is the exception rather than the rule. Of a group of about three hundred Carlisle graduates, one hundred and twenty-five went into the government employ, seventy-five went to higher in-stitutions and the others took up various lines of work. The important point is that all—with but three exceptions—are self-supporting and many support others. Surely higher education is not wasted on the Indian. Instead of being an expense to the government, the educated Indian becomes a vital part of it. The fact that "no man has a place or fair chance to exist under the government of the United States, who has no part in it," is THE MERCURY. 27 becoming more evident every year. The detractors of the In-dian schools have demanded that the idea be abandoned. In-stead the American public, with the love of a "square deal" for everyone, should arise and insist that these schools should be multiplied, so as to educate all the Indians and at the end of fifty years every Indian in this land would be a worker, a pro-ducer, and best of all, an American citizen. * MAY. (Submitted by 1911.) 0 how we feel the thrill of spring, "When leaves appear, and song-birds sing, When woods are bright, and blossoms sweet The morning sun with fragrance greet; When all around new life appears, Creation smiles and nature cheers. 0 who feels this and is not gay, For this is spring-time!—it is May! 0 how the robin sings his lay And warbles glad notes all the day; 0 how he thrills the saddened heart, And helps a thought of love impart. He lightens many loads of care, And in their stead brings hope, so fair. Remember him and then be gay, For this is spring-time!—it is May! 0 what a thrill of joy it brings, When nature all around us sings; When in the green and flowery lea, We hear the buzzing of the bee, And in the orchard and the field We see the signs of life revealed; 28 THE MERCURY. And all about are tokens, gay Of nature's resurrection,—May! This is the season of the year That we love best for it brings cheer; Eeminding us, that, though some days Of life point dark and dreary ways, Yet after each dark night, forlorn, There comes a bright and joyous morn, Then cast thy sorrows far away And with the world, be glad in May! T H I HERCURY Entered at the Postoffi.ee at Gettysburg as second-class Matter. VOL. XVII GETTYSBURG, PA., MAY, 1909 No. 3 Editor in-Chief SAMUEL FAUSOLD, 'IO. Exchange Editor G. E. BOWERSOX, 'io Business Manager PAUL S. MILLER, 'IO Ass't Bus. Managers ROY R. ALLEN, 'II RUFUS N. WENRICK, 'II Assistant Editor RALPH E. RUDISILL, 'IO Associate Editors E. J. BOWMAN, 'II C. M. DAVIS, 'II Advisory Board PROF. G. F. SANDERS, A. M. PROF. P. M. BIKLE, PH. D. PROF. C. J. GRIMM, PH. D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance ; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be ac-companied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. est positions- EDITORIALS. The sure test and only test of an institution of learning is the worth of the product, turned out. By this criterion, the college is judged and it justifies its exist-ence by the intelligence, culture, and forcefulness of its alumni. Thus, in most walks of life, the college man excells. This is partly true in politics. The college man holds our high- -state and national and yet the curse of greed and 30 THE MEECURY. graft is upon us. Why is this? Is the influence of the college man for honesty so out of proportion to his powers in other quarters; or is it possible that the college man condones corrup-tion and himself openly courts it? We cannot believe this and yet the college man, permeated by the spirit of graft, tolerates it. This is true of some college men, at least, and the Alma Mater must bear her share of the blame. A professor of one of our sister colleges has said that in that institution boys learned the tricks of dirty politics and later car-ried their baneful methods to the state legislature. This is a shocking indictment, applicable to many of our colleges. Each college is a small republic, set aside from the world. In it, we elect officers for the various organizations. In these elections, the true standard of merit is too often discounted; lesser consid-erations prevail; and the astute politician, in embyro, does his questionable work. The most despicable creature on earth is the unscrupulous politician and woe unto the college that develops him. If we, are guilty, let us clear our skirts and make our beloved college a most potent factor in teaching the proper relations between the individual and the state. Another fault of the college man is a tendency to theorize and procrastinate while the other fellow controls the ballot box. The franchise is a glorious privilege and the neglect of its exercise can be termed almost criminal. The college man must enter the political arena. This is his duty. He must set an example to his neighbor and help destroy that monster which blights our cities and debauches-our legislatures—political indifference. May the colleges in the future turn out men with a more lively sense of political duty, who shall make politics respectable. When our best men learn to be politicians, the perpetuity of the American state shall be assured. THE Seniors' farewell to our Alma Mater is nigh at hand. This is perhaps the most interesting period of their lives. It crystallizes in deathless memory the pleasures of the past and the aspirations of the future. They are taking the final review of the work done and the last lingering words of advice. At THE MERCURY. 31 this time their thoughts are concentrated in two phases: Are we ready? and success. We must acknowledge that the present opportunities are ac-cording to one's ability. It is an occasion for them to use what they have already won by toil and labor. "With these qualifica-tions, there is a success which comes to the educated man, and gives pleasure and joy which money cannot buy. We know that all college men and women living in a community are en-gaged in professions or in business. They are leaders in the church with trained ability, or they are leaders in everything which promotes the culture of manhood. Let him go forward into the competition of business, or the rivalries of the professions or the envious struggles of politics without trust and confidence and life would be a failure. ,But let him go forward with the stamp of Gettysburg's manhood upon him and with the idea that fame is not got by a single bound and their wishes will be answered. As the Seniors are pushed forth amidst the contending forces of the world, let them bear aloft that "manhood crowned" which Gettysburg gives to them and let all unite in wishing them God-speed. EXCHANGES. "Now fades the Jast long streak of snow, Now burgeons every maze of quick About the flowering squares, and thick By ashen roots the violets blow." "Now rings the woodland loud and long, The distance takes a lovlier hue, The lark becomes a sightless song." And drown'd in yonder living blue We are glad indeed, that as we see the beauty of spring all about us, nature taking on new life, there is seen also this quickening effort in the college papers. Most of them show the 32 THE MEECUEY. effect of the spring environment, and poetry is more in evidence than it was in the winter issues. The general subject matter is more inspiring. There appears to be a tendency on the part of college men in their eagerness to prepare for a profession to neglect the study of the mother tongue and especially what is known as "Old Eng-lish." The advantage of an extensive and intensive knowledge of English cannot be overestimated. This subject is well treat-ed in an article in the "Newberry Stylus." It is a well-written and valuable essay peculiarly applicable to many college men. The story "Maviael the Violinist," in the same issue is worthy ofmuch praise.- The characters are well chosen and the plot well developed, and suited to the season. The other articles of the issue are well composed, but "How John Wells Got His Life Insurance" is rather out of place and not fitted for a college magazine. The "Haverfordian" since devoting its pages entirely to lit-erary productions is quite measuring up to the expected stand-ard. Its appearance in the new cover is quite attractive; the contents are also well arranged. The leading aricle, "The Poetry of William Morris," does much credit to the author. Among our new exchanges we are glad to welcome "College Kays." The paper, though not attractive in appearance, con-tains much worthy of reading. "The Destiny of the Mongo-lian," merits special mention. It shows in a very logical and forceful manner the developments of the various races, and how the trend of events points to the Mongolian as a rising race, and no longer a "Dragon" to be feared but a race co-equal with the more favored peoples. The idea in the "College Student" of the "Keview Depart-ment" for criticizing the articles in the same issue is worthy of comment. There are many benefits to be derived from so close and exact criticisms; yet one feels that the same attention given before publication would greatly increase the literary standard of the paper and at the same time give the writers an opportu-nity to correct his deficiencies before publication, which they will scarcely do once their articles are published. We gratefully acknowledge all exchanges received. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. IN this Drama of Four Year's Course, Play your part without dad's horse ; This to do is up to you With just a little tact between each yearly act, In some domain take a stroll And sell ALUMINUM for next year's Role (roll). Every summer hundreds of students make BIG MONEY selling Aluminum Cooking UteusiJs. For particulars address LOUIS HETZEL, Gettysburg College, GETTYSBURG, PA. 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Issue 28.4 of the Review for Religious, 1969. ; EDITOR R. F. Smith, S.J. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Augustine G. Ellard, S.J. ASSISTANT EDITOR John L. Treloar, S.J. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS EDITOR Joseph F. Gailen, S.J. Correspondence with the editor, the associate editors, and the assistant editor, as well as books for review, should be sent to R~EVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis, Missouri 63~o3. Questions for answering s.hould be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's Church; 321 Willings Alley; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania + + + REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Edited with ecclesiastical approval by faculty members of the School of Db.'inity of Saitxt Louis University, the editorial ottices being located at 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis, Missouri 63103. Owned by the Missouri Province Edu-cational Institute. Published bimonthly and copyright ~) 1969by REvIr:W. voR REt.mlOt:S at 428 East Preston Street; Bahimore, Mary-land 2t202. Printed in U,S.A. Second class postage paid at Baltimore, Maryland and at additional mailing offices, Single copies: $1,00. Subscription U.S.A. and Canada: $5.00 a year, $9.00 for two .years; othei countries: $5.50 a year, $10.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be accompanied by check or money order paya-ble to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Change of address requests should include former address. Renewals and new subscriptions, where ac¢om. panied by a remittance, should be sent to REVIEW VOR RELIGIOUS; P. O. Box 671; Baltimore, Maryland 21203. Changes of address, business correspondence, and orders not accompanied by a remittance should be sent:to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ; 421:1 East Preston Street; Baltimore, MarTland 2120'2. Manuscripts, editorial cor-respondence, and books for review should be sent to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOL'S; 612 Humbold t Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; Saint Louis "Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to the address of the Questions and Answers editor. JULY 1969 VOLUME 28 NUMBER 4 SISTER ELAINE MARIE PREVALLET, S.L. Reflections .on . Pr a and Religious Renewal It is fairly commonplace today that in all the talk of religious renewal the most neglected area is that of prayer. One might hazard the guess that this area is one of the most basic and most in need of rethinking and genuine renewal; one might also hazard the guess that people do not talk in depth about it because they do not know what to say. Like other areas of.renewal, there is question of what can be changed and what must remain. iEqually, there is growing realization that it will not be su~ient, to change the horarium and the outward form ur:less there is also renewal of the inner dynamic of /, prayer. To change structure may indeed be the likeliest ',,.¢-,way to achieve the change in process and attitude. If that is so, as the structure begins to change, new develop-ments in our understanding of prayer may arise from the life and experiences of renewal-minded religious com-munities during the next decade. What will be needed, however, is much sharing of and reflection upon the experience of religious, and sensitivity to new insights into the character of their prayer. We shall attempt here only to indicate some general areas of difficulty or de-velopment which characterize our present situation; Two observations may be in order at the outset. First, the difficulty with the concept of prayer is no doubt due to the pace and noise of modern society; but it is, I believe, more largely due to the crisis of faith which characterizes our age. When the basic notion of God is under so much scrutiny, and when one finds so much un-certainty as to the meaning and validity of believing in God at all, then obviously the concept of pra~e.r cannot remain untouched. For the nature and meaning of prayer will be determined by the character or concept of the one to whom one prays. Even though our under-standing of God must be constantly changing and growing, yet it must be in some fundamental way secure 4- Sister Elaine Ma-rie, S.L. is the chairman ol the de-partment of theol-og~ at Loretto Heights College; 3001 South Fed-eral; Denver, Colo-rado. 802S6:!2, ~ VOLUME :28, 1969. ÷ ÷ ÷ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 532 in faith. If we are not sure of God or it we do not know what our relationship to Him is, we cannot, be sure ot praye~---whether we should pray or how much we should pray. Hence, the difficulties in prhyer are closely tied to difficulties in faith.1 Secondl), it seems to me an unnecessary obfuscation of the issue to speak ot work as prayer. Prayer must, ot course, have an intimate connection with life and must therefore be related to work; but it aids neither our understanding nor our prayer to say that work is prayer. Prayer, as I shall refer to it, contains an essential com-ponent ot consciousness, reflection; it includes what has traditionally been named meditation. It may indeed occur that one prays--reflects upon meanings and values in the light ot the gospel message or one's understand-ing ot God--while one works. But to equate the two seems to me to be playing with words, the result being the loss ot the meaning ot prayer. Reflection takes time, effort, concentration. We are not a patient society, not used to being quiet; we are used to looking tot quick pragmatic results. Prayer demands patience and quiet; and it will often produce no immediate, demonstrable result. Hence, the tendency is to want to leave prayer aside, and one way ot doing this is simply to make facile verbal equation between work and prayer. The;~is~ sue is then quickly settled. When we are lett to our own in the matter that is, it we have provided no set time or place or fre-y.~] quency-~our experience will probably be that prayer will, sooner or later, simply drop out ot the picture. It will be pushed out by more immediate demands, more concrete "work to do." Yet it seems essential that the lives ot religious have a dimension ot depth and that religious themselves have what might be called a con-sciousness ot ultimacy. They must have a certain steady perspective, a clear focus. They must have this, not just for themselves, but [or others, as part of their service. Yet, in the immediacies that make up daily living, perspective and focus are easily lost; depth quickly turns shallow and empty. It seems necessary, then, to provide for oneself time and quiet to ponder meanings and values in the light ot the gospel message or in the light o[ one's understanding ot God. It is necessary to deepen one's understanding o[ faith, to reflect on the meaning ot God's loving presence. Finding God in prayer is a necessary concomitant to recognizing His presence in XA good treatment of this situation is given by Douglas Rhymes, Prayer in the Secular City (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967), espe-cially pp. 12-25. all things. Obviously, this is saying nothir~g new. It is simply reasserting the value of balancing action with contemplation.2 Let us now consider some perspectives which may prove valuable to the development of prayer at the present time. Christianity and Personalism From all sides we become aware that we are living in an age of "the person," an age which has a new realiza-tion of the value, the uniqueness, the importance of the human person. In this context, Christianity shows itself as eminently propounding the value of the human per-son: the Christian revelation of God as Trinity is, after all, a revelation of God as personal, as communicating Persons. The Incarnation speaks of the personal love of God for man and His desire to be in communion with man; the Resurrection of Christ speaks of the continuing possibility for man to be in personal communion with God through the humanity of Christ. These three central dogmas of the Christian mystery indicate that man's re-lationship with God is a deeply personal one, allowing whatever is deepest and most unique in each man to find its expression and its fulfillment in his relationsh.ip with the Divine Persons. If we seek to understand prayer, therefore, we may well begin with simply this affirmation of man as person and God as Persons. We may move from that to a second affirmation, equally involving the dimensions of person, and speak of presence. For the possibility of being per-sonally present to another is one of the highest preroga: tives of man. Here again the Trinity speaks of personal presence as belonging to God Himself; the Incarnation speaks of the presence of God to man in Christ, and the Resurrection speaks of the continuing presence of the risen Christ to His followers. If we wish a basis for personal prayer, we need no other starting point than these fundamental Christian affirmations. We can under-stand personal prayer as involving the presence of the Three Persons who are God, and, most especially, the presence of the risen Christ. To be conscious of this presence requires faith, but also deliberate effort--time and concentration--to reflect upon the faith-datum and its significance. ~ We do not wish to assert priorities here; it is not a case of either/or, but of both/and. Equally, we do not wish to deny that when faith is deeply lived, there need be no disjunction, between work and prayer. But given our human situation, it seems safe to say, minimally, that thought is necessary for finding and maintain-ing meaning and perspective. -:;- ", -- 4- ÷ ÷ Prayer and Renewal VOLUME 28, 1969 Sister Elain~ Mari~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Individual Prayer We can move from here to ask what characterizes the relationship between the risen Christ and the believer, and therefore what the qualities of prayer will be.~ We can treat these briefly under the headings of love, need, and thanksgiving. If we examine any love relationship, we will find that it always involves a personal petition to be accepted and loved by the other. Hence love always involves prayer to the other--a petition, implicit or explicit, for under-standing, for acceptance--simply for communion. In the last analysis, what any such prayer seeks is com-munion of heart and mind, reconciliation of under-standing and wills. Expressed simp!y, we want to be one with the person to whom we are praying:' we want him to understand our prayer, and we want to understand him as he receives our prayer. It is here that meditation on the life of Christ in the Gospels finds its importance. For the risen Christ now is the same Christ who lived the inciden~ ts portrayed in the Gospels; He is now, as it were, the result of the experiences which He assimilated dur-ing His earthly life. The mysteries of His life on earth live on in Him, and they must be entered into by any-one wishing to know Him as He is now. To use an analogy: I am as I am now because of what has hap-pened to me in the past. Anyone who wants to under-stand me deeply ~nust understand certain of the signifi-cant experiences that have formed me, have given my life direction. And in the measure that another under-stands in a deep and compassionate way my past, in the measure that another has been able to enter into my past, to experience it with me, the other will under- Stand me. So in our attempt to come to union of heart and mind with Christ: insofar as we penetrate the experience de-picted in the gospel, we come to understand the living Christ who is now as He is because of those experiences. If we want to know the Christ whom we are petitioning, then we will need to know Him through the Gospels.* Further, in any love relationship, the one whom we love finally determines both the character and the con-tent of a prayer; in some sense then, the one addressed in prayer has a major role in creating the prayer. We * Much of the following is drawn from M. Nddoncelle's analysis in God's Encounter with Man (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1964). * For a more detailed and carefully nuanced presentation of the place of contemplation of the Gospels in Christian life, see David Stanley, "Contemplation of the Gospels, Ignatius Loyola, and the Contemporary Christian," Theological Studies, v. 29 (1968), pp. 417--45. will ask for what the one petitioned can give, and we will ask it in a way we know to be acceptable to him. Reflection upon this will perhaps give a direction for thinking about the questions so often posed these days: why should I pray? for what should I pray? If one re-flects that the one receiving the petition is God, loving and personal, then one might conclude that one could ask God for anything, for nothing is impossible to Him. However, if one considers more deeply the person of Christ, and, knowing Christ, knows also His deepest concerns, then one would be led to pray not for trivia but to seek in prayer a communion in His concerns. The Christ of the Gospels has as His deep concern the genuine well-being of men, their relationships, their dignity, their fulfillment. Our prayer, then, if it really considers the one petitioned and seeks communion with Him, will result in a sharing in His concern for men, communion in His outlook with respect to the needs of men, communion of understanding of the Christian task. Thus, if we have sought genuine com-munion with Christ, our prayer will impel us outward-- to meet the needs o£ the neighbor. This means also that we need not leave behind or abstract from our own daily living and working in prayer, but rather that we try to come to see how Christ's concern, His outlook, His understanding, can be translated by us into our con-crete situations. From the other side, the one petitioned would want to understand us as we approach him in prayer--why we pray, what its content means, and to respond in the way that will fulfill the deepest need of the one praying. Love does not refuse the petition of love, yet must be at liberty to answer as love knows best. Hence prayer can never be an effort at manipulation; it can never seek to use the other as the instrument of its own advance. Love approaches the autonomy of the other, approaches him freely and leaves the other free in response. Again, then, love is seeking nothing so much as communion; it is entering into the myster~ of the other, it is allowing two freedoms to meet, it is allowing its own develop-ment to be charted by the free response of the other. Prayer will accordingly always contain an element of surrender. But we can approach prayer also from the angle of existential human need. To seek communion with an-other is really to seek to fulfill a deep human need--the need to come to terms with human existence as incom-plete, to free oneself from self-sufficiency. To recognize one's own need, to approach another in need is, con-trary to our tendency to sufficiency, deeply human and + Prayer and Renewa! VOLUME 28, 1969 Sister Elaine Marie REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 536 deeply fulfilling. To pray to another is to offer oneself as apprentice, to be willing to learn, to admit that we do not know or cannot do, that we are not in complete mastery of the course of our destiny, that we do not always perceive the meaning of events. Being ready to admit our insufficiency and approaching Christ to try to see things as He sees them, to seek thus a reconciliation of our mind and heart with His is already fulfilling an existential demand: that we, humanly, are limited, are needy, that we find fulfillment only in communion. To pray, then, belongs to the truth of human nature; it is an impulse that genuinely expresses and fulfills a deep need of human existence. The attitudes of love and of need come together in the basically Christian prayer of thanksgiving. For we turn to Christ as the effective sign that we are loved by God, that His love has touched our humanity and opened it. In relationship with Him we recognize that our human need is not a burden but a joy, the joy of being creatures, the joy of being redeemed and accepted as sons of a loving Father. In Christ, then, we need not make a pre-terise of sufficiency but can freely and lovingly admit our need and turn to him for acceptance, for a perspective which is fuller than our own and can complete and cor-rect it. Because we are creatures in need, yet because He lives to be in loving communion with us, our prayer of need is already thanksgiving. For our deepest existential need is to be accepted and loved as we are and thus brought to transcend ourselves. Communion with God in Christ can do this in a way that no human communion can. It is Christ who most fully recognizes and accepts the human condition as creaturely, as unredeemed, and who exists only to meet us "where we are," and to bring us beyond ourselves to the Father. When we turn to Christ in prayer, it is then already thanksgiving that He is there, that He knows us and loves us as .we are, that we can be in communion with Him. Community Prayer What distinguishes community prayer from individual personal prayer is, obviously, the presence of the com-munity. But this factor can provide us with some ma-terial for reflection. We may start with the premise that each individual has been touched and loved by God; each is uniquely related to God in Christ. Further, each individual has his own gift for the building up of the Body of Christ. For a community to be a community in any profound Christian sense, there must be among the members a sensitivity to the part played by each, an ap-preciation of the unique gift which, each possesses, a willingness to help each other be what he or she is in- tended to be. There must be a sense of belonging to each other, of being for each other, of affecting each other by what each says and does and is. There must be, then, some sense of communion. It is perhaps precisely the phenomenon of the com-munity that has been neglected in our previous methods of community prayer. If we take seriously the presence of Christ in each other, then .we have to admit that each member of the community may be a "word" of Christ to us. Community prayer might well include some oppor-tunity to listen to the word of Christ from within the community. This would presuppose that the members approach community prayer with the mentality of being "present" to each other, as well as to God; it would mean that we make some effort to be conscious and aware of the others with us at prayer, instead of regard-ing them as a source of distraction. The community at prayer adds a new dimension--the presence of Christ in each other--to our way of approaching Him in prayer. One might, in this context, suggest that some of the prayer we address to Christ ought, in fact, to be a prayer to the community. A prayer of loneliness, of weariness, of discouragement, might more practically be met by Christ in the community than by Christ addressed ver-tically. This implies, of course, great openness among the members of the community, sensitivity and receptivity to human needs. The basis for such prayer can be seen in this passage from Origen: Take the case of a man who is of the number of those who have acquired more than sufficient of the needs of life and charitably hears the request of a poor man who petitions God for his wants. It is clear that this man too will accede to the petition of the poor man. For he obeys the will of the Fa-ther who brings together .at the time of prayer the one who prays and the other who can grant the prayer and cannot, because of God's kindly provision, ignore the needs of the former. We must not, therefore, think that when these things hap-pen they happen by chance. For He who has numbered all the hairs on the head of the saints brings together in harmony at the time of prayer both him who can do a service, giving ear to him who is in need of His benevolence, and the one who devoutly prays? God answers men's prayer by bringing the community together so that men may, in Christ, meet the needs presented there. One may, evidently, speak one's need-- or in other words, pray--to Christ through the commu-nity, and it is in this way that He answers one's prayer. To do this in the explicit context of Christian prayer ÷ ÷ ÷ Prayer and Renewal sOrigen, Prayer, xi, 4-5; translated in Origen: Prayer, Exhorta- VOLUME tion to Martyrdom, trans. John J. O'Meara (Westminster: Newman, 1954), pp. 45-6. 537 REVIEW FOR RELI@IOUS 5S8 seems to provide a genuine opportunity of deepening one's faith in the presence of Christ in the community, as well as drawing attention to our responsibility to meet the needs of others--an end toward which prayer to Christ must always lead us. Further, it is our human experience of what it means to be related as persons that is always our prime analo-gate for understanding our relationship with God in Christ. Community prayer may provide us with deep experiences of what it means to be persons in commu-nity, and therefore might greatly aid our understanding of what we mean when we speak of God as Persons, or of the Trinity, Community prayer will be improved, it seems, if we consider it not only as individuals gathering to recite together the same prayer, but as individuals gathering, sensiti~ce to and aware of each other, to say who they are together: that they have common desires, common needs, a common faith. They can profess at once their faith in God and in each other, their trust in God and in each other. They may gather to say to God and to each other that they are sinful, that they need forgiveness from God and from each other. They may listen and respond together to Scripture or to other readings that would bring them together in communion with Christ in heart and mind, and in communion of conviction and purpose with respect to their task in the world. We do not wish to deny the value of structured com-munal forms of prayer such as the Divine Office. These can provide a welcome balance for the more personal, subjective form suggested above. We wish only to sug-gest that on occasion some way of acknowledging and being aware of the presence of each other in prayer may be an important factor in preventing community prayer from becoming formalized, and may be a way of keeping ~t relevant to the life and needs of the community. It becomes, then, a means of growth in faith and in love both for God and for each other, and thus a means of really creating genuine Christian community. If individ-ual prayer seeks communion of heart and mind with Christ or the persons of the Trinity, then community prayer must have as an added aim a communion of heart and mind with the community. It seems obvious that this is somewhat difficult if nothing is done to make one aware of the presence and needs of the community members. Community prayer must aim at making a conscious community in Christ--by sharing in ioy and sorrow, need and suffering with each other, in the presence of Christ. A community becomes a community precisely by acknowledging needs and praying to and for each other. A community, then, comes together to pray, but it is also formed into a genuine and meaningful commu-nity through its sharing in prayer. From a different angle, reflection upon our experience of the community indicates that all members of a reli-gious community do not have the same gift of prayer. Given the premise that each individual has his own gift for the building up of the Body of Christ, it seems evi-dent that some individuals are, by temperament and by gift, more disposed to prayer-.and reflection than others. Perhaps this is an area where the fruits of one's gift for the Body must be seen in a communal context: that if' we have in our community someone with a gift for prayer, we all share in the benefits of his or her reflec-tion, his prayerfulness. This in no way dispenses the other members not so gifted from any effort in this direc-tion. Each person must be concerned about acquiring the dimension of depth in his faith life, must be con-cerned about communion of heart and mind with Christ. Yet if it is our experience that even in religious commu-nities all do not have the same gift, we may profit from trying to understand that experience. All must be sensitive to this gift in their midst, ap-preciate it, and encourage its development. Equally, all can benefit from those who do have a special gift of prayer. But this implies that the one so gifted must be openhearted enough to share his insights and reflections, for this is part of the responsibility connected with the gift of prayer as contributing to the building up of the Body of Christ. Doubtless we need to reflect more deeply upon the matter of responsibility to and for the gift of prayer. No prayer is purely individual. All prayer be-longs to and is at the service of Christian community. Sacramental Prayer Sacramental prayer may now be ,seen as incorporating and epitomizing all the elements present in other forms of prayer. Christ is present to each individual who par-ticipates in sacramental action; each is uniqt~ely re-lated to Him. The community is also present--present there to each other and to God. Christ is present in the community. But He is also present, acting through the symbols used in sacramental action. Here, once again, we need to be conscious not only of ou.r vertical relationship to Him, but also of the other members of the community, aware of them and present to them. We need, further, to be conscious of how Christ is present in sacramental signs: we need to have reflected deeply upon the natural meanings involved in each of the sacramental signs, but also upon their specific Christian meaning, shared and understood by the com-munity. For Christ will act toward us according to the meaning of these signs. Each sign says something to us ÷ Prayer and Renewal~ VOLUME~281 1969, ".~ + ÷ ÷ Sister Eioine Marie REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 540 as individuals loved and touched by God, but also to us as a community. Sacraments are occasions when we gather as a community to celebrate, in specific, signify-ing ways, God's loving us and His acting through Christ in our midst. Ideally, then, sacramental action should include some opportunity for explicit awareness of the community. How this may be done with greatest effectiveness may vary. A communal celebration of penance might include, individual "prayer" to the community, or the commu-nity's praying together to acknowledge its communal blindness, inertia, and negligence, its need for forgive-ness, for Christ's redeeming love. It might include some action or gesture to signify forgiveness of one another as mediating, along with the sacramental sign, the forgive-ness of Christ. The Eucharistic prayer is more easily recognized as communal, since our eating of the one bread and drink-ing of the one chalice say that we already share, in Christ, a communion of life with Him and with each other. The signs of food, and Christ's presence to us through these signs, as well as the presence of the com-munity there, both say that we are creatures who need the sustenance and nourishment of faith and hope and love; we need this nourishment from Christ, but also from one another. This is eminently the sacrament of thanksgiving, as we return to God, in and with Ghrist, all that we have and are. The Eucharist is in a very real sense the highest point of our prayer, both individual and communal; it is the culminating point of our presence to and communion with Christ and the Chris-tian community. It should be an occasion of real cele-bration of our community in Christ. More thought will need to be given to the matter of celebrating, and how our awareness of each other, of our community, can be given recognition in Eucharistic celebration. Conclusion This is obviously only a sketch of some lines along which we might watch for development in the prayer life of religious communities. There is urgent need that religious be convinced of the value of prayer and de-termined to realize its value and meaning in forms suit-able for our times and within the thought patterns of our age. We have undertaken the task of wholesale re-newal of religious life, including its most mysterious dimension, that of prayer. If we fail in this task, some-thing deep and nourishing for our lives and the life of the Church will simply die. Only if we succeed will we find strength, vitality, and meaning to enable us to make our contribution to the Body of Christ in the twentieth century. It is worth our best efforts. EDITED BY THOMAS F. O'MEARA, O.P. Community and Commitment COMMUNITY There* is a new burst of awareness and[desire for com-munity both within and without the Church. The need for community lies deep in the heart of ~tlan. Religious and apostolic life cannot find its source} realization, or sign value simply in the fact that a gr~oup of men or women dress alike and perform certain ritual actions together Human relations are too profound, too deep 1y explore~, too important for this-superfiCial bond. Why do religious live in community? In some way it must be to enable and to enrich a human, Christian, apostolic, and celibate life. Each of these aspects calls for commu-nity and must find it or be frustrated. For-the present generation, isolated and made anxious by advancing technology, community is essential. A! new view of religious life must emphasize its importan.ce and its roots in the New Testament. Community exists to help the person develop as a person, to help the Christian develop !as a Christian. Community must be an adult familial ~ommunity, for this is basic to man. If a man does not create one through marriage, he must find another form, for man cannot live totally alone ~nd live healthily. R~.ligious commu-nity life, like the Christian individual, i~ a place where nature and grace meet. The charisms of the Spirit, the times, the heritage of the order, the psychological needs of persons are an array of aspects highl:ighting the im-portance of community. Community supports the indi-vidual in his apostolate; it gives hir~ direction and encouragement. But community is not jffst the backdrop * This article is excerpted from a paper feceS,' tly prepared by a group of midwestern Dominicans. The title ofI the ful.1 paper is "Towards a Theology of the Dominican Life in the United States Today." The article presented here has been edited b~ Thdmas F. O'Meara, O.P. I + 4- 4, Father Thomas O'Meara, O.P., is a member of Aquinas Institute School of Theology; St. Rose l~riory; Dubuqqe, Iowa 52001¢ " - . ; VOLUME 28;.1959: ¢'.,' 541 T. F. O'Meara, O.P. REVIEW I~OR RE~L[GIOUS ~2 for activity; it is essential to effective Christian life and apostolate. Apostolate and community are correlatives. Neither can be defined without the other. We are in-volved in a communal apostolate and an apostolic com-munity. We do not yet know how the rather recent re-discovery of the importance of community will effect a more profound level of community life; but we do know that for the United States and the American life style this rediscovery is extremely important, perhaps more important (and more advanced) when compared to the life style of Europeans. The previous form of routine, joint prayer (which is not the same as communal prayer), tolerant charity, frustrating or limiting obedience was insufficient. It often led to seeking a "family" outside of the priory rather than bringing friends into our family. The jurid-ical description of community is insufficient, since community is primarily a human and Christian, a psy-chological and socio-theological reality. Law can neither form nor direct true community; it can only give a very few boundaries beyond which community could not exist. From these legal lines to real community is a long road, but it is a road which the Christians could begin to traverse if they would emphasize grace, not law. If the Church is a microcosm of the world, the reli-gious community is a microcosm of the society in which it lives. The religious community should be a kind or type of Christian community, a model for it. By its very existence in communal sharing and dedication to preaching the gospel, the religious community shows it is not the world. But the religious community is in the world. It shares in human communities--in their life and in their structures. By baptism and vows we look to a special fulfillment beyond the merely social community of family and city. This is possible, however, only by listening closely to the insights of the gospel, to the Church, and to the contributions of the secular sciences. Psychology can be seen as a kind of praeparatio evan-gelica for healthy community life, for charity, maturity, honesty, joy, and dedication. We must learn what is the correct size for a community of men or of women, as determined by social and psychological studies; how a community can best be directed; what is the importance of work; whether one community needs a single apostolic goal or whether these can be pluralistic. Neither theology nor canon law have all the information on this; social psychology and management planning must help. We will see below that the community is the source of authority. The superior exemplifies the spirit of the community. He inspires and coordinates the ac-tivities of the community flowing from their life and work. He is not, primarily, a secretary, a bookkeeper, or a control center for daily life. The community should be open because Christian Iove is open; the community is mature and the superior a guide rather than a controller because this reflects the Christian (not the Jewish) idea of God. No closed community is happy. Jesus Christ was not closed in upon himself. Christian community-apostles must not be just intellectually open, but emotionally and psychologically open to change, to newness, to risk. To be such, the religious community must be physically open to the com-munities it borders. Religious communities cannot be fortresses, for these are anachronistic. Rather they must be dynamic centers of the Christian prophetic word en-gaging in conversation and cooperation with the world. Privacy and silence have a purpose, but they are not absolutes; they are ordained to dialogue and mission, and so cannot object to a reasonable openness of a com-munity to those for whom we exist. Just as vatican II showed that the world was vastly complex and different, and emphasized the local church as the New Testament does, so too a new view of reli-gious life will emphasize the local community. This is where religious life will be lived or will die out. The novitiate and a few houses of so-called strict observance cannot be the norm, especially in the United States where such a "norm" would be viewed as hypocritical. The local community will either attract novices to its kind of life or none will come, since young Americans are now attracted to concrete persons and what they are doing, not to ancient saints or romantic descriptions. The local community is all-important, and the province is seen as the coordinating center of creative and respon-sible local communities. VOWS IN C01V[MUNITY The Vows as Commitment to Christian Community and Ecclesial Apostolate The vows are directed towards community member-ship and activity. Since they are acts of persons, they have personal implications such as lasting celibacy, per-sonal mortification and denial, communal sharing, and so forth. But the community dimension can no longer be eclipsed by the personal; it is the community way of life which asks for celibacy; it is a particular level of apostolic efficiency and potential which requests poverty; and obedience is basically not the submission to one man's direction in the details of li[e, but the entrance into a community with its own necessary leadership. Vows are a lasting commitment to service through corn- Community and Commitra~nt VOLUME 28, 1969 munity for the kingdom of God. Obedience is commit-ment to community; poverty exists for service, peace, and equality; chastity is essential to this kind of dedication. Because of the importance of the New Testament record and an individual's commitment, we must have a Biblical theology of commitment-in-vows. We 'must have not only a Biblical theology of the vows, but a sociology and psychology of them as well. The vows are not re-straints but liberating influences. Are the vows the same as every and any commitment to a religious community? Do they have positive sign value today, as the Council de-mands they should? Does their nomenclature get in the way? Perhaps it is possible to see different levels of active commitment following evangelical counsels: these levels would be introductory (novitiate), temporary and termi-nal (auxiliaries), permanent but open to dispensation, and final. We must be wary of stating a theology of vows in terms of any dualism or any triumphalism. We cannot take for granted our identification of virginity with virtue, poverty with righteousness, or the religious life with a higher state. The vows, like the religious life, cannot be absolutes since they are means. How can Americans rediscover, emphasize, and expli-cate the goals towards which the vows tend. If these goals die out or escape achievement, the vows no longer have any real purpose. The keeping of a vow without any purpose or success is not in keeping with Jesus' reli-gious thought. Vows are means to love, to zeal, to open-ness, to adaptation, to maturity, to Christian apostolic success, to service. Vows do not permit us to have no concern for the future of ourselves or our society, to have no interest in others, to withdraw, to escape decisions and responsibilites, persecution and defamation, to es-cape the necessity of worrying about life and livelihood, to ignore the effectiveness of our community and the Roman Catholic Church. The purpose of the vows is to communicate Christ through a personal and communal life in God. 4. 4. 4. T. F. O'Meara, O.P. REV|EW~ FOR RELIGIOUS 544 Chastity A theology of religious chastity avoids every dualism. It never loses sight of the goodness of human emotions and sexuality, the permanent role sexuality plays in a balanced personality. Chastity is not a means of not-getting- involved in the world, of "avoiding near occa-sions of sin." Chastity is not a way of playing safe, nor are sins against chastity the most horrendous of the religious life, adding "malice" to sexual disorder. A re-ligious~ chastity can be a .selfishness of great proportions. Chastity must search seriously for its justification, and each must ask whether he justifies his living of a life which is not creative of human family; he asks this question not just once at perpetual vows but throughout his life. It is not at all clear that Americans today are more involved in sexual immorality than in the past, although they are certainly barraged with the glorification of sexuality. Still, the seriousness of not sharing one's life with another human being, the potential ambiguity of sexual abstinence, and the gift of creating a family should not be set aside easily. Does celibate chastity as a commitment to a community of Christian service have the theology and sign value for today it deserves? How do religious love in a human way? How is sexuality present in a love for the community and the world? Psychology must help to determine the dynamics and limitations of chastity in each individual, and the particular conditions which this or that province or house must take into ac-count. Chastity allows for a certain level of Christian dedica-tion to the apostolate and sanctity. It is academic to ask whether this is better or best, since only the individ-ual with his God-given vocation has a "place" in the sight of God. Chastity allows (it does not insure or cause) dedication: (a) to many persons rather than a few; (b) to areas of work which are dangerous or demanding in an exceptional way; (c) to an intensity of work in quality and quantity. Chastity is connected with the revolution-ary, missionary, and suffering nature of the Christian apostolate insofar as the celibate preacher of the gospel can go where a family cannot. Ghastity and poverty allow a certain economic and social independence, a freedom from political or economic systems which may be perversely harming human life and development. Poverty Poverty is not simply the absence of normal or special consumer goods. Amid growing American affluence, poverty is an evil, and the American mentality is intent upon its elimination. Christian "poverty" can have value in America as a sign of Christian eschatology and as an identification with the downtrodden and persecuted. In the present social and political upheavals within the United States, it has become clear that some religious who "practiced" poverty (sometimes in ludicrous detail) at the same time possessed a mentality which was un-sympathetic to the poor. Poverty must be seen, then, as a sign of the worldly and transcendent kingdom of God, of the "already" and "not yet" of the Christian mission. There are three aspects of poverty within the religious life, aspects which must be constantly tested as to whether they have a contemporary voice and to whether ÷ ÷ ~ommunity and Commitment VOLUME 2~ 1969 T. F. O~Meara, O.P. REVIEW FOR RELlflIOUS they are kept in the right balance. (1) Poverty of the individual and community must be proportionate to the particular apostolate and community. Poverty must smooth the road to effective apostolate and Christian Service. We must not let privileges, traditions, "contacts" little by little lead us away from service to the poor and persecuted. (2) Poverty has sign value: it frees us for work for the kingdom of God which is coming; it pro-claims our faith in divine providence and in the power of Christ to become the center of the evolving world. Our faith in Christ above and within the world is active now and in the future. (3) Poverty frees us for work among persons and proclaims the primacy of the personal, Christian, spiritual over the material. Wealth is power; but poverty affarms faith in another power, a power which is ultimately greater because it influences not mountains or machinery but persons and ideas. Vatican II emphasized the importance of real sign value to poverty, the importance of personal poverty and of corporate poverty. The latter demands real financial sharing on a national and international level as integral to the living of the vow of poverty. The Constitution on the .Church in the Modern World asks that we take up dialogue with the world as it is. With regard to the eco-nomic dimensions, we see that technological society has given us means of great value and importance. Wealth is good, and the assumption---dominant from the origins of man--that poverty and sickness were inevitable and frequent is now questioned by American youth, scien-tists, and polity. The correct direction of this nation's wealth and power would be a greater byproduct of our dedication to poverty than our supercilious contempt of all who possess or study wealth. In short, are we "using" our poverty for people? Poverty not only allows us to be especially dedicated to apostolates, but demands that we employ well time and energy in our areas of work. Poverty can mean em-ploying secretaries, jet travel, electronic media, and so forth in order to reach in a year (or a day) thousands more than Paul or Dominic contacted in a lifetime. On the personal level, poverty can easily be rendered mori-bund by establishing a life where all needs are filled im-mediately within a fully ordered house. Poverty means lack of security but trust in God. Poverty should prepare religious for living in the present era where the models and, concepts of the religious life are being hotly debated and seriously questioned. Poverty and faith are corre-lates; poverty and routine or unchallenged life are con-tradictions. Poverty rejects any defense of the past which turns priories, publications, apostolates, liturgies, and so forth into the displays of a museum. This is espe- cially true in the United States where we have practically no past and where our mentality is future oriented. Very practically, poverty is a commitment to commu-nity life. The American religious wants to know where and who this community is. He takes for granted his right to have some information on how the large amounts sacrificed or earned are being spent. The United States' Church has experienced many cases of poor planning, excessive construction of buildings, un-needed schools and apostolate.s, waste or diffusion of sums of money. The Christian who commits himself to poverty in a community has an obligation to see that that community itself is not sinning against poverty, and clearly superiors must answer not only to God but to the members of the community who freely offer their earnings. The spirituality and life of r~ligious in the area of poverty are not helped but rather frustrated by re-mote, corporate decisions on the expense of money. Can we not expect that a religious who sees money wasted will hesitate to remain within the community or to con-tinue his work and sacrifice? Obedience Thomas Aquinas emphasized the theological impor-tance of God's creation and agents. God acts directly in His world rarely. Similarly, obedience is not just a per-sonal relationship to God, and a superior never fully takes the place of God or Jesus Christ. Obedience is a commitment to God's kingdom revealed to us in Christ as present in a special ecclesial community. Obedience like authority involves community. Americans are raised in the Anglo-Saxon tradition of law. This tradition is often almost in contradiction to certain RoMan and European philosophies of law. The British and American legal mentality looks to a mini-mum of laws and a maximum of obedience; this is allied to equity but does not tend toward dispensation. Clearly the spirit of religious constitutions of the past and the Code of Canon Law stem from another philoso-phy. That is why the Constitution of the United States with 190 years of amendments fills only a few pages, while the laws of the community of "Christian freedom" are numerous. This national difference will influence American reaction to laws, authority, and obedience in the religious life. The purpose of authority is not to rule over the de-tails of the life of children, but to enable their matura-tion and sanctity. Adulthood, participation, and deci-sion- making can and should belong to all the members of a community in a society where political maturity is taken for granted. From the point of view of charisms, Community and Commitment VOLUME 28~ 19~9 54~ T. F. O'.~e~,~'a~ O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 548 the Spirit cannot be relegated to the mind of the supe-rior, nor will educated Christians accept the point of view that the will of the superior is always God's positive (as contrasted with His permissive) will. Education and adulthood render implausible the Neoplatonic idea that the superior informs the inferiors, because he always knows--intellectually or theologically--more than they do. Rather, the superior brings to focus the will of the community when it is holy and reasonable, or solves dilemmas presented by opposing parties. Traditions of democracy, initiative, consensus, and Aquinas' emphasis on nature with grace and secondary causes under God have been obscured by later spiritual theologies. There is a crisis in communities over whether differ-ent points of view exist, or whether bureaucratic con-trol can yield to political maturity. Today's crisis of obedience cannot be solved by more laws, stricter cen-sures, and tighter controls. This will only lead to the sin of forcing schism and apostasy. Mature Christians can-not renounce their own consciences over what seems er-roneous or insignificant. The crisis of obedience shows that a new kind of person is emerging in the Western world. He is quite different from either the Medieval peasant or the European bourgeois. His education, social responsibility, and creative initiative can either be used within the community, or he can be rejected. But he will not choose to live as a non-person, stripped of his own existence and potentiality--for neither common sense nor Christian virtue would suggest that he do so. There is a crisis in the Church today centering in the realization of authority. This is not simply "a crisis of authority." What is at issue is not that authority, even that infallible authority exists, but how it exists. This crisis is of great extent and needs a solutio~frather than a repression. The crisis is stimulated by the ever in-creasing role played by the mass media in Church affairs, by Vatican II's theology of collegiality, and by the transi-tion of the Church from a feudal or immigrant power to a vital stimulus within a pluralistic society. The crisis is particularly acute in the United States due to our lack of roots in the past history of the Church, to the American political mentality, and to the tension arising from past attempts to merge these two. The future should not be allowed to witness a growing division be-tween our standard style of administration on the one hand, and the majority of religious, especially the young, on the other. The New Testament recognizes even within its nor-mative pages a certain pluralism in Church forms. An example of this is found in St. Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians, Chapters Twelve through Fourteen. Different gifts are given to different members of the Church by the same Spirit. Every member of the Church does not have the same function, just as each part of the body does not have the same function. Though these members have different rules, a unity still exists from the members' re-lationship to Christ. There is a diversity in the Church, but it is a diversity which is unified in Christ. All of these gifts are given for the upbuilding of the Church. In this view of the Church given by St. Paul, there is definitely an emphasis on a plurality in Church forms, but a pluralism which is unified in Christ. Yet, the division, isolation, and frustration felt by many religious do exist. Where does it come from? Cen-tral authority often seems to be irrelevant. Why? Perhaps because it offers negative laws post factum rather than leadership before and during the moments of decision. This kind of authority is frustrating to those who have not been consulted and whose circumstances militate against the decision taken; it is irrelevant to many who may with risk choose to prefer real community and effec-tive apostolate to belonging to a long established group. The following three ideas are guidelines by which to measure practical decisions on renewing the concrete realization of government. (1) Charity. Charity is primary. Past constitutions have given the impression that holiness and charity come infallibly from obedience. Experience teaches that this is not true. Love for the community and the in-dividuals in it must have a certain primacy over systems, machinery, and political goals. Love is prior to obedience and is the original cause of obedience. The present crisis will not be solved without a greater emphasis on love for the individual person. (2) Freedom. It is the purpose of neither the vow of obedience nor of government to plan each individual's life and day. There should be an atmosphere freely to be lived in, not a minute horarium to be conformed to. Vatican II's Church in the Modern World begins with man, his dignity, and freedom; religious should not be afraid to follow that example. The purpose of au-thority should be to offer maxrmum help with minimum legislation. (3) Comumunity. Freedom, education, and personal maturity are some of the catalysts for today's crisis in religious community. Until we are accustomed to col-legial decisions at all levels, we will have anguish and potential death in American religious institutes. Three things are involved in the government of a community vis-a-vis the new problems: (1) the struggle for real com-munity life; (2) the necessity to be, without sacrificing heritage or unity, pluralistic; and (3) the desire for the ÷ ÷ ÷ Community and Commitment VOLUME 2BI 1969 549 T. F. O'Meera, REVIEW FOR RELIGZOUS 550 apostolate to correspond to personal needs and exigen-cies of society, and to help form community. It is clear that we do not have all the answers as to how to form this new community life on either the per-sonal or the structural basis. Clearly some things must go and others stay. But we must strive towards what is mentioned immediately above, for they are fundamen-tal to what religious life claims to be. The struggle to-wards this is itself good. Complaints about impending doom and disaster fail in Christian hope. The struggle is evangelical, since the vocation and following that Jesus preached include uncertainty. In the past we created a world where we conquered the future by avoid-ing it, by being static. We must not be afraid of uncer-tainty or risk and even danger in evaluating and living life. Political philospophy tells us that there are two ques-tions in the renewal of political structure: (1) What is your model of person? What kind of people are you deal-ing with? (2) In the light of what is best suited for these persons, who decides and governs? In considering our political structures, have we overlooked the first question? In regard to the second, decision and consul-tation should penetrate into the community as far as they can. This is a principle not only of politics but of a Christian theology of virtue. Today, we do not really have conflict within the de-velopment of representation and pluralism in govern-ment; we have a conflict as to whether pluralism and collegiality should be allowed to exist at all. This con-flict is disastrous, for new forms of realizing authority in religious community can be combated in America only at the price of a Pyrrhic victory, the decline of religious life. How are mature American religious to come to realize that representation and political discussion about the leadership and direction of the order is not evil. The Acts of the Apostles record discussion among the Apostles. For an American, not to question, noi to engage in the realm of political life is to be immature. We must not allow the leaders of men and women religious (who are not on the same theological plane as bishops) to become persons who mix the sacred with the secular like kings of divine right. Some attempt must be made to open more lines of communication, to broaden the base of author-ity, to give the greatest possible representation, to recognize the responsibility of local communities for their lives, to allow for pluralism and even dissent--all within the context of religious obedience to those in of-rice. How this is to be done without weakening authority is a challenging but far from insuperable question. To ~nany [rom other cultures, the entire view may seem bizarre or even dangerous. However, it is a legitimate possibility within ecclesial religious life, and it is the normal and traditional political mentality of Americans. Actually, obedience will grow where love has primacy; zeal will become more intense where consultation (with or without final agreement) has made it feel worthwhile. While commitment to Christian community-apostolate is destroyed by depersonalization and autocracy, it is increased through openness and honesty. Community and Commitment VOLUME 28, 1969 55! ANTHONY D. HECKER, S.J. Attitudes, Unity, and Renewal ÷ ÷ ÷ Anthony Hecker, s.J., writes fa'om Coleran House; 19 Linnaean Street in Cambridge, Massa-chusetts 02138. ' REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS In this age of renewal, both in the Church and in re-ligious orders, I would like to present for your considera-tion my reflections on those factors which could inhibit renewal. I refer to the need of greater communication between the so-called "New Breed" and the consequently so-called "Old Breed." I personally would prefer to ignore all such labels not only because of the divisions which they hint at but also because of the divisive-ness which they foster. I would like to do an in-depth study of the problems which I have observed both in my own order and in other orders with which I have come into some contact. However, because of various and sundry limitations, I must acknowledge that the following is neither a total study nor an in-depth study; rather it is simply my past and present reflections con-cerning these problems, about which 1 have a genuine concern. I present these reflections to you because I think that any attempt toward renewal will become operation-ally successful only insofar as there is unity among the members of the renewing order. At present I think that there is at least some lack of unity and that the source of that lack of unity is in our attitudes toward one another. It could easily be the case that my portrayal of these attitudinal difficulties is at least excessive, at most er-roneous. Nevertheless, by presenting these reflections to you, I hope at least to foster some reflection concerning unity and ways in which it might be improved. First, I would explain that, although I am relatively "young" and am a scholastic, I do not intend to castigate merely the "old" religious. (Indeed, I would hope that nothing that I say is construed, or misconstrued, as castigation of any person or group of persons.) The problems of communication cannot be facilely attributed to any one person or group of persons; we are all re-sponsible to a greater or lesser extent. Second, I would note that the basic problem of communication has its foundation in attitudes--attitudes toward the non-peer groups, especially those attitudes which are founded on implicit, and, hopefully, not recognized, presuppositions concerning the non-peer groups. I also want to state the several presuppositions which will be implicit throughout the rest of this discussion. First, we should not confuse unity with uniformity. For example, the excessive concern with mode of dress (ex-cessive because the concern exceeds that warranted by the subject matter) is more a question of uniformity than unity. External symbols do not foster unity; they can at best point to a unity which may or may not exist. A corollary principle, which I hesitate to state because of the apparent note of castigation contained therein, is that common life does not mean reducing everything to the lowest common denominator. I would willingly and forcefully declare that common life is necessary for unity. When, however, common life is proclaimed as a principle of uniformity, as well as of unity, then not only are the unifying aspects pushed below the horizon but also any further use of common life as a principle of action and decision is viewed by the subject with suspicion and dis-trust, rightly or wrongly. A second presupposition of this discussion is that dif-ferent attitudes or manners of acting should not be so facilely assigned a value parameter. That is, when some-one's attitudes or actions are even radically different from our own, we should not assume that they are wrong; much less should we arbitrarily impute base motives to them. For example, is it not more probable that certain priests and religious prefer not to perform "folk" or "liberal" liturgies because they think that they cannot find God so easily or so fully in such liturgies because of the "distrac-tions" inherent in such liturgies, than it is that their preferences are because they are "old fogies" or "die-hard conservatives"? Conversely, is it not more probable that certain priests and religious prefer to perform "folk" or "liberal" liturgies because they think that they can find God more easily and more fully in such liturgies because those "distractions" actually aid them in lifting themselves up to God, than it is that their preferences are because they are "always seeking new and exciting things"? A preference for uniformity would demand that one or the other view prevail. A preference for unity would allow the recognition that unity is not opposed to diversity. An all-pervasive value orientation would de-mand that one or the other view be declared good or better, and that the other be declared bad or worse. A view that would recognize the worth of a value orienta-tion but would also realize that it is not universally ÷ ÷ ÷ ~/OLLIME 2$, 19~9 A. D. Hecke~;$.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 554~ applicable would allow the recognition that several different, views can prevail simultaneously. There are many ways of approaching God, even within one (Jesuit) general framework. The primary concern of this discussion, then, is to con-sider attitudes of religious toward other religious. I would begin by stating, even categorically, that dogmatism among "liberals" is at least an implicit denial of the very essence of liberalism. A liberal, if he is a true liberal, must accept the conservative on his own--the conserva-tive's- terms; a liberalism that excludes anyone because they have a different viewpoint is, at best, a caricature of liberalism. How then, can liberals castigate conservatives because they are not liberals? Should the true liberal have, and manifest, a desire to proselytize everyone everywhere, to malte everyone liberals whether they want to be or not? To all these questions I must answer, No. Lest my answer be interpreted as a non-liberal attitude toward those "liberals," I would state that my answer is based upon my own reflections concerning what a liberal is. Accordingly, I would ask those "liberals" to help me to understand their view of liberalism and how that view is compatible with their attitudes. On the other hand, I would state, even categorically, that dogmatism among "conservatives" or "traditional-ists" is at least an implicit denial of the very essence of tradition. Dogmatism here leads to fossilization of tradi-tion. Can the true conservative deny that there is any development in our understanding of God and of our relation to Him, indeed that development is inspired by the Spirit? Can the true conservative deny that there are a variety of ways of approaching God, that God can be "all things to all men"? (Would they really limit God in this way?) If they do not allow for the continuous workings o[ the Spirit, are they not left with merely the dead letter of the past? Indeed, is not this continuous and varied working of the Spirit a presupposition of Ignatius in the Spiritual Exercises (Annotations 4, 15, 18), and is it not probable that Ignatius intended these as principles of Christian living as well as principles to be used in the Spiritual Exercises? Can the true conserv-ative demand uniformity of thought--that we all think alike--rather than unity of thought--that we agree on certain common goals and then proceed in our various ways to foster attainment of those goals? Would it be possible for the conservative, and the liberal as well, to accept the distinction between "accepting a view" and "agreeing with a view" (accepting a view as valid despite the fact that it is not a view he can personally agree with)? A second attitude that I would consider is the emo- tional generalizati.on of a response to a particular aspect of another person. This attitude appears to predominate among the younger religious, perhaps only because of my greater contact with them; it might be just as prevalent among older religious. What I mean by this attitudinal problem is that, at least occasionally, a person will ob-serve a limitation in another person (real or imagined) and then proceed to generalize--the person can do noth-ing right. The particular observation becomes generalized into an attack on the person of the person. For example, a student may discover that a particular facultymember has a character fault let us say pride. Rather rapidly the student will become convinced that that person is a poor teacher and/or advisor. I will grant that I have ob-served few religious with this problem, but unfortunately some of these few are quite vociferous. Even were their judgments true, I think it an extreme lapse of charity to commit such character assassination. Unfortunately, also, too many younger religious are not critical enough in evaluating these unsolicited reports. They might hear from a vociferous few that a teacher cannot teach and readily accept it as fact, without even experiencing the teacherl Finally on this problem, too many religious, young and old alike, engage all too frequently in destructive criti-cism. It seems, at times, to be almost a preoccupation, occasionally even descending to a type of "Can you top this?" session. Needless to say, all these manifestations of the same general attitude are destructive of unity, all the more pernicious because it results in a gradual and insidious erosion of unity, unnoticed and unreflected upon. Can we not accept the limitations of each other without bandying them all about? If we must talk about the limitations of another, let us in all charity and honesty talk about them with the person most concerned--the person with the limitation. Let us build one another up in charity rather than tearing one another down, and thus destroying the very fabric of our various orders. The third and final attitudinal area I would concern myself with is that of suspicion and distrust--not al-together unrelated to destructive criticism. What I mean by this is the tendency of too many of us to presume the worst of each other and, accordingly, to impute poor motives. This attitude is, I think, founded on at least two; more fundamental problems: lack of understanding and lack of faith in the good will of others--two problems which closely interact upon each other. Lack of understanding appears to know no boundaries. It is prevalent between younger and older religious, between subjects--regardless of age--and superiors. That ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ A. D. Hecker, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS between subjects and superiors seems to be more heavily influenced by a lack of faith; it will be treated in its proper place. Conversely, the lack of understanding between younger and older religious seems to be prior to, and causative of, the lack of faith. This lack of under-standing is, I think, intimately linked with the problem of unity. Unity is not that sort of thing which can be readily and simply assumed as existing between a group of men or women with common goals; nor can it be fostered and maintained by a total reliance upon sym-bolic acts and customs. Unity is something that has to be worked at in a real way by all the members of a group. Unity demands that all in the group understand one another; and to understand one another requires both work and patience. The urgent, and apparently natural, impulse to be understood seems to force us to give a primacy to this aspect of our interpersonal rela-tions. I wonder if this is not a false assigning of priorities. Could it not be that in order to be understood we must first understand others? Could it not be that in order to express ourselves in a manner that others can under-stand, in order to express ourselves in the thought pat-terns of the others, we must first understand the others? Of course it should also be realized that to simply understand the thoughts or expressions of others does not suffice. This is merely a token or surface understand-ing. To properly understand other persons, at least an attempt must be made to understand the social, emo-tional, psychological, and philosophical tensions and views that influenced those persons during their forma-tive years. For example, do younger religious under-stand, and realize the consequences of, the circumstances in which their elders grew up? (There is the fact that absolutism was not only prevalent in theology but that it also permeated all aspects of life and thought-- Einstein and such thinkers were not public knowledge, and thus not influential on public patterns of thought, until the forties; the social sciences were not influential until the mid-fifties; apologetics was a major concern throughout the entire course of. studies. Now when apologetics is given such an all-pervasive primacy, should it be surprising that the critical faculty 'is highly devel-oped, and that there should be a great concern to preserve and protect all aspects of the Catholic faith--incidentals as well as essentials?) On the other hand, do the older religious understand, and realize the consequences of, the circumstances in which the younger religious grew up? (There is the fact that Einstein's theory was public knowledge, and thus permeated all aspects of life and thought; the social sciences Were in full flowei', and thus the greater concern about freedom and interpersonal relations; Teilhard de Chardin was influential in shaping a new worldview-- readily taught to and accepted, perhaps uncritically, by the younger men.) I do not not mean to imply by all this that the new is better than the old, nor that the old is better than the new. Rather I am attempting to point out the fact that there are in any of the orders today two--at least two--- quite different ways of viewing the world, views that underlie and permeate all aspects of life of the various persons. I reiterate, neither is better, they are just simply different. Accordingly, to understand any thought, view, or opinion of another person, that thought, view, or opinion must be understood in the context of that per-son's way of viewing the world. Of course, there will be the few, with either worldview, who are incapable of understanding the other worldview of the other person; but this does in no way imply that Christian charity is no longer needed. Because we do not understand the other person's point of view, we should not assume that he is wrong, or foolish, or operating with ill will; neither should we ridicule or antagonize him. We should ap-proach those few, then, with the realization that a greater demand may be made upon our charity--they may ridicule or antagonize us but we need not respond in kind--and with a determination that we shall improve our relations with them. These last remarks lead us to a consideration of the lack of faith in the good will of the other person. There seems to be this lack of trust between old and young; but, more importantly, there seems to be some mutual lack of trust between superiors and subjects. Certainly the latter, but I think also the former, implies a limitation in our practical spirituality. What I mean by this is that, while supernatural faith is directed primarily to God, in that very fact it should also be directed toward men. Faith in God includes faith in God's loving kindness and grace-full influence upon men, especially upon men who have committed themselves totally to God. Accordingly, to say that one has faith in God and yet to manifest a radical lack of faith in men totally committed to God involves one, to some extent, in a contradiction. To point out what I have referred to as a limitation in our practical spirituality I would use, by way of ex-ample, our attitude toward what the Jesuits refer to as the "plus-sign." We seem today to disdain the term "plus-sign" and all that it connotes. On those rare occurrences when we do use it we manifest what we think that it means. Too often we apparently mean that we have al-ready judged the other person, thus fostering a negative image of him in ourselves, but that we will give him the ÷ ÷ ÷ Renewal VOLUME 2~ 1969 557 benefit of the doubt and not report him. I submit that the "plus-sign" does not connote this negative attitude but rather one that is quite positive. It is not an act which follows upon judgment but is an act which pre-cedes judgment. It is a humble admission of the fact that too little is known of the other person, especially of his degree of deliberation, to judge him on the basis of a solitary act. It is the suspension of judgment as opposed to rash judgment. I would suggest that this might be what Ignatius was referring to in the Praesupponendum to the Spiritual Exercises. I would also reiterate that it is doubt-ful that Ignatius wrote this to be used solely in the con-text of the Exercises; rather it was intended also as a principle of Christian living. In the light of all this, when we disagree with someone in principle, or concerning policy, should we seek out negative reasons for his position, especially if we do not understand his point of view or frame of reference? When we disagree with superiors in principle, or con-cerning policy, and realize that we cannot effect a change, would it not be more healthy and mature to seek out their reasons for maintaining the present system even while we continue to represent our views? Of course another requirement of our interpersonal relations is patience. Even if superiors were to agree that some changes might be beneficial, time would often be re-quired before they could be effected. Conversely, if changes are effected, how can we be so sure that they are failures after only three or four months of operation, especially if we have had little contact with that area? I would close as I began: emphasizing that these are some of my reflections concerning unity, at least limited, possibly erroneous. It was my intention, and is my hope, that these reflections might be a means of stimulating reflections on the problems of unity and ways in which the present degree of unity might be improved. A. D. Hecker, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 558 EDWARD R. TRUBAC Long-term Financial Planning for Religious Communities Faced* with scarce resources generated by a growing number of apostolates combined with a declining number of vocations, religious communities have increasingly turned to planning in order to allocate these resources in the best way possible. However, present planning has gen-erally been of a short-term nature principally designed to meet the rather immediate needs of the religious com-munity. Many decisions have been made without a clear notion of their long-run financial implications and with-out a careful analysis of alternative proposals. In my talk I would like to begin by discussing some basic principles of planning, then apply these principles to the long-range needs of religious communities, and conclude by tracing some of the financial implications of planning decisions, Basic Principles of Planning In referring to long-range planning, I am not talking about an informal annual get-together in which adminis-trators meet to give their opinions about the course of the future. Neither am I referring to the kind of planning which is initiated because of some kind of crisis, such as a sharp decline in profits for a firm or a sudden increase in instructional expenses for a school. This kind of plan-ning is really not planning at all; in fact, it ilIustrates the costs associated with a lack of planning in which options to act and shape events are restricted as one is forced to react and adapt to a given situation. Long-range planning is a formal, organized process in which a person or group of persons is 'specifically * This is the text of a talk given on February 26, 1969, at the Conference for Religious in Financial Management held at the University of Notre Dame. ÷ ÷ Edward R. Tru-bac is assistant pro-lessor of finance; University of Notre Dame; Notre Dame, Indiana 46556. VOLUME 2~ 1969 charged with developing a plan of what the organization should look like in five or ten years; the basic purpose of the plan is to mobilize the available resources of the or-ganization in a way that will best achieve its objectives: Firms which have adopted formal plans often seek new ventures through mergers, acquisitions, product line diversifi-cation, or market expansion. They are not satisfied with main-taining the status quo unless they determine, after careful analysis, that this is the best possible course of action. And, in some instances, a company can improve its performance significantly by planning ways to increase the efficiency of cun-ent operations, rather than following the more glamorous but more risky diversification route? To repeat, long-range or strategic planning, to use the more popular term, is essentially concerned with the eval-uation of alternative courses of action (with the stress on the word alternative) in an effort to select the best course of action for the future. And by best course of action, I mean the one that best meets the objectives of the organi-zation. ÷ ÷ ÷ Edward R. Trubac Planning Principles and the Long-Term Needs of Religious Communities This approach is obviously applicable to religious communities as well as to business firms. Like firms, re-ligious communities have in the past few yeais become more actively engaged both in "product line diversifica-tion" and efforts designed to improve the efficiency of current operations. For example, some alternatives that might be grouped within a long-term planning framework for a typical religious community would be: (a) Should the community continue to own and op-erate small hospitals, should only large ones be consid-ered, or should the community relinquish ownership ~ind merely staff hospitals and homes? (b) Is it advisable to continue the two-year college in its present form on the motherhouse campus or should it be discontinued and a house of formation set up near a university campus? (c) Should the community continue in elementary edu-cation, should expansion in secondary schools be consid-ered, or should sisters accept teaching positions in secular institutions? (d) Should a religious community operate only in schools andhospitals, or should many of the members be actively engaged in some of the various types of social work that are open to today's sister? A correct though obviously superficial answer to the REV1EW FOR RELIGIOUS x Harold W. Henry, "Formal Long-range Planning and Corpora-tion Performance," Michigan Business Review, November, 1968, 560 p. above questions would be to do what you think is best. But what is best is again dependent on your objectives. And while you may start with general goals, acceptable guidelines for decision-making must be phrased in con-crete and measurable terms. Here business firms have a decided advantage over non-profit organizations. For while a firm may have as its general objective the opera-tion of a diversified, growing, and profitable worldwide manufacturing business, its specific objective will prob-ably be couched in terms of a specified rate of return on investment; the evidence of the firm's success in meeting this goal can easily be gleaned from its financial report. For the typical religious community, the honor and glory of God and the sanctification of its members would adequately reflect its general objectives, these goals to be specifically achieved through the external works of char-ity of caring for the sick, social work, and the education and training of youth. But while the subobjectives of business firms (for example, a specified rate of return on investment) lend themselves to rather precise measure-ment and, therefore, evaluation, those of religious com-munities do not. First, it is difficult to identify measurable goals in health care, social work, and education, particu-larly Catholic education. And if you cannot specify your objectives in measurable terms, how can you accurately evaluate your operations? This is a problem that most non-profit institutions have in common. Moreover, even if you could express the objectives of each apostolate in meas-urable terms, there would still be the problem of com-paring different units of measurement; in other words, a firm can estimate the expected contribution of each new venture or product in terms of a common denominator-- profit. But how does a religious community, trying to maximize the benefits from its various activities, compare the gains from medical care with the gains from educa-tion when these benefits are expressed in different units of measurement? Finally, religious congregations are faced with the unique problem of structuring a community life that will maximize spiritual development as they al-locate their resources to their various works. Measurable Guidelines for Allocating Resources to the Various Apostolates Because of the difficulties in defining measurable units of output, value judgments will necessarily play a large role in the choice of community works. However, I do think there are some objective guidelines that should not be ignored. First, religious communities are constrained in selecting apostolic works by the specialized nature of their resources, both people and buildings. While people probably constitute the chief constraint, I am familiar ÷ ÷ Financial Planning VOLUME 213, 1969 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS with several cases o~ communities who have experienced difficulties in changing the pattern of their activities be-cause of the problems involved in liquidating their in-vestment in buildings and equipment. Now when I use the term constraint in referring to people, I do not mean to use it in a negative sense. If members of a religious community are competent in and motivated toward, for example, the medical care field, then the community should be in that area (one of the first steps in the planning process should be an inventory of talents and attitudes for the various works). Each apostolate can easily be broken down into several sub-apostolates that are in urgent need of competent and highly motivated people. To take the medical care apos-tolate as an example: (a) Religious communities strong in administrative personnel will continue the traditional pattern of ownership and manage-ment. (h) Some will wish to retain ownership and policy making responsibility but will be unwilling to pr.epare religious for administration. They will utilize religious m direct service to patients and in purely spiritual roles and will be obliged to place administration in the hands of seculars. (c) Others may give only direct care while still others, de-pending on their preferences and training, may engage in home nursing, care for the aged or programs for retarded and handicapped people.* Financial Considerations in the Planning Process Financial considerations must also play a roIe in plan-ning the optimal mix of activities. I would like to see religious communities, in formulating their long-term plans, estimate their expected net financial return on in-vestment in each of the apostolates under consideration; that is, they should calculate the financial costs and bene-fits of each apostolate. I am certainly not suggesting that if a community never expects to cover its expenses from a particular activity that it should drop that work. What I am saying is that it would be very useful to identify the apostolates that are expected to operate at financial losses over the next five to ten years. Because if projections show that certain activities will not generate sufficient income to meet expenses, then a decision to subsidize that apos-tolate will have to be made in the light of projected total financial resources, including income on investments, con-tributions, debt financing, surplus generating apostolates or a combination of all these approaches. I should like to digress for a moment and mention that while the expansion or contraction of investments in the various apostolates should not hinge merely on their ex- ~John J. Flanagan, S.J., "What I~ the Catholic Hospital Apos-tolate?" Hospital Progress, March, 1966, pp. 50-1. pected financial returns, there are other investments, those which are not directly involved in attaining the objec-tives of the order, where financial factors should domi-nate. Here I am including not only financial assets such as stocks and bonds but also such assets as the farm owned by many religious congregations. Apart from special con-siderations, such as the community's sensitivity to charges of its being land rich, the farm should be evaluated solely on the basis of its expected financial rate of return. The evaluation technique would basically first involve deter-mining the current investment in the farm in terms of equipment and building values plus the current market value of the land. One would estimate the net dollar re-turn on the farm for the next five or ten years including as your return both estimated net income from the farm and expected appreciation bf land values. An expected rate of return should then be secured by discounting these future dollar returns to the present; this rate would be compared to the return on alternative investment op-portunities. If the expected rate of return on the farm is less than 5%, the existing rate on time deposits, then one would be well advised on that basis to dispose of the farm. Determining the Costs of Apostolates In calculating the expected net financial return from each apostolate, the first step would be to examine cost experiences in the recent past as a basis for future cost projections; data for the past three to five years should be sufficient for this exercise, although it should be stressed that the usefulness of past data for projection purposes is inversely related to the degree of change experienced by the community in the recent past. Securing this infor-mation may well present some problems since the stand-ard chart of accounts used by many religious communi-ties is not structured around the various apostolates. There are usually separate accounts for the generalate, provincialate, and local houses; in addition, expenses are usually categorize.d along input (salaries, travel expenses, supplies, and so forth) and institutional (junior .college on the motherhouse campus) lines rather than focusing on the various outputs (medical care, educational work, social work) of the community. The junior college prob-ably serves more than one apostolate and these educa-tional costs should be allocated to the various works of + the community. In the same vein, the category travel ex- + penses will also include costs associated with a variety of ~" apostolates. In addition, an attempt should be made, where possible, to allocate administrative expenses among .1~i.na~.ia't P!anning the different works of the community. I am not advocat-ing a wholesale overhaul of the accounting systems, of VOLUME aa, ~96~, religious communities. I am merely suggesting a supple- 563 REV]EW FOR RELIGIOUS mental technique designed specifically for long-term plan-ning purposes that will facilitate the cost projections for each of the various apostolates. In ferreting out all costs, the focus should primarily be on the educational, administrative, maintenance, and re-tirement costs associated with placing and sustaining peo-ple in the various apostolates; per capita expenses in each of these categories for each of the apostolates should be derived, summed, and projected into the future; this re-suiting figure should then be multiplied by the estimated number of people in each of the community's activities in order to secure a total estimated cost figure for each apos-tolate. Capital expenditures on building and equipment directly associated with the works of the community (par-ticularly hospitals and colleges as a result of the contin-uing trend toward separate ificorporation and ownership) should ordinarily not be treated as an expense to the com-munity although there are certainly numerous cases where, for example, debt service requirements generated by building programs could not be met by the school or hospital and constituted a severe financial drain on the religious community. One of the great advantages of identifying costs, for ex-ample, the costs of educating sisters, is that it permits one to price and compare alternative approaches to supply-ing the same or approximately the same type of educa-tion. Although I will readily admit that considerations other than financial are extremely important and even overriding in certain situations, still the right kind of fi-nancial information will at least permit a comparison of the costs of sending a person to be educated at the junior college for sisters on the motherhouse campus with the cost of education at a university. The question of which costs less will require careful analysis but the cost differ-ential will probably not be as great as might be deter-mined from examining the accounting records of many religious communities; that is, the cost may not be ap-preciably less to send a person to junior college and may, in fact, be more expensive. One of the hidden costs I am alluding to is the failure of many religious communities to fully account for the contributed services of the mem-bers of the order who are teaching in these colleges. By contributed services, I mean in this case the salary that a member of the religious community could have earned teaching at a university minus her maintenance costs at the motherhouse that are met by the community. For ex-ample, if the subsistence needs of a religious teaching at a junior college for sisters are valued at $2,000 a year while she could have earned $10,000 annually teaching at a university, then the contributed services would total $8,000. A recent survey by one of the graduates of our program in institutional administration indicated that only 50% of the junior colleges surveyed included con-tributed services in their budget as an expense to be met by the community. This omission gives a very distorted picture of the true costs of operating junior colleges. A less hidden but perhaps more controversial cost is that of depreciation. The traditional argument against non-profit institutions depreciating their capital assets is that the needed funds are not generated from operating income as with a business firm, but are commonly ob-tained through fund-raising campaigns. I feel, however, that all costs should be identified, regardless of how they are met. Moreover, communities may find donations to be a very undependable source of funds in the future. As a further point, most hospitals depreciate their capital as-sets. This policy on the part of hospitals of accounting for depreciation has been given added stimulus by third party payments which explicitly recognize depreciation as a reimbursable cost (for example, Medicare). As these third party payments become more widespread in the area of education, accounting for depreciation expenses will correspondingly grow in popularity. Again, it should be emphasized that identifying the education costs of sisters prods administrators to trace out alternative cost patterns. Another possibility, for ex-ample, is the growing practice of affiliate membership in which the person finances her own college education if at all possible, but maintains regular contacts with the con-gregation. This policy, of course, would be the least ex-pensive (it would also meet the problem of people leav-ing the community after being educated but before earning any return for the community); but the issue of the impact on vocations would certainly have to be care-fully explored. A similar analysis should be applied to maintenance, administrative, and retirement costs. Past cost data allo-cated among the various apostolates should be secured as a basis for projecting total costs in the future. The pro-jected cost of current procedures should then be com-pared with cost projections of alternative ways of meeting these needs. Projecting Net Financial Returns from Each of the Apostolates After the cost information has been properly processed, the last step in this exercise would require the projection of net financial returns for each of the various apostolates. These financial returns vary widely, depending on the particular activity. It should come as no surprise that the financial returns to religious communities are particu-larly meager from the Catholic secondary and elementary ÷ ÷ + Finandal Planning VOLUME 28, 1969 REVIEI/V FOR RELIGIOUS school apostolates. For religious teaching in colleges and universities and especially for those working in the medi-cal care area where contributed services are considered as reimbursable costs, the financial returns are competitive with those received by lay people with similar qualifica-tions and experience. But the salary and fringe benefits received by the typical sister teaching in a Catholic ele-mentary school (and this is irrespective of whether the school is community or diocesan owned) falls far short of even meeting the expenses incurred by the community in placing the sister in that position. The most detailed in-formation concerning this issue has been derived from Father Ernest Bartell's study on the financing of Catholic education. The data go back to 1963-64, but they serve their illustrative purpose. They show that the per capita contributed services of religious teaching in two dioceses averaged $5425 in one diocese and $3572 in the other.3 Contributed services are specifically defined as the salary that could have been earned by the religious teaching in the public school minus all recorded parish expenditures on behalf of the religious teachers, including cash sal-aries, gifts, and convent maintenance. In addition, a rental charge imputed on the parish investment in con-vent living facilities should be deducted; this charge would be equivalent to the earnings foregone by the parish on a comparable commercial investment. In his study Father Bartell also estimated that if one religious order teaching in one of the dioceses were just to break even and recoup its educational and retirement investment in its members, then it would have had to re-ceive $1057 yearly from each of its teachers over an aver-age working life of 40 years, even assuming that these payments could be invested at 5% during the lifetime of the religious teacher.4 Since the members of this order annually remitted, after current expenses, only $360 each back to the motherhouse, the $700 difference might be looked upon as a subsidy paid by the religious commu-nity to the diocese. Now, I am not going to strongly argue for or against this particular subsidy although I do believe that alter-native ways of reducing it should be carefully examined. One way might be to negotiate with diocesan authorities for salary increases. Another possible approach might be state aid where the contributed services of the sister would perhaps be recognized as a reimbursable cost, as in the medical care field. Or the community might simply 8 Ernest J. Bartell, C.S.C., "Efficiency, Equity and the Economics of Catholic Schools," Catholic Education Today and Tomorrow: Proceedings of the Washington Symposium on Catholic Education, 1968, pp. 12-3. *Ibid., p. decide that its estimated total financial resources will be sufficient to subsidize this apostolate. Conclusion In conclusion, I would like to see a statement along the following hypothetical lines included in the formal plan of each religious community. In deciding on the op-timum amount of resources to be devoted to apostolate A, B, C, and D, we have considered alternative ways of meeting the expenses associated with each activity and have chosen the best alternative for each. Next, in esti-mating the net financial benefits [or each of the aposto-lates over the next five to ten years, we project that activ-ity A will run a large deficit. But despite this expected deficit, we wish to keep our commitment to this aposto-late and estimate that apostolates B, C, and D will gener-ate a surplus of a sufficient size which when combined with income on investments and expected donations will meet the deficit in A. I strongly feel that this type of approach will add a more realistic dimension to community planning. Finandal Planning VOLUME 28, 1969 567 LOUIS TOMAINO Religious Community and the Johari W ndow ÷ ÷ Louis Tomaino is the associate di-rector of Worden School of Social Service; Our Lady of the Lake Col-lege; San Antonio, Texas 78207. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 568 The building of effective human community is gen-erally regarded as one of the most critical issues facing religious orders now and in the near future. Such community spirit is essentially a group phenomenon and it may be that certain findings in group dynamics are very relevant to religious communities. In this paper we are concerned mainly with communities of women. In evaluating the kinds of relationships present in human community, a conceptual model designed by Joe Luft and Harry Ingham for use in the National Train-ing Laboratories seems particularly helpful. It is called the Johari Window.1 This model, although not prepared specifically for religious, states that the sister by her actions and words in the community, projects a kind of "window" of herself which is viewed by others. Other members of the community likewise project similar windows and the sum total of these projections is a powerful dynamic which fashions group relationships in that community. The Johari Window represents four kinds of informa-tion which governs the flow of relationships among community members involved. This includes: A. Things the sister knows about herself and the community and about her feelings about others. B. Things the sister does not know about herself and the community and about her relationships with others. C. Things others in the community know about the sister and the community. D. Things others do not know about sister and the community and about the relationships therein. By "things" we mean sisters' thoughts, impulses, desires, fears, fantasies, prejudices, hopes, dreams and goals. Thus, sister's Johari might look like this: a Joseph Luft, "Johari's Window," Human Relations Training News, v. 5 (1961), p. 6. Things known by others Things unknown by others Things known by sister THE ARENA (open area of the re-lationship) THE FACADE (are~ of hidden de-fenses) Things unknown by sister THE BLIND SPOT (realities not recog-nized) THE UNKNOWN (unexplored reali-ties) 1. The Arena--This is that part of the relationship which is open: ". the cards are on the table." This refers to that part of sister that is completely honest because she faces community issues in the open. When group issues or problems are known and faced by all members openly, we say that these things are in the arena. 2. The Blind Spot This area comprises those thoughts, feelings, and so forth which sister has, but of which she is not aware. However, others in the com-munity do see these things in her because her actions and words make them visible. For example, the sister with definite authoritarian leanings may not recognize this tendency in her interactions with others, but others see itl 3. The Facade--This area consists of feelings, moti-vations, and so forth which sister has, but keeps hidden for whatever reason, oftentimes because she may con-sider their revelation as inappropriate. Therefore, while she knows these things about herself, other community members are not able to perceive them. 4. The Unknown--This includes those aspects of sister's group relations which are unexplored, latent, unconscious, and simply not known. The goal in building community is to make the Arena as large as possible so that conditions for com-munication are improved through openness, free inter-change and productive action. Everything we have said so far about sister can truly be said about community. Realistically, the obstacles to developing real com-munity cannot be dealt with until they are known. These hurdles cannot even be accurately identified until sister and the community develop an open arena where issues can be placed. Therefore, how does one go about establishing a large arena? Let's consider two processes termed exposure and feedback and how they may be utilized to alter sister's Johari. If she really opens up with other sisters, if she + lohari Win¢lo~ is not too insecure to discuss her own doubts and questions, sister will be revealing something of her-self. This is exposure. She will humanize herself by demonstrating that she too is subject to many of the hazards faced by others. Whitaker2 refers to four kinds of openness. Verbal openness, or the process of using direct words to express to another exactly what we mean. ,4ffective openness or the sharing with others our personal experience of boredom, depression, anger, warmth, fantasy, and physical contact. Physiologic open-ness as shown through expressing a blush, hunger, or a headache. No purpose openness is the occasional idle hour, the no-point-in-it encounter, where people are "just there" with no visible goals in mind. To do this comfortably requires real open-endedness. In performing these kinds of things the sister shows part of herself and neutralizes some of her facade. The horizontal line of the Johari is moved downward, thereby enlarging the arena, eliminating some facade and mak-ing the unknown area smaller. Feedback means simply a way of securing some knowl-edge about ourselves as individuals and as community members. It is indispensable to establishing lines of communication and to changing ourselves. This idea urges that the sister create opportunities whereby others may give her feedback on herself. This feedback might tell her things about herself which she did not previously know and thereby elimi-nate some blind spot. The perpendicular line of the Johari" is moved laterally which makes the arena larger, the blind spot smaller, and the unknown is further diminished. If the Sister desires and secures both feedback and exposure, her Johari would look like this: Feedback REVIEW'FOR RELIGIOUS ~ Carl Whitaker, M.D., "Open Communication from the Psycho. therapist," Existential Psychiatry, Spring, 1966, pp. 55-8. The large arena suggests that something is really happening in the life of this sister. Blind spots (I didn't realize you thought I didn't like you) are clarified. The unknown is decreased (I'm glad we both know how we feel on this point), and energies previously used to maintain facades are now diverted to more constructive purposes. The possibilities for communica-tion and change are vastly enhanced with things now put into the arena where they can be managed. We are suggesting, in effect, that those religious groups characterized by large arenas have created conditions favorable to building effective community. The sum of individual Johari's in the group tends to promote a general or average Johari for the whole community. The larger the arena, the greater the chance for ef-fective community. The question might indeed he raised: Of what value to community life are blind spots, facades, or unknowns? Some other, and extreme, windows sometimes seen in both individuals and communities are as follows: The large unknown tells that this sister desires neither feedback nor exposure. She is strictly official and operates by "the rule." Other sis-ters never get to know her. In this situation the sister is willing to expose, hence the small facade. She tolerates no feedback from others in the community and thereby does not know what others think of her. This sister constantly seeks feed-back from others but is not willing to put herself "on the line" with others. Hence the large facade. Too much facade breeds conditions for mistrust. Needless to say, the climates generated by such win-dows are not conducive to developing the kinds of + atmospheres associated with productive community life. + ÷ Some Findings about Sisters Jay Hall and Martha Williams developed a Personnel Relations Survey~ inventory of 60 items which, when s Jay Hall and Martha Williams, Personnel Relatio~ Survey, ~ohari Window VOLUME 28, 1969 571 taken by individuals, projects for them a personal Johari Window profile. Group profiles can also be averaged out on this test. In the past year this writer has administered the Johari Test to approximately 600 sisters from various congregations as part of Group Dynamics Workshops. Using a total sample of 500 sisters we are able to secure interesting data on the kinds of windows projected by sisters. Hall and Williams constructed their questionnaire in such a way that it yields a Johari for the respondent relative to his subordinates, to his colleagues, and to his superiors. It also illustrates an "average" Johari for each respondent. The generalizations about sisters which can be made from the 500 taking the test are these: 1. Sisters tend to be slightly more open than other groups tested in workshop (ex-school teachers, social workers, policemen). Given the goals and values of religious group life, however, the sisters do not appear to be significantly more open than other less cohesive groups. 2. Sisters tend to be less open with their superiors than with subordinates or colleagues. This may be a product more of unapproachable superiors than of reti-cent sisters. Sisters revealed greater facade with su-periors than with the other two groups. 3. Arenas were larger with colleagues than with the other two groups. 4. Sisters seem to be more concerned with feedback than with exposure which seems to be typical of most groups. Out of a possible high score of 50 the sisters tallied an average score of 35 for feedback and 29 for exposure. In summary the general relationship tendencies of the 500 sisters appeared as shown on following page. Looking at the type of window projected by sisters suggests information which may be helpful in develop-ing greater openness among sisters, hence more effective community. The survey shows that sisters tend to be less open with superiors than with the two other groups. How can openness be achieved in this area? Many modern theo-logians stress the fact that religious obedience can be thought of as a shared responsibility. The Holy Spirit speaks through the entire community and not only through the superior. It seems, therefore, the re-sponsibility of each individual sister to contribute to REVIEW FOR RELI$10U$ unpublished training inventory, Southwest Center for Law and the 572 Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, 1965. E u r e 5 10 15 20 '25 30 35 45 50 5 Feedback ) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 community development by sharing her ideas, sugges-tions, and other Johari "things" with others. If the spirit works through each person, how can the commu-nity know the will of God if each is not willing to share? In making decisions which affect the community each sister assumes a great responsibility. It has been found that decisions reached via consensus tend to be more accurate than individual or minority decisions. Consensual thinking in the community can be gained through open discussion, sharing, and listening on the part of each community member. Although arriving at such decisions in community meetings may be time consuming, their very importance suggests that the group might well afford the time involved. Creating an atmos-phere of openness requires conscious work over months or even years. Thus, we seem to be saying that human community can be nurtured by development of a large arena through the conscious use of both openness and feed-back. The documents of Vatican II, especially the Church in the Modern World, lend eloquent support to this idea as seen in the following statements: h¯f eT wheh epnr itmheit mivue lCtithuudrec hof. pbreohveivdeerds ,w aenr ee xoaf monpele h oefa rct oamndm ounneity mind, and found nourishment in the teaching of the gospel and in the sacred liturgy, especially the Eucharist. Let such a life continue in prayerfulness and a sharing of the same spirit. As Christ's members living fraternally together, let + ÷ lohari Window VOLUME 28, 1969 573 them excel one another in showing respect and let each carry the other's burdens. For thanks to God's love poured into hearts by the Holy Spirit, a religious community is a true fam-ily gathered together in the Lord's name and rejoicing in His presence . In fact, brotherly unity shows that Christ has come; and from it results great apostolic influence (Decree on the Appropriate Renewal o[ the Religious Li[e, n. 15). Thus it is evident to everyone that all the faithful of Christ of whatever rank or status are called to the fullness of the Christian life and to the perfection of charity. By this holi-ness a more human way of life is promoted even in this earthly society (Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, n. 40, par. 3). The People of God and the human race in whose midst it lives render service to each other. Thus the mission of the Church will show its religious, and by that very fact, its su-premely human character (The Church in the Modern World, n. 11). Let .chapters and councils faithfully acquit themselves of the govermng role given to them; each should express in its own way the fact that all members of the community have a share in the welfare of the whole community and a responsibility for it (Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of the Religious Life, n. 14). Christ arouses not only a desire for the age to come, but by that very fact, He animates, purifies and strengthens those noble longings too by which the human family strives to make its life more human (The Church in the Modern World, n. 38, par. 3). Through her individual members and her whole commu-nity, the Church believes she can contribute greatly toward making the family of man and its history, more human (The Church in Modern World, n. 40, par. 5). ÷ ÷ Louis Tomaino REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 574 JOSEPH F. ROCCASALVO, S.J. The Presence of Christ in Christian Community The presence of Christ in the Christian community is a fascinating topic, but one that is not easy to treat in a free and familiar style. This is so, because we face a difficult and important question: how can we adequately recognize this presence in our experience. In reading any answer, no matter how well formulated, we must avoid the mistake of expecting too much. The bodily Christ is hidden from our view. Unlike the Apostles who walked with Him in Jerusalem or stood close by when He preached from the waters of Galilee, His visible counte-nance cannot now be seen, touched, or handled. It is not that we feel He hides Himself capriciously; yet there are times when we are overwhelmed by our desire to see Him, without resorting to any writer's conception or artist's portrait. We are tempted to cry out: "Christ, come forthI Let Your loyal followers look upon You. Draw the screen that conceals Your presence from our hu-man eyes." But despite our pleas there is no physical ap-pearance, and we would not dare to hope for one. In addressing myself to the preceding difficulty, I shall formulate my answer through an indirect use of con-cepts. By this I mean that such concepts will try to illumine for the reader the experience they point to, without intending to adequate it entirely. Since we are dealing with the most personal dimension of Christianity, our faith or commitment to a Person, its ultimate signifi-cance must lie beyond the frontier of language in the do-main of mystery. Yet granting this radical incommuni-cability in the final analysis, one may use concepts as long as it is remembered that they are open to the term towards which they aspire. The reader, then, must be like one who contemplates an horizon. Beyond the outline of words he seeks perspectives which he can barely discern but which draw him precisely because of the mystery he + Joseph A. Roc-casalvo, s.J., is a member of Wood-stock College in Woodstock, Mary-land 21163. VOLUME 28, 1969 ÷ ÷ ÷ Joseph F. Roccasa~o, $.$. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS senses in them. The formulation is of value, not only for what it says, but also for what it may suggest. As a point of departure for this analysis, we must start with our experience. In assigning content to this word we take. it to mean the whole range o~ the self's active relationship with the other, or the entire range of reality as disclosed to me and to which I respond. But this is my experience: it is the real as disclosed to one who is a Christian, committed to the Church and the faith of the Church. Since faith is part of my experience, part of the real as disclosed to me, it must necessarily be a Christian experience, including all that the life of faith includes. Here it must be recalled that my faith is first and foremost a commitment to a Person who has invited me to share a life in which He Himself will be my ful-fillment. In other words, my faith is a total response of mind and heart to Christ who has entered my world and lived His li~e in our midst. What, then, is the purpose of a Christian who reflects upon his experience to which his faith is interior? Since my personal relationship with Christ is a lived conviction, an intimate part of the reality that discloses itself to me, I shall try in my reflection to spell out the implications of this total commitment. I undertake this task because I am compelled by my freedom to take a personal stand towards my life and to be fully responsible for that stand. I must use the reasoned reflection of the philo-sophical method to avoid doing this naively. In brief, I shall try to discern by analysis how my personal commit-ment to Christ makes Him present to me, not in terms of revelation or the magisterium of the Church, but as dis-closed in my lived experience. This reflection, then, will help make me a more responsible and responsive Chris-tian. As I have indicated, the faith which is interior to my lived experience is fundamentally a personal commit-ment of mind and heart to the Person of Clu-ist. He has spoken to me in time, using words which He has in-tended for all men. Included within these words is the promise of continued presence, in spite of visible ab-sence: "Where two or more are gathered in my name, I am in the midst"; or, "If anyone will love me. I will mani-fest myself to him." Still again He tells us: "I am with you all days, even to the consummation of the world." While I cannot expect that His presence will be manifest by some physical appearance, I may rightly expect, through trust in His personal promise, some kind of experimental awareness of His presence in and through the gathered Christian community. Our inquiry can be placed in the form of a thesis statement: whether or not there is a special presence of Christ, experienced within the Chris- tian community. If there is, how can it be described phenomenologically, and what are the requisites for this partictalar theophany? Our question can be restated more dynamically: when I experience my witness to this Person in communion with other Christians, how does He "draw nigh"? Is His presence a diffused, unthematized one, con-comitant with the consciousness of the Christian com-munity; and if this is so, how may it be thematized upon reflection? This analysis, of course, does not necessarily exclude His coming-to-presence in other ways. Before we can discover what is the special character of Christ's presence in the witnessing Christian community, we must first analyse the meaning of this rather elusive word. ~Nhat does it mean to have someone or something present? The dictionary tells us. that the word is used in at least two distinct senses: first, it can mean physical presence, namely, that which is or stands before one, in view or at hand; that which is spatially located in this place and not elsewhere. Second, the word may have a temporal significance, referring to contemporaneous pres-ence, or that which is not past or future, but is operative in the time that is now. It is precisely in these two senses of physical and contemporaneous presence that phe-nomenologists like Luijpen have described man's terres-trial life as an intentional existence in and towards the world through knowledge and love. Through knowledge the world is physically and con-temporaneously present to my consciousness as I am to it, for to know is simply to exist as present with the world. Therefore, it is through this co-presence of knowledge that the world begins to disclose itself and be for a man. ~,Vithin this disclosure the meaning of the world refers itself to other human presences, so that as I live I realize that the world presents itself, not merely for me, but for the other also. The world is present to us both, one we mutually encounter. My presence in the world is emi-nently co-presence. Gradually I begin to realize that the presence to me of persons is radically different from things. While the latter are unaware of me, in fact, are indifferent to my stature as a man, my presential awareness of persons tells me that they may take my presence uniquely into account, re-sponding warmly to my whole world of needs, concerns, and achievements. I have given the other access to myself in a way that is beyond the power of things. Of course, the responsiveness of the other to me is subject to degrees of encounter. For instance, I can meet someone with cordiality, shake hands with him, and sit down to dinner and conversation. On the other hand, I can speak to the same person on the telephone, or merely notice him on the opposite side of the street without speaking to him at The Pr,~ence o~ Christ 4, ÷ Joseph F. l~occo~a~vo, $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS all. Our mutual presence to one another can remain on a distant, functional level, or it can open itself to more pro-found degrees of responsiveness. Through love my reply to the other's presence is a reply to his unique personhood. He has become for me a cen-ter of new meaning, so that whenever he comes within the range of my presence, I experience an appeal to con-sent to his, to accept it, to support and share it. He now becomes a presence which I cherish, someone who stands lovingly before me when he is visibly in view. Even when he is physically absent, his unique subjectivity grows into an atmosphere which encompasses me and abides, despite the most engrossing tasks. This is what is meant by being-loved. The other's loving presence makes my personal life be more fully and by his affection, aids and favors it. I no longer face the future as an isolated self-presence, and this alone is perhaps the most profound witness of love's contemporaneity: it has created a "we" that brings plenitude and happiness. Having seen from the preceding analysis how the per-son is present, to me through knowledge and love, we can now pass on to the next step in our analysis of Christ's communal presence. Since the Christian community is fundamentally made up of persons who confess a com-mitment to this Person as interior to their, experience, for the sake of ordered procedure we shall first describe the growth of the individual person's unique response to Christ, and then inquire what role the community played in its development. Someone may object, however, that description of such an affective relationship with Him is difficult, if not impossible, because as subject of my love, He does not come within the scope of the senses. This objection would be valid, were His visible presence abso-lutely necessary to sustain such a relationship. But as we shall see, bodily absence does not a priori exclude a personal confrontation with Him. Since "He was made in all things like unto man, sin alone excepted," or, in other words since He is wholly man, my loving commit-ment to Him will follow an interpersonal pattern. He will not let me doubt His intimate friendship with me, nor will He let me think that He is far removed to another sphere or order of creation. We are both persons, and to ascertain the degrees of encounter with one another is to see applied the formulations derived, from the phe-nomenology of love. Let us look back, for a moment, and see how presential knowledge of Him blossomed into the presence of love. As a Christian who steps back and reflects upon the history of his love for Christ, I discover that initially my contact with Him was a certain mild acquaintance, mostly derived through insertion in the world of other Christians. Through dialogue this man was seen as a source and center of activity, a Person of boundless understanding, tender heart, and constancy in action. There was a certain generous and uplifting quality about Him, which made Him both admirable and attractive. The personal dynamism of this man was present to me as something known, though somehow memorable. He was contemporaneously present to my life via the intentional-ity of knowledge. Gradually the knowledge of this man becomes in-teriorized and the remoteness of history vanishes. He is no longer a figure of the past, nor His life a fact of some past history, preserved through a lasting record. His words have a vitality which make them come alive for me, while those of other men are dead, or living only in books and monuments left behind. This man's words are timeless, and as they have beckoned to all men of all ages, they beckon to me now and call for my response: "I am the way and the truth and the light"; and again, "Come to me all you who are burdened and I will refresh you." The sheer radiance of.this man becomes indispensable in my eyes and wakens me to a new life. Admittedly His presence is not a bodily one, but in some ineffable way, His spirit is operative and quickens me now, so that He is contemporaneous with my life. His appeal to come and follow Him, to accept, support, and share His subjec-tivity is one to which I utter an uncompromising yes. I commit myself to this Person, adopt His name, and set Him up for my ideal. He is now not merely one whom I respect at a distance, but one for whom I care. I plan my destiny not alone, but with Him, for He is more to me than some unblemished truth or way of enlightenment. My whole being is seized by the desire to let Him be as He declared Himself: my very God. He is now the center of my experience, my faith, and what formerly existed as an object known in the knower, is now replaced by one who is cherished as a beloved is in a most intimate friend. This sense of togetherness between Christ and myself does not involve His bodily presence, to be sure. But it is not absolutely necessary that there be such a nearness to sustain our love. In order for two people to continue loving one another, it is not requisite that each be visibly on hand for the other. In fact, in the separation of two people in love, their affective response is still a con-temporaneous experience of a lasting bond. Their mu-tual love, despite distance, remains as a tonality, as an abiding atmosphere that permeates each other no matter what the task. How often have we heard it said: "I do not forget you; you are always in my thoughts." We do not reflect on the deep reality that lies beneath these words. We do not understand, or rather, realize, that when two ÷ ÷ The Presence Christ VOLUME 28, 1969 ,579 ÷ ÷ ÷ Joseph F. Roccasalvo, S.J. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 580 persons are united in love, they do not need to lie visibly side by side like two bodies. They are already in each other. This is the principle of all love union, and in particular, of the intimate friendship which is that union's highest form. So it is with myself and Christ to whom I have committed my life. Indeed I look forward hopefully (as anyone who has loved) to the time when we may be reunited in a face to face encounter. But for the extent of my waking life, this Person shall remain an abiding presence for me, operative within the center of my experience. At this point in our analysis, someone might offer the following conscientious objection: how was it possible to have achieved such a loving relationship with Christ, let alone sustain His contemporaneous presence, when one never had the occasion to confront Him in person? Is it not necessary to "ground," in some way, my power to respond? It is here that one must analyse the delicate role of the Christian community in aiding the growth of my personal commitment to Christ. Since I have discovered Him as the personal center of my life, He has also been disclosed as that center to which the common-unity of Christians offer their affirmation of love. Therefore, my commitment to this Person is not an insulated one. In fact, His presence as a presence-to-be. responded to in love would not have been possible if, anterior to my coming, there had not been a community that already celebrated their loving relationship to Him. This community was a "formative milieu," into which I was inserted and which allowed for this growth and re-sponsiveness in love. Therefore, just as I can only grasp myself as a person through the communal presence of other persons who appeal to me for a unique reply, so also I can only grow in a loving, presential awareness of Him insofar as He is disclosed in and through the Christian community. We will better see the roIe of the community as the place of His presence by seeking to un-derstand what transpires within its interior. In the community of Christians, the Person of Christ is the link which binds us, one to the other. This is so, because He is the point of agreement

Issue 12.6 of the Review for Religious, 1953. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious NOVEMBER 15, 1953 Pracfice Of ÷he H01y See, I I . Joseph F. Gallen Psychological Testing . William C. Bier The Eucharistic Fast . : . Hi~ary'R. Wer~s MOfU Proprio Jubilee . c.J. McNaspy Communications Questions and Answers News a'nd Views Book Reviews Index for 1953. VOLUME XII NUMBER 6 RI::VII::W FOR Ri::LIGIOUS VOLUME XII NOVEMBER, 1953 NUMBER CONTENTS NEWS AND VIEWS . 281 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE, II--Joseph F. ~Gallen, S.'J .2.8.5 BOOK NOTICES . 290, 316, 329 LETTER ON OBEDIENCI~ . . . 290 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING OF CANDIDATES AND THE THE-OLOGY OF VOCATION---Willlam C. Bier, S.J2.91 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 304 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST---Hilary R, Werts, S.J . 305 MOTU PROPRIO JUBILEE--C. d. McNaspy, S.J . 317 COMMUNICATIONS . 321 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 29. Correction of Subject by Immediate or Mediate Superior 322 30. Guidance of Subjects by Superiors . 322 31. Local Superior at Council Meeting . 323 32. Local Superior at General Chapter . 324 33. General Council and Suggestions to General Chapter . 324 34. Postulancy and Readmission . ." . 325 BOOK REVIEWS-- Religious Men and Women in the Code; Fundamental Psychiatry; Most Reverend Anthony 'j. Schuler, S.J., D.D.; I Want to See God 326 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 330 INDEX FOR VOLUME XII, 1953", . 333 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, November, 1953. Vol. XlI, No. 6. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May,,July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas,, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter 3anuary 15, 1942 at the Post Oflke, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Jerome Breunig, S.J., Augustine G. Ellard, S.J. Adam C. Ellis, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J., Francis N. Korth, S.J. Copyright, 1953, by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U. S. A. Before wrlfing to us, please consult notice on Inside back cover. News and Views Psychological Testing When we last published an article on the psychological testing of candidates, a religious superior wrote an indignant letter cancelling his subscription and asserting that such testing interferes with the work of the Holy Ghost. Thatthis is a misconception should be evi-dent to all who read Father Bier's article in the present number and a s~cond article to be phblished in January. Whatever may be said 'for or against the value of psychological tests--and we do not claim to have all the answers--it seems clear enough that their use is no more an attempt to "naturMize" religious vocation than is the use of previous medical examinations. Educating Sisters We have just received a very yaluable brochure entitled Directorg of Catholic Women's Colleges with Facilities for the Education oF Sisters. This brochure gives tabulated i'nformation on colleges and motherhouses accredited to offer degree programs, detailing the par-ticular courses provided, the number of Sisters who could be cared for, and the conditions, financial and otherwise, under which they would be received. The information was gathered by the Commit-tee on the Survey Section on Teacher Education of the N.C.E.A. The reason for gathering the information was the fact that many of the smaller religious congregations of women do not have facilities for educating their own members and find the standard costs of "sending Sisters away" prohibitive. These congregations can obtain help from the larger congregations; and this Directorg will show at a glance where and how the help can be obtained. For further information, or for copies of the Directo~g, piease address: Sister Mary Gerard, O.S.F., Chairman, Directory Project, Alverno College, 3401 South 39th Street, Milwaukee 15, Wisconsin. Poor Clares The Poor Clares of New Orleans have prepared a file of at least one hundred 2-inch slides in .black 'and white for use in a still pro-jector. The photos were taken within the cloister, and every" part of the monastery is included. Also prepared is a brief description of every picture. The nuns will send'this file to any desiring to show 281 NEWS AND VIEWS Reoiew for Religious the slides tO interested groups, particularly, young ladies among whom there might be the possibility of a contemplative vocation. They will also send ~lratis literature for distribution, a set of seven large posters, and 6-inch dolls'd~es~ed as" Poor Clar~s. The remailing of, the small slide file is the only expense they would expect the user to assume. Those interested in this vocational project shQ~Id write to: Monastery of Saint Clare, 720 Henry Clay Avenue, N~w Orleans 18, Louisiana. New Indulgence For the purpose of 'increasing devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary ever more and more, Ou~ Holy Father, Pope Plus XII, in. an audience given to the Cardinal Major Penitentiary on March 30, 1953, granted in perpetuum an indulgence of fifty days, to be gained once a day, to those who, keeping on their person a duly blessed rosary of Our Lady, have kissed it devoutly.and at the same time have recited with a pious mind the words of the Angelic Salutation: "H~iil Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee: blessed art thou among women, arid blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus." (Acta Apostolicae. Sedis, XXXXV [ 19 5 3 ], 31 1.) , Valuable Booklets The Grail Press, St. Meinrad, Indiana, has sent us two booklets of immense value for clerics. Both of them are re-editions. One is Rome and the Study of Scri_pture, which contains a collection of papal enactments on the study of Holy Scripture, together with deci-sions of the Biblica.1 Commission. The price is one dollar. The other booklet is The Popes and the Priesthood, which contains English translations of importgnt statements of the Holy See on the.priest-hoo. d. The price of this booklet is only fifty cents. Rural Parish I, Vorke;'s In our last number (see. p. 242) we promised a more complete account of the Rural Parish Workers of Christ the King. This apostolate was begun by Miss Alice Widmer, a graduate of.Webster College, Webster Groves, Missouri, and Miss LaDonna I-fermann, a graduate of Maryville College of the Sacred Heart, St. Louis. In the summer of 1941 they decided to devote ~heir lives to lay action for the salvation of souls and the extension of Christ's Kingdom by the igractice bf the spiritual and corporal works of mercy. That fall they heard Monsignor (later Bishop) Leo J. Steck speak of the'lick 282 Not~ember, 1953 NEWS AND VIEWS. of priests'in rural.areas, and th'ey: asked him whether they might help in one of these areas. With his assis'tance and that of Father William d. Pe~.old, they began work in the latter's parish of Cottleville, St. Charles Count'/, Mi'ssouri. During that same summer they learned to use the short breviary. The remainder of their story i~ told by tlSemselveL as follows: "Activities ir~ St. Ct~arles County, where we lived in two twelve: by-twelve-foot rooms in a portable schoolbuilding on thechurch grounds, included home visiting, care of the sick, helping the poor, Vacation schools, Sianday school for non-Catholic and pre-s~hool .Catholic children, craft classes for,, dhildren and adults, discussion Clubs in' the homes, w~rk with teen-agers, in'structions of converts'. distribution of Catholic literature and sacramentals, religious and social Welfare work. "Originally we had no thought of a continuing organizatio.n. As'we saw the needs and what could be done we went to see Car-dinal John d. Glennon of beloved memory', who had been a benefac-tor from the first. He encouraged us in our plans to £tevelop a per-manent organization and gave permission to solicit funds for~ p, er-manent home not to be located on parish grounds. Shortly there-after he died. "Sev, enteen months, later we discussed our future with Arch-bishop. Joseph E. Ritter. Three months afterwards he asked us;.to work'among.the miners and farmers of the tiff.aiea in Wash, ington County, the mbst e~ploited region in the St. Louis archdiocese. Through ,his generous assistance and that of Auxiliary Bishop: Charles tt.'Helmsing and Rev. Edward A. Bruemmer of Old Mines, we moved in September, 1949, to Fertile iri the Old Mines parish,of St. Joachim. We entered into parish, activity by beginning the in-struction of ninety-one public-school children and visitation in their homes and began extensive remodeling of an old brick residence eight miles from church. "The Rural Parish Worker program is adjusted to the,.needs of the area and is always pointed to the development of Christian homes and the strength.ening of parish life. In Washington County the following activities take precedence: ~eligiotis and social welfare work: distribution of food and ,clothing; transportation, to church, h.ospitals,_a.nd clinics; Sunday instruction classes; preparation of con-verts: home visiting, and instruction; interpretation of rights and 283. NEWS AND VIEWS duties as citizens; assistance in obtaining State and Federal benefits, doctors' care, hospitalization. "Some assistance is given to a few in adjoining parishes. HOw-ever, since.our home parish of St. ,loachim is one hundred and fifty square miles in size with poor and sometimes no roads,, it occupies most of our time. Attendance at civic meetings and participation in civic affairs are also on the agenda, as are outside works, such as land-scaping, building of small buildings, care of goats, and gardening when we can get to it. "Yearly summer sessions ~nd a year-of-service program are offered to young women thinking of the lay apostolate as a way of life or who wish to give at least part of their lives in. concentrated work for the restoration of Christ in society. "Last fall Rev. Bede Scholz, O.S.B., of Plus X Monastery in Labadie, Mo., was appointed by the Most Rev. Archbishop as our spiritual director. Father Bede, then at Conception Abbey, Concep-tion, Mo., had helped form us in the early days. (We would go for a week of spiritual refreshment to Conception.) Father Bede, Rt. Rev. Monsignor Martin B. Hellriegel, and Rev. Charles P. Schmitt were our spiritual advisers for several years when we lived in St. Charles County. "At the beginning we had literally nothing except a few dollars we had saved when working, a typewriter, phonograph and records ¯ bought for the work, our clothes and personal little belongings. Yet we have neve'r been in want and God has sent everything as it was needed for our neighbors and for us. Today many are assisting by prayer, donations of money and materials. The bills are always with us but we know that Almighty God is also, and we have no fears for the future. We know He will do with us as He wishes and that is all we want. It is with humble hearts that we look back over twelve years of labor in His vineyard and it is with confidence that we invite others--young women from all over the United States--to come to Fertile, to the Center of the Rural Parish Workers of Christ the King, and lend their talents and their labors in this rural aposto-late of service based on the spiritual arid corporal works of mercy for the glory of God and the development of Christian homes; to come to Fertile and help in the world-wide work "of the Church today-- the restoration of Christ to society." The address of the Rural Parish 'Workers of Christ the King is: Route 1, Box 194, Cadet, Missouri. 284 ¯ Pract:iceot: :he l-loly See, II Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. [The first part of this article was published in the September REVIEW, pp. 252- 72.] XII INDULTS OF SECULARIZATION New practice of the Holy See. Secularizati-on is the voluntary de-parture from religion, authorized by an indult of competent ecclesi-astical authority, in virtue of which the subject is separated com-pletely and perpetually from membership in the institute and is freed absolute.ly from all obligations contracted by. religious profession. Since secularization dispenses from all religious vows, even if solemn, it is co~nmonly also called a dispensation from the vows of religion. The Holy See alone may grant secularization in pontifical institutes; in diocesan congregations the Ordinary of the place where the, reli-gious is staying is also competent.34 .Indults of secularization granted by the Holy. See for those who are not priests now contain the following sentence: "This decree ceases to have any validity if not accepted by the petitioner within ten days after being informed of the executorial decree.'qs" It has long been a clea~ principle of canon law .that an indult of seculariza-tion, even ~hou.gh freely petitioned,, may be refused and has no effect until accepted by the religious in question,z6 If within the ten days: (a) the indult is expressly accepted, it becomes effective immediately;37 (b) the induli is neither accepted nor refused, it ceases to have any validity at the end of this period; (~') the indult is definitively refused, all validity of the indult cer-tainly ceases at the end of ten days and. at least more probably immediately upon the definitive refusal.3s In practice a new indult is to be petitioned if the religious repents of his refusal and wishes again 34Can. 638; Bouscaren. II, 173. 3s"Post decem dies a recepta comrnunicatione Decreti exsecutorialis, ex porte Oratoris (ricis), prasens Decretum, si non fuerit acceptatum, nullii~s roboris esto.'" Cf. Gu-ti& rez, CpR, XXIV (1953), 186-197. 36Bouscaren, I; 326. 37Cf. Creusen. ft. 332: Jombart, RCR, II (1926), 151; Piontek, 262 ft.: Ver-meersch, Periodica, XI (1923), 151. a8Cf. Guti~rrez. CpR, XXIV (1953),194-195: Goyeneche, CpR, XVIII (1937). 239-240:.Muzzarelli, p. 172; and Jombart, RCR, II 1926), 150-151, who ap-pears to hold the contrary. 285 ¯ JOSEPH 1:::. GALLEN for Religious to leave during the ten-davy period. ," The practice of the Holy See is not to grant the indult directly to the religious but to give to an intermediary person, for example, the local Ordinary, the f~iculty of granting the indult of secularization to the religious. The actual granting of the indult by this intermedia'ry person is called the executorial decree. The ten days begin to run -from the time the religious is officially notified of the granting of this executorial decree, not from the date of notification of the deciee of the Holy See. The day of notification is not computed. If the no-tification is given on August 1, the ten days expire at midnight of August 1 1-12. This time does not run for any period in which the religious was ignorant of or unable to exercise his right of acceptance and refusal. XII. GENERAL CHAPTER 1. Constitutions rec.ently appro~)ed by the Holy See. One congrega-tion of sisters had difficulty in persuading the S. C. of Religious to approve in a general revision of its constitutions the designation of the Secretary and Bursar General by appointment rather than by election. Appointment was approved about the same time in another general revision without any difficulty and had been permitted in some constitutions approved by the Holy See in the past. The num-ber in the grouping of the smaller houses for the election of delegates. is now rather constantly stated to be at least twelve and not more than twenty-three professed. The S. C. of Religious is consistently including in constitutions an article stating that the duties of the pre-siding local Ordinary or his delegate terminate at the proclamation of the election of the mother general.39 Some recent constitutions con-tain the prescription of the Normae of 1901: "If the Ordinary. is ac-companied by one or more priests, these may in no way take part in the election.''40 The present practice of the Holy See permits not only the secretary general but also the bursar general to be elected a general councillor but neither may be elected as the first councillor. The same practice now rather consistently gives the general chapter the right of declaring matters to be of greater importance and subject to the deliberative vote of the general council. Some recent constitu-tions. also give to the general chapter and council the'right to deter- 39Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, XI (1952), 16-18. 4ONormae of 1901, n. 224. Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, ibid., 17-18. 286 Nooember, 1953 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE. min~ matters as subject to the deliberative vote of-the local council. The S. Congregation corrected one set of constitutions to read~ " . . .the newly elected M6.thfir General shall appoint one or seoeral. committees.to examine and arrange the'proposals to the Gerieral Cfiapter and to furnish a report concerning them." Even if not so' stated in the constitutions, several committees may be appointed be~ cause of the amount of work or for greater efficiency and lack of time, since several committees are not forbidden by the constitutions. 2. Indult's. One congregation of si'sters secured an indult from the Holy Se~ permitting th~ anticipation of its next general chapter by' six months. The principal reason given in the petition was the ex-~ p~nse and extensive travel that would be required foi the' capitulars' to return to the motherhouse two months after all had been present there for the annual retreat. ~ Another congregation of sisters requested a change, in its constitu- ' tions by which the novice mistress would be a member of thegeneral chapter in virtue of her offce. The S. C. of Religious replied: "It is not expedient.'" Canonical authors had stated that such a provision was not in accord with the practice of the S. Congregation,4x but a.~ similar article had been approved in a very small number of constitu-. tions in the past. A congregation of sisters was to hold in the United States an ex-traordinary general chapter,, which the delegates of the provinces be-yond the "iron curtain" would not be able to attend. The S. C. of Religious gave to a local Ordinary the faculty of permitting their votes to be sent by letter or for these provinces to choose delegates here who would cast their votes. 3. Roman meeting. The subjects touched upon at this meeting of superioresses general appear to have been the following: (a) The Holy See is opposed to the immediate re-election, or rather postula-tion., of a mother general beyond the limits prescribed in the consti-tutions. Similarly the Holy See only for serious reasons grants a dispensation permitting a local superior to be given a third successive three-year term in the same house. (b) Two excesses are verified in ~lections, an indifference that results in ignorance of the eligible and' suitable and electibneering. (c) Young religious should not be ex-. cluded from higher offices' if they have the necessary natural and spit-. itual qualifications. ., 41Basticn, n. 246, 2; Battandier, n. 352. 287. JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review/:or Religious These subjects present nothing new,4z but the. light thrown on the abuse of electioneering is very Opportune. Electioneering is the deliberate seeking of votes, directly or indirectly, to elect a particular person, or one person rather than another, or to exclude anyone from being elected. The simple seeking of information concerning the abilities or defects of those eligible and the communication of such information to. others, without any attempt at persjaasion, is not for-bidden, and is very frequently necessary and laudable. It is.:remarkable.how often the matter of elections can blind the moral sense of even very good religious. This reason alone has per-suaded the present writer to hold rigidly to the conviction, that in any general revision of the constitutions elections should, be restricted to those absolutely necessary. Only the offices of the superior gen-eral and of his or her councillors demand election. Every religious should have the permanent resolution of nevei uttering a word about future elections in his institute until after he has meditated daily for at least a week on the will of God. XIII. MONASTERIES OF NUNS I. Federations and Con/¥derations. The only federation or con-fdderation affecting American monasteries of nuns that has been made public is that of the Visitandines. The pohtifical constitution Spon~a Christi and the accompanying Instruction should be carefully studied by all nuns. Unwise and exaggerated changes are to be avoided in any state of life, "but no religious institute can reasonably exclude progress and prudent adaptation to .the times; Federations and con-federations are highly recommended by Plus XII in Sponsa, Christi. 2. Restoration o[ solemn ~ows. In 195 1-52 eighteen monasteries of nuns-in the United States secured permission from the Holy See for the taking of solemn vows.43 The restoration of solemn vows is at least strongly urged on all monasteries of nuns in Sponsa Christi. If serious reasons exist against this restoration in any monastery, such reasons are to be submitted to the S. C. of Religi6us for examina-tion. 44. The form of the decree granting solemn vows is uniform. The provisions are: (a) Papal cloister must be observed as' described in 42Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, X (1951), 187-200. 43Guti~rrez. CpR, XXXIV (1953), 102-115. Cf. the list of monasteries of solemn vows in the United States, as of January, 1950. in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, IX (19~50), 58, note 2. 44Larraona, quoted by Guti~rrez, ibid., 1"07. " '288 November, 1953 PRACTICE O~: THE HOLY SEE canon law, Sponsa Christi and the accompanying Instruction (Inter praeclara), and also the Instruction of the S. C. of Religious of Feb-ruary 6, 1924.4s (b) Nuns at present in simple perpe.tual vows and thbse who have compieted the prescribed time of temporary vows make solemn profession. The local Ordinary or his delegate receives the profession of the superioress, who then receives all the other pro-fessions. (c) Any nun in simp!e perpetual vows who does not wish to make the solemn profession may remain in simple vows but she is obliged by all the prescriptions of papal cloister.46 (d) Future per-petual professions Will be solemn except, of course, those of the ex-tern sisters, who may be admitted only to simple perpetual profession at the expiration of the prescribed peridd of temporary vows. 3. Dowr~ . Modifications in the general constitutions were granted to several monasteries of one order of nuns in the United Sta~es by the S. C. of Religious in 1950. A canonically interesting article of these modifications is: "No dowry is required for the admission of postulants." 4. Induhs concerning papa! clbister. A monastery of nuns in. the United States obtained the follov~ing permissions from the S. C. of Religious: (a) for five years--to admit into the enclosure at the funerals of nuns the clergy, acolytes, and pall bearers required to carry the body to the crypt; (b) fbr three years--to allow those taking out naturalization papers to go out to government offices as often as necessary; (c) for three years--t6 allow a nun to leave the enclosure as companion for a nun obliged to go out for bospltal treatment. Iri the case of another monastery, the local Ordinary whs given the faculty for twenty cases of permitting a nun to leave the enclosure with a companion for the reason of ill health. The rescript contained the clause, that any unbecoming circumstance was to b~ avoided. 5. Concession of Masses. A proper ordo or calendar, and thus dis-tinct from the diocesan ordo, is had by all orders of regulars, and this is to be observed also by the nuns and sisters of these orders. A proper ordo is also had in.religious congregations and societies living in common without public vows, whether of men or women, that have been approved by the Holy See,.[re constituted under one gen-eral superior, and are obliged to the divine office, even if only by 45Bouscaren, I, 314-320; .46Escudero, CpR, XXXIII (1952), 35, nota 39. 289 JOSEPH F. GALLEN reason of major orders.47 Nuns that constitute a second order, such as the Carmelites, will follow the proper ordo of the first order of men. Obviously, there-fore, they may not celebrate in the divine office and Mass feasts granted to dioceses or t6 other institutes. For this reason at least one monastery of nuns in the United States secured from the Holy See an indult permitting the celebration of the feasts of the North American Martyrs on September 26 and that of St. Frances Xavier Cabrini on December 22.48 47,SCR, 4312, ad'l-2; 4403, ad 1. 48The autlqors, documents, and abbreviations not clear from their mere citation are." Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS) ; Bastien, Directoire Canonique; Battandier, Guide Canonique; Bouscaren, Canon Law Digest; Cervia, De ProFessione Religiosa; Com-mentarium Pro Rell.qiosis (CpR) ; Creusen, Religious Men and Women in the Code; Decreta Authentica Congregationis Sacrorum Rituum (SCR) ; Muzzarelli, De Con-gregationibus luris Diocesani; Piontek, De Indulto Exclaustrationis necnon Saecular-izationis; Revue des Communautis Religieuses (RCR) ; Schaefer, De Religiosis. BOOK NOTICE AUX SOURCES DE LA TRADITION DU CARMEL, by Jean le Soli-taire, is a work that will be of special.interest and value, not only to Carmelites, but also to all who are concerned with understanding well the essentials and the accidentals of the contemplative life and~ with the problem of adapting it fittingly to the changes that mark modern culture and the present situation of the Church. The book is not primarily historical; rather it is conceived from the ,spiritual point of view, and would like to contribute to the best possible re-vitalization and perfection of the contemplative life in the concrete existe.ntial conditions of today and tomorrow." (Paris: Beauchesne et ses Fils, 1953. Pp. 274.) LETTER ON OBEDIENCE Father William J. Young. S.J., has made a new and very readable translation of St. Ignatius' Letter on Obedience. This translation is published in pamphlet form by the America Press. Single copies are twenty cents; special discounts are allowed on quantity orders. Write to: The America Press, 70 East 45th St., New York 17, N.Y. 290 Psychological Test:ing ot: Candida!:es and t:he Theology oF Vocal:ion William C. Bier, S.,I. [EDITORS' NOTE: This article is an adaptation of 'a paper presented at the Fordham "Institute on Religious and Sacerdotal Vocations, July, 1953. Father Bier's interest in the use of psychological tests as helps in evaluating the suitability of candidates for the priesthood and religious life goes back to graduate work in psychology at The Catholic University under Father Thomas Verner Moore, who encouraged him to plan a doctoral research on some.preliminary phases of this problem. After the completion of his doctoral work in 1948 Father Bier went to Fordham and has been teaching in the psychology department of the graduate school since that time. He developed a program of psychological tests for candidates in the New York Province of the Society of 3esus, which has been in operation for five years. This work is now spreading to other Provinces of the Society and to other religious groups. He thinks that the greatest need at the present time is the development of specific, norms on these tests, not only for religious as distinct from lay persons, but probably also for different religious groups. The development of such norms is of necessity a cooperative undertaking, and Father Bier has been serving as a clearing house for gathering the needed information from the various groups working in conjunction with him. At the present time this work is still in its initial stages, and it will have to be in operation some time longer before publishable results are ¯ available, ] THE present article is the first in a series of two dealing with the use of psychological tests in the selection of candidates for the priesthood and for the religious life. This matter receives clari-fication bydistinguishing and giving separate treatment to the two questions involved. The first concerns the role of psychological tests in the selection of candidates and raises the question of the relation-shiio between testing of this kind and the theology- of vocation. It is evident that this first question is largely theoretical, but testing must first be justified on these grounds before it is feasible to discuss the second question, namely, the practical requirements of such a testing program. The current article, therefore, will consider the theoretical basis for the psychological testing of candidates, and a second article will take up the problems involved in the development of such a pro-gram in practice. Religious Vocation Although in full accord, on theological and psychological grounds, with the modern tendency to extend the term vocation to embrace all states of Christian life, the current consideration is never-theless restricted to vocations to the religious life.and to the priest- 291 WILLIAM C. BIER Reoiew for Religi'ous hood. More specifically still, the explicit treatment is confined mostly to the religious life, leaving the priesthood as matter for reasonably evident inference. A vocation, as the nominal definition of the wor~l implies, ex-presses the action of summoning someone to move toward a definite goal; in a word, it is a call. ~n the case of a divine vocation, it is God who calls the person, and in the matte~ of religious vocation, it is a call to the voluntary practice of the evangelical counsels in an institute.approved by the Church. The question that arises in the case of every vocation is: how can we know in a given case that'God calls? How can it be determined that the vocation is real and not illusory, genuine and not deceptive? This is the question ~vhich must be answered by the candidate himself, by his director, and by the superior who accepts him. In his recent book, The Theolog~I of Religious Vocation, Father Edward Farrell, O.P.,1 indicates that St. Thomas Aquinas distin-guished between internal vocation, or desire on the part of the candi-date for the religious life, and external vocation, or acceptance by a legitimate superior. It will be helpful for our present purpose to consider vocation under both of these aspects, and in so doing we shall 9ttempt to place the psychological testing of candidates in its proper perspective and to indicate what is its legitimate function with respect to the discernment of vocation. Internal Vocation By internal vocation St. Thomas means the intention on the part of the candidate to embrace the religious life. This intention is formed by. a man under the influence of the Holy Spirit. -Such an intention is the result of grace, or rather a series of grace~ consisting of interior'andexterior helps, in virtue of which the individual is led to take the resolution to enter.religious.life. This resolution to enter religion may result from an extraordinary illumination of the mind and incitement of the will toward the reli-gious state. Some of the saints have been favored with such an un-mistakable divine call, but Pope Plus X in his decision on the book of Canon Lahitton on Sacerdotal Vocation made it clear that no such special attraction is necessary for a priestly or religious vocation. Gen-erally, the intention to enter religion is formed under the influence of what theologians would refer to as ordinary grace, i.e., a grace which " 1St. Louis: Herder, 1951. 292 o November, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING works through the reasoning processes. Theologians generally would take this to mean that the decision is the result of deliberation where-by the individual perceives, in the light of the Gospel ~ind from other considerations that, everything being taken into account, the way of the counsels is preferable for him. Consequently be experiences a corresponding rational inclination of the will toward such a life. It is Worth n'oting, however, that the proposal to enter r.eligion must be sufficiently firm considering the difficulties involved in this state of life. It is only a firm resolution which, in the opinion of theologians, is the subjective manifestation of vocation. On philo-sophical grounds it may be shown that a state of mind can be logically firm only when reasonable doubt is.excluded. We may .say, therefore, that what God's grace does in the case of vocation is to make it possible for the individual to see with a clarity which ex-cludes the reasonable fear of error that the way of ~he counsels is the preferable way of life for him. It would seem, therefore, that the applicant, whose state of mind prior to entrance is uncertain, who is not ~ure whether he has a vocation or not, but who applies "in order to give the life a try," does not hav~ a vocation, since he lacks this firm proposal which is the subjective sign of vocation. It is possible that such an applicant would become certain bf his vocation during postulancy or noviceship, but it seems more prudent, when such a doubt is known, .to postpone his acceptance until it is solved, and meantime to encour.age him to'pray and consider the matter more maturely. It is evident that such a firm decision to enter the religious state is the result of grace. "You have not chosen me, but I have chosen you" (Jo. 15:16). This is the essence of religious vocation, and it is clearly its supernatural aspect. Directly, therefore, psychology, which can touch only the natural, has nothing to do with this aspect. of vocation. Yet,. indirectly, even here, it may have something to contribute. Canon 538 indicates that the candidate for the religious life must be inspired by a "right intention." This requirement expresses in another way what has already been discussed. If the intention to enter religion has been formed under th~ influence of grace, it will be a right intention. Therefore, no purely natural motive will suffice, such.as disappointment or disillusionment with the world, or per-sonal happiness, or security; or the desire to escape an unhappy home situation. On the other hand, theologians allow that ar~y super- 293 WILLIAM C. BIER Ret~iew for Religious natural motive will suffice, for instance, the desire, to save one's soul, or to work for the salvation of others, or to serve God more per-fectly, or to render salvation more secure. It is at thi~ point, it would seem, that psychology can enter to make a contribution. Human motivasion, we know now, is a much more complex affair than was previously suspected. Our motives are seldom simple, and seldom single. Conscious motives can sometimes serve as a cloak for hidden and undetected tendencies. In the case of the motives inducing a person to apply for admission to the religious life, it will seldom happen that they are pur~ly supernatural. Natural motives invariably enter as well. What seems to be important, how-ever, is that the dominant motives should be supernatural. Granted that in the.concrete the total motive force will bepartly natural and partly supernatural, the more dominant the role of supernatural motives, the more assurance there would be that the call was truly from God. Let us illustrate the point mad~ here by an example. " Suppose a spiritual director, on inquiring why a girl wants to consecrate her virginity to God, were to discover that it is because she finds things of the flesh repugnant. Marriage would be abhorrent to her, and if ¯ the attraction to the religious lifewere in fact nomore than an adjust-ment to such a psychic inhibition, it would scarcely be genuine. Prob-ably, such a girl would have combined this fundamental motive force with some supernatural intention, but the question is how dominant, and hence how genuine, would a supernatural motive be in such a case? Would it be any more'than a case of self-deception? I can conceive of a director telling sucha young girl to thank God that she feels that way, because she is thus freed from many temptations against chastity. Yet such advice, I think, would be highly questionable. It is true, of course, that such a person would have little or no difficulty with the material observance of chastity, but absence of sin or conflict.is not a proof of virtue. In such a case the brake applied to prevent sin is not the regulating influence of rea-son, which would be the basis for virtue, but is an inhibition of the psychic order. It is God's plan that sex should be attractive, not repugnant, and it is clear from the words of Christ (Math. 19:12) and of St. Paul (I Cor. 7:6-9) that the invitation to the counsels implies.a sacrifice. The girl who finds sex repugnant has no sacrifice to make in dedicating her virginity to God. The suitable candidate for the religious life is not one who is incapable of marriage, but one 294 November, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING who freely surrenders this good for a greater. There is a further consideration in a case of this kind which should not be overlooked. The repugnance felt toward sex expression is, as we have presented it, a psychicinhibition. It is due to some psycho-logical twist or other. Suppose, "perhaps after some years of religious life, that this twist is suddenly straightened out--a not inconceivable happening. Once the psychological brake is removed, the person may, for w.ant of virtue, be defenseless against a passion whose existence she never suspected. Could it not be that something similar to this is the explanation of some of those particularl~- puzzling defections after years in religion? The masters of the spiritual life have always recognized the pos-sibility of self-deception in the service of God, and modern psychol-ogy tends to re-enforce their warnings by supplying instances of the subtle ways in which uncon'scious and undetected influences may in-sinuate themselves into human motivation. When such happens in the case of vocation, the good will of the applicant is not in ques-tion, but the genuineness of his vocation.is. He is, in this supposi-tion, deceived himself, and be may quite easily deceive others. The manifestation of virtue is sometimes ambiguous, and what externally passes for virtue may actually be no more than a cover-up for a psychological problem. Natural submissiveness and deep-seated inferiority can ~asily pass for humility, overly-conscientious strivihgs for perfection can, as a matter of fact, be no more than psy-chological defenses against fear of criticism and inability to tolerate failure, while genuine apostolic zeal is not always ea~sy to distinguish from a paranoid discontent. The discernment of spirits is sometimes difficult, and we have the scriptural warning: "Dearly beloved, be-lieve not every spirit, but try the spirits if they be of God" (I John 4:1). This admonition seems to be particularly pertinent in the matter of the discernment of vocation and especially with respect to. the motives prompting the applicant to apply for admission to reli-gion. It would surely be excessive always to question o~ur conscious motives and to see in them nothing but disguises for hidden tenden-cies, but it must be acknowledged that conscious motives are some-times deceptive, and that the dominant motives for our actions are not always the ones which consciously move us. Unconscious fear of contact with the world, for example, may be concealed by perfectly orthodox motives such as contempt for the world and desire of per-fection. For a long time the individual's actions may seem to be in- 295 WILLIAM C, BIER for Refigious spired by these traditional motives, but it may eventually appear that ~hey were in fact but the effects of neurotic tendencies. Where uhcon-scious factors are at work common sense is hardly sufficient for the discernment of vocation, and the eye of the expert, is needed to detect a latent neurosis artfully Concealed behind normal behavior. External Vocation ~ ~ Let us pass now from internal vocation where psychology has but a limit.ed and indirect contribution to make, to external vocation where its contribution is more direct and more extensive. By external ¯ vocation, as previously mentioned, St. Thomas meant the acceptance of ,'i candidate by a legitimate superior. Thus external vocation com-pletes and perfects the internal call essentially determining it to this particular institute. It is evident that before an applicant can be accepted a judgement must be made on his suitabil!ty for the religious life. Some one must 'pass on such firness, and ultimately this decision is the responsibility of the religious superior. The internal call is always subject to the possibility of self-deception, and finds a certain confirmation, there-fore, in the judgement of suitability passed by a competent superior. The junction of the two gives vocation to the religious life in the concrete. Suitability for the religious life might be treated from various-points of vie~v, but for the purposes of the present discussion it will be considered under qualities of body and mind, which in the words of Canon 538 render the individual "fit to bear the burdens of the religious state." A certain level of physical well'being is required for the exercise of religious life, and it is co~nmon practice, to require of applicafits a doctor's certificate of good health. Pertinent to the present discussion, however, is the fact that mental health is no less necessary for religious life. The idea of "mens sana in corpore san&' (a sound mind in a sound body)' seems to be a p~oper estimate of fitness f?r life in religion. The Contribution of Psychological Tests There would be no real disagreement, I think, on the fact that certain psychological qualities are required in a candidate for the reli-gious life. What these qualities are might be diff,erently expre.ssed as maturity, balance, stability, control, adjustment, but there is at least agreement that some over-all psychological integrity is needed. It might even be clearer and there would, perhaps, be even greater agree- 296 Nouernber, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING ment if the propositi6n were put negatively: certain psychologic.al conditions render an applicant unsuitable for the religious life. Con- .sequently no .superior can accept a candidate for religion without making some judgement of psychological fitness. The trouble is that such a judgement, necessary as it is, is frequently superficial and hap-hazard, because the basis for a more adequate judgement is not avail-able. Here the psychological examination of candidates can enter to make its contribution. Such an examination can offer a more ade-quate foundation for the estimate of psychological suitability which must be made. It may be valuable to point out thus early in the pre~ent discussion that the psychological testing of candidates is new only in its methods; not in its p.urpose. Its function is traditional and inescapable: namely, ~a judgement on the psychological fitness of the applicant. The psychological' examination has a function to perfwor~mth " " respect to all candidates. With the greater n~amber of them its func-tion will be negative hnd w. ill consist simply in affirming the fact that th'ey are psychologically suitable, i.e., that no psychological fac-tors are in evidence which would antecedently make it impossible for them to bear the burden of religious life. Even though the contribu' tion here is negative, it is not to be despised for it is precisely what is needed, namely, a clean bill of mental health. It should be noted that such immunity at the time of application is no necessary guar-antee that psychological difficulty ~might not subsequently ,,develop, any more than the assurance of physical health at the time of entrance is a gua.rantee against subsequent ill health, bht at the time it repre-sents what is needed and is sufficient. With ~espect to the remaining candidates the psychological exam-ination, we assume, will show positive results. Sometimes these re-sults will be extreme, for serious mental disorder cannot be a priori excluded in candidates for the religious life. .In this connection, the work of Father Thomas Verner .Moore on the. rate of insanity in priests and religious2 is pertinent. This ~tudy appeared in The Ec-clesiastical Review for 1936, and still remains the only published work on th,e subject. In connection with the investigation, Father Moore contacted all the Catholic and non-Catholic state and .private sanatoria and asyla for the insane in. the United States. On a basis '-'Thomas Verner Moore. "Insanity in Priests and Religious. Part I[ The Rate of Insanity in Priests and Religioi~s." The Ecclesia t;'ca! Reoic~', 95 (1936). 485- 498. : 297 WILLIAM C. BIER Review for Religious of his returns, Father Moo~e reports the following figures for the year 1935. The ratio per 100,000 population was as follows: for priests 446; for sisters 485; for brothers 418: for the ge,neral popu7 lation 595. He found a notable difference between active sisters with a ratio of 428 and cloistered sisters with a ratio of 1034. On a basis of these findings, therefore, the rate of insanity among priests and religious is less than it is among the general population, but the rate for cloistered sisters is more than twice what it is among the popula-tion at large. One additional point is worth noting. Although it is true that the rate of insanity among priests and religious is less than for the general population, this result is due to the fact that syphilitic types of insanity are almost completely absent among priests and re-ligious. If the latter were eliminated from the figures for the general population, the rate of insanity for priests and religious xvould rise above that for the population at large. One might be tempted at first sight to interpret these figures as meaning that religious life makes reore demands on psychological stability than life in the world, with psychological breakdown conse-quently more frequent. Although there is truth in this interpreta-tion, Father Moore is of the opinion that a more important factor in producing these results is the attraction exerted by the religious life upon certain pre'-psychotic personalities. Schizophrenia, for example, is by far the most frequent psychiatric disorder among institutional-ized priests and religious; and there can be no doubt that a consider-able number of pre-schizophrenic personalities are attracted by the retirement and seclusion of religious life, and of the contemplative life more than the active. Their schizophrenic tendencies blossom out into a full psychosis in religion, but they would undoubtedly have done so just as xvell had these persons remained in the world. Outright psychosis among applicants for the religious life is hardly to be expected, but pre-psychosis and incipient psychosis is ~ problem, as Father Moore's findings and fundamental interpretation indicate. Now, the essential point in term} of the present discussion is that pre-psychosis is not likely to be discovered in an applicant for the religious life, apart from some special testing procedur~ designed to reveal it. Sufficient proof of this statement is found in the number of such persons who secure admission to religious life. As indicated above, cases of severe mental disorder among appli-ca, nts for the religious life are relatively rare, nor do they offer too great a difficulty in evaluation. In such cases the picture is unequivo- 298 Not~erober, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING 6al, and upon examination the applicant is found to exhibit such a wealth of psychopathology as to be clearly unsuitable. There is, however, a larger number of cases in which the degree of psychologi-cal difficulty is considerably less. The evaluation of such cases is more difficult for two fundamental reasons: (1) because the degree of disorder being less it is more difficult to detect; and (2) because it is more difficult to predict the extent to which the disorder is likely to render the applicant incapable bf bearing the burdens of the religious life. It is evident that the reference here is to neurosis in 'general and to the milder forms of mental difficulty which wduld not even qualify as neurosis. Neurosis, referring in general to the non-psychotic forms of mental difficulty, is a broad term, and I am inclined to think that most responsible and informed persons would be reluctant to say that the presence of neurosis, ipso Facto, would render an applicant un-suitable for the religious life. The presence of neurosis would un-questionably create a presumption of unsuitability, but the latter might yield to the contrary fact in a given case. What then is to be taken as the norm? I would, suggest that we might distinguish 'on the basis of the kind of neurosis. It is beyond question that there are certain types of neurotic difficulty which would almost surely be accentuated by the demands of religious life, and it would be my suggestion that the presence of a neurosis of this type would render the applicant unsuitable. At the present time I would prefer to leave open the question as to whether there actually are any neuroses of the second type, i.e., which would not be aggravated by the requirements of life in religion. As an example of a neurosis the presence of which would likely preclude acceptance into' religion, I would mention hypochondriasis, an abnormal pre-occupation with bodily health. This tendency, as is well known, can grow into an exclusive pre-occupation leaving the individual with little thought or energy for religious observance. In its milder forms it s.imply interferes with ~ommunity life and regular. observance; in more advanced stages, it renders the individual com-pletely incapable of foIlowing religious routine. Experience quite well attests that the introspection of the religious life develops a cer-tain number of hypochondriacs as it is, so that the expectation seems justified that this life would aggravate such tendencies if they were already present at the time of admission. An even clearer example, to my mind, of the kind of neurosis the presence of which would 299 WILLIAM C. BIEP~ Re'view [or Religious render an indi~cidual unsuitable 'for the religious life, would be an obsessive-compulsive neur6sis, which manifests itself .in the moral sphere as scrupulosity. I have referenc~ not to an isolated instance of scrupulosity in the life of an applicant, but to scrupulosity of suffi-cient duration to have become habitual. Such a state is aggravated 'by the additional duties of religious life, by the continual self-exam-ination which is an iodispensable condition for progress t~ward reli-gious perfection, andparticularly by the obligation of the vows. In its milder forms, scrupulosity impairs efficiency, in prayer no less than in apostolic work. In its severer manifestations, it makes prayer and religious observance a torture, and any substantial measure of pro-ductive work an impossibility. Attitude to be Assumed in Doubtful Cases In connection with the matter just .discussed, a question arises which must be faced directly, and it is this: do we not go too far in excluding applicants with neurotic tendencies? Would it not be more in accord with the spirit of Christ. and the Church to accept them and to leave something to the healing effect of God's grace? In answer to this sort of a question, I would like first of all to. point out that psychological testing is finished, its work complete; its contribution made, when it has ascertained the facts, in as far as it is possible to ascertain them in the case of the applicant, and has put these at the disposal of the superior. It then becomes the superior's responsibility to act upon the facts as seems best, and, in view of them and all other available sources of information, to accept or to reject the candidate. A prudent superior will not come to a decision', of course, without taking the matter to prayer. Indeed everyone con-nected with the discernment of a vocation must pray; the applicant himself must pray, his director must pray, and the superior who acts on his application must pray. The Gospels tell us that Our Lord spent the .night in prayer before choosing the Apostles. The example. of saints teaches us that we should pray in such an important deci-sion, but also work. It was it. Ignatius' advice, for instance., that we should .work as if the entire l)utcome depended on us, buy pray as though the entire outcome depended on prayer alone. Such advice seems particularly apposite in the selection of candidates. In this case, the importance of the matter requires that the most adequate possible investigation be made, but ultimately such s~lection depends upon a judgement of the superior. This judgement should be founded in fact--as far as it is humanly possib, le to discover the truth--and 300 Noaeraber, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING should be illumined b'y grace, in as far as it is possible to invoke the divine assist~ince through prayer. Even when we have proceeded in: the manner indicated abo,~e,.the decision still remains difficult, for we are attempting in such cases just ¯ about the most difficult task in the .world, namely, to predict the interplay of divin'e grace and human freedom. "If the human mind,'r says a distinguished French contemporary, "cannot probe this mys-terious interplay +yen after the event (for when someone leaves a re-ligious institute it is often impossible to tell.whether it was through infidelity to a. real vocation or simply due to the late discovery that there was no vocation at all) still less can it see it~beforehand.'''~ We are compelled .humbly to admit that there are and will continue to be a certain number of cases which cannot be avoided, but there are others which, with a gr.eater expenditure of human effort and l~ru-dence, could be avoided. Such" is our task. When there, is, doubt about the psychological s~itability of can-didates for the religiou~ life, I would offer it as a general principle that we should be severe rather than lenient in admitting. My fun-damental reason for this recommendation is that the religious life demands more than ordinary psychological stability for. its practice. In the vows, which constitute the essence of religious life, man makes of himself a holocaust to God. owe speak also of the martyrdom of the vows. It is true that "holocaust" and "martyrdom" are meta-phorical expressions in this context, but they serve to emphasize the demands made of human nature in the practice of the religious life, " demands which are to a considerable extent psychological. Certainly the number of psychological satisfactions available to religious are considerably reduced over those possible to people in the world, while the occasion~ for frustration are greater, due to the surrender of deep human wants through the vows of religion, and by reason of the demands of day-by-day community lif~. Hence there is required more than the usual amount of psychological stability and maturity in a religious, and it would seem, therefore, to be imprudent to accet3t in religion applicants with distinctly less than the normal amount of psychological integrity. A further point seems worth) of note in this connection. The attitude is sometimes assumed that doubtful candidates should be ac-cepted in religion because religious life wotild benefit them more than 8A. Pit, O.P., "Unconscious Attraction to the Religious Life." Religious Life: H Vocation. Westminster, Maryland, Newman, 1952, p. 110. 301 WILLIAM (~. BIER Reoiew fo'r Religious it would some better individuals who are less in need of helps reli-gion would prgvide. A ~lightly different way of putting this same objection would be to say that if there is a doubt, we should give the ,applicant the benefit of the doubt. We assume that the doubt is a positive one, i.e., one in which there are positive .reasons for ques-tioning the suitability of the candidate. ¯ In such cases, I do not think that the general principle that the applicant should be given the bene-fit of the doubt is the correct one. It must not be forgotten that the religiouscommunity has rights as well, and it .seems a more funda-mental principle that the good of the community should prevail over the good of an individual, particularly when the latter is not yet a member of the community, as would be the case of an applicant. The doubtfully suitable applicant--if indeed the doubt is well founded--is likely to prove to be a problem from the very day of his arrival in the novitiate. If such is the case, he will require a dispro-portionately large amount of the novice master's time, to the detri-ment of the other novices who would profit more from his counsel and direction. Furthermore, psychologically unstable and neurotic individuals are difficult to live with, and it seems really inequitable that such persons should be permitted to enter and to. disrupt the peace and harmony of community life. One such person can be a thorn in the side of an entire community,, as experience very well at-tests. In God's Providence we shall always have enough 'difficult members of the community to make religious~life a source of virtue and sanctification, but it seems quite another thing knowingly to ¯ contribute to the difficulties of religious life by admitting psycho-logically unsuitable persons. Finally, there is always the distinct possibility, if not probability, that the defiaands of religious life will increase the difficulties of psychologically unstable persons to the point where they will ultimately be compelled to leave religion (and the institute may consider itself fortunate if the p}oblm can be solved in this way), or else they will have to be removed from the commun-ity and institutionalized. The latter can be.a tremendous financia'l burden to a c~mmunity, an, d it would seem an unjust one when the likelihood of such an eventuality could have been foreseen at the time of admission. It might be felt by" some that when there is doubt about the psy-chological suitability of a candidate, he should be admitted with the expectation that his inability to adjust to religious life would soon become evident to him through the actual attempt in a way which he 302 Noaernber, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING would never have been able to accept beforehand, and that he xvill in consequence voluntarily leave. The expectation of k, oluntary with-drawal in a case of this kited is not well founded. Even for the psy-chologically well-integrated and mature personality, readjustment to life in the world is difficult and the courage required to face the un-asked questions of family and friends is considerable. Ability to measure up to such demands is not realistically to be expected of one whose difficulty is weakness precisely in this area. Furthermore, it is assumed that the individual is suffering from personality or emo-tional disorders, and one of the main characteristics of such difficulties is a lack of insight on the part of the individual into his condition.' Hence, if the disorder" increases to a point where the individual should leave, insight is likely to decline as well, so that it is not to be ex-pected that the individual will leave voluntarily. I return, therefore, to my earlier proposition that it is a mistaken charity to accept doubt2 fully mature and questionably stable individuals into religion. In concluding the'present article I should like to refer to two quotations which seem to me to re-enforce the viewpoint presented. The first arises out of*the symposium on religious vocation held in France during the summer of 1949, and consists of the following expression of experience on the part of a religious superior: "Experi-ence has taught us one thing, and that is that when there is a doubt about any.one in the novitiate it is n~arly always confirmed later: the situation does not improve. There may be exceptions but they are few and far between.TM I would simply suggest that, under adequate investigation, we can move the process back one step further, and speak about the doubtful applicant, but that the principle remains the same. The second quotation is from our late Holy Father, Pope Pius XI, xvho expressed himself on the severity to be exercised in admitting candidates to the religious life. The occasion was an audience granted to the Capuchin general chapter after the election of Very Reverend Donatus de Welle as Minister General in June I938, at which time the Pope spoke in part as follows: "This recommendation, for which we take full responsibility, ought to be regarded as a father's instruction to his children, based simply on a desire foi the well being of all religious families. And the instruction is this: Be severe. These may be hard words but they~ 4"An Enquiry about Vocation" in Religious Life: II Vocation, Westminster]Mary-land, Newman, 1952, p. 83. 303 WILLIAM C. BIER are p~ompte~t by love, for true love, love worthy of our L.o~d's' friends, can be satisfied with nothing short of the truth . We are not alluding merely to severity of discipline, in general, but first and foremost to the seyerity v,;hich ought to be shown in accepting postu-lants. If ariyone tells you that there is too much sev.erity even now, we authorize you to reply that the Pope wants it to be that .way, be-cause he clearly sees the, need of it, in virtue of his position and.re-sponsibilities, the more so as Providence has granted him a pontifi-cate of some length and thus allowed him to acquire wide .experience in this field. Indeed, if the religious life is to be kept in all its splen-dour there must be severity, particularly with regard, to vocations, because although divine grace helps nature it does not destroy iF; the necessity fordoing battle remains, and in the religious life the stakes. are higher . "It is no exaggeration to say that whenever people unite to form a group, even in small numbers, deterioration occurs. We learn.this from experience. This does not mean that a religious family ought therefore to reduce the number of its members; quite the contrary-- the tendency should always be to increase. But it should see that its members are carefully chosen, like picked soldiers. This is a difficult task, but essential.~ When a number of men join together in some enterprise, their good qualities, and particularly the highest ones, do not become common property; each man keeps his own. Their weak-ness and. bad qualities,I on the other hand, add up and merge to-gether . " These words, coming from so high an authority, speak for them-selves. The purpose of the present article has been to demonstrate the ~)roposition that psycl~ological testing has a function to perform in theselection of candidates for the religious life, and that such,a pro- . gram is in keeping with the spirit of religious vocation as understood in the Church. The theoretical desirability.of such a program is one thing, its practicality is another, arid the latter question will be con-sidered in a second article. OUR CONTRIBUTORS JOSEPH F. GALLEN is professor of canon law at WoodstockCollege, Wood-stock, Md. HILARY R. WERTS is superior and a professo.r of moral theology at Alma College, Los Gatos, Calif. C. J. McNASPY, an authority on ~cclesiastical music, is on the faculty of St.'Charles College, Grand Coteau, La. Information on WILLIAM C. BIER is given in the prenote to his article. ' 304 \ The F:ucharis :ic Fast: Hilary R. Werts, S.3. THE. new and mitigated law of the Eucharistic fast contained in the Apostolic Constitution, Christus Dorninus; and the accom-panying Instructibn of the Holy Office, whose translations were published in this REVIEV~, last March, is a generous concession of our H01y Father the Pope who wishes to make more humanly possible the frequent and even daily reception of Holy Communion so.much recommbnded by Blessed Pope Pius X and his successors in the chair of Peter. In pro.mulgating the new law His Holiness urge~ bishops and priests to take advantage of its concessions to exhort the faithful to more frequent reception of'the Blessed Sacrament. Religious who have much contact with the faithful in schools and hospitals will find many' opportunities for their zeal to promote frequent Com~ munion by expla.ining this law'and leading people to use its condes-sions. For this purpose it is necessary that they have a clear under-standing of the conditions for the.application of these concessions. It is hoped that this article will help to this understanding. The former law for the Eucharistic fast is retained except for the particular conces~ion~ "granted in the new law. The first concession is that water does not break the fast, Water may now b.e taken at any time by anyone, right up to Communion time. The Eucharistic" fast is no longer concerned with water, and abstinence from it can no long, er properly be called fasting, though it may be an act of mortifi-cation ¯ Water here means plain water, that is, water without the admix-ture of'any other substance whatever. Water as it is found in natural conditions is plain water, even.though it be mineral water from a mineral spring, Qr ocean water with its content of salt. But minerals or salt may not be added artificially to the water that is permitted before Communion. How,ever, the chemical additions to our city water su'pplies are not to be considered, f6r otherwise we would have no water available to drink and the change in the law would be meaningless. Aside from the permitted water, the Pope confirms the former law and says that it must be observed by those who are able to do so. But this does not mean that those who c.ome under the conditions of the new concessions must worr, y as to whethe, r or not they should use .305 HILARY R. WERTS . Revieu~ for Religious them. Norm I of the Constitution says: "The law of the Eucharistic fast, to be observed from midnight, continues in force for all those who do not come under the special conditions, which We shall set forth in this Apostolic Constitution" (italics supplied). Hence there is no requirement that those who come under the concessions should rather fast from midnight if possible. Norm II of the Constitution makes concessions for the infirm. They may, without any time restriction, take something by way of drink or medicine. They may take non-alcoholic liquids and they may take medicine in either liquid or solid form at any time before the celebration of Mass or the reception of Communion. The ini~rm who enjoy this concession are either those who are sick, or thos.e who are infirm because of age. For the sick, no kind or length or degree of gravity of sickness is specified, but it is required that the infirmity be such that it is difficult to observe .the fast from midnight. The difficulty need not be extraordinary; a moderate diffi-culty will suffice. If an infirm person who desires to communicate would omit Communion because of th~ fast from mid.night, then surely he finds this fast too difficult. For example, influenza, stom-ach ulcers, diabetes, asthma, the ills of pregnancy, may be presumed to make fasting from midnight difficult. Any sickness in which the doctor recommends nourishment before Communion, or in which re-covery would be delayed by fasting, or any infirmity which causes the feeling of weakness unless nourishment is taken will suffice to permit liquid nourishment before Communion. Insomnia, severe headache, high or low blood pressure, distressing ~ough, rheumatism, arthritis, a bad cold, hay fever, may frequently make fasting rather difficult, ahd permit liquids. Some kinds of infirmity may last for a long time and permit .liquids daily before Communion; others may be tran.sitory and cause difficulty only for a day or a few days and these latter equally suffice for the use of the concession whenever ~hey occur. Since a moderately serious difficulty in fasting is required for the use of this concession, there are cases of infirmity in which the con-cession may not be used because the fast is no more difficult in these cases than it is for ordinary healthy persons; e.g., a person who has weak eyes or is blind, one who has lost an arm or leg, will have no fasting difficulty arising from his infirmity Unless other circumstances enter into the case. The difficulty in fasting required in order to permit the infirm to 306 November, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST take liquids before Communion is, according to some commentators, also required in order to permit them to take medicine. However it seems to me that a close reading of the Instruction (n. 1) reveals a distinction between liquid nourishment and medicine. There are two clauses, one concerning liquids, which are permitted fi~nder the con-dition that fasting is difficult; the other cgncerning medicine, which is permitted under the sole condition that it is real medicine. Thus [ conclude that a person with a headache, even though it is not severe enough to make fasting difficult, would still be permitted an aspirin before Communion because he is sick and aspirin is real medicine. ¯ It may happen that someone feels well on rising, but knows from exi~erience that if he fasts until he receives Communion, he will be-come ill. In this case be may take medicine or liquid under the con-cession for the infirm, in order to avoid the sickness. Sometimes a person's sickness is due to his own fault, as when one is ill the morning aft, er an evenir~g of overindulgence in food or d~ink. Nevertheless, he .may use the'concession for the sick, sup-posing that he has the .proper dispositions of body and soul for the reception of.the Blessed Sacrament. We may now examine more .in detail what is meant by liquids and medicines. The liquid permitted to the sick before Communion is anything that can be pour,ed and drunk, except alcoholic bever-ages. Thus milk, tea, coffee, broth, fruit juices, soft drinks, and. heavier liquids like egg hog, milk shake, creamed soup and raw or lightly boiled eggs. The liquid may have some° undissolved solids as lo.ng as it remains a potable liquid; e.g., broth with some bread or cracker crumbs, cereals such as cream of wheat or corn meal when diluted with suffici,ent milk to make them drinkable. But all alco-holic beverages, even with low alcoholic content, are excluded after the midnight preceding Communion. Medicine, either liquid or solid, is permitted so long as it is real medicine, and not merely something nourishing or agreeable. True medicine is somethi,ng curative, palliative, or preventive. Any medi-cine prescribed by a doctor is a true medicine, but there are also many substances that are known to be medicine and used without a pre-scription, such as aspirin, sleeping pills, cold remedie~, etc. Commen-tators dispute whether medicine containing alcohol is permitted. It may safely be said that alcoholic beverages may not be used medici-nally before Communion, but a real medicine, even if it contains alcohol, may be used. This accords with the wording of the law, 307 HILARY R. WERTS ° Review for Relioious and the law hardly requires that a sick person know the chemical con-tent of his medicine, or° be prevented from Communiofi because he must take medicine containing some alcohol. We may also note that some things which are ordinarily considered food and not medicine may in certain diseases be real medicine with curative or preventive value. Thus sugar is prescribed for diabetics who have an insulin reactidn. This concession of the use of liquids and medicines for the infirm is granted to priests or rion-priests, and to p~iests for the reception of Communion or th,e celebration of Mass, and applies whether the ¯ Mass or Communion is in the morning or in the evening. The liquids or medicine may be taken once .or several time~ after midnight, and in any quantity. The use of this concession is not directly open to all the infirm, but those who are not priests are required to first consult a confessor, that he may judge whether they may use the concessio~a. This con- ¯ sultation is required in every case, but need be made only once ,for a given cause of infirmity, and the advice of the cQnfessor maY be fol-lowed as long as the infirmity continues, even if it be life-long. When the infirmity diminishes, as during convalescence, the c6ncession may still be used until it is clear that the infirmity no longer makes fasting difficult. . The time'fo[ this consultation is any time before Comm~ion. The confessor's advice is not required to take liquids or medicines. The advice is required for Communion after having taken these things, and so .it may be asked after taking them ~but before receiving Communion. The gravity of the obligation to consult a confessor is discussed by commentators, and some hold that to use the concession without consultation would be to viOlate the law of the Eucharistic fast and commit a grave sin. Others say that a person who is sure that his case comes under the conditions of the concession would sin'venially by disobedience if he were to omit the consultation and rceive Com-munion; and that in an extra.ordinary case, when it is impossible to. consult a confessor, he could use the concession without consultation. This opinion may be followed unless the Holy See ~olves the question otherwise. Of course, if a person were not qualified to judge the matter, he would sin at least, venially b,y acting imPrudently. There is"also some discussion about the confessor who is t6 be consulted. The strictest o.pinion is that he must be a priest who 308 November, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST could h~re and now hear the confession of the one consulting, and this would be required if the advice were sbught in confession. But the law does not require that the advice be sought in confession. It may be asked in private consultation outside the confe~si6nal and, according to atenable opinion, from a priest who can hear confes-sions somewhere, even though he .has no faculties to hear confessions in the place of the consultation or of the person consulting. Certainly no one but a priest may give the required advice, though teachers and others may explain the requirements to their charges. Since the advice of the confessor may be asked out of confession, it follows'that it may be asked in personal interview, by phone or by letter, or by an int.ermediary,such as a parent or other relative, a Sister or nurse in a hospital, a teacher, etc. The advice is personal and in-dividual and could not be given to a large group together, such as Ill the people attending Mass; but.if there is a group in which the con- "fessor knows that all those present have the same reason for the use of the concession, he could advise the group together, as when all the nurses present are on night duty, or all the people present must make a long trip to Mass, and thus come under the concessions to be seen later. As seen above, a person who is not a priest must consult a con- . fessor before using the concession for the sick (and also the conces-sions to be seen below). Must the sick priest also consult a confessor before using this concession to receive Communion or to celebrate Mass? "A~ first sight the law seems to requlke this, and some com-mentators thus interpret the law., But many, i~ncluding some who are connected with the Holy Office in Rome, say that the sick priest need not consult a confessor. This seems reasonable, for if the priest can decide for others, he should be able t9 decide ~or himself. With-out entering into all the arguments, it might be well to consider one point, The Instruction of the'Holy Office concerning the sick (n. 3) says: "Priests who are ill., may likewise take advantage of the dispensation." The word likewise is a translation of the.word pariter, meaning "likewise," "in the same way." Many'commenta-tors r~fer this word to what has gone before, and understand the law to gay that priests may use the dispensation in the same way as the faithful, that is, .after consulting a confessor. It seems to be as well or even better to refer the word to what follows, and understand the sentence to mean that priests are given permission to .use the dispen-sation as well for celebrating Mass as for receiving Communion, 309 HILARY R. WERTS Review for Reliqious which is a new and very noteworthy concession, emphasized by the word pariter. The next concession is for priests in circumstances other than sickness which make fasting difficult. Three specific causes of diffi-culty are set down and the concession is grant.ed to piiests in these circumstances, without the need of consulting a confessor, and even incases where the pri, est couId fast without difficulty. The three causes are exclusive, and the concession is not to be extended to other circumstano~s, but actually the three given causes cover most of the difficult cases. The first cause is the late hour of celebrating Mass. The hour is defined as nine o'clock in the morning. If a priest celebrat,~s Mass after this hour he may take non-alcoholic !iquids as explained above, up to one hour before the beginning of Mass, and may take them as often as he wishes. The time in this case must be measured mathe-matically. There must be a full hour of fasting before the beginning of Mass. And the Mass must start after nine o'clock. If the priest leaves the sacristy promptly for a scheduled nine o'clock Mass, it will be after nine when he begin? the Mass at the foot of the altar with the sign of the cross, and he is a proper subject for this concession. When a priest is celebrating more than one Mass, and one of them is after nine o'clock, he fulfills the cbndition and may us~ the dispensation by taking liquids any time after .midnight, and therefore before his. earlier Mass, but he must observe the prescription of fasting from the liquids for one hour before each Mass. Thus if he celebrates at eight and nine o'clock, he could take liquids before seven o'clock; if he celebrates at six and nine o'clock, he could take liquids before five and again after the first Mass but before eight o'clock. The second cause which allows priests the use Of liquids up to one hour before the beginning of Mass is heavy work of the ministry done before Mass. No exact definition of this work is given, but in view of the definition of a late hour given above, and of a long jour-ney given in the next cause, it would seem safe to say that one hour or more of concentrated work, such as hearing confessions, taking~ Communion to the sick, preparing a sermon, participating in solemn ceremonies, and the like, would allow the concession, but not an hour of puttering at odds and ends while waiting for Mass time. The third cause permitting liquids to the priest up to one hour before the beginning of Mass is a long journey, before Mass. A long journey is defined by the Holy Office as a distanoe of a mile and a 310 November, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST quarter on foot, which is a walk of about 20 or 25 minutes. If transportation is used, the distance must be greater in proportion to the kind of conveyance, the d!fficulty of the road, and the condition of the traveler. The inconvenience of the trip by conveyance should be equivalent to the inconvenience of a walk of a mile and a quarter. For a healthy person and a good road, it would seem that about forty minutes by car, or thirty minutes by bus, or twenty minutes by bicycle, would be a long journey in the sense of this law. Where the road or the weather is bad, or the person old or unwell, this distance may be shortened proportionately. Since water no longer breaks the fast, it is noted that a priest celebrating more than one Mass may take the ablutions in each Mass, but using only water except at the last Mass. However, the Holy Office makes an exception to this in the case of Christmas and All Souls Day, if the priest celebrates three Masses on these feasts without interruption. In this case he should observe the rubrics of the missal which require the omission of the ablutions in the first two Masses. If on these two days the priest should take the ablutions with water, he would not be breaking his fast but he would be violating the rubrics. The Holy Office says that if the binating or trinating priest in-advertently takes wine at the ablutions of a Mass before his last one, he may still celebrate the subsequent Mass or Masses. Some commen-tators hold that this permission is granted only if the priest has some special need to celebrate the subsequent Mass, e.g. because it is a sched-uled Sunday Mass. But others say that the law does not necessarily mean any particular need for the Mass, and that the priest may pro-ceed with his Masses for no greater reason than his own devotion. It would seem that if the priest inadvertently took the wine ablu-tion into the chalice in his earlier Mass, and noticed it before con-suming the wine, he would not be obliged to dispose of it some other ~vay, but could consume it. However, if he deliberately took the wine ablution at Mass, not intending to binate, and later the need for another Mass arose, he could not celebrate again .unless there were sufficient need to allow him to celebrate after breaking his fast. But in view of the present mitigation of the law, one might be less severe than formerly in weighing this need. Having seen the concessions for priests who will celebrate Mass, we come to the concession for communicants. This concession, simi-lar to but somewhat different from the preceding, is the one which 311 HILARY Rz WERTS Re, view/or Reli~lious rules the reception of Holy Communion for all non-priests, even though they be religious or clerics in the major orders of subdeacon or deacon, and it also applies to priests who are to communicate rather than celebrate, as for example, priests who do not c~lebrate Mass on Holy Saturday. The concession is given for three exclusive causes of grave diffi-culty, namel~, fatiguing work ¯before Communion, late hour of. Communion, or a long journey before Commianion. The concession requires consultation of a confessor, as seen ~above for the infirm. When the" concession is allowed, the communicant may take .liquids as often as he wisheL from midnight until one hour b~fore Com-munion, and of course water at any time. No solid food,or alcoholic drink is allowed after midnight. Note that the hour is measured be-fore Communion, while for the celebrant we saw that it is measured before the beginning of Mass. The period of fasting must be a full hour and if in doubt about the exact time of Communion one must leave some margin Of time; or risk arriving at Communion before the full hbur is completed and thus be deprived of Communion, for there m'ust be no diminution of the hour. There are various opinions as to the application of the three causes of grave difficulty. One opinion requires not only the exist-ence of one of these three causes, but also the existence of at I~east a moderately grave difficulty in fasting from midnight for this particu-lar communica.nt, A second opinion holds that if one. of the three, causes exists, we may presume that it is actually difficult for any par-ticular person to observe the fast" from midnight, and so he should be allowed to use the concession unl.ess it is clear that fasting causes him no difficulty. A third opinion holds that the only difficulty required is the actual existence of one of the three given causes. For example, if one must make a long journey to church, he may be allowed to use the concession without inquiry as to the inconvenience he would suf-fer by fasting from midnight. TJae practical application of these¯ different opinions will be the same except in border-line cases in which the third opinion will cre-ate less anxiety in the confessor and the comrrluriicant than will the other two opinions. This third opinion has the fewest supporters,. ¯ but I adopt it'as the easiest to. apply and as defensible according to the meaning of the law. Although the tenor of the law is that it in-tends to relieve those who experience grave difficulty in fasting from midnight, it also states that there is grave difficulty in certain cases 312 November, 1953 ¯ THE EUCHARISTIC FAST given as examples. The C0n~titution also insinuates that some cir-stances which do not ~eem to be serious in a single case may have a serious cumulative effect over an extended period. Thus 'the Consti-tution says that the burden of a priest's Sunday ministry unques-tionably undermines his health; the conditions of work in the mod-ern economy and the conditions of modern living especially after re-cent wars have caused a general decline of health. The Constitution, norm V, grants the concession "because of grave incon.venience-- that is, because Of fatiguing work, or the lateness of the hour . or the long distance." (italics supplied), signif~ring that these three conditions are actually grave difficulties. The introduction to the ¯ Instruction says the concessions may be used by those who find them-selves in the particular conditions specified in the Constitution, which in this.concession are the three given causes. The Instruction states 'the concession to the sick conditionally,."if because of their illness~ they are unable without grave inconvenience, to observe a complete fast," signifying that illness may or may not be a cause of grave in-convenience. But in the concession to communicants who are not ill, it states directly that the three enumerated circumstances are (not rna~] be) causes of grave inconvenience. Furthermore, the spirit of these, documents is very lenient, considering a mile and a quarter as a gravely inconvenient walk and nine o'clock as a gravely inconvenient late horn:, if these are considered as.generally grave, there seems to be little room for a reasonable decision that in some.exceptional cases they are not grave. To draw a line betw,een grave and not grave in this matter seems to be practically impossible and the attempt to do so would lead to anxiety and scruples. So it seems to be in accord' with the meaning and spirit of this law to allow the concession to all communicants who are in one of thd three given circumstances, without trying to measure the gravity of the difficulty of fasting for each communicant. ¯ The first cause given, fatiguing work, is illustrated in the law by the cases of night workers in factories, ships or other transportation, ~hose who spend the night in the'service of the sick or as watchmen, and mothers who must perform domestic duty before going to Com~ reunion. The work may be an all-night occupatign, or it may be work done in the morning for a period long enough to make it fa-tiguing, or it may be work done during some part of the night with some sleep afterwards, as when a nurse is called at night for some emergency. An hour's heavy work in the morning would seem to jus- 313 HILARY R. WERTS Reuieto /:or Religious tify the use of the concession. Work done late in the evening does not seem to be ordinarily included in this cause, but .such work and even work done earlier might sometimes be so fatiguing that it would permit use of the concession. The law also mentions pregnant women,rand probably considers them subjects for the concession in-dependently of any work they must do before Communion, merely by reason of the pregnancy. The second cause is the late hour at which alone the communicant can receive. The late hour is not defined, but since nine o'clock has been defined as a late hour for the celebrant, it must also be a late hour for the communicant. Perhaps it was not defined because it maC/ happen that a time before nine o'clock will be a late hour for those who must rise very early. The Instruction gives the example of Communion in a place where a priest is not able to say Mass early because he must come from some distance, as happens when on.e priest has charge of two or more churches. Although the Constitution says: "The ,lateness of the hour at which alone they can receive," this must not be understood to mean that it is absolutely impossible to receive earlier, but rather that it is difficult to receive earlier, or there is some necessity for waiting until a late hour. The concession could be allowed to these: the parent who must care for the children while the other parent goes to an early Mass and then himself goes to a .later Mass; one who is awake until a very late hour at night and so needs to sleep late in the morn-ing; one who needs a late sleep on Sunday or a holiday to rest from his week's work; one who must choose a late Mass to keep peace in the family; the altar boy who is assigned to serve a late Mass, even if he could go to another earlier Mass; a worker who could.conveni-ently go to noon Mass down town but would find it inconvenient to rise early enough for Mass before work; some special reason for a late Mass, as when the bride and groom wish to receive at a late nup-tial Mass, or the family wishes to receive at a late Requiem Mass; and in general, whenever in view of the person's accustomed rising hour, the time of the first conveniently available Mass is relatively late. But one may not without some necessity freely choose the later of two Masses in order to be able to take liquids before Com-munion. A special case of a late hour, mentioned in the documents, is that of children who would have to go to church, communicate, and then return home for breakfast before school. In order to obviate this 314 Nooernber, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST difficulty, these children may take liquid nourishment up to an hour before Communion. It must be admitted that this concession is not without its own problems. Although a child could have a sufficiently nourishing breakfast made up entirely of liquids, still it might not be a satisfying breakfast for those accustomed to a more substantial meal, and the liquid breakfast might require that the child and hi~ family rise earlier than usual in order to finish it an hour before Com-munion time. From this case of the school child we may conclude that some-times the hour may be considered late because the available time be-tween Holy Communion and other duties does not permit the com-municant to obtain breakfast, readily after Communion. This may be the case not only for school children, but also for college students, and for people who work away from home and do not have conveni-ent time after Mass to return home for breakfast. The third cause which allows this concession is a long distance to travel to church. The distance in this concession is to be measured in the way explained above for priests, i.e., a mile and a quarter walk, or the equivalently inconvenient ride. Here again there must be some need for the travel. One could not choose a more distant church when there is a nearer one unless there was some fairly serious reason for doing so. Sufficient reason might be some special solemnity at the distant church, e.-g., the first Mass of a member of the family; a group Communion of a family or of the Holy Name Society or the Knights of Columbus; .an alumni or father-son Communion-group at a school; a baccalaureate Mass; the close of a M'ission or novena one has attended; but hardly the mere devotional desire to communi-cate in the distant church rather than in a near one. The final concession concerns evening Masses. These Masses are not directly permitted, but the local Ordinary may permit them on the days specified in the law, and he may permit them in all .the churches of the diocese, or in certain designated churches. He may also permit them in the oratories of religious. There must b~ some need for the evening Mass, for workers who cannot go to morning Mass, or for a gathering for a religious or social festivity such as a Eucharistic Congress, a Sodality Convention, a business, labor or scout convention, etc. The evening Mass may begin at four o'clock or later. Some have thought that an eoenin9 Mass differs from a night Mass, and have tried to assign the latest hour at which this Mass may begin as some hour earlier than midnight, but the law does 315 HILARY R. WERTS not ~eem to set a final hour at any time before midnight, and the hour may be defined by the local. Ordinary according to the need. When evening Masses are permitted, all are free t6 go to the Masses and to receive Communion, but no one may communicate twice on the same day, nor may the priest celebrate morning and evening of the same day unless he may legitimately binate on that day. Neither priest.nor faithful need consult a konfessor under this concession. The Eucharistic fast required for evening Communion is a fast "of three hours from solid food and one hour from liquids, and the time.is measured before Communion for the communicant but before the beginning of Mass for the celebrant. No hard liquor is allow~d ¯ after the preceding midnight.Light alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine are allowed in moderation, but only during a meal. Some commentators hold that these beverages may be taken at only one meal, even if the person ~ats two meals before a Mass late in the evening, But it may I~e admitted with other commentators that the law does not intend to exclude the use of these beverage's from any meal taken before evening Mass or Communion. This new law of the Eucharistic fast is a generous help for the increase of frequent Communion. Priests and other teachers of the faithful can use it effectively, as the Holy Father wishes, to encourage the frequent reception of the Blessed Sacrament, and the faithful should take full advantage of these concessions to increase their re-ception of the'Bread of Life in proportion to the greatlyincreased convenience of its reception. " BOOK NOTICI: Over twenty years ago Father Bernard Hausmann, S.J., first translated from the German a notable book on-the devotion to the Sacred Heart written by Father Christian Pesch, S.J., under the title of OUR BEST FRIEND. World War II and other causes kept the book out of print for some years. Now the publisher has reset the book entirely in very legible type. Its thirty chapters, each acom-plete unit in itself, offer ideal reading matter for daily spiritual reading during the month of June; or for the Fridays of the year. The central thought of this work, that Jesus is t, ruly our best Friend, contains the strongest possible motive for fervent practice of devotion to the Sacred Heart. (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Cc~mpany, 1953. Pp. 228. $3.00.) 316 Motu Proprio ,Jubilee C.J. McNaspy, S.J. ~IGH MASS ~nd possibly an added toothsome tidbit, at least for the choir, mark St. Cecilia's feast in many religious com-munities. This year is likely to see a fuller fe.stivity on No-vember 22, the golden jubilee of Blessed Pius X's Motu~Proprio on ¯ sacred music. 'Everything about'this famed document is rwell known to music teachers and chant directors, who often have had to flourish it in defense of their innovations or renovations. But this fiftieth anniversary may be a fit .occasion for all religious, however unmusical, .to recall what the Church has to say about her own music. If the Motu Proprio were a dead letter no one would take the trouble to commemorate it. Blessed Pius himself saw to it that this would not easily happen by enshrining his prescriptions in tt~e pre-paratory draft of canon 1264. His immediate, successor, Benedict XV, not long after stated: "We do not wish that the lapse of time should weaken the force of these wise rules.; indeed, we desire them to have their full force." On the silver anniversary, 1928, Pius XI indeed bolstered them with a new papal document, Diuini Cultus, in which he expr~essed surprise "that some have declared that these laws, though so solemnly promulgated, were not binding on their obedience." .Finally, our present Holy Father devotes several pa.ragraphs to sacred music, alway~ stressing the sameprinciples, in his masterly Mediator Dei. No one, unless wi~h a peculiar axe to grind, can say that the Motu Proprio is out of date. Another unfounded notion one sometimes hears is th~t the Motu Proprio is a bit extreme and not practical enough for us to do anything about it. The full reply to this objection would be simply to read it through. By no means does it. state or imply' that one should use only Gregorian chant in sacred worship. Quite explicitly the Holy Father states that "modern music is also admitted in church, as it also offers compositions of such goodness, seriousness, and grav-ity that they are not at all unworthy of liturgical functions." And if this were not enough, the Holy Father explains that "the Church: has always recognized and favored the progress of the arts, admitting to the service of worship everything good and beautiful that genius has been able to discover throughout the centuries." No, only one 317 C. J. McNAsPY Review for Religious type of music is condemned in the Motu Proprio, and that by indi-. rection: the music that does not possess "the qualities proper to the liturgy, namely holiness, and goodness of form, from which spon-taneously there springs its other mark, uniuersaIit~t.:" It is hard to see how anyone could find this either radical or extreme. So much has been done, especially during recent years, to carry out the requirements of the Motu Proprio that another possible qualm may occur: isn't it all so obvious that we needn't discuss it any more? Mu~n personal contact with religious, younger ones particu-larly, is so encouraging that one is tempted to let down, feeling that the battle has been won. The ever-.widening conquests of the Gre-gorian Institute, Piu; X School, and other liturgical or musical or-ganizations must surely bring added joy to the Blessed Pontiff who so recently launched the whole movement. But when one leaves religious house and seminary to venture forth into parish, or even, in some cases, cathedral, the situation is dismal indeed. True, the more offensive, bumptious Masses usual in the last century will h~rdly now be heard. But in too many instances, what replaced them is little better. In fact, there are parishes, even deaneries, Where .the Motu Proprio would seem never to have been promulgated. Sad indeed would be the Blessed Pastor were he not already in heaven. It was with real poignancy that he had written, fifty years ago, while intro-ducing his great statement, of the "many prejudices so stubbornly held even~among responsible and pious persons"; not all of the stub-bornness is gone .today. Need we recall once again that all.discussion of the role of sacred music in divine worship must be situated in the total context of the very m. eaning of liturgy.? The question cannot be simply decided on a purely musical basis. It cannot be just a matter of aesthetic value, abstractly considered, if that were possible. Much less can it be just a question of "I don't know anything about music but I know what I like." ¯ Music that would ~ank high on some ecclesiastical Hit Pa-rade or even music performed in Carnegie Hall will not necessarily be suitable as worship music. Too often, even now, dubious standards are implicitly set up. A meditative reading of the Motu Proprto could remedy that. "Sacred music as an integral part of the solemn liturgy shares in its general, purpose, which is the glory of God and the sanctification and edification of the faithful." Thus far no cavilling possible. "Its principal function is to adorn with suitable melody the liturgical text 318 November, 1953 MOTU PROPRIO JUBILEE proposed to the understanding of the faithful." Here it becomes clearer that music's place must be secondary, that of a handmaid, as Pius XI would make explicit. If tb? sacred text becomes a plaything, or in any way obscured instead of pointed and intensified, then some-thing has gone askew; this may be good concert music; it is no longer liturgical music. Then the Pontiff enumerates the three qualities of sacred music which we gave above. By "holiness" he means ~hat all profanity must be excluded, "not only in itself but also in the manner in which it is presented by the perfgrmers." Farther on he explains that nothing may be admitted ~hat contains anything "reminiscent of theatrical motifs," or "fashioned even in external pattern on the movement of profane pieces." Music of a romantic or sentimental flavor (aptly called "googaudery") in which the."pleasure directly produced by music is not always kept within bounds," is evi-dently excluded under this heading. Next, music "must be true art, for otherwise it is not possible for. it to have that effect on listeners which the Church intends to achieve in admitting the art of music into bet liturgy." This precept is commonly violated in two ways: either by singing music of low artistic worth, music that would never make its mark in "the world ~vere it not put forth under the aegis of the liturgy; or by singing worth~(music in an unworthy way. The second fault, while often less grievous because prompted by good. intentions, can sometimes do more harm than good. People have frequently grown to dislike Gregorian chant or the Church's great polyphony because they were performed with more good will than skill. For this reason Plus XI insisted that at least seminaries teach "the higher and 'aesthetic' study of plainchant and sacred music, of polyphony and organ, which the clergy should by all means thoroughly know." As the seminaries turn out pastors competent in this field, it is likely that choirs will reflect their understanding of sacred music, artistically and liturgically. The third mark of liturgical music, "universality," means that "though every nation is allowed to admit into its ecclesiastical com-positions those particular forms that constitute, so to speak, the spe-cific character of its own music, still these must be subordinated in such a way to the general character of sacred music that no one of another nation may receive a bad impression-on hearing them." This delicate catholicity, a tension between unity and diversity, is perhaps 319 C. J. MCNASPY the hardest principle to apply. However,. ,the Pontiff goes, ,on. ex-plicitly- to condemn the operatic style of his own country. We wonder~ what he would think of certain rather eccentric efforts to produce Negroid or "western" sacred music for use.in our country. But popes are ever practical, and to prevent us from being too abstract in our approach, the Holy Father immediately gives concrete examples of what the Church does want. "These qualities are found, in the highest degree in Gregorian chant,~'' which "has always been considered the supreme model 'of sacred music." Then he sets down, in italics and as unambiguously as possible, the fol-lowing'rule: "The more closely a composition for church approaches the Gregorian melody in movement, inspiration, and flavor, the more sacred and liturgical it is; and the more it departs from that supreme model, the less worthy it is of the temple." It would" take real in-genuity to misunderstand that. Blessed Pius next forestalls a possible escape. Granted, one might object, that.the chant is so sacred and worthy; but isn't other music really more solemn? No, says the Pope, "it must be held by all as certain that an ecclesiastical function loses none of its solemnity when accompanied by no other music than Gregorian chant alone.'.' How-ever, he adds, "the qualities mentioned above are also possessed in an eminent degree by classical polyphony, especially by the Roman school, which in the sixteenth century reached its highest perfection in the work 6f Pierluigi da Palestrina. . Classical polyphony is quite close to the supreme model of all sacred music, namely Gre-gbrian chant, and for that reason deserved to be received together with Gregorian chant in the most solemn functions of the Church." A fir~al scruple: is this not reactionary,, or at least over-conserva-tive? As an interesting corroboration of the Holy Father's stand I believe we could give quotations from almost every leading con-temporary music historian or theorist. To cite only the most recent,, and surely, one of the most eminent, Harvard's Professor. A. T. Davison, a no/~-Catholic. " His new book, Church Music: Illusion and Reality, could almost be called a commentary on the Motu Pro-prio. After calling our chan~ "the unchallenged example o~t:, worship become music" and speaking of Palestrina and other polyphonic corn- .posers in terms of the highest pr~iise, Dr.Davison states in reference to both: "It may appear to the reader that this music of the Roman Cath-olic Church has been rather aggressively held up as a model.If this 320 November, 1953 COMMUNICATIONS is so, it is only because of a conscientious attempt to deal objectively with the matter; for that particular music, it would seem, fulfills two all-important requisites of true church music: first, in vying with the greatest music in any field, sacred, secular, or instrumental; and second, in creating an atmosphere of worship wherein not man but God appears as the important figure in the transaction." . Surely no fine~ tribute to the sainted Pope and his liturgical work for Christ could be offered. Communications Reverend Fathers: The September issue of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS reached me t£day and I should like" to cl~arify a reference made by WilliamGrem-ley, in his article entitled "Intergroup Relatiohs," pages 231-241. The quotation given by Mr. Gremley from This Is Our Town appeared in the old edition of the book. I have since revised all the Faith and Freedom" Readers and the particular story referred to by Mr. Gremley is no longer in the new edition. Mr. Gremley gives 1952 as the date of copyright which is also in-correct. The story referred t0 in This Is Our, Town appeared in the 1942 edition. The re~;ised book was published last spring and has a 1953 copyright. There is no 1952'edition of this particular volume. --SISTER M. MARGUERITE, S.N.D: Reverend Fathers : His Excellency, Bishop Gonzaga, of the Palo (Leyte) diocese in the Philippines; has asked me, during my brief visit to the United States, to try to interest some American Sisterhoods to undert~ike educational work in his diocese. Will you allow me to publicize his request through your e~teeme'd columns? The Holy See has entrusted to this zealous and schokirly Filipino prelate the spiritual welfare of over 1,000,000 Catholics on the large island of Leyte. During my twenty years in the Philippines, I have had the privilege of. long acquaintance with him, and know well his situation. With only about sixty-five priests (some of whom are old and sickly) and only three schools conducted by Sisters, he is in desperat9 need of spiritual reinforcements and most anxious to obtain American Sisters, and also priests, for his diocese. 321 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Reoiew/or Religious Anyone acquainted with our own country realizes that we have many regions at l~ome which need additional laborers in the vineyard of the Lord. It is this situation, no doubt, which is preventing many of our high-minded ecclesiastical, and religious superiors from allow-ing their .American subjects to go to foreign fields. On the other hand, Catholic history from the time of the Apostles is replet~ with examples of how the Church has always been prodigal in sending missionaries to foreign fields, even though their home lands were not yet fully manned nor completely evangelized. And they have been richly rewarded by the Holy Spirit, \Vho has multiplied vocations to their ranks as a blessing for their sacrifices. Those interested in further details will please write .to the under-signed. REV. G. J. WILLMANN, S.J. P. O. Box.510, Manila, Philippine Islands --29~ There are members o~ a commun;ty ~;v;ng ~ogefber who bare not spo-ken to one another over a period of four or five-years. Is the local superior obliged to try to correct this situatlbn or should a higher superior who !~nows of the maffer take a hand? As a general norm local situations as far as possible would be handled by the local superior. For a good reason in a particular case it might be deemed advisable that some other than the local superior take care of the matter; t.he case could then be referred to higher supe-riots. Such a good reasbn could be discrepancy in age between the superior and the subject'.who needs correction, possible lack of ex-perience in a younger superior, a question of tactfulness, a clash of personalities, and the like. In our instance the higher superior is al-ready acquainted with the situation; hence the lotal and higher supe-riors might confer together regarding the more prudent and more efficacious way of handling the case. Is it the mind of the Church tha÷ S~sters who de~re and even ask for correction and guidance from their superiors be left wlthouf it on ÷he ex 322 November, 1953 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS pressed opinion that the Sisters are grown women and know what they are supposed fo do? Canon 530 strictly forbids all religio~s superiors in any way to indfice their subjects to make a manifestation of conscience to them. It does not, however, forbid subjects to open their minds freely, and of their own accord to their superiors; in fact, it encourages filial trust in superiors and, if the superior is a priest, it also recommends sub-jects to reveal doubts and anxieties of conscience to such a superior. Consequently subjects are free to go to superiors, even those who are not priests,~ with their problems, especially if the problem does not in~rolve a question of sin. Superiors on their part will usually lend a sympathetic ear. But the case might arise in which the superior did not feel competent tO handle a certain problem; or one could, en-visage a particular case in which the superior judged that it would be better for the individual to resolve some simpler difficulty for himself and thereby buiid up self-confidence. In these matters a great deal of tact and Christian charity is required on the part of superiors; but subjects also should practice charity in moderating ~he demands they make upon superiors. Some problems could easily be solved on the individual's initiative after prayer and reflection. A decade ago the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS invited discussion on the topic of spiritual direction. In the concluding survey (II [ 1943 ], 187-201) the twofold prong of spiritual direction was indicated, namely instruction and encouragement. On pages 19 I-192 the con-clusion is voiced that need of instruction should certainly decrease with the i~assage of years to such a point that normally the intellec-tual help required of one's spiritual director would be mainly friendly criticism. "In other words, these religious plan their own lives, submit their plans to a director for approval or disapproval,. and then occasionally make a report on the success or failure of the plan." In regard to encouragement, the need is more individual ~nd is usually not lessened with the years. "At various periods in our lives, most of us need sympathetic help or paternal correction lest we lose heart or descend to low ideals." Both superiors and subjects might profit by keeping those considerations in mind. --31-- If a councillor is absent and the local superior, who is not a councillor, is called to a council meeting, does the local superior give her vote ~n ÷l~e order the absent councillor would have or after all the councillors? 323 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious ¯ Canon 106, n. 5 says in part.that among the members of any college (collegium) the right of precedence shall be determined by the legitim.ate constitutions of the college; otherwise by .lawful custom; in default of that, by the norms of the common law. Hence, the con-stitutions of the institute should be consulted. If they make no pro-vision, then follow whatever has been the legitimate custom (which here means the customary way of acting), in this situation. If neither the constitutions nor custom provide a solution, canon 106, n. 1 states that one who represents another enjoys the precedence'that person has; but anyone who is in a council or similar meeting .as a proxy yields precedence to those of the same rank who are personally present. Accordingly, then, a local superior wl~o is not a councillor but who has been summohed to take the place organ absent councillor would vote after the councillors who are present in person. m32m Acjeneral chapter is held in a branch house. When the time comes for voting, does the local superior who is not a councillor .cjeneral vote before or after the ~ouncillors cjeneral? (It is customary for Junior Sisters 1.o vote first, followed by Senior Sistei-s.I The first answer is, consult your constitutions. If they say. nothing, the.n follow whatever has been customarily done in this matter. If no solution is forthcoming from either of those sources in the order enumerated, it would seem that the local superior in this case would yield precedence to the councillors general since the latter in this instance seem to be acting in their "general" capacity, so to speak. (Possibly some institutes follow a simpler method of having all capitulars vote according to strict seniority, upwards or down-wards, without regard to offices h~ld.) ~33~ Propositions to be presented to our cjenera! chapter are very often sent throucjh some member of our cjeneral council or fhroucjh the cjenera/ council. 'Has the cjeneral, councll the right to discard a proposition that pertains dlrec~ly or indirectly to the cjeneral council itself, since the cjen-eral chapter, wh[le in session, is the highest aufhorlfy ~n the concjrecjatlon? Perhaps your constitutions or legitimate custom indicate that proEositions intended for the genekal chapter are to be forwarded ,dlrough the counciI16rs general, and that these latter have the power to judge the feasibility of presenting any such proposition to the gen- 324 0, November, 1953 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS eral chapter. Otherwise, an answer (in part) appearing in the RE-VIEW ~:OR RELIGIOUS, XI (1952), 309-310 in response to a similar question .says: "Usually they [requests" or complaints intended for thegeneral chapter] are given to one of the delegates to'the general chapter who, in turn, at the proper time, turns them in to the special committee appointed for the purpose of screening such requests .and complaints. Those that are considered worthy of the attention of the general chapter are proposed to it in due time during the chapter of affairs. At the end of the. chapter, before a vote to adjourn is taken, .any delegate may ask tha~ a request or complaint which has been turned in but has not been submitted to the general chapter 'should now be read, and the chapter will then vote first on whether the request or complaint is to be considered or not. If"it is "rejected, that is the end of the matter. If the majority is for considering it, it will then be 'considered in the same way as .the other requests or com-plaints which Were already submitted to the general chapter." m34.- ~ One of our novices left religious llfe aboufa year ago because of ill health. Now she has fully recovered and would like ÷o re-enter our com-munity. We know she has ÷o make a new novitiate, but does she have to make a new postulancy? Unless your own constitutions require a new postulancy, the ap-plicant does not have to rbpeat the postulancy. There is no special provision in the°Code of Canon Law for this case, but the conclusion is reached by analogy with two other provisions in the Code. Accgrding to canon 640, § 2, if a religious who after making profession obtained an indult of secularization is readmitted later on to a religious institute by virtue of an apostolic indult, he must make a new novitiate and a new profession, but nothing is said about making a new postulancy also. Hence a new postulancy need not be made in that case. ~ Likewise in an institute which has two canonical classes of mem-bers, if a novice or professed passes from one ciass to the other, a new novitiate must be made, but no new postulancy is required (~ee canon 558). Hence by analogy with the above two provisions of the Code, no new postulancy is required in the case proposed in our question. (See also REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, I [1942], 357.) 325 Book Reviews RELIGIOUS MEN AND WOMEN IN THE CODE. By Joseph Creusen,'S.J. Fifth Engfish edition, revised and edited to conform wi÷h the sixth Frefich edition by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Pp. xlv -f- 322. Bruce Publish° ing Company, Milwaukee, 19S~}. $S.S0. Religious superiors and subjects will welcome this latest edition of Father Creusen's vhluable work. In editing the fifth English edi-tion, Father Ellis has painstakingly made the various changes, addi-tions, and omissions found in the latest French edition. These emen-dations, due partly to a constant effort to keep the work up-to-date with recent pronouncements of the Holy See, serve to enhance the undoubted worth of this book. It should be kept handy alike for r~ference shelf and classroom study of the Church's law for religious. Something about the annual report and the new questionnaires for the quinquennial report is included. Appendix III gives an English translation of the questionnaire for the quinquennial report of dioce-san congregations and societies. As the author remarks in his preface: "We have not deemed it necessary to add a chapter on Secular Insti-tutes, since by no title' are they a form of the religious life nor are their members religious." There is a revised bibliography. A larger type has been used for the table of contents.--F. N. KORTH, S.J. FUNDAMENTAL PSYCHIATRY. By John R. Cavanagh, B.S., M.D., ¯ C.P., K.S.G., end James B. McGoldrlck, S.J., S.T.D., Ph.D. Pp. x Jr- 582. Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, 19S3. $S.50. For fifty years psychiatry has drawn man's psychic portrait across the medical horizgn without a spiritual intellect or will, with-out a spiritual soul. For decades the brilliant analytic theories and therapeutic techniques, often investigated with scientific precision, have been built upon a false psychic substructure of practical mate-rialism and ihstinctive determinism. The emerging portrait tends to be a distorted caricature of human nature and psychic life as a mere mixture of matter and determined instinct. As a net result, psychia-trists are now left without adequate goals in life to point out to their patients. To interpret, to correct, to refashion psychiatry on the same old base has long been unsatisfactory. The present authors challenge the jaded materialistic framework at every turn ,and discard it com'- pletely. They have produced a first-rate psychiatry textbook that 326 BOOK REVIEWS turns a new medical page and builds the young ~cience of psychiatry entirely upon the time-tested framework of traditional scholastic psychology. This book is important for its psychological structure and its emphases. Perhaps more than any other psychiatry book today it emphasizes, with scientific precision, the spiritual intellect, will and soul; volitional freedom at the root of mental disorder; character formation based upon intellectual, and moral habits; and .the need of an adequate philosophy of life for true mental balance taken from both reason and revelation. Pervading the book with regard to etiology is the author's insistence upon the psychogenic or nonmaterial origin of mental disorders caused by a misuse of man's spiritual faculties. The high caliber and clear structure of Fundamental Ps~chiatr~ reminds one of Dr. Strecker's excellen~ book Fundamentals ot: Psgt-chiatr~ l. It has seven major sections, thirty-one chapters critically written and well-documented, sixty-five thorough case histories, and rich bibliographical material. Publishers and authors have designed a clear and highly readable book. It opens with intr6ductory con- ¯ cepts, the extent of mental disorders, and a picture of normal per-sonality. Five major sections treat of etiology, the clinical approach to psychiatry, psychoneuroses, psychoses, and borderlands of psy-chiatry. The conclusion is devoted to psychiatry, philosophy, and religion. The growing importance of psychiatry makes thi~ an important and valuable book for Catholic hospitals, doctors, nurses, and coun-selors, and for those engaged .in educational and sociological 'work involving modern psychiatric pkinciples.--CHARLES NASH, S.J. MOST REVEREND ANTHONY 3. SC~HULER, S.J.,D.D.,FIRST BISHOP OF I:L PASO, AND SOME CIATHOLIC~ ACTIVITIES IN THE DIOC~ESE BETWEEN 1915-1942. By Sls~'er M. Lilliana Owens, S.L., Ph.D. Pp. xxiv -J- 584. Revls÷a Clatolica Press, El Paso, 1953. $3.50. This labor of love but also a heavily documented work intro-duces us into the career of another "first l~ishop" in the United States coming from the Society of Jesus. When the diocese of El Paso was erected in 1915, the second choice for this new See was the pastor of ¯ a church in Denver, Colorado. He had seen the southwest in earlier days and knew something of the complicated and almost insoluble problems that would have to be faced. But obedience imposed the task; with confidence in God's help the new bishop put his shoulder BOOK REVIEWS Review for Reliytotts to the task. For more than a quarter of a century he carried on, then handed over a well-established organization to his successor. Less than two years later death carried his soul before his Maker. The volume is prgfusely illustrated and well printed. Six ap-pendixes add materials to those cited in the course of the narrative. Thirty pages.of bibliography give a riotion of the industry that went into the preparation of this work. There is a carefullY-madE index. In the treatment the author in the main f~llows the topical meth-od, giving for each theme the background and carrying it through the whole period of the episcopate. ]3ecause of this we do not get a very clear picture of the growth of the diocese as a whole. In giving the background more is at times given than is needed for the purpose intended. Fo~ the most part the ]3ishop appears before us, not so much initiating projects of his own, but as discreetly promoting and supporting movements set afoot by others and at times making them his own and thus leading'them to a happy solution. In his administration Bishop Schuler faced unique problems with which he had to deal prudently. Such were the bilingual popula-tion in the diocese, its location in t~ro states, the onrush of exiles due to the persecution in Mexico, the dire poverty of a large portion of the faithful, the shortage of priests and of priestly vocations. Some of these themes are treated with some completeness while others are merely touched upon--the title gives warning that the work. is not meant to be exhaustive.--AUGUSTIN C. WAND, S.J. I WANT TO SEE GOD. A Pra~:fical Synthesis of C:armellfe Splritualify. By P. Marle-Eug~ne, O.C~.D. Translated by Sister M. Verda C~lare, C:.S.C:. Pp. xxli -I- $49. F~des Publishers Association, .C:hicag~ .10, 19S3. $S.7S. This is the first of a two-volume work. The. second is to be en-titled, 1"Am a Daughter of the Church. ¯ Their grew out of a series of .conferences on the Carmelite theory and practice of prayer. St. Teresa of Avila, rather than St. John of the Cross, was chosen as the proxi-mate "guide." Of St. Teresa's writings The lnterior Castle, with its seven "mansioias," was taken as basic and typical and it provides .the plan for this exposition. St. John's doctrine is introduced here and there as a confirmation or completion of St. Teresa's, not as something that. is continuous a'nd unified in itself. Very often fu'r-ther confirmation or illustration is sought from St. Th~r~se of Li-sieux. The work as a whole has five principal parts, three of them being 328 November, 1953 BOOK NOTICES in this volume. The first part is called "Perspectives" and serves as a general introduction. "The First Stages" deals with the matter treated in St. Teresa's first three mansions. Therefore it is ascetical. Next follows "Mystica~ Li~e and Contemplation." In this section-- nearly half of volume .one--there is much that one would hardly ¯ think of in simpl~¢ reading the works of St. Teresa or St. John; for example, ch~apter two on the "The Gifts of the Holy Spirit." The two principal parts reserved for the second volun~e are "To Union of Will" and "Holiness for the Church." On the value of this study as a satisfactory synthesis of Carmelite spiritual teaching we' had better let the Carmelites themselves pro-nounce. Besides it would be premature to judge it before the second and much the more important volume appears. --AUGUSTINE G. ELLARD, S.J. BOOK NOTICES Highly recommended is THE NEW EUCHARIS:FIC LEGISLATION, by John C. Ford, S.J. This book contains the original Latin texts of the Christus Dominus and the Instruction of the Holy Office, an English translation of these texts, a stimulating and enlightening commentary on the documents, and some brief summaries that should be very useful for confessors, religion teachers, catechism teachers, and parish priests. (New York: P. J. Kenedy U Sons, 1953. Pp. vii -t- 130. $1.50.) Little less than fascinatir~g is .the story of Louis Brisson as told by Katherine Burton in So MUCH So SOON. Carthusiafi-minded himself, this man founded schools for boys and clubs for girls, and the Oblate Fathers and Sisters of St. Francis de Sales to conduct them. Of rare scientific genius, he planned his own buildings and invented various things to keep his foundations operating efficiently. With profound trust in Providence, he quietly saw most of his great works swept a

Issue 65.4 of the Review for Religious, 2006. ; Searching Wisdom Apprediating the Word ¯ Living Chastely QUARTERLY 65.4 2006 '~ Review for-ReligiouS-fosters dialogue with God, dialogue with ourselves, and dialogue with one ~ ¯ ~another, about the holiness we try to live according . _ tO charisms of Catholic religious life. As~Pope Paul vlsaid~ our way of being church is today the way of dialogue. Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published quarterly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393 Telephone: 314-633-4610 ¯ Fax: 314-633-4611 E-Maih review@slu.edu ° Web site: www.reviewforreligious.org Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, MO 63108-3393 Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP ¯ Pontifical College Josephinum 7625 North High Street ¯ Columbus, Ohio 43235 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©2006 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission tnust bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribution, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. eview for religious Editor Associate Editor Canonical Counsel Scripture Scope Editorial Staff VVebmaster Advisory Board David L. Fleming SJ Philip C. Fischer sJ Elizabeth McDonough OP Eugene Hensell OSB Mary Ann Foppe Tracy Gramm Judy Sharp Claire Boehmer ASC Stephen Erspamer OSB Kathleen Hughes RSCJ Louis and Angela Menard Bishop Terry Steib SVO Miriam D. Ukeritis CSJ QUARTERLY 65.4 2006 contents prisms 342 searching wisdom On Leaving Office Gracefully Kathleen Hughes RSCJ suggests a three-stage process that any leadership team might use or adapt in order to consider their years of service and come to closure on a privileged and grace-filled time in their lives. 354 Ripeness Is Everything: Wise Discipleship Thomas G. Casey SJ reflects on the importance of imitating Jesus by cultivating intelligence and nourishing wisdom, and suggests ways to go about it. Personal/Group Reflection Questions 365 appreciating the word ~ Andrew Ryder SCJ underlines the valuable Vatican II gift of the lectionary--the three-year cycle of Sunday readings, the two-year cycle of daily readings from the epistles and the Old Testament, and the one-year cycle of daily gospels--and its place in the tradition going back to Old Testament times. Review for Religious 375 Coda to the Creed: An Appreciation Brendan Kneale FSC reflects on the final four doctrines of the Apostles' Creed, developing the consolations that they entail for our deepest human concerns. Prayer Suggestion 382 God's Invitation Armand Nigro SJ has us listen to God's invitation to prayer. 384 living chastely Sexuality and Celibate Chasti.ty: Friends Not Foes Sefin D. Sammon FMS reviews the growth process in our understanding and appreciation of our sexuality and our celibate chastity in their mutual aim at union with God and others. Reflection and Discussion Questions 399 "Bride of Christ": Timely Sign in Signless Times? Annette M. Pelletier II-hVl examines how the signs, symbols, texts, and gestures in the "Rite of Religious Profession for Women" illuminates what it means to be a "bride of Christ." 414 "I Will Espouse You": The Religious Profession Ring Hildegard Magdalen Pleva OSSR explains the origin, history, and meaning of the,religious profession ring. departments 423 Scripture Scope: Reading the Gospel of Luke 427 Canonical Counsel: The Q.O.T. Principle 433 Book Reviews 445 2006 Indexes 339 prisms 340 Time is always with us. Sometimes we seem to have too much time, and we say that "it drags." Probably, more often, we claim that we have too little time, and we appear to be rushing around, just a little bit late for our next appointment. Although we don't ordinarily give much thought to it, there is another major difference about time. Some would see it as cyclic--what we allude to when we use the aphorism "What goes around comes around." Others would understand time as linear, like the flow of a river in whose same waters we can never step twice. Our Jewish-Catholic tradition has placed us peo-ple of faith solidly within the linear notion of time. We have but one life to live, all of its rela-tionships and its growth and its diminishment viewed within the prism of our own developing relationship with God. At first, it may appear that the church litur-gical year has opted for the cyclic model of time. With the celebration of the feast of Christ the King, we bring Ordinary Time to an end, and we begin again another liturgical year with the season of Advent, followed by Christmas, and eventually again the Lenten season, and so on. But as a time for personal growth, each season of the church year issues the call and challenge for us, not to repeat practices in a stimulus-response Review ~br Religion, s . sort of way, but to enter more responsibly and full-heart-edly into the daily mystery of a life with God. Just as we do not want to celebrate this Christmas with the exact same interior response that we had last Christmas, so, too, we do not want vow renewals, whether of marriage anniversaries or religious profession anniversaries, to be merely a repeat of where we were at that moment of the original ceremony. We have moved on, hopefully in the depth of our love and commitment. Only one thing is certain: we cannot remain exactly the same, since, in time, we are either moving forward--growing--or fall-ing back--diminishing or becoming less. Our use of time, then, needs to be regularly evalu-ated. At certain points within our daily lived experience, like the end of a project, the completion of a group activ-ity, a working together at an assigned task, we need to make an assessment. Every assessment follows basically the questions within the Ignatian daily examen. How has God been present to us within this time? How have we ignored or kept God from our ken? Have we grown in our relationship with God and with others through this time period? These questions are foundational as to our measurement of success or failure, how we have used our time, a precious gift of God to us. In the November time we remember the dead, those who have gone on before us. So, as we begin the new Advent and Christmas seasons, let us more eagerly look forward to meeting "in good time" our God of eternity. Time is God's gift of transport ever carrying us more quickly to our life with God forever--time without end. Our time now always needs its moments of celebration. Through the church year and through our workaday events, we take time to celebrate God's gifting. 341 David L. Fleming sJ 65.4 2006 KATHLEEN HUGHES searching wisdom On Leaving Office Gracefully Several weeks after five of us assumed positions of leadership in the United States Province of the Religious of the Sacred Heart, we each received a brochure for a workshop on "Transitioning Out of Leadership." We laughed a bit nervously, wondering how we got on that mailing list and who might be trying to tell us something! Six years later, however, we were ready for a pro-cess which would help us to leave office grace-fully, but soon we discovered that very little was available.~ While leadership transition has often been the subject of articles and workshops, gen-erally the focus is on identifying and equipping new leaders for the ministry which they have or will soon assume. The Leadership Conference of Women Religious of the United States, for example, annually offers an excellent seminar for new leaders whose goal is competence and skills in spiritual leadership, finance, canon and civil law, human development, and communica- Kathleen Hughes RSCJ was provincial of the Society of the Sacred Heart 1999-2005. Her address is Institute for Ecumenical and Cultural Research; P.O. Box 2000; Collegeville, Minnesota 56321. E-maih khughes@rscj.org Review for Religious tions. Team building is considered. Conflict resolution is explored. There is no shortage of articles, talks, seminars, and itinerant consultants, all of them promoting effective, even prophetic leadership within religious communities. One day, though, all that knowledge, all those skills, all the relationships which have developed, all the dis-cernment and decision~making and menial tasks that keep the machine well oiled stop abruptly. One day a ministry which has been all-consuming ends so suddenly that it could be likened to a trap door opening up and swallow-ing those above it. The former leaders get on planes or at least move across town, and the new leadership team move into their offices, probably freshly painted, with flowers on the desk. At the end of a leadership mandate there is both pres-sure and pride in leaving things in good order. Cleaning, sorting, and purging files takes time and the sound of shredding can be heard outside every office. The more important narrative and historic records are classified, labeled, and sent to the archives. Extraneous materials are eliminated from computers, especially all those e-mails that it once seemed so urgent to save. Leadership teams old and new meet together to discuss imminent concerns, financial realities, and personnel matters. Long-range planning, anniversaries pending, and events already on the calendar are noted. Members who are in transition in ministry, community, or for personal reasons are given special consideration. A final annual report is prepared, printed, and mailed. There is also the packing up and moving of each one's goods and paraphernalia, all the while wondering how so much accumulated. There is the physical move to a new community, quite possibly in a new city, the planning of a vacation or sabbatical, the reflection about a next min-istry, and the timing of it all. Finally there are the good- 6~.4 2006 Hughes ¯ On Leaving Office Gracefully byes with their attendant lunches and dinners and the rituals of thanks which are particular to each leadership team. There is a lot to attend to in the final days. And because there is so much pressure at the end of a term to "leave the place in good shape," it is possible that the persons involved may not be in good shape at all or may walk away from office without ever actually leaving it. How do we prepare our own hearts for the handing over? Well before our term was up, we anticipated the need for a good process which would help us reflect on our years of service, imagine the future, and care for one another through the transition. This article will explore the three-stage process which we developed, a series of day-long conversations, spaced over many months, which helped us to hand over our work and come to closure on an important and grace-filled time in our lives. The first two "conversations" happened in the months before we left office; the final "conversation" happened six months later. 3441 Looking Back: Blessings and Bruises Much happens in the life of a community over a term or two in office. Sometimes experiences, events, and encounters are a source of great joy; at other times moments have been hurtful to those involved, however unintentional the pain. When leaving office it is impor-tant to look back at the blessings and the bruises in order to celebrate, to grieve, to repent, to forgive, and to give thanks--in about equal measure. It is often said that administrators spend ninety-five percent of their time on five percent of the people. Perhaps in religious life the percentages are a bit dif-ferent, but there is no doubt that much time and atten-tion are given over to people or situations of crisis. In the press of work in the day-to-day, it is possible to lose sight of the larger picture, the courageous growth, the Reviev~ for Religious fidelity to prayer, the simple generosity, the willingness to stay in dialogue during times of conflict, the healing that happens, the beauty and depth which conversations reveal, the opportunities to inspire and bless, the witness of long and faithful lives spent in service, the moments of insight, the risks taken and welcomed, all the tiny acts of kindness--all the blessings great and small that those in leadership experience happening in the membership and in themselves. The opportunity to serve in leadership is itself a great privilege and a blessing. The openness of the membership in speaking of their inner journey, their joys and their struggles, is deeply edifying. The amazing zeal for minis-try and witness for justice of some, the courageous battle with substance abuse of oth-ers, the struggle to under-stand what faith-filled living means in the midst of cul-tural and religious upheaval, the suffering borne with sweetness and peace, the courage in the midst of great personal darkness--each member, each story, each grace witnessed by those in leadership has been a blessing which changes them forever. In gathering the blessings of their years of leadership, the team rightly delight in their own a~complishments too: prayer fostered and deepened, initiatives begun, participation encouraged, staff strengthened, systems put in place, strides taken to assure financial solvency, and, above all, mission clarified, supported, and sustained. In addition, the unique contribution of each one on the leadership team to the work of the whole must be cel-ebrated. Members of a team are blessings to each other, especially in the darker times. Much happens in the life of a community over a term or two in office. 65.4 2006 Hughes ¯ On Leaving Office Gracefully In looking back, there is also much to repent and to grieve about. Misunderstandings happen. We hurt each other by too hasty responses, by clumsy decisions unsea-soned by experience, by expectations which are too great or too small, by seeming indifference to suffering. We hurt each other by passing over gifts, by the triangula-tion of third-party conversations, by wielding authority in a sometimes autocratic manner. We hurt each other often more because of ignorance or lack of competence than negligence or malice--which does not make the pain any less. There is much to grieve about and to regret as lead-ers leave office, and much to learn in the letting go. A leadership team can help each other not to exaggerate bruises, to remind someone who feels deep regret that she did her best with the knowledge she had and, besides, that she can tease out of the situation some wisdom to use in the future. The team can remind one another that forgiveness and reconciliation do not happen because we will them but because time and grace make them pos-sible, perhaps long after the arbitrary date for a change of administration. Lines from Psalm 103 perfecdy capture the deepest real-ity: that the ministry of leadership is ultimately God's work. It is God who has blessed us and our community in so many ways; it is God who forgives and heals and makes whole when we have failed to be blessings for one another. My soul, bless the Lord, bless God's holy name! My soul, bless the Lord, hold dear all God's gifts! Bless God who forgives your sin and heals every illness, who snatches you from death and enfolds you with tender care, Review for Religqous who fills your life with richness and gives you an eagle's strength. Bless the Lord, ~ny soul.2 Looking Forward: Living Deliberately A second day-long conversation addresses the future with this question: How will I live my life differently because of these years of service? Leadership experi-ence cannot help but change those who serve. They have attended the school of life and love. They have been exposed to the best and the worst in human nature. In the process, convictions are formed about what constitutes holy healthy living. Before taking leave of service and of one's compan- - -- ions in leadership, talking together about newly formed convictions commits the speakers to embracing them as a way of life upon rejoining the general membership. Here are a few examples. Leaders may have developed a pattern of consistent common prayer which has sup-ported and sustained the team, built trust among them, helped them know and love each other in deep relation-ships, and, above all, convinced them that God is cen-tral to everything they do and every decision they take. Regular common prayer, in a word, has supported and sustained them in ministry. They know it is possible; they know it is necessary; they intend, in the communities they join, to negotiate ways of praying together in some con-sistent pattern. Leaders have had the privilege of seeing growth among the members. They have witnessed genuine con-version and new life, even among those who seemed to Leadership experience ;Cannot help but change those, who serve. 65.4 2006 Hughes ¯ On Leaving Office Gracefully be mired in long-established patterns which had made many people give up on them. From the perspective of leadership, it is clear that "with God all things are pos-sible," and perhaps also with the love of others who bring people to new life. Giving people a chance to change and the space to let it happen in God's time becomes, then, a deliberate choice for the future. Another area of resolution may be in the way one decides, or not, to continue to take risks. Assuming lead-ership itself is a huge risk. Leadership candidates prob-ably asked themselves many questions before taking the leap of faith to congregational service: Do I have the gifts, the vision, the stamina, the public presence, even a thick enough skin? And what an amazing hundredfold is the return to those who accept service. Leaders may then decide to choose risk as a way of life, not settling down, not avoiding a new ministry or a move because it is too scary, not getting into set patterns which make them "stuck" where they are and less open to new possibili-ties, not anxiously calculating the competencies or energy needed for a new venture. "Risk as a way of life" implies that those who have completed leadership became secure in the "grace of office," that is, the promise of God's presence always, no matter the risk. No exceptions. Living deliberately in light of one's service may also include a commitment to participate actively in the life of the membership, responding to the initiatives of the new team, serving on committees and task forces, tuning in to teleconferences, sending a word of gratitude for work well done or a question or comment when solicited. A conversation about deliberate choices for the future is a way to capture the best insights of each team mem-ber after some years of sorting the wheat and the chaff of religious life. Here is a typical spill of intentions from such a conversation: Review for Religious. I will be grateful that others are willing to serve; I will try to participate attentively; I will be aware that there is always more to the story and at least as many sides as people involved; I will try to be simple and pare down; I will do my best, wherever I am, to make community happen; I will cherish relationships; I will remember that people appre-ciate a personal note of gratitude, congratulations, or condolence; I will try to be a healer; I may be "sadder and wiser," but I will draw on that wis-dom; I will be thoughtful and generous in using money; I will use my newly honed gifts and skills well; I will care for my health more intentionally; I will try to respect and validate the experience and insights of each one; I will be more attentive to the international dimension of the community; I will savor and delight in doing one thing at a time; I will do one "lovely thing" each day just for fun; I will wake up every day feeling responsible for a much smaller universe--my own! Such a conversation is wide and deep, and humorous too, and it moves the transition to a new phase. While a "bless-ings and bruises" conversation is a way of looking back and letting go, this second conversation about "living deliber-ately" moves a group beyond the mandate of leadership to imagining reintegration among the membership. Looking Within: Reflecting on the Present After a period of time out of office, a third conversa-tion makes the transition complete. On leaving community service the members of the leadership team choose their own ways of resting, recuperating~ and reorienting them-selves to "ordinary time." Even those individuals who con-tinue in leadership positions have a major transition and a lot of challenges, for a new configuration of members on i349 65.4 2006 Hughes ¯ On Leaving Office Gracefully the leadership team supposes very different personalities, ways of making decisions, and styles of collaboration. Weeks immediately after passing leadership on can be vulnerable times. There may be a sense of loss at many different levels--relationships, security, even status. There may be endless time on Weeks immediately after passing leadership on, can be vulnerable times; one's hands and an inability to stop the engines which have been in overdrive for so long. There may be a loss of nerve, a questioning of one's gifts and compe-tencies and whether there is a ministry and/or a community where there is a fit. There may be relationships which need to be adjusted for greater mutuality. There are decisions about whether and how much to participate in the life of the community, particularly in order to give new leaders the freedom to blaze their own trail. On the other hand, one may feel passed over when not asked for a piece of wisdom that experience presumably taught. There may be the temptation to make comparisons, to judge new initiatives in the community before they have a chance to flourish, to think but never say aloud "That won't work. We tried that!" There may be the awkwardness of knowing too much along with a need to mourn no longer being part of the easy rapport of a team bound to confidentiality. Team members who have worked closely and intensely for a long time may delight in and greatly profit from an opportunity, perhaps six months after leaving office, to reunite for a day or a weekend. Each one, in turn, can reflect about the experience of the last few months and the challenges of transition, some of which only other for-mer team members can appreciate. Questions such as the l~eview for Religious following can prompt reflections which will be personal for each one and yet have some common elements: What has this transition been like? What has been the best part of moving out of leader-ship or, in the case of those who have continued to serve, what has been the best part of working with a brand new team? What has been challenging, for example, in ministry, community, prayer, recalibrating relationships, a different pace, not traveling, not knowing what is going on or, for someone who has joined the new team, knowing more than the rest of the team? What do I anticipate in the months ahead that may be important to name? Is there wisdom to share or to seek from the group? Where is God in all of this? Who is God in all of this? As each one speaks, others respond, question, affirm, and challenge, but mostly they listen with the ears of the heart and with the empathy borne of the deep bonds which close collaboration has forged. In the course of this conversation, the team is transformed into a group of friends whose support and affection will remain strong despite time and distance. The Importance of Ritual. There is a wonderful piece of wisdom in Herb Gardner's play A Thousand Clowns. One of the characters, Murray, says "You've got to know what day it is. You've got to own your days and name them, or else the years go right by, and none of them belongs to you.-3 Good ritual is what helps us "own our days and name them." Well-planned ritual brings to public expression the experience of the community and its members. All of the day-long conversations described above, for example, were framed 65.4 2006 Hughes * On Leaving Office Gracefully by ritual prayer, music, silence, breaking of bread, and blessing. How much more important it is to mark the transi-tion of leadership in the life of the whole community by a ritual adequate to the weight of the moment. Good preaching explores the Scriptures which have been cho-sen to illuminate the experience and the hopes of those gathered. The service of the outgoing leadership team is acknowledged with gratitude, and the future of each member is entrusted to God in prayer. The incoming leaders are blessed and publicly given the authority under the constitutions of the order for the exercise of their ministry. And the whole assembly commits itself to active participation in the governance of the community by say-ing its "Amen." Through strong ritual the leadership transition is accomplished. Transition is not just a private moment for the two teams involved, but an opportunity for all to deepen the bonds of their membership, to recom-mit themselves to their deepest call: The word "Amen" makes demands. When we express it at a time of leader-ship transition, we are making a series of promises: "Yes," we say, "so be it." "Yes, with God's help I will support and sustain this new leadership team with love and prayer." "And, yes, I accept my own responsibility, which I can-not surrender to others and which no one can take from me, of living the charism and mission of this community fully and actively." Thus is the community itself renewed in a grace-full transition. Notes ~ Two notable exceptions in the United States are "Transitioning from Leadership," a program offered by Lynn M. Levo CSJ through the Saint Luke Institute, Silver Spring, Maryland, and "Life after Elected Leadership: The Journey Continues," a workshop facilitated by Review for Religious Bette Moslander CSJ and Marcia Allen CSJ at Manna House of Prayer, Concordia, Kansas. 2 Psalm 103:1-5. The English translation is from the Liturgical Psalter; ©1994, International Commission on English in the Liturgy (Chicago: Liturgy Training Publications, 1995). 3 Herb Gardner, "A Thousand Clowns," in The Collected Plays (New York: Applause, 2000). 4 Geographical distance need not be an obstacle. It is possible to have a teleconference on the day of the ceremony, uniting the "Amen" of far-flung members to the prayer of those physically present. Autumn Poppies Brilliant Resilient At end of summer California poppies On spindly stems Shine from shelter Of overhanging rock. Each morning they unfold. What ore produced such gold? Ore from the distant sun? Did that more distant One - The ever-near, Forge it here In the heart of the planet? Through the earth's opaqueness Malting Beauty visible Poppies like bright eyes Give us sight For the Invisible Mary Alban Bouchard CSJ 6~.4 2006 THOMAS G. CASEY Ripeness Is Everything: Wise Discipleship Tis is not an era for dumb disciples or witless .1. Christians. Hmnan beings are crying out for intel-ligence and wisdom. Certainly our world needs Christians who reach out in love to the poor, sharing material pos-sessions in lives of love. But it also needs Christians who lovingly share their intellectual gifts, their treasures of wisdom. Western culture suffers intellectual malnu-trition. It needs to supplement its diet with intelligent Christianity. With our intelligence we seek to know the truth about things. Wisdom takes intelligence a step further, for wis-dom is not book knowledge, but practical knowledge. Wisdom integrates knowledge into decision making and behavior. In order to attain wisdom, our lives need to focus on the good. Intelligence and Wisdom, Readiness and Ripeness In Hamlet and King Lear, William Shakespeare puts the words "readiness" and "ripeness" into the mouths of Thomas G. Casey SJ, from Ireland, is professor of philosophy at the Pontifical Gregorian University; Piazza della Pilotta, 4; 00187 Roma, Italy. Revie~ for Religious characters faced with death. Hamlet says "The readiness is all" (Act V, Sc. II). In Lea,; Edgar says, "Ripeness is all" (Act V, Sc. II). Readiness tends to be something active, something we produce through our own efforts. Ripeness is something organic, something that occurs according to its own rhythm, independently of our efforts. Unlike Shakespeare, I prefer to apply these phrases to life rather than death. I see readiness as our contribution to dis-cipleship through our intellects. Ripeness (maturation) is that wonderful moment when the fruit (peach or plum) is at its best, giving what it has received, even at the risk of falling. In the First Letter of Peter, a couple of verses deal explicitly with the spiritual ripeness and intellectual readiness of disciples. These verses are addressed to all Christians, including those facing opposition and ridicule. Peter warns that persecution is a real possibility: "Do not fear their intimidation, and do not be troubled, but sane-tify Christ as Lord in your hearts, always ready to give an answer to anyone who asks you the reason or your hope, yet with gentleness and reverence" (1 P 3:14-15). I see ripeness as related to spirituality and readiness as related to study. In order not to be intimidated by any sort of persecution, we need to "sanctify Christ," rever-ing him and acknowledging him as Lord of our lives. The spiritual is not simply first chronologically, but also first in importance. We must give God priority in our hearts. First comes communion with God and then communication with others. Indeed if we put God first, our lives will inevitably provoke questions from others. They will notice something different about us, and they will inquire about it. Peter seems to imply study. He says we must be ready to give an answer: In order to give an answer, we need to know the answer first. There is no way around the hard work of wrestling with texts and grappling with ideas. It is an answer about the hope in 65.4 2006 Casey ¯ Ripeness Is Everything: Wise Discipleship our hearts, our trust that things will work out despite the difficulties, our conviction that there is more to life than our limited temporal existence--although we do not yet see what we hope for, we know it is possible and attain-able. The source of Christian hope is the goodness and love of God, Because Of God's faithful love, we know that the future is full of promise. Peter says we need to explain our faith "to anyone who asks." Different kinds of people will have different kinds of questions. Obviously those who are sympathetic to the hope in our hearts will be easier to answer. But it takes much more careful preparation to know what to say to skeptics and those downright hostile to our worldview. Peter does tell us how to answer: with gentleness and rever-ence. We are to present the truth in love. We do this, not to win arguments, but to win people. The strength of our convictions is to be communicated with tact and respect. Readiness and ripeness are vital, but ripeness has priority. Ripeness refers to who we are, to the gift of God that comes through communion with him, to grace. Communion with God gives unity to our intellectual powers. It is not the strength of our arguments that will win people over, but the quality of our lives, of our rela-tionship with Jesus. We need exemplars. We all benefit from the exam-ple of individuals who put their intelligence at the ser-vice of humanity, whose actions and deeds match their intellectual ideals, who sacrifice themselves for the ideas that claim their allegiance. Of course, we cannot all be geniuses. It is, however, usually not desirable to imitate a person of genius either. Without a spirituality, genius easily loses its way. Readiness without ripeness is not enough. Even a genius of goodwill faces particular challenges and hurdles. Persons of extraordinary intelligence are so Review for Religious used to excelling without effort that they easily forget that this does not apply in daily life. Despite outstand-ing grades they may fail in the task of living. Another problem that can plague persons of extraordinary intel-ligence is their very versatility. They may end up dissipat-ing their energies through taking on too many projects. They do not become outstanding intellectuals simply by having a huge number of ideas. They need to direct the energy of their lives. A hyperdeveloped mind allied to an underdeveloped spirit and heart leads to disequilibrium and worse. The greatest exemplar of a sterling mind integrated in a fully human life of spiritual depth is none other than Jesus. Christians associate Jesus with perfect holi-ness. Many regard him as the paragon of wisdom, but few automatically associ-ate him with intellec-tual brilliance. This failure to see Jesus as a genius is under-standable inasmuch as he did not become a world-renowned academic or found a university or write a seminal book. He apparently never committed his thoughts to paper, and on the only known occasion he did write (Jn 8:6), it was in sand. The best way to dispel any doubts about Jesus' extraor-dinary mind is to read the Gospels attentively. The proof of Jesus' intelligence is especially to be found in his capac-ity to offer humanity something of universal value and his ability to resolve the fundamental problems of human existence.~ But it is also manifest in many other ways. °.~t is not the strength of our arguments that will win people over, but the quality of our lives, of our relationship with Jesus. 65.4 2006 Casey * Ripeness Is Everything: Wise Discipleship Jesus did not !et his exceptional intellectual gifts lie idle, The Greatest Exemplar Since he Was not only fully human but also fully divine, Jesus had an amazing intellect to start with. Second, what-ever form his education took it enhanced his intellectual giftedness and impressed his contemporaries. Luke's brief words about the twelve-,,ear-old Jesus in the temple at Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-50) show him listening to the doctors and questioning them. The child intrigues and fascinates these learned men. In fact, he surpasses them. And it is not simply his intellect, formidable though it is, that holds them in thrall. It is the paradox of such prophetic wisdom on the lips of a mere child. Undoubtedly Jesus' mind found nourishment in his communion with the Father. Perhaps Mary spoke to the child Jesus of her own faith and recited Scripture to him. In other words, he may have hid a human teacher as well as a divine teacher. Jesus did not let his exceptional intellectual gifts lie idle. He cultivated them. According to Luke, he con-tinued to grow in wisdom (Lk 2:52). In other words, he grew in his ability to judge things rightly and to react appropriately. Thus he did not use his intellectual powers to accumulate useless facts or trivia. He saw the world truthfully and acted in accord with what he saw. Jesus' intensive prayer and fasting in the desert and the energy and zeal of his public ministry showed that his intellect was at the service of a noble cause. In order for genius to be productive, it must be impelled forward by guiding passion, by a strong motivating force, by the transfor-mative power of desire. Jesus was pressed forward by a consuming love. It was the drive to announce the Good Review for Religious News, to preach the reign of God, to free people from the slavery of sin. We think with our whole being and not just with our intellects. Without physical health and a reasonable level of emotional and moral equanimity, our ability to con-centrate properly, understand fully, and judge rightly is impeded. Since Jesus was without sin, his mind did not lose serenity. He never did wrong and never gave way to destructive emotional behavior. Thus his whole being supported the vision of his intellect. Jesus' way of thinking, as illustrated in the Gospels, displays a brilliant mind at work. Aristotle asserts in his Poetics and even more forcefully in his Rhetoric that the use of metaphors is a mark of great intelligence, some-thing that cannot be taught: "The most important thing is to be good at metaphor. This is the one thing that can-not be learned from someone else, and is a sign of natural talent; for the successful use of metaphors is a matter of perceiving similarities.''2 There is a tendency to think of metaphors as some-thing purely linguistic--a verbal ornamentation that is pretty, but apart from that, pretty ineffective. But a met-aphor such as "You are the salt of the earth" (Mr 5:13) is much more than a figure of speech. It challenges our taken-for-granted relationship with things, it uproots and dislocates us from our customary, understanding of ourselves. More than that, a metaphor enlarges and deepens our knowledge. We understand ourselves and our relatedness in a new way: "I am the vine and you are the branches" (Jn 15:5). Jesus' metaphors--salt, light, bread, sheep, and so on--take us beyond ourselves, toward transcendence. Even though they are made of sensible and tangible realities, they simultaneously lift us up into the realm of the spirit: "I am the bread of life" (In 6:35). Making connections .among disparate 65.4 2006 Casey ¯ Ripeness Is Everything: Wise Discipleship 360[ realities, Jesus' metaphors put a fragmented world back together. In John's chapter 15, Jesus speaks of his Father's "house" and of its "many rooms." With the familiarity of these words, Jesus lifts the veil on the afterlife, bring-ing domesticity into the unlimited horizons of the infi-nite. While not denying the difference between earthly life and paradise, Jesus shows that there must be echoes and resemblances. Metaphors galvanize the imagination, inviting us to think differently, and even to act in ways that once seemed impossible. They are the best way, and possibly the sole way, of talking about what is new. They give the imagination liberating and productive space. But even when he is not using metaphors, Jesus helps people in their thinking and action. In the Beatitudes, Jesus proclaims unexpected joys, the kind to be found in the simplicity, tears, gentleness, mercy, purity, peace, and suffering of saints. He helps his hearers think deep thoughts by starting from what they know, from what is familiar to them. In Matthew's chapter 7 he talks of how earthly fathers would not dream of giving a stone to their sons asking for bread, or offering a snake when they ask for fish. After emphasizing this point, Jesus points out that God, being perfect, will be infinitely more likely to answer our requests than human fathers are. A wise person knows how and when to pose ques-tions. Jesus' questions often invite his hearers to recog-nize and follow desires they may not have realized they had. The first question Jesus asks in the Gospel of John is: "What do you desire?" (Jn 1:38). And a related ques-tion appears four Limes in the synoptic Gospels: "What do you want me to do for you?" (Mt 20:32, Mk 10:36 and 10:51, Lk 18:41). Jesus also has a strong logical mind. In Luke 13:10- 16, a synagogue ruler becomes indignant when Jesus heals Review for Religious a woman on the Sabbath. Although she has been crippled by a spirit for eighteen years, the synagogue leader is adamant that this healing should have been done on a working day. Jesus counters by pointing out that nobody has any scruples about untying their ox or donkey on the Sabbath and bringing it out to give it water. The beast has not been thirsty for eighteen years, and the woman, "a daughter of Abraham," has felt a greater thirst over the course of many Sabbaths. Jesus sees even a bigger picture than this. The central theme of Jesus' preaching, the kingdom of God (today one could perhaps say "the dream of God"), is already mysteri-ously present in all the small-scale events and happenings of our daily lives. Jesus intuitively grasps a grand meaning in the tiny mustard seed becoming a large shrub. The goal of human intelligence is to know the real, and to know God, the supreme truth. Intelligence tends toward the truth. The intelligence of Jesus is perfectly pitched to this goal, for he constantly proclaims the kingdom of God. His mind is con-stantly directed toward the revelation or manifes-tation of God. Although God's kingdom is already ~ breaking into the present,Jesus sees that its full realiza-tion is in the future. When the seventy disciples return from preaching, intoxicated with the success of their ven-ture, Jesus says that what should really give them cause to rejoice is the reality that their names are written in heaven (Lk 10:20). Jesus adapts his words to the various people he is dealing with. It is not that he changes the content of his The goal of human intelligence is to know the real, and to know God, ;the supreme truth. 3,61 65.4 2006 Casey ¯ Ripeness Is Everything: Wise Discipleship 362' message, but that he pays attention to his interlocutors, and seeks to speak in a way that makes sense to them. He uses many agrarian images and metaphors because he spends so much time talking to people who live and work on the land. But when he is questioned by the Roman procurator Pilate before his crucifixion, Jesus speaks of authority and truth, issues that concern Pilate. Jesus is wise enough to know the limits of intelli-gence. When confronted by the powerful but demonic intelligence of Satan toward the end of his forty-day fast in the desert, Jesus knows that only God's word is strong enough to defeat the Adversary's clever arguments. And so the Word of God quotes from God's word, the Holy Scriptures, and defeats Satan. Ripening To become wise and intelligent disciples, we need to imitate Jesus--not external imitation, but conforming our minds and hearts to Jesus. From this interior mirroring, our external words and deeds will naturally reflect Jesus. A few years ago, the WWJD bracelet--"What would Jesus do?"--became a fad. Such a bracelet certainly points people in a helpful direction. But of ourselves we are not always capable of knowing what Jesus would do. The responses are not written on our wrists. The answers are to be found by meditating and pondering on what Jesus did in fact do. We have looked at some examples of his wisdom and intelligence in action. We need to meditate on such examples, pray over them. The full ripeness of Jesus' wisdom needs to be tasted and appreciated with our spiritual senses. There is a clue to how to do this in the Greek verb menein, frequent in John's Gospel and having a range of meanings: to stay, remain, dwell, abide, last, endure, live. This word applies in a special way to John, because Review for Religious John has great staying power: he stays by Jesus' side, the only one of the twelve present at the cross. It is no acci-dent that John is right next to Jesus at the Last Supper, because John is humanly and spiritually especially close to Jesus. John remains, John abides. To understand this word "remain" better, it helps to turn to the first chapter of John's Gospel. When Andrew and an unnamed disciple start to follow Jesus, he turns and asks them, "What do you want?" These are the first recorded words of Jesus in John's Gospel, in the form of a question, a question that is interested and inviting, pro-found and personal. The two disciples answer Jesus with another question. They ask, "Where do you dwell?" This is not just a geographical question but a deeper, more spiritual one. The disciples have just left John the Baptist. They want something lasting, something that endures, a center that can hold. Different forms of the verb menein appear in chapter 15 of John. Jesus is unraveling implications of the vine and the branches. Jesus points out that trying to improve ourselves and be morally perfect is not what is essential. What is essential is to be in a living relationship with God, to dwell with him, to stay with him, to love him. We do not need to worry about bearing fruit: he will take care of our fruitfulness. We surrender ourselves to him as Lord of our lives, and we stay with him in community with others. We move beyond intelligence to wisdom, beyond rules to love. Communion with Jesus adds ripeness to our readiness and gives our lives unsuspected fruit. Notes ~ This view of intelligence is broadly in line with the stance of the distinguished educational thinker Howard Gardner, well known for his theory of multiple intelligences. According to Gardner, intelligence has to involve some form of productivity, and thus high IQ is itself not suf-ficient. Gardner defines intelligence thus: "Intelligence is a biopsycho- 363 6~.4 2006 Casey ¯ Ripeness Is Everything: Wise Discipleship logical potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture." Howard Gardner, Intelligence Refrained: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century (New York: Basic Books, 1999), p. 34. 2 Aristotle, Poetics, translated with an introduction and notes by Malcolm Heath (London: Penguin Books, 1996), p. 37. Personal/Group Reflection Questions 1. "We think with our whole being and not just with our intellects." (p. 359) From my experience, can I give some examples of this kind of thinking? 2. a) What is the evidence I seek when I describe a person as wise? b) If I were to describe Jesus as a wise person, what examples of his wisdom would I cite from the Gospels? 364 Review for Religious ANDREW RYDER The Bible and the Lectionary During my time as a parish priest in Scotland, I became friendly with the local Protestant min-ister. Our two churches were built opposite each other. One day I showed him the Catholic lec-tionary we used at Mass. He was most impressed, and even thought of using it himself. Instead of going for six months giving his congrega-tion a weekly commentary on the Letter to the Romans, he could use the Catholic lectionary's systematic arrangement of short texts from both the Old and New Testaments, which he consid-ered well tailored to the needs and aptitude of Christians today. My colleague's reaction to our lectionary brought home to me yet again that it is one of the most valuable and enduring liturgical changes introduced by the Second Vatican Council. The Sunday and weekday readings from the lection- Andrew Ryder scJ recently wrote on the Holy Spirit's leading in four holy lives. His address remains St Joseph's Centre; Tilston Road, Malpas; Cheshire SY14 7DD; England. appreciating the word 65°4 2006 Ryder ¯ The Bible and the Lectionary 366 ary have put the word of God within the earshot of many Catholics who might never open a Bible, let alone buy one. The three-year cycle of Sunday readings, the two-year cycle of daily readings from the epistles and Old Testament, and the one-year cycle of daily gospels provide a simple and comprehensive introduction to the Scriptures. The Vatican Council did not, of course, invent the lectionary. That misconception could prevent us from seeing the full significance of the lectionary in the life of the parish. The lectionary is not a latter-day insertion of certain biblical texts into our sacramental celebrations. Long before there was any Bible in the modern sense of the word, the lectionary was the ordinary means by which the faithful came in contact with God's word. The early Christians did not have Bibles. Their knowledge came from hearing the sacred text read out during their community gatherings. By such listening, the first gen-erations of the church were being faithful to their Jewish roots. Regular proclamation of the Scriptures had begun long before the Christian era. The origin of our present lectionary goes back to Old Testament times. The Synagogue Liturgy Old Testament books attributed to authors such as Moses (the first five books of the Bible--the Pentateuch), Amos, and Isaiah were, in fact, produced posthumously and often at a much later date. After a number of revi-sions, the final text was put together by editors (also called redactors), who were not producing books for dis-tribution among the people but were preparing material for community use.* While many of the individual books have a much older origin, the present canonical form of the Old Testament was the result of editing that lasted from the fifth to the second century B.C. The material as a whole Review for Religious was "the product of a temple-based community living in and around Jerusalem.''2 The definitive written form comprised of legal material (the Torah), the works of the prophets (including the books of Joshua and Samuel), and the "writings" (Psalms and the wisdom literature).3 The three groups of - books make up the Holy Scriptures of the Hebrew Bible. These Biblia (books) were revered as the word of God and were studied and read aloud in wor-ship. Independently .i of the temple, wor-ship through the word gradually took pride of place in the - ~ synagogue. Here people met on certain days for public services, without having a sacrificial liturgy.4 The precise origin of the synagogues is not clear. The general theory is that such meeting places came into being during the Babylonian Exile, as a substitute for the temple services. They were buildings constructed, not for sacrifice, but for prayer and the reading of the word of God. A fixed form of prayer was one of the inno-vations of the synagogue, and the buildings came to be called "houses of prayer." Synagogues also served as local community centers for the scattered Jewish people of the Diaspora and were pivotal in Jewish life. Though used also for political and social purposes, their primary pur-pose was spiritual and educational.5 Reading and study of the Scriptures took place on the Sabbath and feast days. There is evidence of two inde- By the time of Jesus, the weekly synagogue liturgy, featuring a communal reading :and study of the holy texts, had become the universal Jewish: practice. 367 65.4 2006 Ryder ¯ The Bible and the Lectionary 68] pendent cycles of readings, an annual and a triennial. The annual cycle is associated with the Jewish community in Babylon. A three-year cycle, with shorter readings, seems to have been the practice in Palestine. By the time of Jesus, the weekly synagogue liturgy, featuring a commu-nal reading and study of the holy texts, had become the universal Jewish practice. This service was quite distinct from temple worship and also from anything that existed in contemporary pagan religions. "It was a unique liturgi: cal feature in the ancient world; no such form of worship was known in paganism.''6 In the synagogue service the reading of the Torah was followed by a translation of the Hebrew text into the vernacular (a targum) and further instruction (the sermon). Philo of Alexandria, the lst-century commen-tator on Jewish religious practice, gives a description of communal Sabbath observance in his native city, focus-ing on the exposition of the Torah: "It was customary on every day when opportunity offered, and preeminently on the seventh day, as I have explained above, to pursue the study of wisdom with the ruler expounding and instruct-ing the people what they should say and do, while they received edification and betterment in moral principles and conduct.''7 Philo goes on to say that such instruction could last the whole day. As well as the temple and the synagogue liturgies, family celebrations such as the Passover were also cru-cial for the Jewish religion. Recitation of the Shema (Dt 6:4) and the singing of psalms became an integral part of these festive gatherings, as we see in the Last Supper meal of Jesus with his apostles. Yet, though family mem-bers memorized parts at least of the psalms for such celebrations, the regular contact of the practicing Jew with the word of God was through attendance at Sabbath worship in the synagogue. Review for Religious Jesus chose to begin his public ministry in the syna-gogue of Nazareth (Lk 4:16-30). By his time the scrolls containing readings from the Law and the Prophets were a treasured part of liturgical equipment. Jesus was brought up listening to the word of God when he went for wor-ship with his family,s Hearing the cycle of readings pro-claimed on the Sabbath was how he became acquainted with "the Scriptures" (Lk 24:27). The New Testament At the very beginning, like the rest of the Jews, the followers of Jesus listened to the word of God in the synagogue, as well as joining in the recitation of the Psalms during temple worship (Ac 2:46). But, towards the end of the 1st century, having been expelled from the Jewish synagogues, the Christian communities held their own celebrations in halls or large family residences (1 Co 11:17-22). Remains of these early "house churches" still exist in Rome. A little before 50 A.D., Paul sent the converts he had been instructing in Thessalonika a short letter with some further explanations of his teaching. The newly founded church faithfully preserved it for public use. Paul con-tinued to write similar epistles to encourage and educate other groups of converts. These letters circulated among the fledgling communities and were read out when they assembled.9 About fifteen years later, Mark had the idea of put-ting the stories about Jesus into a continuous narrative, giving Christians their first Gospel. So, as well as "the Scriptures," there could now be readings from Paul and Mark at Christian gatherings. Twenty years on, Matthew's Gospel appeared, probably with liturgical use directly in mind,'° linking the life and teaching of Jesus more closely to his Old Testament roots. At about the same time, 369 6.~.4 2006 Ryder ¯ The Bible and the Lectionary Luke set himself the task of writing a full account of the Christian message and added a second volume, the Acts of the Apostles, to bring the Christian story up to date. Though the work of the final redactors is not so clearly marked, editing can also be detected in the com-pilation of the Gospels and the other readings that even-tually became known as the New Testament. The fourth Gospel gives us the best example of revision (the two end-ings 20:30 and 21:25). John also shows how the Gospel narrative could be linked to the liturgy: "The emphasis on feasts as the occasion and indeed subject matter of Jesus' discourses is underlined by the evangelist in chap-ters 5-10.''1~ The Catholic Lectionary As Christians of the 21st century, we do not study the word of God in a vacuum, but as members of a com-munity; and, while as Catholics we do not claim any particular method of biblical interpretation as our own, we do see the Scriptures firmly placed within the living tradition of the church. In particular, our reading of the Bible is closely linked to the celebration of the liturgy. The Pontifical Biblical Commission makes the point clearly: "From the earliest days of the church, the read-ing of Scripture has been an integral part of the Christian liturgy, an inheritance to some extent from the liturgy of the Synagogue . In principle, the liturgy, and espe-cially the sacramental liturgy, the high point of which is the Eucharistic celebration, brings about the most perfect actualization of the biblical texts, for the liturgy places the proclamation in the midst of the community of believers, gathered around Christ so as to draw near to God.''~2 Though it should lead to personal conversion, the word of God is not in the first place a private message. A true understanding of the biblical texts (working from Review for Religious and always respecting their literal meaning) sees them as God speaking to his people today in the concrete circumstances of their community life, both local and global. "The word of God endures forever." At least in theory the Scriptures have always sustained the church. Today the lectionary offers pastors a marvel-ous tool for the proc-lamation of the word of God to the people of God. Whether at the Eucharist or other liturgical functions, homilies should explain and give contemporary relevance to the mes-sage that has been pro-claimed by the readers. This requires study and serious preparation. With all the developments of recent years in the under-standing of the Bible, it is vital that Christian leaders avail of the opportunities for updating that come their way. ,3 Here I make a plea for greater attention to the Old Testament. The greatest of Christian biblical scholars, St. Jerome, once said that ignorance of the Scriptures is not to know Christ. We can add that ignorance of the Old Testament is not to know the Father of Jesus Christ. Everything that Jesus says about the Father in the Gospels can be interpreted as the fruit of his medita-tion on "the Scriptures." Even his parable of the Prodigal Son, with its beautiful perception of the mercy and love of God, can be traced back to such prophetical utterances as Hosea 11:1-9.14 '. A true understanding of the biblical texts sees them as God speaking to his people today in the concrete circumstances of their community life, both local and global. I371 65.4 2006 Ryder * The Bible and the Lectionary 372 There is a profound unity between the Old and the New Testaments. Yet we often come across the percep-tion that the former is not only old, but also out of date, irrelevant to the church of the third millennium. The Old Testament is the work of ancient masters, teachers who have left us a spiritual legacy of unsurpassed wisdom. Like old wine, this legacy continues to mature and with age becomes ever more potent. The Old Testament covers a thousand years' history of the people of God, while the New Testament spans a period of little more than half a century. Furthermore, the first fifty years of Christianity were a golden age, a time of marvelous growth and expansion throughout the world. The Old Testament, on the other hand, records the fail-ures as well as the successes, the lows as well as the highs, of the people of God. From that point of view, those who are suffering now because of their faith can gain consola-tion from "the loving fidelity" (hesed) of Yahweh, recorded so dramatically in the pages of the Old Testament. Attentiveness to the Word Vatican II describes the liturgy as both the source and the summit of Christian spirituality. The liturgy is the prayer of the church, the Christian community at its most authentic, giving power to every other activity of the peo-ple of God. But we need strategies to help the participants profit by the riches that are available. Over the years I have encouraged people to invest in small personal copies of the lectionary. Pondering the texts proposed by the lec-tionary for the various liturgical seasons is an excellent way of "thinking with the Church." Reflecting on the readings before the celebration can give the actual proclamation a greater impact and deeper personal significance. The following words from the Congregation for Divine Worship's "Suggestions and Proposals" for the Review for Religious Year of the Eucharist (2005) provide a fitting sum-mary of what has been said: "After reading from Sacred Scripture, the expression 'The word of the Lord!' recalls the importance of what proceeds from the mouth of God, and makes us hear it not as something 'distant' from us, however inspired it may be, but as the living word by which God addresses us. We are in the context of a true 'dialogue' of God with his people, a dialogue in which the marvels of salvation are proclaimed to us, and the demands of the covenant continually reproposed. "The Liturgy of the Word is a constitutive part of the Eucharist. We gather together in the liturgical assembly to listen to what the Lord has to say to us--to each and every one of us. He speaks to us here and now, to those who lis-. ten to him with faith, believing that he alone has the words of eternal life, that his word is a lamp for our feet. "Attentiveness to the word spoken is at the beginning of the spiritual life. To believe in Christ is to listen to his word and put it into practice. It is docility to the voice of the Holy Spirit, the interior Master who guides us to the whole truth--not only to the truth to be known, but also to the truth to be lived out." Notes ~ There is plenty of evidence of later editing in the prophetical works of the Old Testament. The Book of Isaiah is a composition of at least three different authors, and only the first thirty-nine chapters are now attributed to Isaiah of Jerusalem. 2 E.E. Meyers and J.W. Rogerson, The Cambridge Companion to the Bible (Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 228. 3 The Psalter may well have been the first book of the Hebrew Bible. Psalms go back as far as the worship of the first temple (built, accord-ing to tradition, by King Solomon). It can be seen, from the headings accompanying many of the psalms, that they were attributed to Solomon's father, King David. Various psahns were used for the different feasts, especially the autumn festival of the covenant renewal. In all likelihood 373 6Y.4 2006 Ryder ¯ The Bible and the Lectionary there were psalms for different occasions, and what we have in the Psalter is a limited number of the most important ones. 4 Hans Kiing, Judaism (London: SCM Press, 1992), p. 108. 5 Roland de Vaux, Ancient Israel (London: Darton, Longman, and Todd, 1961), p. 343. L.L. Grabbe claims a later starting point for syna-gogue worship in A History of the Jews and Judaism (New York: T & T Clark International, 2004), p. 237. 6 L.I. Levine, The Ancient Synagogue (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), p. 139. 7 Quoted in Levine, Ancient Synagogue, p. 145. 8 See J.P. Meier, A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus (New York: Doubleday, 1991). ~ Col 4:16. Even if Colossians is not an authentic Pauline letter, the exhortation to share the message with a neighboring church reflects an early practice. ~0 See J.P. Meier, The Vision of Matthew (New York: Paulist Press, 1979). ~1 Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to the Gospel of John ed. F.J. Moloney (New York: Doubleday, 2003), p. 304. Of course, these are Jewish, not Christian feasts. Aileen Guilding contended that the dis-courses of Jesus were closely related to the readings in the synagogues on those feasts. The Fourth Gospel and Jewish Worship (Oxford: Clarendon, 1960). The present Catholic lectionary makes ample use of John in the baptismal catecheses of the Lenten Gospels. ~2 The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church, 1993, C1. 13 Though proclaiming the word of God is a primary duty of the liturgical celebrant, recent data show that the Catholic Church has cause for concern. Two studies commissioned by Andrew Greeley and quoted in his Priests: A Calling in Crisis, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004, p. 116) indicate that Catholics do not rate their clergy highly in preaching and leadership in worship. Worse still, according to Greeley, priests themselves do not seem aware of the problem, and their failure to communicate the word of God is one of the reasons why people are leav-ing the church. Even if Greeley's research was conducted in the U.S.A., I am sure it is representative of the clergy in other parts of the world. ,4 The New Testament writers drew their "theology" (teaching on God) from the Old Testament. After his conversion Paul changed his view of Jesus, recognizing him as the Promised One. But his belief in "the God of the Fathers," built up through meditation on the biblical word of the Old Testament, remained the bedrock of his preaching on divine providence. His moral instruction, too, presumes the ethical teachings of the Hebrew Bible. Review for Religious BRENDAN KNEALE Coda to the Creed: An Appreciation ~fihnaalt lIi scta ollf tphher caosedsa dtoe stchrei bAinpgo sfdoeusr' mCarejoerd dios cit-s trines: "the holy Catholic Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body and life everlasting." Experienced people can especially appreciate these great doctrines because they address our deepest human concerns, namely, existential loneliness, personal guilt, physical mortality, and our insatiably infi-nite longings. In other words, we are given four basic doctrines that bring our spirits hope in the face of the most oppressive psychological burdens, namely, guilt, loneliness, mortality, and longing. Our Physical Mortality Perhaps the heaviest of these burdens is the realiza-tion of our inevitable death, though for some of us it is the load of guilt we carry, consciously or unconsciously. Brendan Kneale FSC wrote for us earlier this year. His address is De La Salle Institute; 4405 Redwood Road; Napa, California 94558. 65.4 2006 Kneale ¯ Coda to the Creed: An Appreciation 376 For many people it is a sense of aloneness. Overlying this we have a deep, and necessarily unrequited, appetite for the infinite, a conscious or unconscious longing. One of the worst parts of "the human predicament" is the inevitability of our eventually dying--what Zechariah calls living in "the darkness of the shadow of death." But Zechariah says that, in addition to a promise of liberation from this "shadow of death," Christ brings "knowledge of salvation by the forgiveness of sins," making us "free to worship him without fear." No human being, regardless of how fortunate in matters of health or wealth or domestic comfort, is free of impending death and occasional realizations of that inevitability. The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews mentions this terror in chapter 2. He speaks of the "fear of death which keeps us in slavery all our lives." And we recall the emotional passages in some of the Psalms about the burden of death, Psalm 90 for example, along with poignant words from Ecclesiastes. So in the Apostles' Creed we affirm our conviction that there will be for us a "resurrection of the body and life everlasting." The trauma of our earthly death will be really a kind of "birth trauma." This doctrine may well be, in our day and age, the hardest to accept of all Christian teachings. At the same time it is one of the most attrac-tive. Some historians attribute the rapid spread of early Christianity to the news of Christ's bodily resurrection and to people's strong desire to participate in it. Our Guilt We also affirm at the end of the Creed our belief in "the forgiveness of s!ns," a doctrine of enormous consola-tion. On the face of it, our guilt is irremovable because offenses against God are against the Infinite and we are only finite. Recall Psalm 65 with its doublet: "Too heavy R~view for Religious for us our offenses; but you wipe them away." The heavi-ness of guilt can be a force for good as well as evil, but it is still a burden. Guilt is one of the most powerful forces in human behavior. It can accompany both a suspicion of our own culpability and a state of actual culpability. It entails, as the dictionary says, a felt need to repay or requite the persons offended. It is related to feelings of remorse and shame, an awareness and regret over our responsibility for evil. Psalm 65 notes, "We are overcome by our sins." Guilt can cast a shadow over a whole life. Nevertheless, we know it can be relieved, at least in part, by forgive-ness. We need to accept for-giveness as well as bestow it. If we try, instead, to wipe our own offense from our memo- The heaviness of guilt can be a force for good as well as evil, but it is still a burden. ries, the psychological damage may be difficult to assess. Pope St. Clement wrote that it is better to admit one's sins than to harden one's heart. Guilt can drive us to inflict grave harm on ourselves and on others. It can also drive us to do good things. Acquittal or forgiveness removes punishment, but it does not remove the historical fact of guilt. That fact keeps us grateful for forgiveness. Guilt seems different from shame in that it is internal while shame is more external, or per-haps one relates to offenses against God and his law while the other relates to offenses against society and its conven-tions. Shame and guilt sometimes overlap, and in a moral society would do so more frequently. A theological problem about forgiveness may occur to us in connection with Christ's telling the Good Thief on the cross, "This day you will be with me in paradise." It is 65.4 2006 Kneale ¯ Coda to the Creed: An Appreciation easy to see how Christ as a Divine Person could forgive the sins that Dismas committed against God, but it is not easy to see how Christ could forgive sins committed by a thief against his victims--and for Christ to do so without the victims' prior consent. One would think that such forgive-ness belongs also to the victims. Is Christ the spokesman of forgiveness for all victims of the sins of robbery even though he himself is not (or does not seem to be) one of the direct victims? In a parallel question, can Christ forgive the sins we commit against ourselves even if we do not? The answer has to be yes. But on what grounds must we say so? There are probably two or three ways here to try to answer the question. First, incarnational. Christ is not a mere human person; his personhood transcends all human per-sons, and he can speak for us all (just as in his two natures he can speak for human beings as well as for God). He is "the Son of Man" as well as one of the three Persons, so that he is not only our spokesman before God but also the spokesman to all people and for all people. Second, evangelical. Christ tied his gospel message intimately to the forgiveness that we must exercise toward one another. Insofar as his message is successful and insofar as we are with him, we forgive each other and leave vengeance (or the popular term "closure") to God. The Our Father, both in context and content, empha-sizes that point. Also, when in Mark 12:34 Christ praises the scribe, it is because he sees the intimate connection between love of God and love of neighbor. Third, eschatological. It seems that one of the main purposes of the Last Judgment is to demonstrate the justice of God. It is no doubt mysterious, but every thief, including the Good Thief, will have found that justice has been done for his victims, and the victims will find it so to. The word "trespass" in the Our Father is a good choice, since our sins are like trespassing on the rights of God. Review for Religious God is offended but not harmed by our sins. Of course, the reason why he is offended by our sins is that these sins do harm to us and often to our neighbors, all of whom God loves. Loving us, he does not want to see us or anyone else harmed. The adage "Love me, love my dog" can be extended to God's desire that all people love one another. Our Insatiable Longing Is there not at least a third affliction shared by all man-kind, namely, an appetite for more, feeling we can never have enough in this life? We want not only an immortal and guilt-free life, but we want it to be unencumbered in all respects, wholly and completely fulfilled. Thoreau's famous Walden aphorism has it that "the mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation," and Virgil wrote: Sunt lacrimae - rerum, et mentem mor-talia tangunt--there are the tears of things, and the realities of death bear on one's spirit. Paul gives a Christian slant to Virgil in Romans 8:21: "It was not for any fault on the part of creation that it was unable to attain its purpose [that is, was subject to futility]; it was made so by God. But creation still retains the hope of being freed, like us, from its slavery to decadence, and to enjoy the same freedom and glory as the children of God. From the beginning till now the entire creation, as we know, has been groaning in one great act of giving birth--and not only creation but all of us." We frequently sense that we are hemmed in by our finite circumstances since we aspire to much more than We often shield ourselves from deeper aspirations and real fears by pursuing and possessing material things. 379 65.4 2006 Kneale ¯ Coda to the Creed: An Appreciation we have. In fact, we possess a capacity for the Infinite (whether we are aware of the Infinite or not). Our life-long dissatisfaction with having an ever greater number of good things in this life should make us aware of this capacity. We, though, often shield ourselves from deeper aspirations and real fears by pursuing and possessing material things. And nonbelievers may try to fulfill such deep aspirations by a life of the mind and an appreciation of the arts--which, after all, are finite too. It was popular a generation ago to refer to the con-ditions of our earthly life as "the human predicament" and to our life as one of "exile." A real pessimism envel-ops some people. The Rumanian-French aphorist E.M. Cioran drew this depressing conclusion: "Some people still wonder if life has a meaning. In fact it all comes down to knowing whether it is bearable." But the Creed promises that our reward is everlasting. All longings will be met, including the desire for meaning. Our Loneliness "The holy Catholic Church" and "the Communion of Saints." We are convinced that we are not alone. It is true that our uniqueness as individuals separates us from all other people. But, as St. Paul implies, the parts of one's body, the leg or the ear, are not individually lonely. When we as individu-als are fully incorporated in the Body of Christ, we will have found a cure for all loneliness, both existential and social. The Church Glorious will be sociable. At the beginning of the Creed, we are assured that God is not lonely: there are three Persons in God. That revela-tion is a source of great consolation, a consolation apparendy denied to Jews and Muslims (whose God is understood as very lonely). In the Christian vision, as Alfons Deeken SJ put it years ago, "God exists as a fellowship and friendship of three Divine Persons. In the Trinity each Person has his existence Review for Religious only in relation to the others, and it is only in existing for the others, in the process of infinite giving and receiving of love, that each One is fully himself. Self-being does not decrease through self-giving. Thus the Trinity, as the source and model of all personhood and community, shows us that the high-est perfection of a person is not self-assertion, isolation, and independence, but rather openness and loving commitment to others" (Growing Old, and How to Cope with It, Paulist Press, 1972). Prayer Suggestion There is a prayer tradition that we choose a prayer formula such as our Creed, and we find ourselves in God's presence as we dwell on individual words or phrases of the prayer formula. Where we find relish and consolation, we remain until we feel that we should move on to another word or phrase. Then, when we have come to the end of our prayer time, we simply pray through the whole Creed in the usual way. In the light of the reflection by Brendan Kneale FSC, we might use the last part of the Creed for our daily prayer in this fashion over some days. We might also use the whole text for our prayer in this way. 65.4 2006 ARMAND NIGRO God's Invitation 382 l~is something awesome. It verges on the incred-le, even the ridiculous. Mmighty God, Creator and Lord of the Universe, wants to be involved and commu-nicate with us. God invites us to spend time with Him, to realize He is truly our Abba, as He is for Jesus, and to taste and relish that relationship This is an invitation to faith, to wait on the Lord, believing that God will reveal Himself to us and share with us His gracious purposes. It is God's invitation to prayer. God Acts In Us If we are open to it, God directly acts in us, speaks to us in every created experience, especially in the sacred Word in Scripture. Every sensible reality, from raindrop to wild weed to human smile, is a partial revelation of God, a finite shape of God's creative love. Every word in Holy Scripture is a humanly conditioned word of God, ever alive, full of meaning and power for us. Armand Nigro SJ is retreat director and pastoral minister at Holy Spirit Center; 10980 Hillside Drive; Anchorage, Maska 99507. Review f~r Religious Take a serious look at this revelation in passages like Psalm 81, Isaiah 55, Hosea 2 and 11,Jeremiah 1, Matthew 11:25, and John 14 and 15. Listening To God This astounding revelation is not merely for our minds; it is a call for us to experience and live in it. But this will never take place unless we take time to listen to God, to savor God's word and let it soak into us. Unless we do this, we'll never really know God. The danger is not just that we not take time to listen to him, but that we may even ignore what we hear. "Don't harden your hearts," God pleads in Psalm 95. But why should God care at all? Let's face it, if I were God, the last thing I'd want to do is be bothered by peo-ple like me. "To hell with them if they won't listen! No skin off my nose if they behave themselves or not. They are just not worth troubling over, especially for a God who has infinitely better and more important things to think about." God's Answer God's answer to this is: "But you are not God. I am. And My thinking is not your thinking and my ways are not your ways (Isaiah 5 5). You are My son, My daughter. I want to be your Abba (Father and Mother to you). This is what I want. This is important to me. Won't you believe me? Won't you let me?" Incredible--absolutely incredible! 65.4 2006 SE!~q D. SAMMON Sexuality and Celibate Chastity: Friends Not Foes living chastely Priest and author Ronald Rolheiser tells of a curious young man finding himself seated next to a woman religious on a plane trip. He asks her a number of questions, mostly about celi-bate chastity. He remarks, "What intrigues me about you, Sister, is your obvious zest for life. Now imagine how much more satisfying that life would be if you also had sex." And her response? "What impresses me about you," she says, "is your sincerity and the fact that you are searching for love. But love and sex are not the same thing. Now imagine how much richer your life might be if you were open to that possibility." How easily people can amiably use mutually intelligi-ble words and not understand each other at all! The word sexuality encompasses much more than genital sex. It includes our way of being in the world as a man or woman, the attitudes and characteristics that we call masculine and Sefin D. Sammon FMS writes again from Fratelli Maristi delle Scuole; C.E 10250; 00144 Roma, Italy. Review for Religious feminine. The word and the reality remind us that we are social beings, that we need and desire friendship and affection. These are God-given ways to be holy. Sexual and spiritual energy should be friends and not foes. Both aim at union with God and others. Human sexuality has more to do with self-transcendence than with self-fulfillment. The human life cycle neatly outlines the discussion of sexuality and celibate chastity. Forming an identity and developing closer relationships are different for you and me at twenty than at forty-five. Twenty years later these opportunities and challenges are different again. Over a lifetime we change in our self-understanding, our knowledge of how the world works, our understanding of our faith in Jesus Christ and our way of living that faith. Why would we not also change in our understanding and appreciation of our sexuality and our celibate chastity? Talking about intimacy, sexuality, and the vow of chas-tity is difficult. People lack effective words or a sense of comfort, and mutual understanding fails to occur. When asked why we chose a life of celibate chastity, we might answer, "For the sake of the kingdom; in order to love everyone and not just one person; to be more available." These answers are "not bad,".but they leave most of us and our listeners unsatisfied. When I use the phrase celiba{e chastity here, I will mean vowed chastity as it is lived within religious insti-tutes today. Celibate chastity is at the very heart of the way of life we call religious, it is not just an ascetical practice, though it may feel that way at times. And, while it is intimately related to our mission, it did not come into existence to make religious congregations' apostolic work more efficient. Celibate chastity is a defining char-acteristic of our way of life and needs to be seen as such. God has reached out to us in Jesus. Jesus has called us to 65.4 2006 Sammon ¯ Sexuality and Celibate Chastity Foreclosing ouf identity= sets thestage fqr later problems with.intimacy follow him. The relationship we have with him must be central to our lives. Have you ever asked yourself: "Where am I going in life?" "How am I using or wasting my talents?" "Does my presence in this religious community make any dif-ference at all--would I be missed if I were not here?" Such questions are related to both identity and intimacy, particularly challenging issues for young religious. They need to form a first or provisional identity as they move from their late teens to their late twenties. They need also to face questions of intimacy in their lives. Identity formation gets underway when we ask, "Who am I and what do I cherish or hold dear?" In answer-ing we move though three phases. First we explore our life ¯ options; next we see that we must choose one from among a variety of attractive possibilities; finally we must decide, com-mitting ourselves to a particular identity. Understandably, this process is influenced by culture and custom. The manner in which men and women approach it varies. Nevertheless, exploring options and making difficult choices are part of the life history of almost all who have achieved an identity instead of having one thrust upon them. Some among us foreclose identity. Overwhelmed by the number of options or lacking the wherewithal to succeed in one or another, we quicHy step into an identity that is ready-made, like a shirt that comes ready-made through the mail. We keep it whether it fits well or not. Foreclosing our identity sets the stage for later prob-lems with intimacy. There is hope, though, for, if we have Rt.vie~v for Religious not formed an identity early, we are given other oppor-tunities over the years. Times of transition give us new chances. At midlife, for example, certain reassessments about life can be made. Identity and Intimacy Why spend all this time discussing identity? Because of its relation to intimacy. This word has been defined too narrowly in the past. I suggest this description: Intimacy occurs when we are sure enough about ourselves as per-sons, are so much at home with ourselves, that we can risk closeness with someone else.~ During our early adulthood we are young in our understanding and experience of intimacy. Some would suggest that, while deep loving relationships are possible for young people, they are more the exception than the rule. For most of us mature intimacy is just not possible until later in life. Uncertainty and confusion often sur-round young adult sexuality, and the rich spirituality that lies at the heart of mature celibate chastity is often not available until the middle years. When men and women religious move through their early adult years, intimacy questions arise, and genital-sexuality questions as well. Today the media and a good many people see genital restraint as constricted and par-tial living that leads to a lonely life ahead. How, then, do we prepare those in formation for the challenges they will face? How do we help them grow into a celibate and chaste way of loving others? How do we help them understand, from our own experience, the joys and satis-factions of celibate chaste living? In their late twenties and early thirties some sisters, priests, and brothers fall in love for the first time. This experience, sometimes more infatuation than genuine intimacy, can be an important step toward building lov- 6Y.4 2006 Sammon ¯ Sexuality and Celibate Chastity ing adult relationships with other men and women. This outcome can occur, ho.wever, only if they can talk about the relationship. Unfortunately these relationships often remain hidden, shrouded in secrecy. We all need some privacy in our relationships, but, if secrecy overshadows any of them, trouble usually lies ahead. You and I benefit from time together with friends and so does our community. It is natural to look forward to being with people whose very presence is life-giving for us. Religious life itself has always included caring relation-ships that grow over time. Witness the great friendships down through the centuries, friendships that flourished even when rules warned against them. The tendency of most of us is to share our friends with others. Secrecy in a relationship is something quite differ-ent and becomes an obstacle to mature celibate chastity. Secrecy robs people of the opportunity of getting advice from someone outside of the relationship, someone who can keep them honest about what is transpiring. All of us risk deluding ourselves about relationships, particu-larly those with romantic overtones. The decisions we make about them may be flawed. And in these matters people do make decisions. If two religious end up in bed together, they should not claim that angels carried them there. Rather, they need to admit that they made a series of decisions that led to this outcome. We need privacy for some relationships to grow, but we must also must set limits if we are to live with integrity. This is true not only in the lives of priests and religious, but in everyone's life, married or single. Living my life in keeping with the commitments that I made means that my love will not be expressed genitally, but in reality it may be no less intimate. In our sexuality as in so many other areas of our lives, we do well to remember that we are unfinished and incom- Review for Religiozts plete. In making prudent life choices about sexuality, we in turn make many other decisions. With midlife we become more aware that limits have been part of all our best choices. Friendship Any intimate relationship stretches one's identity. But is that not what needs to happen as we move through the stages of our life? We need to make ourselves known, risk our self-definition, and allow others to come close to us precisely so that we can - be known, influenced, and possibly changed as a result of the rela-tionship. Many situa-tions call for the risk of our self-understanding. Close friendships allow - ~ us to relax the stance which we usually assume when fac-ing the world and most other people. Friends reach a part of us that is inaccessible to others; they know us as others do not. Friends are not frightened by one another's weak-nesses, and so they feel free to share their fears, concerns, difficulties. As a consequence they learn to be more at home with themselves, their qualities, their preoccupa-tions. In community life people can risk self-definition, and most do. Some, however, stay on the fringes, moving in and out of the community's life but refusing to let other members have any claim on them. If a weekend activ-ity is planned, fringe members will encourage the others to make their plans, saying they will fit in if they can. Whereas for most of us absence from community activi-ties occurs from time to time, for fringe members it is a way of life. They have difficulty with intimacy; by not Any intimate relationship stretches one's i&ntity. 65.4 2006 Sam,non * Sexuality and Celibate Chastity 390 allowing the group to come close to them, they avoid the "difficulty" of being changed by their presence. They protect their self-definition, and they perpetuate their isolation, living alone in the midst of the group. Their relationships fail to flourish. What they may point to as intimacy is often a pseudo-intimacy. The consequences of refusing to risk self-definition are grave. The persons deny themselves one of life's greatest gifts, the experience of friendship. Situations involving cooperation and competition can help us to stretch our self-understanding. Working together with others on a task, we become aware of per-sonal gifts and abilities not recognized previously. We may discover that we have skills that help a group com-plete an assigned task. Athletes have similar experiences. In difficult games they may discover unknown talents and learn endurance as they make an all-out effort to win. The experience of intimacy can be a help to prayer. A corollary is that people may apply their fear of human intimacy to God as well, keeping God at arm's length so that even God does not disturb supposedly well-thought-out plans. Such plans are far from the indifference sought in making a good discernment. Only when I am indiffer-ent am I free enough to appreciate what is in God's heart for me. If I pray regularly and enjoy intimacy with God, God's desire has a good chance of becoming my own, for my own benefit. Authentic discernment demands that I risk intimacy with God, talking over my mixed feelings, my fears, in a closeness that could change my self-defini-tion and my life. Do not, however, confuse self-disclosure with inti-macy itself. True intimacy includes caution and selectiv-ity. It is altogether different from telling one's life story in great detail to a total stranger at a social gathering-- something most of us back off from in embarrassment, Review for Religious excusing ourselves for a moment, with the hope that upon our return the person will be just as animatedly engaged with someone else. Real relationships take time. Some parts of ourselves, shared easily at the right time in a relationship, could not have been spoken about earlier. Though friends are people with whom you and I share confidences, they are much more than that. Over time a history develops between two friends. They prove themselves mutually dependable. Eventually they realize that they valued each other long before they ever thought of anything like an evaluation. Friendship between Men and Women Using but a few words, the psychologist Carol Gilligan has put into perspective the differences between men and women. "It all goes back, of course, to Adam and Eve," she says, "a story that shows, among other things, that if you make a woman out of a man, you are bound to get into trouble." When it comes to relationships, men and women have differences in style and expectation. In a number of cultures men learn early in life how to be part of a team. As they grow up, teamwork continues to be important for them both in work and play. The bonds that men develop, then, depend more on solidarity than self-disclosure. It is the things they do together that bind them. When they do not have those things to do, many men stop com-ing together. Among women, relationships are usually more important than anything they might do together. Women tend to value their friendships with other women especially for the emotional support and understanding they receive; they spend time together exploring their personal experience and inner world of meaning. Men tend to be uncomfortable when they sense that a woman friend wants them to reveal more about them- I391 65.4 2006 Sammon * Sexuality and Celibate Chastity 392[ selves than they care to. Women tend to be disappointed that their male friends are not so forthcoming in emo-tional sharing as they would like them to be. Men and women, though, agree strongly on this: in cross-gender relationships, the issue of sex has to be resolved before the friendship can deepen. If a man and woman in a rela-tionship have a strong sexual attraction to one another and fail to talk about these feelings with someone else, trouble often lies ahead. Men and women, of course, differ also in other ways than we have mentioned, but friendships continue to flourish between them. With friends we do not have to be altogether consistent; we can think and feel differently on alternate days with little consequence. During periods of significant personal change, friends can and should be specially aware and considerate, not exaggerating per-sonal ideas of how things are "supposed to be." All people haveboth a masculine and a feminine side within their personalities. Every culture has its gender images, but rigid adherence to them can be quite prob-lematic, leading to distorted emotional development and difficulties with intimacy. Early in life most women are unaware of their masculine side, and the same can be said of most men and their feminine side. For a relationship of mature intimacy, the masculine and feminine aspects in us must have a certain level of integration. This is true regardless of sexual orientation. During their twenties and thirties, men and women struggle with intimacy in different ways. A man often sees a danger in closeness, fearing it will limit his inde-pendence. He shies away. A woman is often apprehensive about separation. At this time in their lives, while men are having difficulty with closeness in a relationship, women are finding it hard to be separate and be their individual selves. A failure to integrate masculine and feminine sides Review for Religious gives rise to several consequences. A woman finding her masculine side threatening shies away from demonstrat-ing her natural competence in one area of life or another. A man fearing implications of his more intuitive feminine qualities gives the mes- - . sage that he is unavail-able for relationship. He can appear sulky, with-drawn, overly sensitive. Midlife is a good time for doing this work of integration. Increasingly aware that we have lived at least half of our earthly life already, we become less concerned about gender image and we grow in our ability for genu-ine closeness and in our self-knowledge and acceptance. Some aspects of ourselves defy greater self-knowl-edge. These shadow traits, often obvious to others, are hidden from us. When a man projects the positive quali-fies of his own feminine side onto a woman, she becomes highly desirable to him--the object of his fantasies and sexual longings. This situation becomes, in time, suffo-cating for a woman. As she develops her own personality in the relationship, she finds this same man now blaming her somehow for his unhappiness and negative moods. When a woman projects her unconscious masculine side onto a man, she overvalues him, seeing him as a hero and guide. Over time, however, she begins to see her earlier savior and guide as the source of all her feelings of belittlement and disappointment. Projection does little or nothing to foster mature intimacy. It fosters mutual fascination and infatuation, which can be important steps toward mature intimacy, For a relationship of mature intimacy, the masculine and feminine aspects in us must have a certain level of integration. 65.4 2006 Sammon ¯ Sexuality and Celibate Chastity but relationships built on this foundation do not last. In such a relationship the persons are actually in love with themselves. 394 Sexual Orientation In any discussion about human sexuality and celibate chastity, we need to say a word about sexual orientation. There have always been, are now, and always will be homo-sexually oriented .men and women as members of religious congregations. Among this group are persons of exemplary celibate chastity; others have stretched the meaning of the vow of chastity beyond recognition. But the same can be said of their heterosexual brothers and sisters. I believe that some recent discussions about the area of sexual ori-entation have taken the wrong focus. Rather than empha-sizing people's heterosexuality or homosexuality, we would better direct our energies towards helping everyone called to religious life to live lives of celibate chastity. The area of sexual orientation is complex. There are many different approaches in discussing the matter. Some use the term "transitory homosexuality" to describe a sit-uation in which a person finds himself or herself sexually attracted to a member of the same sex but is not, in fact, homosexually oriented. If this is the case with a novice, what the formation personnel need is understanding and compassion. Others would contend that more than a few people, while defining themselves in the main as hetero-sexual or homosexual, find that their sexual feelings and fantasies are more accurately described as falling along a continuum. Formation personnel and other religious need to be at home with their own sexuality and orienta-tion and, of course, with their choice to live in a celibate chaste way. Of particular concern in recent years has been the abuse of male children at the hands of the clergy and Review for Religious male religious. There is no empirical evidence linking homosexuality with this behavior called pederasty. As tragic as sexual abuse is for all involved, wrong would not be righted nor children protected by policies based on the faulty notion that homosexuality and a predisposi-tion to abuse children are linked. Mention is sometimes made about the destructive effect that a gay subculture can have when it is present in a house of formation, a seminary, or a religious com-munity. Subcultures, be they sexual or otherwise, have no place in religious life. When they do emerge, however, it might be more profitable to seek the reason for their exis-tence rather than simply insist that they cease to exist. In consecrated life our primary identity must be our identity as religious persons. No other identities--family, intellectual, interpersonal, sexual--none of these nor any other can take precedence over our identity as religious persons. That identity more than anything else shapes our faith, our self-understanding, and our journey of self-transcendence. Spiritual Growth If sexuality lies at the center of the spiritual life, the spiritual life is likewise at the heart of genuine celibate chaste living. For our celibate chastity, Jesus Christ must rest at the center of our lives. For that to happen, we must accept Jesus' love for us in a special way. The rela-tionship that each of us has with him and its pattern of development are unique. Everyone's spirituality must be tailor-made to reflect these realities. As religious all of us have been presented with formulas and plans of action that carry with them some guarantee of success in the spiritual life, but unfortunately those formulas and plans of action tend to ignore the unique relationship that we each have with Jesus. They may even get in the way. 65.4 2006 Sammon ¯ Sexuality and Celibate Chastity 396 To ensure that our life with God is at the heart of our celibate chastity, we need be ready for spiritual awaken-ings, willing to explore the longings that are present in them. Spiritual awakenings may be like sexual awakening at the age of puberty. They may be startling or more gradual. Our desire for God grows. Finally we become vividly aware that God's love is given to us freely with no strings attached, without our having earned it. The idea of having to earn God's love is just out of the question. To be involved with Jesus Christ means embracing the paschal mystery. He asks us to imitate him, not admire him. When you and I dedicate our celibate lives to him, to closeness to him, we must realize that it includes suf-fering and death. Relationships do not just happen; they take time and effort. Throughout the ages spiritual writers have insisted that personal prayer is essential to a relationship with the Lord. For that bond to become strong, moments of prayer must eventually become regular and longer, ide-ally an hour each day. More than a few in religious life, however, will plead a lack of time. That claim rings true, because the activity.of some of us today borders on the pathological. It is the single greatest threat to our inte-rior life and leads only to greater self-preoccupation, an overemphasis on efficiency, and restlessness. Those who are overly busy are less likely to encounter Jesus in the marketplace of everyday life; they lack sufficient inte-riority. An obsession with efficiency leaves little room for spontaneity, for an openness to wonder. Restlessness, compulsively seeking one experience after another, inter-feres with developing a spirit of solitude, hospitality, and genuine prayer. By way of contrast, the fruits and gifts of the Holy Spirit are evident in the lives of those who pray regularly. Numbered among those fruits are charity, a spirit of joy, Review for Religious patience, forbearance, faith, and reverence for oneself and others. The gifts include wisdom, understanding, coun-sel, knowledge, piety, fortitude, and fear of the Lord. Are these fruits and gifts of the Spirit present in our lives? If not, we need to wonder about how seriously we take our relationship with Jesus Christ. We need to decide what we need to change in our lives in order to practice what we espouse publicly. Our Christian life, at its heart, is about a relationship with Jesus Christ. That relationship is the solution for my restiveness, the answer to my ques-tions, the source of my joy. There will always be people in our world who con-sider those who live our kind of life to be naive and foolish. And we are. Naive, because the choice does not follow social convention; foolish, because to embrace and live well a life of celibate chastity leads inevitably to a revolution of the heart. Bernard Lonergan SJ calls it "an otherworldly falling in love. It is total and permanent self-surrender without conditions, qualifications, reserva-tions." Living such a life bears great fruit. We discover the true meaning of passion, becoming more deeply spiri-tual and sexual at the same time. Over time we become more at home with ourselves and with God. For the per-son who embraces fully the challenge of a life of celibate chastity, the description "deeply spiritual and profoundly human" becomes eventually the only one that is apt. It tells the whole story. Let us pray that we have the cour-age to make it our own. References David Finkelhor and Associates. A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1986). Bernard Lonergan. Method in Theology. London: Herder and Herder, 1972. James Nelson. Intimate Connection: Male Sexvcafity and Mastwline Spiritualily. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1988. 397 6Y.4 2006 Sammon ¯ Sexuality and Celibate Chastity Ronald Rolheiser. The Holy Longing: The Search for a Christhm Spirituality. New York: Doubleday, 1999. --. Forgotten among the Lilies. New York: Doubleday, 2005. Lillian Rubin. Intimate Strangers: Men and Women Together. New York: Harper and Row, 1983. --. Just Friends: The Role of Friendship in Our Lives. New York: Harper and Row, 1985. Sandra M. Schneiders. Selling All: Commitment, Consecrated Celibacy, and Community in Catholic Religious Life. Mahwah: Paulist, 2001. Sean Sammon. An Undivided Heart: Making Sense of Celibate Chastity. Staten Island: Alba House, 1993. Sean Sammon. "Celibate Chastity: An Affair of the Heart." Pastoral Review, April 2001. John Sanford. Invisible Partners. Ramsey: Paulist, 1980. 398 Reflection/Discussion Questions 1. After reading Sammon's article, are we able to give a more adequate answer to the question, "Why do we choose a life of celibate chastity?" 2. Have we found that our experiences of intimacy with others has been a help in the fervor of our prayer life? 3. Let's explore the implications of this sentence: If sexuality lies at the center of the spiritual life, the spiritual life is likewise at the heart of genuine celibate chaste living. Review for Rdigious ANNETTE M. PELLETIER "Bride of Christ": Timely Sign in Signless Times? ~fohodi lceo sutartn adti nthge i nC laitnheo tloic g Uetn aiv ceurspi toyf ocfo fAfemee irnic tah,e a young woman student, noticing that I was a religious sister, tapped me on the shoulder and asked earnestly, "Sister, are there any other sisters on campus? Sisters are seldom seen these days. W-here are they?" I said, "Oh, yes, there are sisters on campus, both as professors and as students. You might not see them, but they are here." Some time later, another young woman student, the leader of the women's vocation discernment group, invited me to accompany them on their fall retreat, to talk with them about the meaning of "bride of Christ," and to say something on "the chastity bit." Her question jolted me. How long had it been since I had thought of myself as a "bride of Christ"? The other question encour-aged me. Young Catholic women are asking, "Where are 399 Annette M. Pelleder IHM wrote two articles for us a dozen years ago. Her address is Immaculate Heart Convent; 6600 Little Falls Road; Arlington, Virginia 22213. 65.4 2006 Pelletier ¯ "Bride of Cl~rist" How curious that ~chastity,: maligned and misunderstood in contemporary ~ulture, is a virtue tha~t youth see and wonder abouL 4001 the sisters?" The tone seemed to say we are missed or at least missing. They are also wondering about that "chas-tity bit." Are Catholic religious women really "brides of Christ"? It seems to me that, at least on one campus in the United States, women university students are asking what it means for a Catholic woman to be consecrated to God as a religious sister. Could such interest or curiosity be a new sign in our times? Among religious women, post-Vatican II theologi-cal reflection on the identity and mission of the conse-crated life abounds. Vatican II's decrees Pe~fectae caritatis (1,5) and Lumen gentium (42) and, more recently, Pope John Paul's Vita con-secrata (3,4,5) situated the consecrated life at the heart of its mys-tery and mission, a gift from God to the church for the church. The International Congress on the Consecrated Life (Rome, 2004) por-trayed religious life in the postmodern era as a way of life imbued with a Passion for Christ, Passion for Humanity (Pauline Books and Media, 2005). Sandra Schneiders's trilogy, Religious Life in the New Millennium, examines the "qualitative dif-ference between questions religious ask today in compari-son with two decades ago. Selling All (vol. 2) retrieves and explores consecrated virginity as symbolic of the "unitive and transformative bond" between the Christian woman and Christ.4 In reference to the "chastity.bit," the body, as symbol that spea.ks its own "language," is the subject of theological reflection. Thus, the physical reality of the Review for Religious virginal body retains its place in our time as a timeless sign of the "kingdom come" and "coming" in every age and stage of history. Consecrated virginity has been and remains "exceptional gift of grace., a special symbol of heavenly benefits" (PC 12). How curious that chastity, maligned and misunderstood in contemporary culture, is a virtue that youth see and wonder about!6 Paradoxically, the youths' queries suggest that the way of life that is the "most perfect expression of the gospel on earth" (VC 18) has evolved into a symbol without a sign. Current theo-logical reflection digs deeply into the nature of symbol. Symbols implicitly convey meaning and affectively draw us into their world where relationships are effected. Certainly these youthful seekers' questions merit an answer. And what could be a more appropriate source for instruction and inspiration than the signs and symbols of the church's liturgical rites for this way of life? Relying on the ancient dictum lex orandi, lex credendi, lex agendi (as the church prays, the church believes and acts), we will examine how the signs, symbols, texts, and gestures in the "Rite of Religious Profession for Women" (here-after RPW) illuminate what it means to be a "bride of Christ.''1 The nuptial metaphor was applied to consecrated vir-ginity in the early church. Since apostolic times certain women freely dedicated their virginity to God, and the church "set her seal on this high vocation by. conse-crating those who followed it by a solemn prayer" (RPW ix). Gradually this public, solemn blessing was expanded and enriched with ritual gestures to more clearly manifest the meaning of a Christian woman's total commitment to Christ, the Bridegroom of the church. As the centuries passed, however, embellishments distorted, romanticized, or detracted from the original meaning of the rite. Vatican II's Sacrosanctum concilium occasioned the restoration of 401 65.4 2006 402 the splendor, dignity, and symbolism of the ancient "Rite of Consecration of Virgins" as well as the formulation of two distinct and separate rites, "Religious Profession of Men" and "Religious Profession of Women" (SC 9). Unlike the "Rite of Consecration of Virgins," the "Rite of Religious Profession" includes consecrated celi-bacy and poverty and obedience as well. We will restrict our focus to the meaning of nuptial metaphor (bride of Christ) in the "Rite of Religious Profession for Women." Basic to this consideration is that the body itself is a sym-bol. The body merits attention as the place of sacramental encounter, "the place of symbolic convergence--through gestures, words, postures, . . . and silences" (Chauvet, 152)--for making us believers. The body means some-thing. What one does with one's body or what is done by others to the body has significance. The choice for consecrated chastity makes the body stand for a religious meaning. Body gender carries inherent meaning in human relationships, human personhood. Who were the "brides of Christ" in early Christianity? This article cannot do justice to the copious literature ancient Christian writers devoted to Christian women virgins. Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine used nuptial metaphors from Scripture in describing Christ and the church, the soul and God, and the Christian virgin and Christ. The Christian woman's choice to follow Christ by renouncing marriage, childbearing, and child rearing endowed her with a new status in the ecclesial community. As "bride of Christ" she could be no one else's bride. The permanent state of virginity has been seen as a life "more blessed than the martyrs," and "a fleck of divine gloW in a dark world." The virgin was honored by the commu-nity as uniquely holy and pure "the way God is holy and Review for Religious pure." Christian virgins--not unique in the practice of virginity in the ancient world--were unique in embodying a permanent state of exclusive dedication to Christ. Virginity of this nature was unknown in antiquity. It was seen in the Roman Empire with suspicion and con-sidered a threat to both the family and the state. Christian virgins testified to their chosen state in life "with such passion that they were ready to die rather than renounce it" (Schneiders, 183). In fact, the women's choice of vir-ginity was a radical act of personal autonomy rare during this period in history. The nuptial metaphor was a par-ticularly effective declaration of a unique and influential status. These women were exempt from the social norm of being married to a husband "because they were already married--to Christ" (Schneiders, 183). The bridal meta-phor expressed the ultimate form of discipleship practiced by women. What was their role in the Christian community? Christian women virgins, then, had a highly sym-bolic presence and endowed an ecclesial community with a certain prestige. The sacredness of the human body bridged this world and the next. As the Roman Empire began to crumble, Christian virgins exemplified "conti-nuity in its most pure state" (Brown, 271), a certainty of the reality of the heavenly kingdom come. This distinct embodiment of a relationship with Christ witnessed to the certainty of eternal salvation in an uncertain world. The virgin's espousal to Christ was an embodied sacrality. The church's official recognition of this state of life abrogated the paterfamilias right and duty to arrange (or oblige) a daughter's marriage. This new and unique state of life testified eloquently to a spiritual intimacy with Jesus the Lord. Local churches welcomed them and honored a way of life eloquently embodying the holiness of God. 403 2006 Pelletier ¯ "Bride of Gbri~t" 404 Liturgical rites acknowledged their consecration to God as bride of Christ. Christian women who responded to this form of dis-cipleship were solemnly blessed by the bishop. Depictions of the "veiling of virgins" inscribed in the Roman cata-combs indicate that a blessing ritual designated the new status of a Christian woman now publicly recognized as a bride of Christ. Borrowing from Roman marriage customs, the bishop solemnly veiled the virgin in the assembly of Christians in the local church. Henceforth the bishop would be her special protector. The words of the episcopal blessing and the act of veiling conveyed the meaning of the ineffable mystery of bodily consecration to God. This was a singularly significant event for Christian communities immersed in the uncertainties of the declin-ing empire. To Christians the virgin's body heralded the future status of all the disciples of Christ who awaited a new heaven and earth where men and women "neither marry nor are given in marriage" (Lk 20:35). Christian virgins embodied the hope that "the things of the resur-rection stand at the door." Gradually the varying rites were compiled and pre-served in the Roman Pontifical. As the historical con-texts changed, consecrated virgins left their families and formed small communities of women. These evolved into monasteries and more recently into mobile apostolic reli-gious congregations. Consequently the theological rich-ness of the rite was obscured by romantic embellishments depending on the cultural context and ethos of the reli-gious congregation. So the revision of the Roman Ritual mandated by Vatican II occasioned the restoration of the ancient "Rite of the Consecration of Virgins" and the cre-ation of two others, the "Rite of Religious Profession for Women" and another for men (SC 80). These two new rites were to manifest a "more mature theology of the Review for l~eligious religious life and its connection to the mystery of Christ and the church." "Bride of Christ": A Timely Sign in Signless Times? How, then, does the "Rite of Religious Profession" incorporate nuptial imagery and remain linked to the ancient origins of the consecrated life? How does the new rite express the ineffable mystery of a bridal bond to God that surpasses maternity, paternity, friendship, and even discipleship? According to Schneiders (192), nuptial spirituality remedies "the ontological inequality" between the divine Jesus and the human virgin. "One of the most striking, not startling features of nuptial spirituality is the sense of equality with Jesus that the mystics express" (103). John of the Cross's Living Flame of Love and Teresa of Avila's Interior Castle employ nuptial images to express the union of the soul with God. Schneiders notes that Christian spirituality embraces nuptial imagery for men and for married couples, for example, the mysticism of the celibate John of the Cross, married mystics like Catherine of Genoa, and also St. Paul in texts referring to the church of Corinth (2 Co 11:2) (199). Since the religious life stands as "an abiding enact-ment" of the way of life of "the supreme consecrated one, Jesus Christ" (VC 22), the liturgy must convey this. This way of life itself witnesses to the church far beyond any apostolic service? The liturgy strives to enunciate the full meaning of this way of life. This meaning remains a challenge for religious today: the rediscovery of their life's symbolic and transcendent meaning.3 The rite deals with discipleship, communion of life, service, mission, witness, union with God. The parts--the Call, Examination, Solemn Prayer for Candidates, Words 6~.4 2006 Pelletier ¯ "Bride of Christ" 4061 of Profession, Solemn Blessing, Bestowal of Insignia-- announce and enact this "new and special consecration" (VC 31, RPW 22-77). True to the origins of consecrated virginity in the church, the Rite of Profession "begs God's grace for them by its public prayer and puts them in God's hands, blesses them and unites their offering with the Eucharistic Sacrifice" (RRP 1). But what signs signify the "special grace of intimacy of spousal communion which distinguishes this state in life from all others" (VC 16)? How does the rite "recall that wonderful marriage made by God which will be made fully manifest in the age to come, and in which the church has Christ alone for her spouse" (PC 12)? The inclusion of the Rite of Religious Profession in the Mass links it with essential life in the church. A short analysis of the rite can shed light on the bridal image of a consecrated woman disciple. The words of the Opening Prayer insert religious pro-fession into the heart of the mystery of the church. In the "Rite of Temporary Profession," the presider acknowl-edges that the Lord has "inspired our sisters with the resolve to follow Christ more closely," and he asks that "they may be able to offer you the perfect gift of their loving service" (RPW 286) In the "Rite of Perpetual Profession," the opening prayer praises God because "the grace of baptism has borne fruit in the lives of your ser-vants so that now they strive to follow your Son more closely" (RPW 288). Since these and other texts consis-tently refer to the candidates as "servants," both disci-pleship and mission are integral to the consecrated life. Similarly, ritual elements such as the Call, the Request, the Examination of Resolve, the Litany of the Saints, and the Act of Profession are reminders that religious profes-sion announces the Christian woman's resolve to embrace a way of life that makes present the risen Christ in history Review for Religious (VC 19). The candidates solemnly express their desire to publicly proclaim this radical form of discipleship (RPW 64). Their own words effect the transformation of their lives (Schneiders, 100). Words profess the invisible and ineffable mystery of this "new and special consecration" (VC 31). At this time the professed becomes a public sign and prophetic voice of the church as bride (VC 15,19). The liturgy endows the human word with the power to take baptismal consecration to the nth degree. Henceforth the professed stands for and in the eschaton: the great wedding banquet has already begun. The heavenly Bridegroom is here and waits to be met (Mr 25:1-13). Where, then, does the rite incorporate the nuptial metaphor? Bridal imagery that existed in the ancient "Rite of the Consecration of Virgins" was not dis-carded when the Roman Missal was revised. It was integrated into the rite along with the other two evangelical counsels, obedience and poverty. Canonically the religious life is a stable form of life which "manifests in the church the wonderful marriage brought about --- by God, a sign of the future age"; the consecrated person's "whole existence becomes a continuous worship of God in charity" (canon 607, ~1). And so the rite enacts the choice of Catholic women to live their baptismal consecration radically. The evangelical counsels manifest embodied chastity chosen for the sake of the kingdom, individual ownership renounced by poverty, and personal autonomy relinquished through obedience (PC 5,6). Religious profession announces the Christian woman's resolve to embrace away of life that makes present the risen Christ in history. 407 65.4 2006 Pelletier ¯ "Bride of Christ" 4O8 How and where is nuptial symbolism incorporated into the rite? The Liturgy of the Word offers various various biblical texts that express nuptial imagery. Nuptial imagery captured the intimacy between Yahweh and the Israelite community, particularly in prophetic literature. Hosea's voice echoes across the centuries bridging cov-enants: "I will betroth myself to you forever" (Ho 2:14). Similarly, Wisdom literature speaks of "Love as strong as death" (Sg 8:6-7) and the call of the beloved, "Rise my love and come" (Sg 2:8-14). Thus the word proclaimed awakens the memory of a vital relationship in the past that is to be enacted in the here and now of today. Nuptial themes are also evident in other elements of the rite. In the Request or Call, the presider asks the can-didates what they ask of God and his church. The reply, "We ask for perseverance in the following of Christ our Bridegroom in this religious community all the days of our lives" (RPW 59), links discipleship with the bridal image. After the public pronouncement of vows and the signing of the document of profession on the altar, the presider prays for God's blessing on the professed in the name of the assembly and praises God for this gift to the church (RPW 69,70). Nuptial imagery is woven into the text of the prayer as God is praised and thanked for the ancient covenant by which the human family was made "your bride radiant with your own likeness" (RPW 72). Then the new covenant in Christ is recalled and imaged in and through the church, which was formed "into his bride [and loved by him] with so great a love that he gave himself up for it" (RPW 72). The prayer concludes with an acknowledgment of God's loving wisdom: You have singled out many of your daughters to be disciples espoused to Christ and to receive the honor of his love. Holy Church shines with their rich variety, Review for Religious a bride adorned with jewels, a queen adorned in grace, a mother rejoicing in her children. Then the presider prays for the professed that they always be one with you in loving fidelity to Christ, their only Bridegroom . May they not fear him as their judge, but hear the voice of their Bridegroom lovingly inviting them to the wedding feast of heaven. (RPW 72) The words are followed by gestures and symbols that illuminate the invisible-to-the-eyes consecration. Depending on local custom, the professed are presented with a ring as "insignia of profession" (RPW 73). In Western cultures the wedding ring stands for this radical realization of the bap-tismal bond. As the ring is presented, the presider says: Receive this ring, for you are betrothed to the eternal King; keep faith with your Bridegroom so that you may come to the Wedding feast of eternal joy. (RPW 73) Nuptial imagery is reinforced as the choir and people respond singing: I am betrothed to the Son of the eternal Father, to him who was born of the Virgin Mother to be savior of the entire world. (RPW 75) Similarly, the "Rite of Temporary Profession" retains the ancient practice of the Presentation of the Veil to symbolize the new state of life conferred by the act of profession (RPW 34).4 The presider entrusts the newly professed with the veil, saying, "Receive this veil, which proclaims that you belong entirely to Christ the Lord and are dedicated to the service of the Church" (RPW 34).s Meanwhile the choir and people intone the refrain from the Song of Songs (3:3), "I have sought the Lord whom I love with all my heart" (RPV¢ 35, 36). The assembly echoes in song what is affirmed by the candidate and con-firmed by official representative of the religious congrega-tion. Distinct from the order of Christian virgins in the 4O9 65.4 2006 Pelletier ¯ "Bride of Cbrist" 410 early Church, this new and unique consecration is lived in community life, not in the privacy of a family home. Clearly, every element of the rite is "theologically expressive of the mystery and event being celebrated." Gestures and symbols act as visible signs of the invisible reality of interior consecration. The liturgy conveys the meaning of an ineffable experience "in such a way that it becomes accessible to thought." As already mentioned, by the 4th century the veil.(flammeura) had been brought into the liturgy from Roman wedding ceremonies. The velatio (veiling) of virgins signifies that the virgin's body is "conse-crated by the divine Spirit," "dedicated to the Lord," "con-secrated to God," "consecrated at God's altars.''6 The rite signifies a new relationship of the Christian woman with Christ and with the Christian community, mediated by the bishop, as 'representative of the local church. The new sta-tus of the Christian woman virgin, bride, and disciple of Christ always stood out in the ecclesial community.7 Thus, the chastity and the meaning of "bride of Christ" coincide in this rite's blend of baptismal conse-cration and radical discipleship. Lex orandi informs lex credendi and transforms lex vivendi. Our catechesis on the meaning of the "bride of Christ" has relied on the lit-urgy to illuminate the meaning hidden in shadows. The Christian woman religious is both bride and disciple.~ In the crisis of symbolism in Western cultures, the symbolic value of the veil, ring, or any distinctive form of dress fares badly. We

(J^JLMJAU!**-- MARCH, J899 oeTtneoo Qettysbmr erciury .CONTENTS. The Old Campus 1 Extracts from "Honor in Stu-dent Life" 4 A Page from Prof. Brede's Diary 6 Henry Louis Baugher 7 A Compiled Thanatopsis 10 Thy Speech Bewrayeth Thee 13 The Favorite Sport of Rome IS The Cultivation of the Dramatic. 18 Concerning the Inhabitants of Porto Rico 20 The Reconciliation of Orlando and Oliver 24 Editor's Desk 26 Kee Mar Reception 29 Success in Art 31 The Trip to Chambersburg 33 Athletics 35 jBURGreOLCEGE^LIiRARY GETTYSBURG, PA, r\Hiimmmmitimmmmsmm. FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. J. R. STINEk-> •*nd SON, Gents' Furnisher, CHAHBERSBURO STREET. C. B. Kitzmiller, Dealer In Hats, Caps, Boots and . A.—Shoes GETTYSBURG, PA. J. H. Myers, Fashionable Tailor, Clothier and Gents' Furnisher. The best place in town tohayeyourCloth-mg made to order. All workmanship and Trimmings guaranteed. No charge for re-pairs and pressing for one year. Dyeing and Repairing a specialty. Ready-made Clothing the largest stock in town. Up-to-date styles. Bicycle Suits and Breeches Headquarters. 11 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. S. B. ALCOTT, .Agent for. Browning, King 6c Co., Merchant Tailor, N. Y. Suits *12 up; Overcoats $12 up; Pants $4. r it and Workmanship Guaranteed. R. A. WONDERS, Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, Etc. Scott s Corner, Opp. Eagle Hotel. GETTYSBURG, PA. EPH. H. MINNIGH, Manufacturer, Wholesale and Retail Dealer in Confectionery and Ice Cream. Oysters in Season. News Depot and Subscription Agency. Sole manufacturer of Dr. Tyler's Cough Drops. flain St., Gettysburg:, Pa. EDGAR 5. MARTIN, .Fine CIGARS AND SMOKERS' ARTICLES. Chambersburg St., Gettysburg. JOHN H. MINNIGH, Confectionery «*- lee Cream: Oysters Stewed and Fried. No. 17 BALTIMORE ST. .COLLEGE OP. Physicians and Surgeons BALTIMORE, flD. TIT The College of Physicians and Surgeons of Baltimore, Maryland, is a well equipped school. Four sessions are required for graduation. For full information send for the annual catalogue, or write to THOMAS OPIE, M. D., Dean. Cor. Calvert & Saratoga Sts. .THE. GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter. VOL. VIII. GETTYSBURG, PA., MARCH, 1899. No. 1 Editor-in-Chief. J. FRANK HEILM AN, '00. Assistant Editors. LUTHER A. WEIGLE, '00. SAMUEL VAN ORMER, '01. Alumni Editor. REV. F. D. GARLAND. Business Manager. JOHN K. HAMACHER. Assistant Business Manager. CLARENCE MOOE. Advisory Board. PROF. J. A. HIMES, LIT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD. D. D. Published monthly by the students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price One Dollar a year in advance, single copies Ten Cents. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. THE OLD CAMPUS. HE was old. The snows of sixty winters had silvered the raven locks of sixty years ago. His figure tall and erect showed scarcely any signs of his four decades. Yet the expression of those sad brown eyes had hidden in them an experience rich and varied. The secrets, that those firm lips had guarded, surely were worthy of so kind and noble a character. But interest, sym-pathy, even love could not rob that soul of its hidden secret. The story of his life as known by his associates was without the touch of a romance. His parents having died when he was young, he was educated by his relatives. His course at College was very ordinary, with exception of a great interest in athletics. He was not exceptionally bright and did not graduate among the first ten of his class. There suddenly developed within him after his graduation a strong determination to make a name for himself in his profession. Then there was exhibited the strength of his will and ability. Gradually he rose until he stood at the head of GETTYSBURG COLLEGE LIBRARY GETTYSBURG, PA. |U,olM THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. his profession. Now, however, after having attained this much desired position there seemed to influence him, not that former spirit of determination but rather a mechanical direction of his powers to a certain end. He was never married and his life seemed to be very lonely. A peculiar fondness however for a small boy, whom he had employed about his office, grew up within him. The boy was sent to College and each year, as his strange benefactor came to visit him, a stronger bond united them. So then we can understand the feelings of these two men as they stood together upon the Old Campus on the eve of the young man's graduation day. It was early evening. A gentle breeze was playing among the the leaves of the trees. Sometimes they seemed to whisper of the days of happiness that were passed beneath their shade and then suddenly a low wail of sadness issued as a moan from their shadowy depths. To our two hearers the}' brought different feelings. Yet they had one desire in common and it was to unfold to each other the thoughts stirring for supremacy within them. The younger man was full of glad expectancy. All the world lay before him in which he might achieve great deeds. No longer would he be bound by the narrow circles of college walls and authority, but he would now be able to take his place among men. Everything would be sacrificed until he attained his high-est ambition. Life was long and sweet. He would make the most of it. The older man listened to his companion's enthusiastic re-marks with fast dimming eyes. After the youth had ceased speak-ing the older man said, "Listen my boy to the story I have to tell, and if you can profit by any of its lessons, do so. Men have called me morose and perhaps they are right. Women have said that I am heartless but they know not the depth of my love. Years ago I entered this institution with all the future spread in a glittering expanse before me. I was by no means a hard stu-dent. I was however an ardent lover of all kinds of sport. My means were limited so that I was not among the richer class of boys. My life passed along in its ordinary course until my com-mencement week—and then a change so sudden, so vast burst upon me that even to this day words fail to express it. I was playing on our ball team. How vividly it all comes back to me to-night, as though it were but yesterday. It was the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 3 last inning with the score a tie. Was it chance that enabled me then to be the means of winning the game for our team? I do not know. But as the boys were carrying me from the field, my attention was called to a group of ladies who wished to congrat-ulate me. Suffice it, my boy, that among that group there was one, whose modest appreciation of my chance was more wel-come to me than the compliments of all the others. That night, just a few decades ago, I walked with her under these same old shade trees, which to-night whisper their sweet old secrets to me. Then I learned for the first time that my ideal of womanhood was approaching reality. I can but marvel at the depth of thought and feeling, at the richness of mind and intel-lect which existed in so beautiful a form. My child, words to-night are inadequate to express my feelings as they were then. I said farewell with the intention of realizing all the possibilities of her ideal of manhood. It was a chance acquaintance but it influenced my life. I entered the bustle of the busy world and was amply re-warded for my labors. But the originator of all my strongest ambitions and the shaper of my character had passed from my life altogether. For years I tried to trace her but all in vain. Then my profession seemed to lose its former glamour and I grew more reticent. I thought that so many years ago it might be but a passing fancy for the fair girl by my side, but all the years of my life since, have shown me the wonderful depth of my love and affection. So sacred has her memory been to me, that never would I enter society, and so have been misunderstood. I tell you this because you are the only one in all this wide world whose affection I believe is mine. To-night after long years of separation, I met her brother. He told me of her beautiful, con-secrated life. Numerous as were her suitors, she rejected them all. Could it have been possible that she cared for me, and I missed my happiness by delay? Those swaying leaves, which whisper to you in the fulfillment of your fondest dreams, murmur to me in an undertone, that she loved me as I loved her, with all the wealth of our new-born affections. Such are the memories that rise within me upon this dear old Campus to-night. Could these trees tell the tales that they have heard, could those rooms in yonder dormitory re-echo the thoughts of their many occupants, then truly could they reveal t THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. : secrets more joyous and perhaps more sad than mine. Go forth, my boy, and meet the world with that bright smile of yours. Keep that pure spirit untainted by any wrong to your fellowmen and God. But remember, by the moral of my life, this lesson, New hope may bloom, and days may come of milder, calmer beam, But there's nothing- half so sweet in life, as love's young- dream. —S. W. H., '99. EXTRACTS FROM "HONOR IN STUDENT LIFE." A WISE college president recently declared, after an outbreak of rowdyism in his college. I am of the opinion that unless the common tenden-cies toward irresponsible conduct in college life are checked, parents will begin to doubt whether it is best to send their chil-dren to college. The older I grow the more deeply I feel that it is the duty of all people charged with any responsibility for the guidance of youth to co-operate with all others having any share in that responsibility, to the end that the young may make the most of themselves. I know of nothing which would contribute to that end more largely than to require them to respect others and the established institutions of their country. I would permit the largest freedom of individual action, on the assumption that it would be within legitimate bounds. I would not only tolerate, but I would sympathize with, and, when agreeable to them, I would join with young people in all activities in which they may properly engage. The theory upon which university authorities commonly ab-solve themselves from all responsibility for offenses committed by students away from university grounds or not in the immediate presence of the faculty, is a very convenient one, but, in my judgment, it is a very unsound one. And they are particularly charged with doing all that in them lies to help parents attain the higher ends for which they sacrifice much in order to send their children to college. It is sad to see the extent to which college students think it unmanly for them to reveal the gravest offenses committed by their associates, and even to lie in order to shield them. Tattling about ordinary shortcomings, or any of the small affairs of college life, is to be scorned. But when an offense stains the character t^mmmmmmmaammm THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. ofan institution and violates the law of the state, the time has come for every true man's hand to be raised against the offender. And student and community sentiment upon this, as upon other matters, must be much influenced by university action or univer-sity indifference. The curse of college morals is a double standard—a shifting for the convenience of the moment, from the character of a respon-sible man to the character of an irresponsible boy. The admini-strative officers accept without question a student's word; they assume that he is a gentleman and that a gentleman does not lie ; if, as happens now and then, he is not a gentleman and does lie, they had rather, nevertheless, be fooled sometimes than be sus-picious always (and be fooled quite as often). Frankly treated, the student is usually frank himself; our undergraduates are, in general, excellent fellows to deal with; yet so much is done for them, so man}' oportunities are lavished on them, that the more thoughtless fail to see the relation of their rights to other people's, and, in the self-importance of early manhood, forget that the world is not for them alone. Students of this kind need delicate handling. They jealously demand to be treated as men, take ad-vantage of the instructors who treat them so, and excuse them-selves on the ground that, after all, they are only boys. This double standard is seen in both theme-copying and sign-stealing. Its moral effect is probably more insidious in the former than in the latter; for whereas persons more or less mendacious pass muster in all society but the best, no decent community outside of college will put up with a thief. In college, both offenses have been tolerated, through the pernicious doctrine, held by some re-pectable persons, that the life of every young man—or at least of every young gentleman—takes in a period of engaging anarchy, during which period almost anything short of murder may be winked at as boys' fun. Fun, and not crime, is doubtless the motive; and the fault is no more in the young men than in those staid citizens who boast their own early escapades, and are con-tent that their sons should behave no better than they did. Yet wherever the blame lies, the real nature of these acts is so plain to anyone, however young, who suffers himself to open his eyes, that the usual slow processes of education may, perhaps, be ef-fectually discarded. I 6 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The rolls of our higher institutions contain our selected youth; and it should not be possible to say of them what Bismarck said of the German students, that "one-third destroy themselves by dissipation, one-third wear themselves out by over-work, and the rest govern the country," or as put by a distinguished educator, one-third go to the dogs, one-third to the grave and the rest are the strength of the republic. It is the supreme function if school and college discipline to merge the first two classes into the third —not, as we are all too prone to think, to eliminate or ignore them. The chief end of education should be to transform weak-ness into strength. If in a republic the man must outweigh the majority, then in a deep sense the whole body of our educated youth must outweigh the mass of our people. —JAMES C. MACKENZIE. A PAGE FROM PROF. BREDE'S DIARY. A VIEW from one of the peaks of the Black Forest of the whole chain of the Alps, reaching from Mt. Blanc, 140 miles away, to Tyrol in the east will not soon be forgotten, but the view from the Rigi, on Lake Lucerne, while restricted to the Bernes Alps, has probably no rival in the whole world. But the weather must be propitious. Our party ascended by the Rigi rail-way, which makes you feel as though rising in a balloon, so quickly do lake, and city, and lower hills recede; but as we neared the summit, a cloud enveloped us, a steady mist began to fall, and all hopes of having a view the following morning were apparently shattered. But let the traveler in Switzerland never despair, rise early, make the best of all his time, and carry out his programme, for when he least expects, there will be a rift in the clouds, and as ifby magic touch they will be gathered up, leaving him face to face with some sublime view, such as he had hardly hoped to see. We retired despondent, but rose to witness a glorious sunrise. The whole range of Alpine peaks stood out boldly against the blue sky, but dull and gray, when suddenly here and there a lofty peak, touched by the warm rays of the rising sun, glowed with the rosy hue of life. The snow-clad mountains, though the nearest was twenty miles away, seemed so near as to make one think the voice could reach them. The view to the south was bounded by this wall of Alpine peaks, to the west were the rugged outlines of the MMnonmaM THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. j Tura, while northward one hundred miles away, the outlines of the Vosges and Black Forest peaks could be traced, and to the east the Suabian and Bavarian ranges ; cities, towns, and villages were visible without number; the great lakes of Lucerne lay close at our feet in wonderful hues of emerald, blue, and purple, while at a greater distance on every side appeared other well-known lakes. From Lucerne we may explore the lake, or rather the series of lakes, and pass the places made illustrious by Schiller's drama of Wilhelm Tell. At Fluelen we take the railroad and pass, within the next hour, through the finest scenery of the whole St. Goth-ard route, climbing the mountains, winding about in looping tunnels, until it is utterly impossible to be certain of the direction. At the town of Geshenen we are near the head of the valley, and after seven miles of tunnel through the St. Gothard we speed along the banks of the Tessino to the shores of Lake Maggiore and the plains of Northern Italy. If we leave the railway at Geshenen, however, and go a-foot along the turbulent Reuss a few miles farther, we shall come to a wall of rock which the stream has pierced for itself—the Hole of Uri—and where the road has emerged from a tunnel, we hardly know whether to be-lieve our eyes, for before us opens a charming plain shut in on all sides by lofty mountains, this is the valley of Andermatt, and we are here at one of the most interesting points in the Alps. To our left, that is to the east, a road in sweeping curves climbs the mountain over the tunnel, which in a few hours would take us to the sources of the Rhine; opposite, a few miles along a similar road takes us over the Gothard Pass to the Rhone glacier. This rises in terraces a distance of six miles, and seems like an immense frozen cataract, while from beneath it rushes a lusty stream, the Rhone. HENRY LOUIS BAUGHER. ON the founding of Pennsylvania College in 1832, Rev. Henry L- Baugher—the father of our Prof. Baugher—was elected Professor of Greek, being transferred to the Presi-dency of the college in 1850, he continued his valuable services to the college and the church until his death, April 14, 1868. The third son of President Baugher, Henry Louis, was born August 6, 1840, and entered the Preparatory School of the college 3 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. in 1850, graduating with honor in 1857, being assigned the Greek Oration. During the next two years he taught in the schools of Uniontown, Md., Quakertown, Pa., and Washington, D. C, and in 1859-60 in the Preparatory School of Pennsylvania College. In i860, he was in the office of the Sergeant-at-Arms of the United States House of Representatives. During this troubled period in National affairs his duties required various journeys to the border and southern states. The year's 1860-1863 were spent in studies in the Theological Seminaries at Gettysburg and Andover. In 1863 he was licensed as a minister, serving for the next year as co-pastor with Rev. S. B. Barnitz in "Home Mission Work" at Wheeling, W. Va. From 1864-7 he was pastor of the Lutheran church at Norris-town, Pa. On leaving this charge he spent six months in travel in Europe, returning to take charge of the pastorate at Indian-apolis, Ind. From this work he was elected in 1868, about four months after the death of his father, President Baugher, to the Professorship of Greek Language and Literature in Pennsylvania College, entering on his new and congenial duties January 1, 1869; he continued in the professorship till 1880, when he resigned to enter the active ministry. At this time his Alma Mater in recog-nition of his services and abilities conferred on him the honor-ary degree of Doctor of Divinity. He served the Kountze Memorial congregation at Omaha, Neb., during the year 1880-1, when he returned to Gettysburg. After a short interval he was elected Professor of Greek in Howard University, Washington, D. C, serving in this position 1882-3. In x883 he was again elected Professor of Greek in Pennsylvania College, continuing till June 1896, thus completing twenty-five years of teaching service in his Alma Mater. During the periods he was teaching in the college, he also temporarily filled positions in the faculty of the Theological Seminary at Gettysburg, teaching New Testament Exegesis, 1870-4, and Sys-tematic Theology, 1883-4. For a number of years he was Vice- President of the alumni association of the college and served as chairman of the obituary committee. In 1874 when Dr. F. W. Conrad established the Augsburg Sunday School Teacher, he selected Prof. Baugher to prepare the lesson comments. On the transfer in 1875 of this publication, to the Lutheran Publication Society, Prof. Baugher was elected edi- ■H THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY tor of the Augsburg Series of Sunday School Lesson Helps—con-tributing the lesson comments and preparing the questions and aids given in the Scholar's Quarterly, continuing in this posi-tion till January i, 1894. He was a member of the International Sunday School Lesson Committee, from 1879 to 1897; and of the Board of the Lutheran Publication Society, 1877-1880. He was a trustee of Carthage College 18 80-1, and at the time of his death a director of the Theological Seminary at Gettysburg, hav-ing been continued in this position from his first election in 1889. Dr. Baugher was elected President of the General Synod in 1895, and of the Luther League of Pennsylvania, in 1896. In 1897 he was chosen editor of the Lutheran World, resigning this position in 1898, he was quietly residing in Gettysburg, having declined several pastorates and a Professorship in the Theological School of the United Synod of the South. During recent months his health failed rapidly, and he passed into rest at Philadelphia, at 10.30 P. M., February 11, 1899. Dr. Baugher was frequently elected by the West Pennsylvania Synod as a member of the General Synod. He served his Dis-trict Synod and the General Synod on many important commit-tees, he was a member of the committee which prepared Augs-burg Songs, Number One; chairman of the committee 011 the De-velopment of Luther's Smaller Catechism ; was for many years a member of the committee of Beneficiary Education of West Pennsylvania Synod ; a member of the Executive Committee of the Parent Education Society, and at the time of his death a member of the committee on revision of Hymns of the Book of Worship. The publications of Dr. Baugher consist of his editorial work. Numerous contributions to the church papers, several articles in the Lutheran Quarterly and the volume on the Gospel by Luke in the series of Lutheran Commentaries. April 3, 1872, Prof. Baugher was married to Miss Ida Smith, of York, Pa., who with one daughter, Miss Bessie, survive to la-ment a loving husband and father. The strong personality of Dr. Baugher was felt in every rela-tion in which he was placed, having strong convictions in the many matters in which he was interested, his urgency and forci-bleness in advocacy of his views always commanded attention and respect. In all public utterances as a preacher, teacher and writer IO THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. he was clear and impressive. As a teacher he was enthusiastic and deeply concerned for the welfare of his pupils. As a churchman he was interested in all Christian work—but specially in all things Lutheran—in her institutions, her missions, her theology. He was an advocate of central, responsible gov-ernment in the church and a leader in the recent movement for a more uniform and more extended liturgical service. He was strongly desirous of a union among the various Lutheran bodies in the United States, believing this could be attained by a con-formity to certain views as to historical Lutheran Theology. The large number of persons who had been attracted to Dr. Baugher in warm friendship will miss his genial company and his sympathetic interest in their welfare. —E. S. B. A COMPILED THANATOPSIS. "Pallida Mors aeguopulsatpedepauperum tabernas Regumque turris." THUS Horace (Odes I. 4, 13,) tells us that "Pallid Death with impartial tread at the hovels poor does knock and at palaces of kings," and echoes Solomon's words (Ecc. 3:20,) then centuries old, "All go unto one place; all are of the dust and all turn to dust again." Death above all others is impartial, laying low rich and poor, young and old. Nor does he long warn, nor is the day well known. Alfred Tennyson beautifully expresses this in the sixth poem of "In Memoriam:"— O father, wheresoe'er thou be, Who pledgest now thy gallant son, A shot, ere half thy draught be done, Hath stilled the life that beat from thee. O mother, praying God will save Thy sailor,—while thy head is bow'd, His heavy-shotted hammock-shroud Drops in his vast and wandering grave. Ye know no more than I who wrought At that last hour to please him well ; Who mused on all I had to tell, And something written, something thought. HMMMHriH I THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. II Expecting- still his advent home : And ever met him on his way With wishes, thinking-, here to-day, Or 'here to-morrow—will he come.' O somewhere, meek, unconscious dove, That sittest ranging golden hair ; And glad to find thyself so fair, Poor child, that waitest for thy love ! For now her father's chimney glows In expectation of a guest; And thinking 'this will please him best,' She takes a riband or a rose. For he will see them on to-night; And with the thought her color burns; And, having left the glass, she turns Once more to set a ringlet right. And, even when she turn'd, the curse Had fallen, and her future lord Was drown'd in passing: through the ford, Or kill'd in falling from his horse. "In an hour when thou thinkest not," thus he comes as Juvenal also shows (Sat. Ill, 261-267) in telling of the death of a father while his household was preparing for him the cena. We translate the passage in verse as follows:— * * Now his household secure the pans and the dishes Wash already, and kindle the hearth-flame by puffing their cheeks up, Flesh-scrapers oily they clatter, in placing by oil-flask the towels. These things among the slaves are hastened variously, but he Sits already upon the bank, as a newcomer hateful Charon he dreads, nor hopes for the boat of the muddy, dark river In his unhappiness, nor has the coin in his mouth there to offer. "The young may die and the old must," we, too, all say, yet feel an added pang when Death takes the life while in the bud or when its first soft petals are opening. He claims this right how-ever, says Longfellow in "The Reaper and the Flowers :" There is a Reaper, whose name is Death, And, with his sickle keen, He reaps the bearded grain at a breath. And the flowers that grow between. "Shall Ihave nought that is fair ?" saith he; "Have nought but the bearded grain ?" 12 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Even more than we, the ancients felt this sad fate. They thought the old ought to die, and in their unmitigated selfishness urged them to die in behalf of the young when their death was necessary and even slandered them for not doing it. Just such a case occurred when, in behalf of King Admetus after all others re-fused, his dear wife, Alcestis, endured the pangs of death. Then when Pheres, the father of Admetus, brought love-tokens for the last rites and ceremonies he was met with some such gauling, shameful words as these from his son (The Alcestis of Euripides, vv. 629-672),—"Neither do you come to this funeral-feast invited by me, nor do I count your presence among the friends. These adornments of yours she shall never put on ; for she shall not be buried having any need of these your gifts. You ought then to have sympathized when /was just perishing. But you, who stood aside and let another die and she a young lady although you were an old man, do you bewail this death? Indeed you were not truly the father of this body, nor did she, alleging to have borne me and called my mother, bear me. * * Most certainly you ex-ceed all others in soullessness, you who, although being so far advanced in years and having come to the limit of life, were not willing nor had the heart to die in behalf of your son, but together with my mother let this strange woman die. * * Short for you at all events was the remaining time worth living; and I and she might have lived the remaining time, and I being left alone should not have bemoaned my misfortunes. * * But in vain are old men willing to die, finding fault with old age and a long period of life." Compare also Juvenal, Satire X, vv. 246-247. "The Stoics," said Bacon, "bestowed too much cost upon death, and by their great preparations made it appear more fear-ful." Yet how have men approached death, how should we ap-proach it? The ancient looked with greatest dread upon death. Alcestis died in a mad frenzy, heightened by Admetus' grief for his loss. Then too, it was very necessary that they die feeling as-sured of Horace's thought as found in his Odes I. 28, 36 : * * * licebit Injecto ter pulvere curras. How the old customs remain ! Thus died the ancient Greek but Juvenal again has something better. Among the things that man should desire above all others, above pleasures of time and THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 13 sense, he names a strong resolve, void of the fear of death, that reckons the closing period of life among the boons of nature. Fortem posce animum, mortis terrore carentem Qui spatium vitae extremum inter munera ponat Naturae. * * Sat. X. 3S7-3S9. Yet we would rather hear Bryant's injunction : Go thou * * "not like the quarry-slave at night, Scourged to his dung-eon, but, sustained and soothed By an unfaltering- trust, approach thy grave Like one who wrappes the drapery of his couch About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams." We all would know that '' the spirit shall return unto God who gave it," (Ecc. 12 : 7), and that as Milton says,— Weep no more woeful Shepherds, weep no more, For Lycidas your sorrow is not dead, Sunk though he be beneath the watery floor ; So sinks the day-star in the ocean bed, And yet anon repairs his drooping head, And tricks his beams, and with new spangled ore Flames in the forehead of the morning sky. So Lycidas sunk low, but mounted high, Thro' the dear might of him that walk'd the waves, Where other groves and other streams along, With nectar pure his oozy locks he laves, And hears the unexpressive nuptial song. In the blest kingdoms meek of joy and love, There entertain him all the saints above, In solemn troops, and sweet societies, That sing, and singing in their glory move, And wipe the tears forever from his eyes. Or as Jesus said of the maid, "she is not dead but sleepeth." —C c. G., '00. THY SPEECH BEWRAYETH THEE. Long years ago, one doleful night By pallid light of taper's dim, Our Savior faced a lawless trial Before the Sanhedrim. And while it took its course, there stood Behind the pillars of the court, A bosom friend, who now disowned A knowledge of his Lord. H THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "I do not know the man," he said, With lying- and stentorian lip ; And e'en denied with cursing tongue, His own discipleship. But all his cursings went for naught, They would not listen to his plea ; A damsel stepping forth declared : "Thy speech bewrayeth thee." Ah, truant man ! art thou surprised, When through thy polished surface peer The deadly vices of thy heart, And conscience hard and seer ? Art thou surprised because thy word Is disbelieved by friend and foe ; While those of lesser learning find A fertile soil to grow ? Be not confused as to its cause, It is not difficult to see ; For, while thy culture hides the stain, "Thy speech bewrayeth thee." Thy smooth exterior may conceal The fount of stench that lies within, But through the labial orifice Will gush the streams of sin. Thou canst not hide from critic man The full abundance of thy heart; For out of it, the mouth we're told, Its issues will impart. Like as the pendulum, which makes From side to side its measured peace, So does the tongue of man explain The works behind the face. It is the signet of our God Upon his human beings placed, And gives them sure ascendancy O'er all beneath them based. If used with love, it yields a balm More healing than on Gilead grew, And will restore the saddest heart To life and health anew. When used against a wicked foe From Satan's vast and mighty horde, It's finer than Damascus steel, And sharper than a sword. IHMHHIIi^H THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 15 But rest assured, when secret sins, Their taints upon the owner leave, His tong-ue will not belie his state, His lips will not deceive. Ah ye, with records yet unstained By baneful blots of sin and doubt, Be sure before you step awry, Your sins will find you out. And thou with vain deceitful heart, Which thine own maker best can see ; Remember that by man thou'rt known, "Thy speech bewrayeth thee." —J. B. BAKER, 1900. THE FAVORITE SPORT OF ROME. THE favorite form of athletic amusement of every nation is usually characteristic of its populace. The United States has her "baseball," England her "cricket," and Germany her "bowling,"—games showing a tendency in these nations to encourage that which will develop strength of body and alertness of mind for the purpose of performing the duties and enjoying the blessings of life. Russia's great love for fast driving indicates the excitable natures of her people. The occupation of the "kite-fly-ing" Chinaman well portrays his sluggishnes of both mental and bodily action. Until recently "bull-fighting'' was the chief amuse-ment of the Spanish, whose bloodthirsty and treacherous nature is evidenced by the delight with which the spectators behold such torture as is inflicted upon each other by the matador and his mad-dened antagonist. And just as modern nations have their characteristic muscular pursuits, so also had the ancient nations. Greece and Rome both attained to great excellency in the sports of the arena. But the character of the games of each betrays the difference in the char-acters of the two peoples. The Grecian government endeavored to increase the love of its subjects for such sports as foot and chariot-racing, boxing, wrestling, discus-throwing, and such other friendly contests as would increase not only physical strength, but that grace and perfect form of body for which the Grecians were noted. But Rome, on the other hand, fitted her youths only for military service, forgetting to pay atttention to human grace and i6 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. beauty. For she committed the serious error of adding to her en-nobling and health-producing sports that of the' 'gladiatorial show.'' This institution had its origin about two centuries and a half before Christ, when two young men arranged a series of mortal combats at the burial of their father, a prominent Roman. They believed the spirits of the departed delighted in the shedding of blood. These combats were called a ' 'gladiatorial show,'' and the combatants "gladiators;" that is, "sword fighters." For many years these contests took place only at funerals, the deceased often having willed a sum sufficient to defray the expenses of the show. L,ater, they were held in the "Circus Maximus" of the "Forum" at Rome ; but as these places were inadequate, amphitheatres were built especially for the purpose. Of these amphitheatres, the most nearly perfect one extant is that at Rome, called the ''Coliseum.'' It is an elliptical structure consisting of many rows of marble seats built in tiers, to a height of over one hundred and fifty feet. The space in the centre, called the "arena," where the contests were held is also elliptical, and over two hundred and eighty feet long. The Coliseum is still com-plete enough for us to observe how magnificent it formerly must have been, when it had so many dens for holding animals to be slain, so many attendants, such beautiful decorations, cushioned seats to accommodate eighty-seven thousand spectators, and its arena large enough for ten thousand participants and large enough when flooded with water to hold many war-ships. This building has since been damaged by lightning and by being used as a for-tress in time of war and a quarry in time of peace, several large palaces have been built of the marble taken from it. The Coliseum has been called one of the "seven wonders of the world." Those who fought in the arena ofthis amphitheatre were formerly slaves who were condemned to die, or malefactors who were allowed to earn their liberty by fighting. But later, Roman citi-zens and even senators went into the arena. Commodius the Ro-man Emperor fought in a contest. These gladiators, however, did not enter combats without training. For this purpose they had schools or gymnasiums where they were trained in a similar manner to that in which gymnasts are to-day trained, and their diet was regulated just as the diet of our modern football players is regulated. But unlike our practice, everything was done at the schools to increase brutality and thirst for blood. Before entering THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 17 here each gladiator was obliged to take an oath, which lowered him to the rank of a slave as long as he remained there. From this fact arose the rebellion of Spartacus, which threatened for a time to overthrow the Roman Empire. For, fifty-seven gladiators, escaping from a school, took him for leader, and with the help of other slaves conquered almost the whole of Italy. Crassus, how-ever, came to the rescue of his state by defeating Spartacus. So, the show-bills being posted and the gladiators so well pre-pared for their dreadful work, the contest began. The person giving the show, or "editor," held a place of honor at the middle of one side of the arena. The combatants entered from doors at the sides. Animals to be slain were raised by elevators from their dens beneath the seats and urged into the arena. The men fought each other in different manners and with different arms. Some wore full suits of armor, frequently without eye-holes, to amuse the spectators with their ill-aimed thrusts. Some were entirely naked and carried swords. Others were on horseback and often pairs of men fought against each other. The chariot combats were very exciting. A noose was sometimes used by one gladiator to catch another. But the most interesting was the con-test between those who carried the net, tridens, and dagger, the first to entangle an opponent and the last two to kill him when caught in the net. Having cast the net and failed, the gladiator would be obliged to retreat to a corner and try to gain time in which to readjust his net for another throw, at the same time warding off the blows of his antagonist. When a gladiator was overpowered, whether he should live or be killed was determined by the wishes of the spectators. If he had fought nobly, they held up their thumbs, and he was set at liberty, If not, thumbs were turned down and he was put to death. Unlike the Greeks, besides the customary wreath ofpalms, they presented prize money to the conqueror. With the abolishment of such barbarous practices ended the greatest of the degrading influences upon the Roman mind. By these practices the people were fast becoming idle, lazy, licen-tious, and dangerous, and when Spartacus needed persons to carry out his plans, he found them among that class of people who were habitual attendants at the gladiatorial show, a class whom the Roman government had unwisely been feeding and furnishing with free amusement. Such was their desire for games THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. that they cried in the streets, "Give us bread for nothing and games forever!'' With the discontinuance of such sport came a lessening of im-purity in politics. It cost at that time about thirty-five thousand dollars for an office-seeking politician to give a show respectable enough to bring him popularity and votes. Such a sum very few men could afford to spend, and so in order to obtain such re-sources they were obliged to practice extortion upon their poor rural tenants, and to undermine the Roman government by profit-able intrigue in the city. The effects of such an institution as the gladiatorial show cause us to be glad that in our times and in our nation there are no such abominable practices to be done away with, no athletic sports that degrade to such an extent as did this Roman folly. Truly, the character of a nation may be known by the character of its athletic pursuits. c^, -D. C. B. '01. "THE CULTIVATION OF THE DRAMATIC." 1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.—2. THE EXTENT TO WHICH IT IS CULTIVA-ATED.— 3. ITS INFLUENCE UPON SOCIETY.—4. REMARKS ON AMATEUR PLAYERS.—5. SHOULD WE TRY TO CULTIVATE THE SPIRIT.—6. CON-CLUSION. THE drama is one of the most interesting and instructive productions of the Literary Art. Its origin dates back to the ancient Greeks and Romans. A large portion of their literature is connected withthedrama. In its two forms, comedy and tragedy, it covers a large range of subjects. It seems to have grown up naturally with the people; and while it has changed somewhat from the original, yet in its fundamental principles and meaning it is still the same. The drama represents the pursuits and events of daily life, and when these are studied, and acted, they are made the more interesting, because they are then brought more vividly before the mind. We may inquire now : "To what extent is the dramatic spirit cultivated at the present time? " I cannot say whether or not it is cultivated as much now as it was many years ago ; but it cer-tainly is cultivated to a large extent. We are continually receiv-ing new plays, which rank well with the older ones, although they differ from them in some respects. Such plays as those of THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 19 Shakespeare, Goldsmith and others, will never lose their place in literature. They are being played everywhere by the best pro-fessional troupes. During the winter months especially, the theaters are crowded, and people will go again and again to hear these plays. Many of the magazines give long accounts of the stage, including descriptions of the most famous actors, and an ex-planation of the plays that have been, or will be, given. It is evident that the people have not lost their love for the drama, which still holds a high place in literature. Some people are very bitterly opposed to the stage and will not allow any of their children even to see a play. They have some very good reasons to think as they do. In the early history of the drama, the highest classes of people took part in it. But later, many disreputable people went into the plays, and to-day we have troupes made up of that class. It is not to be wondered then, that many people are opposed to the stage. But in every profession we find people with whom we would not associate. Although the stage is a profession which I would not think of choosing, yet it is a profession that many very excellent people choose, and who attain to high hon-ors. There is a class of plays which have a demoralizing effect and these plays should not be exhibited. Besides the number of professional troupes, we have a number of amateur players. Almost all the colleges and smaller institu-tions have their dramatic associations. This has been done re-cently by many of the colleges. It seems to be a necessity, and both the students and friends of the institutions, take a great deal of interest in them. They give plays at home and in neighboring places, and some of them have been doing excellent work. Our association is just in its childhood, and it is making earn-est efforts to rise. It started about two years ago with but a few members and has kept on increasing until at this time it has reached a number which is able to do some good work. There seems to be a great interest taken in it, and it will not be long, if we do hard and faithful work, until we will rank well with the other colleges. This is something which should be of interest to all students, because, as some go out of the association when they are gradu-ated from college, others will then be ready to go in. s 20 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. But we say, "what is the necessity of cultivating the dra-matic?" It is of the utmost importance, for several reasons. Here one receives instructions which he cannot get as well any-where else. It is a splendid cultivation of the voice, because one is re-quired to articulate distinctly; otherwise the audience would lose interest. Then in order to become successful actors, every movement must be studied, so that we may be graceful and pleasing. We must get into the spirit of the play, and study it carefully be-fore we can render it correctly. It also gives one ease and grace in the society of others. Not every one has the ability to become a good actor, but those who have, should cultivate and use it. This is a part of our education as well as anything else. Plato says: "A good education is that which gives to the body and soul, all the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable." Those who are studying to be successful actors, should al-ways remember that "they are playing/or the audience and not to them. They make a part of a living picture." We must for-get ourselves, so to speak, and enter into the plays withheartand mind. We shall have reached an advanced stage of development when we are able to please our audience. **&> CONCERNING THE INHABITANTS OF PORTO RICO. FOUR centuries of Spanish civilization seem to have done little for the uplifting of the primitive race of Porto Rico. Spain gave the island nothing, but took all. She pretended to administer a government, which was both arbitrary and despotic, with no thought of other than her own interest; but she demanded and required for this both the liberty and the land of the people. She corrupted their simple life and taught them vice and crime. It was seldom that they murmured. They endured their fate with scarcely a hope. They were more than long-suffering and patient. So that when a better day began to dawn, they were scarcely ready to realize it. But when the fullness of time had come and the Cas-tilian banner of oppression was forced to retire to make way for •Mam THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 21 the hallowed emblem of liberty, there was not found one to shed a tear, but a multitude to cry from the very depth of their hearts " Viva Americano." I never shall forget how an intelligent, gray-haired citizen of Ponce, with tears in his eyes, tears of honest joy, but several days after the surrender of that city, told me how seemingly impossible it was for him to believe that what he saw, was real ; then he told me how, when he was a child, he had been taught to cherish a hope of freedom and to look toward the United States for it. And how he had instilled that same doctrine of love of freedom into the minds of his own sons; and now how at last in a single night, when it was not expected, it had all come to pass,—the hope of ages realized. It was all like a dream to him, could it be and was it really true,—had God indeed heard their secret prayers ? And the tears trinkled down his careworn face. Nor less impressive to me is this instance, that when a school boy, fifty years ago, Mr. Rivera, (late one of the secretaries of the new autonomic govern-ment granted the island by the Sagasta ministry) should have written a poem, one stanza of which, translated, is that "Someday the great Eagle of Liberty from the north shall swoop down upon this island, and bear away the monstrous brute bleeding in his talons." And it was, strange as it may seem, Mr. Rivera's re-ward to have the honor as well as the privilege to be among the first Porto Ricans to swear his allegiance to that country in the North from which in time the "Eagle of Liberty" came. We might go on and multiply instances to show how the love of the Porto Ricans for our flag and nation ever manifested itself; we might continue to tell of mothers, who have brought their chil-dren miles that they might only see the flag of the free, and how reverently their daughters have tenderly caressed and kissed its folds, how also on the field of battle men and women have followed that flag with water for our famished soldiers, but are these not sufficient for the credulous ? But who are these inhabitants of Porto Rico ? They are of two classes, viz., the rich and the poor. The rich own the land and the poor live on it. The rich are of Spanish descent, and the poor are descended from the aborigines and the negro slaves, but still the rightful owners of the soil. The poor are indeed very poor and the rich very few. The poor were too poor and the rich too few to promote any enterprise of particular consequence upon I 22 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. ■ the island ; so that the condition of the people under the Spanish regime was most deplorable in every phrase. The little capital that did manifest itself upon the island was largely from without. For the few rich, who did by chance pos-sess any means beyond their land, were fearful to invest; because a successful business was only so much plunder for the unscrupu-lous agents of the so-called government. Thus were the inhabi-tants by the very nature of their government driven to and held in a condition solely dependent on the product of the soil. There-fore in the soil lay the hidden wealth of the island beyond the reach of the Spanish vandal. And it was a great wealth ; for a benign Providence had made the island rich and fertile. I '00. EDITOR'S DESK. THE late staff of the MERCURY has done work worthy of Get-tysburg, and we cannot let the members of the staff pass from service without thanking them, in the name of the friends of the MERCURY, for their sincere, hard work. During the last year they surmounted disheartening obstacles and have given into the charge of the new staff, a paper which ranks with the best college publications in the state. The present editors and business managers take pride in controlling the GETTYSBURG MERCURY. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 27 The committee in charge of the annual parade did not forget Washington—they simply remembered the blizzard. The condi-tion of the streets on the 22nd, proved the good judgment of the committee. As for the town youngsters who, had the parade been held, very likely would have caused some trouble, there is a gen-eral understanding in college, that the baseball and football men assisted by all other students, keep the youngsters where they be-long during the games on Nixon Field. We are glad to know that the parade was missed, for the celebration of Washington's birthday by a parade is an annual event of Gettysburg which cus-tom has made dear. During the recent blizzard, Gettysburg was practically cut off from the rest of the world ; but college work went on. It was not an uncommon thing, while the trees on the campus were wrestling with the raging storm, to see the form of some student or professor, bent at an angle of 45° to withstand the blasts, slowly wending his way over the pathless plain toward Recitation Hall, which, be-cause of the blinding sheets of snow, appeared in dim outline. Occasionally refractory hats would leave their accustomed places and accompany the gale; these would be hotly pursued by the owners, and sometimes by words "that would never do to tell." The storm passed by. Snow plows were welcomed at the de-pots, and mail trains were eagerly awaited, and when they came, many letters, long delayed, caused good cheer to return to the despondent hearts of numerous students. Soon the pavements of the town were cleared, leaving long channels through the deep snow ; and in due time we were permitted to walk on the concrete (?) avenues of the campus. On the evening of Feb. 21, Mr. Beck, a Lutheran missionary from Siberia, delivered an address to the students of Seminary. All pronounced the address interesting and highly profitable. On the afternoon of the following day, Mr. Beck gave a short but in-teresting talk to the "Volunteer Band" of college. The plain, child-like manners of Mr. Beck are a sure testimony to the nobility of his character. —,Ji:i,LJ.L:lii±i!li±LilJ^. 28 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The staff is highly gratified at the readiness with which the contributors of this issue, offered their productions. We notice in college, a perceptible increase of what we might term, "literary-courage. '' Until last year our students were timid about publish-ing their work because they hesitated to face the guying of their fellow students. Now, however, no one is guyed for an honest attempt in the literary line, but he is rather commended by all for his "good work." Although some articles published by the MERCURY from time to time may not be the very best, the editors desire to publish them for the much needed encouragement of literary work. Heretofore the MERCURY has published home talent in preference to other, and the present staff intends to pursue the same course. As for this issue, although there was but a week to prepare it—we have endeavored to turn out a GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The late trip of the College Musical Clubs was an exceedingly pleasant one in more ways than one. Despite the bad weather, which interfered materially with the audiences, the boys express themselves as having the most enjoyable trip in the memory of any man on the club, and all are loud in the praises of the yonng ladies they met in the different towns of the Cumberland Valley. The college girls especially seemed to appeal to these college boys of ours. There is a quick twinkle of pleasure in every man's eye when Irving is mentioned. By far the best concert of the trip was given there, and it certainly must have been the inspira-tion of so many charming hostesses that enchanted the boys, even to the extent of falling up the steps, and losing some other fel-low's pennants. Then there was the reception afterwards and chapel the next morning, and finally the matinee in Harrisburg on Saturday, and many large square envelopes at the post-office after the blizzard was over. The Glee Club men will not forget Irving soon, and wish for some pretext to go back this year. We bespeak a big audience for the Irving Club if they ever come to Gettysburg. 'Rah for our sister ! THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 29 KEE MAR RECEPTION. GETTYSBURG has many excellent young people but not enough to go around. As a result many of the college boys fail to secure the social culture they are expected to have when once graduated. A consciousness of this lack of social training added double interest to our anticipations when we as a senior class were invited to Kee Mar college to a reception. Our most sanguine expectations were realized. A warm welcome was extended to us by members of the faculty and students and we soon felt that we were among friends. The spacious halls were decorated with the Maryland colors, and adorned with plants. And while the patter of light feet kept time to the sweet music, other lads and lassies strolled up and down the corridors, or al-lowed cupid to drive them into a secluded spot where the side-long glances of glinting eyes pierced the armor of the hardest heart. Appropriate toasts were given and responded to, refreshments served, when the laughing moon slowly setting warned us to de-part. His warnings were seconded by the college authorities, else some of the boys had been there yet. Saturday morning we college men were invited to a concert given by the College Glee Club. A very few minutes served to show how much easier we felt in this home of the nymphs. Formality was absent. After an extended program of excellent music which charmed us all, the boys from Gettysburg responded with a few impromptu verses and various yells which had a strange echo in those halls. But the unfeeling hands and expressionless face of the clock pointed to the hour of final departure, Kodaks, handkerchiefs, mementoes, were in evidence, and a fierce struggle between love and duty was fought in many hearts. But though the time was too short for one of our number to pay his respects to our land-lord, we all caught the train. It was a long way home, and many fellows have been longing ever since. A reunion is being wished for soon. Some of the crowd see nothing but Kee Mar to this day on every page of every book, while pretty faces are seen even when their eyes are closed. Not a little of the pleasure of the trip was owing to our hav-ing with us Miss Menges, formerly a classmate, now at Irving ; and Miss Welty, our class poet, who, though she never was a boy 3° THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. in all her life, yet gave expression to the common feeling of the boys whose thoughts were too deep to beset down even in poetry. This promises to be the only song sung around here until after June 15. TO KEE MAR. TUNE—"Jnanita." Swift o'er the mountain Speed the boys of ninety-nine, White gleam the snow fields In the bright moon-shine. To fair Kee Mar College Where the lovely maidens dwell,' As the train moves onward Hear the joyous " yell." Kee Mar, lovely Kee Mar, Full of hope we came to thee, Kee Mar, kindly Kee Mar, Thou wilt gracious be. Slow o'er the mountain Back returneth ninety-nine, Each eye a fountain Shedding drops of brine. For some hearts are broken How it happened none can tell, And the word now spoken Is a sad farewell. Kee Mar, lovely Kee Mar, All our heart we leave with thee, Kee Mar, loyal Kee Mar, Ever faithful be. When in our dreaming / Eives again that happy night, We'll catch the gleaming Of those eyes so bright. Hear the low, sweet music, Tread again the stately hall, With the girl we worshiped At the Kee Mar ball. Kee Mar, well-loved Kee Mar, In the years that are to be, Kee Mar, darling Kee Mar, We'll remember thee ! ma THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 31 SUCCESS IN ART. EVERY artist strives for success. But this word "success" admits of several definitions. In the mind of one artist it means money or fame or both; to another, it means a knowl-edge of his art and ability to enjoy it. Success, then, can be true or false. True success in art is attained when art is studied for art's sake and the product is real art. An essential in attain-ing such success is that the artist himself be true. That is he must be "heart, head and hand" an artist. The desire to create is natural, but besides this, knowledge and complete mastery of materials and implements is indispensable. An artist must first be completely grounded in every detail of his art before he should begin to produce. In every trade among artisans, ignorance under this heading is unknown; badly constructed articles of merchan-dise find no market. So it should be in art. Knowledge must be the absolute foundation or else the creation will be as faulty and unbalanced as a house of cards and will fall to pieces at the first shaft of intelligent criticism. In all good works on harmony the very last chapters are reserved for the treatment of composition of melodies. This in itself teaches a lesson, and one which is very evident; it says, "Now after you have the foundation laid you may safely attempt the superstructure." Technique and method guided by intelligence, are absolutely required. Then the successful artist must be industrious, patient, and persevering. We gaze in rapture at a beautiful painting or hear an exquisite piece of music and we forget that back of it all lay a long, steep and toilsome road, tediously climbed. Constant and tiresome was much of the labor. An artist must essentially have what has been called the "artistic temperament"—*. e. imaginative and sympathetic power. Ruskin says, "The qualities which distinctly mark an artist with-out which he must be feeble in life, forgotten in death—with which he may become one of the shakers of earth and one of the signal lights in heaven—are those of sympathy and imagination." Imagination is the strength of all art, of everything beautiful in architecture, sculpture, painting, poetry or music. The Venus of Milo, in all its beauty was seen in the rough marble shaft by the sculptor, long before the releasing chisel touched the stone. And sympathy, too. is necessary in order that the creations should 32 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. be properly interpreted and understood. So strong should this temperament be in every artist that the artist himself will lose sight of the "ego" in his work, while to others his individuality shines out in every one of his creations. How many engaged in some art have been so eager in anticipation of artistic success that they have forgotten the soul in the wealth of splendid tech-nique they exhibit in their works ! They do not live their art and hence are not true to themselves. Study well any of the classics in literature, painting, sculpture or music and see how easy it is to recognize the productions of the same brain. So every true artist will imprint on each piece of his work a certain indescrib-able something which makes each resemble the other and dis-tinguishes it from the creations of other artists. And then the artist must do his best. No half-hearted attempt will be successful. Simple productions should be attempted at first; nothing elaborate, as for instance, in music, a Grand March or an Overture ought to be undertaken,—but some little theme, well and faithfully worked out. These should be the characteristics of everyone engaged in art; and one of the reasons why this is not so is because so many of the art public do not understand art sufficiently to demand better creations. In the construction of articles used in everyday life, there is no necessity for especial education to detest frauds, it only requires common sense; but with art products, however, it is different entirely. One often meets with highly intelligent people who cannot distinguish between a colorless daub and an original work of art, filled with atmosphere and light. They have not yet educated their eye to see wherein lies the difference; again, we see many who prefer an everyday, popular song, superficial and light, to the beautiful melodies of an Abt, a Schubert, or a Verdi. Education in art is evidently not sufficiently general to enable everyone to make these distinctions. Ignor-ance of beauty of form, or structure, undeveloped imagina-tion, unappreciation of beauty of symmetry are too general. Suc-cessful attempts are being made to remedy this, especially in literature, by the University Extension Movement. People are discovering that they need not necessarily be college graduates to become cultured and appreciate the best. This is a condition, then, for which some allowance can be made but what shall be done for the individual—and he is one of a large family—who IHHH I THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 33 I while admitting his ignorance of the principles of art, yet cooly in-forms you that he can "tell a fine painting when he sees it, or a good piece of music when he hears it?" This is the class of peo-ple who open the way for those would-be artists who make "suc-cess" and "money"synonyms. They are both pretenders. The public, eager to be gullied, thinking that money will purchase everything, aims at seeming to be well-versed in art; the artist, with little real knowledge, and less imagination, too insincere and full of pretence to live his own life aims at the money or social position his apparent art productions will procure for him. Each deserves pity. They may gain their respective ends, but neither can ever know the delights of one who has developed a taste for art, or who has consecrated his life to it. They cannot, with all their wealth buy the wholesome, pure and rapturous thrill of delight, for one second, that another can invoke at will from such as Bach, Beethoven, Horace, Shakespeare, Raphael, or Wagner. Success in art, then, cannot be measured by the money one gains; a true artist will live in his art long after millionaires have passed away. Michael Angelo, Dante, and Palestrina still live while the names of their contemporary moneyed men are dead. And let us bear in mind, too, that the road to success is always one of toil and weariness. —P. '00. THE TRIP TO CHAMBERSBURG. ABOUT forty of the boys took advantage of the recent good sleighing and went to Chambersburg to attend a concert given by our Glee and Musical Clubs. The party was divided into three sled loads and got started after an hour's delay in waiting for our Proctor (who decided to accompany us about the time we were ready to start) to get a hair-cut and shave in or-der to be presentable to the sight of the Wilson girls. Soon after leaving Gettysburg it started to snow hard, so we had to break our own road, which soon told on our horses. When we reached the top of the mountain we were informed that we were favored if the horse would be able to get us to Chambersburg that night, much less bring us back. The boys got scared and decided to wade the snow when a steep hill was reached rather than spend the rest of l^uMmmmmmummMwmm 34 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. the night so far from friends. All the other sleds, which were lighter, passed us on the mountain except the fourth one, which was a cutter with two freshmen in it. They heard of the fellows going, so the}' went up town and after much persuasion, and many promises in case the horse and sleigh were lost, they started out in pursuit of the other three sleds. The heavy snow covered all traces of a trail, yet by the aid of matches and sign-boards they reached the top of the mountain where the road was rough, the trees close on either side, no full moon to light the way, in fact there was nothing there but a team and two scared freshmen. One was positive that there were bears in the mountain because he knew of one having been shot recently. The other tried to con-vince him that they were perfectly safe so long as they staid in the road, but after a few strange sounds were heard in the woods and a few dark stumps were seen in the direction of the noise, they were both positive of the presence of bears, so they turned and lost no time in getting back home, where they related their ex-perience to their friends. Our last through sled reached its desti-nation after a long six hour's drive. The only amusement on the way over was giving yells, singing songs and telling stories. We went immediately to the concert, where we were greeted by the presence of about thirty Wilson girls who showed their appreci-ation for our yells and songs by their innocent cousinly smiles. After the concert we had supper, a thing we looked forward to after we walked the second steep hill. About 11 p. M. we were informed that it would be impossible for the horses to make the return trip that night. Well, the common topics of conversation among the boys who went financially prepared to return the same night, were as follows: Where are you going to sleep? Have you any money to lend ? Do you have any relatives in town ? And do you think we can stand the proprietor off? It happened that some went prepared to stay a week, so the money soon became equally divided, and the boys spent a pleasant night but by no means a quiet one, if you can believe the report of the proprietor. The next morn-ing we were allowed the privilege of visiting the Wilson College and attending chapel with the girls, a privilege which seemed to be enjoyed mutually, judging by the interest they took in showing us through the college buildings. On our way back the only stop made was at the big hotel on the top of the mountain where we THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 35 did justice to a good dinner. The trip was enjoyed by all who took it and the same crowd could be easily induced to repeat the trip, especially if the Wilson girls were at the other end of the line. —H. M. C. ATHLETICS. THE Sons of Hercules have gotten down to systematic work, and expect to hold their exhibition about the third week in March. Every Monday, Wednesday and Friday evenings are devoted to this branch of athletics, basket-ball occupying the floor on other days. A number of old men are candidates, includ-ing Koser, who is leader, Traub, Bottinger, Stock, Straw, Brum-baugh, Smith, Smyser, Jr., and Bickel. These are all men whose work is well-known. Among new men who are showing up well may be mentioned Stock, Jr., McClean, Claney, Koser, W. W. Hartman, Smyser, Jr., and Ketterman. In general, the work is of a high standard and promises a good exhibition. Beside the usual features, it will include this year, boxing and wrestling ; and the programme will also be varied by performances of the glee and mandolin clubs. A game of basket-ball will close the evening, which is certainly one to look forward to with pleasure. There is plenty of good material yet dormant, however. Let every man come out and do his best to make this year's gym team a success. Manager Weigle has completed his schedule for the coming season with the exception of one date. It is as follows: April IS—Franklin and Marshall at Lancaster. April 20—Susquehanna at Selinsgrove. April 21—Bucknell at Lewisburg. April 22—State at State College. April 26—Dickinson at Gettysburg-. May 5—Susquehanna at Gettysburg. May 6—Indians at Carlisle. May 13—Dickinson at Carlisle. May 20 -Franklin and Marshall at Gettysburg. May 27—Indians at Gettysburg. June 3—Open. June 10—Bucknell at Gettysburg. It will be noted that we meet Dickinson again for the first time in five years and other old rivals are on the list. All the teams ^mmmmmmm 36 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. are about our strength and there is no reason why we should not have a successful season. Let every man come out and get down to hard work and we will make the season of '99 one to be re-membered. EDITOR'S SCISSORS. That New Year resolution, Unlike most things of earth, Grows ever small and smaller; It was biggest at its birth.—Ex. HEARD AFTER THE BLIZZARD. " Don't you throw that at me, kid ! " " Gwan, I'll lick the whole college." —W. The boys came over the mountain, The boys came over the mountain, The boys came over the mountain, To see the Wilson girls, To see the Wilson girls, To see the Wilson girls, The boys came over the mountain, The boys came over the mountain, The boys came over the mountain, To see the Wilson girls. We won't go home till morning, We won't go home till morning, We won't go home till morning, For we've seen the Wilson girls, We've seen the Wilson girls, We've seen the Wilson girls, We won't go home till morning, We won't go home till morning, We won't go home till morning, We've seen the Wilson girls. -Sled No. 1. When you leave college without permission, always take the Proctor along. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 37 Old Dorm to New Dorm ; "You may be pretty, but you're terribly cracked." New Dorm to Old Dorm ; " Cork it off ! You've been full ten years." I saw an old man in a funny old wig Go dancing- along-, jiggity gig. Behind him there capered and gambolled a dog And a donkey that ambled, joggity jog. They jigged and they jogged and they gambolled in glee To the tune of a fiddler, fiddle dee dee. They went till they came to the volcano's top, And down they went into it, hobbity, hop. And then I didn't see them any more. —Castalian. ,t^^ri:sjr~s->r-s5jr*sis->t4r-»r~s>jr^-> RINTING WE PRINT THIS BOOK ^ and BINDING MT. HOLLY PRINTING COMPANY. The Mount Holly Stationery and Print-ing Company does all classes of Printing and Binding, and can furnish you any Book, Bill Head, Letter Head, Envelope, Card, Blank, or anything pertaining to their business in just as good style and at less cost than you can obtain same elsewhere. They are located among the mountains but their work is metropolitan. You can be convinced of this if you give them the opportunity. MT. HOLLY SPRINGS, PA. ^«_r^_jr-M^--w~jr^r^:r^r^:kJc^jr"5^rT^r-^^r-5«j H. S. BENNER, ■-^--ib tEroxel. Dealer in ^irte (groceries anb Itottons *_x_4}orfc Street. Teachers. Union Teachers' Agencies of America REV. L. D. BASS, D. D., Manager. Pittsburgh Pa., Toronto, Can., New Orleans, La., New York, N. Y., Washington, D. C, San Francisco, Cal., Chicago, 111., St. Louis, Mo., Denver, Col. There are thousands of positions to be filled. We had over 8,000 vacancies last sea-son. Unsurpassed facilities for placing leachers in any part of the U. S. or Canada. One fee registers in 9 offices. More vacan-cies than teachers. Address all applications toPITTSBURG, PA. MUMPER & BENDER Furniture Cabinet Making, Picture Frames Baltimore St., GETTYSBURG, PA. .GO TO. I}otel (Gettysburg Barber Sfyop. Centre Square- B. M. SEFTON. W. F. CODORI, Sim^Tcodori Dealer in Beef, Pork, Lamb, Veal, Sausage. Special rates to Clubs. York St., GETTYSBURG. .ao TO. TIPTON & BARBEHENN, Barbers, In the Eagle Hotel, Cor. Main and Washington Sts. Subscribe for t£jc .©ettysburg. HIercury MtfH FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. I gasebaU ^applies, .SpalOtng's SLeague JBail, dftite, dfcasfcs, Etc. Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for Jennie, ©olf, Crtcftet, aracft anO ffielb, ©gmnaetum Equipments ant) ©utftts Complete Catalogue Spring and Summer Sports Free. The Name the Guar-antee." a. ©. SpalOlng & JSros. New York .•. Philadelphia V Chicago S. G. Spangles & Co., Piitc >IfW 102 EAST MIDDLE STREET. Telephone 39. S. J. CODORI, Jr. *H Druggist*** Dealer in Drugs, Medicines, Toilet Articles, £ Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. .Baltimore Street. R. H. Gulp, PAPER HANGER, Second Square, York St. COLLEGE EMBLEMS. EMIL ZOTHE, ENGRAVER, DESIGNER AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER. 19 S. NINTH ST.PHILADELPHIA. PA SPECIALTIES: Masonic Marks, Society Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through C. H. Tilp. Gotrell # Leonard, 472-474 Broadway, Albany, N. Y. makers of CAPS, GOWNS and. HOODS To the leading American Colleges. Illus-trated Manual, etc., upon application. Meneely Bell Co. TROY, N. Y. MANUFACTURERS OF SUPERIOR BELLS The 2000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania Col-lege was manufactured at this foundry. mK^^m^mt^^mmm PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. You can't expect to create the im-pression that you are well dressed unless your clothes are MADE FOR YOU. Equivocate as you may, the fact remains that ready-made g-arments lack that air of exclusiveness which custom work possesses. J. D. LIPPY, Merchant Tailor 39 Chambersburg St., Gettysburg-, Pa. G. E. SPANGLER, j» ( Successor to J. W. Eicholtz & Co.,) Dealer in Pianos, Organs, Music, Musical Instruments, Strings, Etc. YORK STREET, 1ST SQUARE. GETTYSBURG. II08 CHESTNUT ST., PHILA. Wright's Engraving House HAS become the recognized leader in unique styles of COLLEGE and FRA-TERNITY ENGRAVINGS and STA-TIONERY, College and Class-day Invita-tions, engraved and printed from steel plates Programmes, Menus, Wedding and Recep-tion Invitations, Announcements, etc., etc. Examine prices and styles before ordering elsewhere. Fifty Visiting Cards from New Engraved Plates $1.00. ERNEST A. WRIGHT, 1108 CHESTNUT ST., PHILADELPHIA. JOHN L. SHEADS, New Cigar Store Next Door to W. M. Depot, GETTYSBURG. P. F. HENNIG, DEALER IN Bread, Rolls, Pretzels, Crackers, YORK ST., GETTYSBURG. Reasonable Rates to Clubs. 1XX filler, Grocer, Confectioner and Fruiterer. Ice Cream and Oysters in Season . . . \9 TXlain St., ©ettusburg. City Hotel, Main St. Gettysburg. J* Free 'Bus to and from all Trains Thirty seconds' walk from either depot Dinner with drive over field with four or more, 51.35 Rates $1.50 to $2.00 per day. John E. Hughes, Prop. C. A. Blocher's Jewelry Store, For Souvenir Spoons, Sword Pins Etc. All kinds of Jewelry. Repairing- a Specialty. POST OFFICE CORNER CENTRE SQUARE .Photographer. No. 3 Main St., GETTYSBURG, PENNA. Our new effects in Portraiture are equal to photos made anywhere, and at any price.

The College Mefcuty. VOL. IV. GETTYSBURG, PA., FEBRUARY, 1897. No. 10. THE COLLEGE MEftClPRY, Published each month during the college year by the Students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. STAFF. Editor: ROBBIN B. WOLF, '97. Associate Editors : LEWIS C. MANGES, '97. ED. W. MEISEN H ELDER, '98. SAMUEL J. MILLER '97. CHARLES T. LARK '98. JOHN W. OTT, '97. CHARLES H. TILP, '98. E. L. KOLLER, '98. Alumni Association Editor: REV. D. FRANK GARLAND, A. M., Tanetown, Md. Business Manager: HARRY R, SMITH, '97. Assistant Business Manager: JOHN E. MEISENHELDER, '97. -"","./One volume (ten months). . . . $1.(10 lijl'ms • t Single copies, . . .15 Payable in advance. All Students are requested to hand us matter lor publication. The Alumni and ex-membera ot the College will favor us by sending Information concerning their whereabouts or any Items they may think would be Interesting for publication. All subscriptions and business matters should be addressed to the business manager. Matter intended for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address, THE COLLEGE MERCUBY, Gettysburg, Pa. CONTENTS. EDITORIAL, --- 142 COLLEGE SPIRIT, - - 145 AN OYSTER ROAST, 146 COLLEGE L-OCALS, -. 14S ALUMNI NOTES, 150 LITERAL TRANSLATION OF THE IX ODE OF HORACE, - 152 OUR BABY, --- 152 ATHLETIC NOTES, --.•'■ 152 TOWN AND SEMINARY NOTES, 153 LITERARY SOCIETIES, 154 FRATERNITY NOTES, 154 EXCHANGES, 155 EDITORIAL-WE were delayed about two weeks in get-ting- out this issue of the MERCURY by the printers, who have been working night and day on the Spring election tickets THE plan proposed, in our last issue, for getting alumni news from all over the country has met with such encouraging response that it will be given a trial. The names and ad-dresses of those who have promised to help us are: Dr. Charles Baum, 630 North Broad St., Philadelphia; Rev. J. J. Young, D. D., 79 Christopher St., New York City, N. Y.; Rev. L. M. Kuhns, 2539 Pierce St., Omaha, Neb.; Mr. W. J. Gies, 2 Hillhouse Ave., New Haven, Conn.; Rev. J. Elmer Bittle, Turtle Creek, Allegheny county, Pa.; Rev. George Beiswanger, 1722 North Fulton St., Baltimore, Md.; Rev. Albert Bell, 117 East Maple St., York, Pa., and Rev. E. J. Metzler. Altoona, Pa. Several others written to, have riot yet replied. These wide awake gentlemen, loyal' sous of Alma Mater, take a lively interest in all that pertains to the history and work of the College, and the readers of the MERCURY may hereafter expect to find a newsy and lengthy column of Alumni personals. Their fellow Alumni living in their respective regions can forward items either to them or to this office. It is to be hoped that this evidence of interest in the Alumni will be reciprocated by an increasing interest of the Alumni in the MERCURY, and we suggest that one way of do-ing this would be for each subscriber to get his neighboring Alumni to send in their subscrip-tions. * * * THE "Board of Trustees" held their regu-lar semi-annual meeting on the 16th ult., H3 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. about eighteen of the members being present. Their most important action related to the date of Commencement. This has been changed from the next to the last Thursday in June, to the first Thursday in June. Several reasons lead to this. The General Synod meets the second week in June and a number of the "Board" and Faculty are delegates to the Synod. It has been learned through ex-perience that the boys don't do very good work in warm weather. The attractions out of doors seem to outweigh the attractions of-fered by the sciences. After the first of June, base-ball and tennis generally command more time and energy than study. The plan, how-ever, has some disadvantages, since College and Seminary Commencements will come on the same day of the same week. The winter term will close Nov. 26th and will open the next morning. A short recess will be given at Easter, from Thursday even-ing till Tuesday morning, thus giving the boys the privilege of celebrating the Resurrection Festival at their homes. * *- * WE were gratified at the hearty response of the boysr who are not members of the ''Staff," to the notice on the bulletin board. The pub-lication of one or two of the articles had to be deferred for lack of space. A similar notice will be put up each month, and it is to be hoped that the response will be equally prompt. * * WE desire to call attention ^o Prof. Kling-er's correction ot a mistake made in our last issue, and take this means of assuring him that the mistake was altogether unintentional and published without due consideration or inquiry. THERE is a certain feature in some of our neighboring institutions, which, if added, might be of great benefit to our Alma Mater. We refer to lectures, not only by the Profes-sors, but also by others. There are quite a number of cultivated Alumni in the neighbor-ing towns and cities who no doubt would con-sent to deliver a lecture to the student body on some educational topic. These would serve to broaden the minds of the students and would be highly appreciated. One or two lectures ,in the Y. M. C. A. course constitute all that we hear outside the class-room. The Stuck-enberg course of lectures was a step in the right direction. Let us have some others. * * * THE boys have decided to give an entertain-ment on the night of the 22nd. The subject has not yet been announced. The proceeds will be devoted to the interests of the Athletic Association. These plays are quite common at some other colleges and this proposed step shows that the Gettysburg boys mean to rank with the best. The young ladies of Irving- College have been quite successful in ther ef-forts and the boys can always do as well as the ladies. Let the coming play be made so inter-esting that it will be an inducement to con-tinue in that line and thus have the.monotony of the college course somewhat relieved. * LET it not be forgotten that the time for the "Inter-Collegiate State Oratorical Contest" is approaching. It will be held at Muhlenberg, on the 12th of March. Gettysburg is entitled to one contestant. In order to make a selection of this one, there will have to be a preliminary contest. Let there be a lot of applicants, so that the man who represents Gettysburg shall truly represent her. Let us be determined to win the prize this year. We have never yet won it and now it is our turn. It would be well for the literary societies to attend to this matter promptly. * * * SOME exception has been taken, especially by "The Yale Gettysburg Club" to some statements in our last issue in the essay on "College Literary Societies." Among others THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 144 was the statement that "Harvard always beats Yale in literary contests.'' As an explanation we would say that the essay was written some time ago and only given for publication be-cause the editor had been disappointed in sev-eral promised articles. .It was handed in on the spur of the moment and without revision. Since the writing of the essay Yale has had some signal literary victories over Harvard and Princeton, so that the words "always beats" were a little too strong and likely to create some misapprehension as to the undoubted high literary standing of Yale. * ., * "J. A. H." suggested in a previous number of the MERCURY, that there would be a larger number of Alumni in attendance Commence-ment week, if instead of the regular Alumni meeting, there would be an Alumni dinner. The suggestion seemed to meet with general approv-al, but, so far as we know, no action has been taken to accomplish this. With a little pre-sumption, we beg to offer an amendment to his suggestion, which is to substitute an Alumni dinner for the President's reception. This latter has been one of the most attractive features of Commencement week, but it has not been ap-preciated by the Alumni. One great advan-tage of the President's reception is that it affords a means of entertainment for the visit-ing young ladies, who would no doubt be ex-cluded from an Alumni dinner. But they have confessedly been so much abused of late that we think the change would be welcomed. On the other hand, an Alumni dinner would be for the Alumni and only those would attend it whose interest in the College would make the meeting very entertaining to all. We claim no originality for the above pro-posal, and it certainly is worthy of the consid-eration of the proper authorities. PHILIP MELANCTHON.—The year 1897 will be memorable as the four hundreth anniver-sary of the birth of Philip Melancthon, the scholar of Germany. All over the land of his birth, throughout the Luther-lands of Europe, and in America, and doubtless also in Eng-land, there will be "Melancthoncelebrations". Great preparations are being made for the event and the result will be a better apprecia-tion of the man and his services in the cause of literature and in the advancement of the kingdom of God in the Reformation. Some of the ablest men of our own church will deliver addresses, many of which wili find their way into permamnent form in magazine articles, and Melancthon literature will be deservedly increased. A glance over Poole's Index will be sufficient to convince one of the crying need of such literature in the English. The "Life of Melancthon" will also issue from three dif-ferent firms by as many writers in the near future. One of these is now on the market from the Pilger Co., of Reading, another will follow in early summer from the Lutheran Publication house in Philadelphia, and another in '98 from Putnam & Sons, of New York. Doubtless others besides Lutherans will join in doing honor to the memory of this great scholar, whom Luther denominated as "incon-ceivably learned". There is no doubt to be entertained of the superiority of his intellect, but his unbounded success as a writer, his prodigious learning, his purity of diction, his scholarly attainments must be attributed to this in addition, viz, that that he was an untiring toiler. Union of talent and application made him a scholar. He was a student—he studied. He determined when he went to the University of Wittenberg that "youth should study as well as frequent the university". His zeal in this "particular never abated to the end of his life. His great desire was to furnish young men with the motives and means for study. To this end he made abridgements of the various branches of philo-sophy, and reduced almost every art and science into a form which was of invaluable assistance to the student. For many years his Logic, Ethics, Treatise on the Soul, and Physics were used in all the Lutheran schools. He applied himself so earnestly to study that if II * '45 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. his friends were alarmed for his health and the elector wrote him, kindly admonishing him to be careful of his health. He studied medicine, theology, jurisprudence, and mathematics, besides his thorough mastery of languages. His success must be attributed very largely to the fact that he knew how "to toil terribly". His life has in it a lesson for the easy-going, careless student of today whose highest ambi-tion is "to get through" college, whose last thought is of acquiring an education. G, ILLITERACY OF BOYS.—In an article in the Educational Review by E. L. Godkin, on the "Illiteracy of Boys," the position is taken maintaining that our public schools give tbo little attention to English in the preparation of boys for College, and that private schools are little in advance of public schools in this par-ticular. The author says, "I meet everyday with men whom we call educated who do not seem to care how they speak or write. Their speech is full of solecisms, their letters and notes are unpunctuated scrawls and in their pronunciation the vowel sounds are summarily "got rid of." The colleges of America have in the past placed far too little stress on prepara-tion in English for admission. It was not un-til 1874 that Harvard required "any sort of Engish qualification" for entrance. One of the reasons alleged for faulty English is that in America education counts for little, socially, while in England bad grammar is supposed to indicate mean origin. Carelessness in speech is said to be growing. Many of the newspa-pers are given to slang and the language of the street, with a view to popularity. From the cradle to the college the home is a sharer in the blame for this illiteracy. Parents are too much given to "baby talk," thus cultivating a habit of carelessness in themselves and in their children. Too little attention to the matter of chaste English is given in the conversation at table and about the hearth-stone of the home. On the street children will unlearn in an hour the lessons of a week. Even publishers of books are guilty of sending forth millions of pages of trashy literature couched in wretched English. A higher standard for admission to college in English is needed and more atten-tion to the study of English in all our public schools is imperative. In our own institution the work heaped on the Professor of English literature is enough for three departments at least. Not less Latin or Greek but more Eng-lish in the classical course is the crying need of the hour in the educational work of the col-lege. G. To THE EDITOR OF THE MERCURY : I desire to correct a misapprehension of the aim of the "Philosophical Society" and of my relation to it. The society is not a "class," but simply a body of Seminary and College students, who come together fortnightly for the purpose of discussing some of the funda-mental processes of thinking, and also to talk over some of the problems of the day. I am not the "teacher" in any sense of the word, but a member holding the office of Vice President. The society was not organized by me, but is the outcome of the interest in scholarship excited in the student body by Dr. Stuckenberg's lectures. When asked by the students to become a member of such a body, I gladly consented, with the distinct understanding that I was to go in as ' 'one of the boys." I am ready at any time to organize a "class" in any subject belonging to my department, and to "teach" it with all my heart, but to trespass upon another depart-ment is neither my intention nor my right. OSCAR GODFREY KLINGER. COLLEaE SPIRIT. What is meant by college spirit? It means the love a student has for his college. It means j the interest he exhibits in her standing with other institutions, her government, her athlet- \ ics, her morals and her welfare in general. A student possessed with true love for his college will not permit her rating to be lowered, but W^i THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 146 would rather seek to elevate it; and in so do-ing see that no unscrupulous methods are em-ployed. He will defend his college from the assaults of those who unjustly attack her, as a true soldier defends his country, and would stand by his colors as firmly as a color-bearer does in battle. Further, he will assist his superiors, I mean his professors, b}' obeying them, for if he pays little attention to their counsels "he is but cutting off his nose to spite his face." There are many students who be lieve that their professors take no interest in their welfare, a belief in which I think they are very much mistaken. By what methods can a student elevate the standing of his college? One method has al-ready been given; to this may be added that he do his work faithfully and honestly, for what a student is after he is graduated will be mostly attributed to his college. For it does not ad-mit of a doubt that, all other things being equal, the alumnus of an institution who is seen by the public leading his fellows in professional, business or other pursuits will have that honor credited to the training he received at college, and thus people will be led to believe that his college is a college worthy to educate their sons. In the race for college honors, for there are some who work merely to obtain that end, a spirit worthy of honor is in that student who obtains the crown on his own merits, but words of condemnation too great cannot be spoken of that student who works merely for honor and, in addition, uses dishonest means. No true college spirit here. As an example of false college spirit there is a student in a Theo-logical Seminary who, while he was in college, was a plodder, but where he is now he can ob-tain no mark or honors and has stopped his plodding. Is this true college spirit ? Far from it. Further, in the government of an institution a true college spirit may be shown. Those who are in charge of the government do not always know what men in the march to success are the gamblers, the drunkards, and the van-dals. Those students who believe in pure government as an essential to the success of a college ought to show their loyalty and have ousted from the army these men. Surely, is not college love, loyalt}' and spirit very defi-cient here ? Next to divine law comes the moral law and such students as are immoral should not be among our number. There can be no doubt that in athletic con-tests the spirit of a college is shown as promi-nently as anywhere else. How great is the rejoicing over a victory and the brooding over defeat. The men who constitute our athletic teams should be men of true spirit, for the}7, to a certain degree, make a college what it is. So that those who are deficient in their studies, void of respect, loose in morals, should not be permitted to represent the college. College spirit has two sides, good and evil, and will make an everlasting impression upon the young man, for from the seed college spirit is reaped a habit, from a habit a character, a character a destiny. Shall it be good or evil ? M. AN OYSTER ROAST. So calm and quiet was the night. Not a sound was heard along historic Seminary Ridge except the monotonous puff, puff, puff of the engine in the steam-plant back of the Seminary buildings. The light of the mid- December moon, filtering through the naked trees, seemed to change the puffs of steam, which escaped with lazy precision and punctu-ated the silence of the night, into halos of wreath-like brilliancy. Towards the buildings which crest the hill and are inhabited by the youthful saints—for whose pretty brows the ephemeral halos were probably intended—were hurrying many gay and well-groomed couples; college widows, of established age and dignity-; society queens, of numerous ill-starred conquests; vivacious debu-tantes, of unknown possibilities; each piloted by a theological social lion. The long expected night had arrived; the I■ H7 THE COLLEGE NEERCURY. society event of the season was about to be given by these promiscuous scions of unclassi-fied genealogical trees. A whole barrel of choice oysters had been purchased. For the sake of novelty and economy, the engine house served as a reception-room, cloak-room and banquet hall. The coal dust and smutty soot flakes had been carefully removed from the j floor and walls; tri-colored bunting and multi-colored lanterns had been borrowed for the oc-casion and draped semi-artistically about the walls and girders; a long table covered with immaculate linen and illuminated by hand-some banquet lamps, also borrowed, extended the length of the room. Mr. Jones, the en-gineer, was the chefiox the occasion, but inci-dentally fed the furnaces with coal and kept his eyes on the barrel of "blue-points which had been placed right outside the door which was left conveniently ajar. It was a peculiarly novel scene, after all had assembled; "The mild eyed, ,melancholy lotus ' eaters'' never dreamed of anything quite like it. Occasionally some of the volatile products j of highly heated bituminized coal escaped from the furnaces and mixed with the prevalent aeriform matter of different origin but pro-duced no effect upon the assemblage other than a sudden ebullition ofjocosity. Anything which under ordinary circumstances would produce discomfort seemed to cause volleys of second-hand wit to ricochet impetuously along the line of hungry guests who were now, awaiting the first course of "raws." Meanwhile "Hans," "Judy," "Dick," "Pete" and "Billee," a quintettee of jolly col-lege boys, had mysteriously met in front of the old, wide-winged, Doric edifice on the college campus. After a short parley they retired into the shadow of "Gym" but quickly returned bearing something between them. As they darted stealthily from shadow to shadow, the little brown stone cherubs high up in the tower of Recitation Hall, looked down and smiled as they recognized a little, old, red wheelbarrow ill concealed among the five. They had seen such sights before. When "Hans" had led his party safely to the edge of the Seminary grove, where they say, the spectre soldiers stand in battle line on somber July nights, he placed his men on guard and started out to reconnoiter. The barrel was soon located; a signal from the captain quickly brought his four muscular companions to the coal-bin from which they silently removed the barrel. Be-fore leaving "Hans" returned to look upon the victims. While peeping through the dust covered windows he heard some belated guests approaching and lightly stepped into the shadow. "Doctor, do you smell the oysters ?'' he heard a theological professor's wife ask her husband as they approached the door, and he replied, "yes, don't they smell delicious?" and "Hans" muttered sotto voce, as he went back to his companions, "Well, I guess nit." The "robbery was soon detected and con-sternation seized upon the banqueters. Carl Browne Coxey looked like a cross between a frightened poodle and a Circassian freak, as he pushed his hands wildly through his hair, and with frightful facial contortions, said, "I'll give twenty dollars for the apprehension of the purloiners of our ostreoid bivalves." Freddie Balm, in his unseemly haste to obtain the re-ward, dashed from the building, climbed a treacherous tree to look into a darkened room, fell and broke the government fence. John Evangelical Hindall dropped his padded shoulders, blinked his eyes and said, "ei,ei,ei." Rev. Mephistopheles Crowmore, who came from the far, far west, croaked dolefully about "snakes in the grass," and "Pud" Shower, appreciating the joke, but forgetting his sur-roundings, fiercely danced the Choochie- Choochie. J. H. Arms sent to town for a few oysters and a photographer so that he might have his picture taken while in the act of eat-ing one of the "succulents" and thus prove that he had enough, anywa}'. While these incidents were occurring, Mr. Jones was flashing his dark lantern up and down the grove, and its intermittent light was observed by five young fellows, satiated with laughter and oysters, who were leaving a hid- THE COLLEGE MERCURY. den nook in Reynold's grove, and moving toward the College. Each one carried with him a fine, large oyster shell, which now adorns his room, only some fair hand has since then painted upon it an old, red wheelbarrow, with this inscription below: '■The best laid schemes of mice an' m-.-n, Gang aft a' glee." COLLEGE LOCALS. EDMUND W. MEISENHKLDER and E L. ROLLER, Editors. number have weeklies ? Pay up your back subscriptions ! This is the only way to keep the MERCURY moving. Dr. B.—"Now Mr. N. where was the Flaminian road." Mr. N., '98.—"Between Rome and Ar-menia." Hurrah ! At last we will get a new yell. It is a long felt want. Now all we need are the fellows to give it, and they are always plenty. Mr. D.—"Hamilton died by committing a duel." Probably we do speak too often about sup-porting the Spectium, but we ask 5'our for-bearance. Let each lower classman ask him-self if he is doing as much for the present Spectrum as he wants the '98 men to do for him. There is no reason, except it be our-selves, why we should not produce an annual which shall equal the annual of any other col-lege. Other colleges have no difficulty as re-gards literary material, why should we ? Surely we think we are equal in this respect to the college men of other institutions. What do you think ? Dr. S.—"What does arboreal mean ?" "Guv." '99.—"Wild. It is used when we want to designate wild animals." Already some of our boys have been out practicing base ball. It is a good idea. We expect to see the finest base ball team our col-lege has ever had. Begin work early and get on the first team. There is always room at the top. Dr. S.—"What purpose does the tail of the monkey serve." Mr. C, '98—"Apprehension. Nobody knows who stole the Sem. oysters. If you find out, report to Harmes or Cox. "That oyster supper cost us all the way twelve dollars." Mr. D., '99.—"Professor, what was that ex-ercise law ?" Prof. H.—"I suppose you mean the excise law." B., 1900 has been the first unfortunate to go through the ice. No serious results have fol-lowed. Do you think that the MERCURY can be run on wind ? No we must have money. Would 3'ou like to see the MERCURY fail, when all other colleges have monthlies and a good Mr. L., dead?" (in Greek,) "Prof, is a corpse The first one of the entertainments arranged by the Y. M. C. A., took place on Friday evening, Jan. 15th. The concert was given by the Mozart Symphony Club and was a'fine one. This concert has been the best, which we have had the opportunity of enjoying, for a long time. We have had some poor ones and we were in prime condition to appreciate a good company. Herr Hoch was the favorite of the evening and acquitted himself nobly, and much to the delight of the audience. The conduct of the student body was admir-able and was so thought by the company them-selves, who left very well pleased with their treatment. There is but one criticism to make, namely, the concert was not sufficiently well attended. Turn out and patronize the other entertainments. Some treats are in store for you. Remember, we want to see a Y. M. C. A. hall grace the campus not many years hence. One of the '99 men gives promise of making a man as noble as George Washington, inas-much as he cannot tell a lie. The following story about S., will corroberate this statement. Proctor.—"S., was that you who blew that horn?" S. '99.—"No, sir!" Proctor.—"Didn't you blow that horn ?" S—"No, sir !" Proctor.—"See here now S., don't tell me a lie, didn't vou blow that horn?" S.—"Yes, sir." Several surprising statements have already been made by some of the Juniors in Logic. F., 98 says—"An animal that swims is a a fish. Man swims. Therefore a man is a fish." "Earney" A., 97, has a ver>^ refined musi-i 1 ■ l 149 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. cal taste ; but still he thinks the young (?) lady with the Mozart Symphony Club "should have sung United States." S., '98, (In Juvenal)—translates "cum tu dcponis amiclus turgidus" as follows: "when you lay aside your dirty clothes." The Preps wonder how A. B. B. V. O., gets excused from chapel and church on Sunday. Sound sleep is a very necessary thing. E., 97, reading in papers the account of the fire at Wanamaker's Dept. store, spreads the news that "John Wanamaker's Depot store was burned." S., 1900 usually does his sleeping in French class and becomes very indignant when Dr. M. disturbs his sound slumbers by calling on him to recite "Tom" N., (class of 1919) has developed wonderful propensities for spelling—his latest spelling for dog is "D-O-Voni !" The lecture by Judge Alfred Ellison on "Kings and Queens or Earth's True Royalty," was well attended and enjoyed, despite the condition of the chapel. The lecture abound-ed in humorous anecdotes, and the lecturer recited quite a number of his own poems dur-ing the course of his talk. Again has King Death come into our midst and deprived us of Mr. H. Dee Peters, of the class of 1902. He was the step-son of Rev. D. T. Koser, of Arendtsville. He left school about the middle of December and died two weeks later from hemorrhages of the lungs, being only twenty years old. He was a young man of ability and firm Christian character and gave promise of brilliant success in college and in life. His sister, who accompanied him to and from school every morning and even-ing, must now come alone. While he was here for only one term-, and not very well known, yet his death should be an example to us, who are behind. We too, may be taken away, we know not how soon, and therefore should al-ways be ready, as he was, and not be afraid to meet our Judge. The MERCURY extends sincere sympathy to the friends and family of the deceased. [The above was inadvertently omitted from our last issue.] The Easter vacation has been shortened to five days, and the college year will end the last week in May, and Commencement will oc-cur the first week in June. This change meets the approval of the boys generally. The Photographers, Tipton and Mumper, have been seen quite frequently this term on the campus and in the buildings taking views for the Spectrum. One view, that of the whole campus, a combination of four different plates, is an especially fine piece of workmanship. This is the "dull term" of the year—noth-ing to break the monotony but the course of lectures and concerts given by the Y. M. C. A. Everyone should take advantage of them. K., '97, says that "The Gospels include Acts, Romans and Epistles to the Hebrews. Dr. H.—Mr. S., '99, How many men were in Saul's army when he went out against the Philistines ? Mr. S. (getting the signal mixed,)—30,000. Dr. H.—Did you say 3000? Mr. S.—Yes, sir. Dr. H. (who heard the prompting)—Sound must increase as it travels from the back part of the room to my desk. Mr. C, '99, remarked as he left Dr. M.'s room that the next time he visited the dutch locality of Recitation Hall he would wear his shield so as to be protected from the flying missiles which occasionally pervade that local-ity. Mr. S., '99, (on returning from a call at 11.30 P. M., decides on practicing an exercise in elocution). Taking a full breath he slowly but loudly repeats, Now—I—am—alone. Mr. C, '99, (from under the covers in an adjoining room). If you don't break that off you won't be very long. Jerry of'98 and Willie of '99, two of the crack shots on the campus, ^recently exhibited some fine marksmanship by'chasing an (idea) over the athletic field. They mistook a bundle of charred paper which was tossed about by the wind for a chicken hawk and several shots were fired before the mistake was seen. The following officers have been elected by the Seniors, for class day exercises: Master of Ceremonies, Henry W. Bikle, Gettysburg; Ivy Oration, George W. Englar, Linwood, Md.; Ivy Poem, ,J. William Ott, Rocky Ridge, Md.; Class History, J. Hay Kain, York, Pa.; Class Poem, Fred. W. Fri-day, Jefferson, Md.; Class Roll, Clifton G. White, Manheim, Pa.; Faculty Roll, White Hutton, Chambersburg, Pa.; Presentation Ora-tion, Robbin B. Wolf, Gettysburg, Pa.; Man-tle Presentation, Frank S. Leisenring, Cham- THK COLLEGE MERCURY. !50 bersburg, Pa.; Tricks, John E. Meisenhelder, Hanover, Pa.; Love Cup, Charles B. Erb, Boyertown, Pa.; Our Absent Ones, Arthur B. Coble, Lykens, Pa.; Class Prophecy, William E. Wheeler, Baltimore, Md.; Conferring of Decrees, Samuel W. Miller, Edgemont, Md. ALUiviNi- '37. In looking up the members of the vari-ous classes, the Alumni Department of the '98 Spectrum has ascertained that Thomas Means, Esq., who was supposed to be the oldest living graduate, died in Centreville, Ind., March 5th, 1894. '39. Rev. W. F. Eyster, D. D., of Crete, Neb., the surviving member of '39, is now the oldest living graduate. '41. Rev. Nathan H. Conwell, of Philadel-phia, died last summer. His death was not generally known. '42. Rev. M. Sheeleigh, D. D., read a poem at the Melanchtou Memorial Services, which were held in St. Matthews church, Philadel-phia, Feb. 16, 1897. '43. Rev. W. M. Paxton.D. D. LL. D., pro-fessor of Homiletics, in Princeton Seminar}-, preached the sermon at the installation of Rev. D. W. Woods, Jr., pastor of the Presbyterian church, Friday evening, Jan. 29. '45. Rev. Wm. Uhl died recently at Los Angeles, Cal., after having spent a long and eventful life. '46. At the recent meeting of the Board of Trustees, Rev. W. M. Baum, D. D., and Rev. L. E. Albert, D. D., were appointed a com-mittee to present the matter of providing a new dormitory, to the church at large. '52. The address of Geo. H. Spang, Esq., is changed from Bedford to Hollidaysburg. '59. Rev. J. G. Goettman, D. D., Trinity church, Pittsburg, is seeking rest and heakh in the Somerset county mountains '60. Rev. L. Groh, pastor of St. Mark's Lutheran church, Omaha, was presented by his parishioners with a handsome mantle clock. At the last communion there were seven accessions. '63. Prof. E. J. Wolf, D. D., will deliver the address at the Melanchthon celebration, under the auspices of the New York Luther League. '68. Rev. L. M. Heilman, D. D., of Harris-burg, has been suffering with bronchial trou-ble for the past few months. He spent some time in Colorado, but finding that the climate did not agree with him, has now gone to Florida. We hope that he will find relief in that sunny clime. '70. Rev. A. G. Fastnacht is editor of the York Lutheran, and Rev. W. S. Freas, D. D., '73, is business manager. Rev. Fastnacht re-cently celebrated his twentieth anniversary as pastor of one of York's churches. '77. Rev. S. Stall, D. D., editor of the Lutheran Observe), is one of the associate edi-tors of the Open Church, a quarterly magazine of applied Christianity. To the last number he has contributed a valuable article on 1' Methods of Church Work.'' '73. Rev. Dr. Freas made one of the ad-dresses at the dedication of Trinity United Evangelical church, of York, on Sunday after-noon, January 24th. '73. Rev. E. H. Leisenring preached his seventh anniversar}* sermon January 3rd. There are three young men at college from his congregation. '74. Rev, C. M. Stock, of Hanover, was elected Secretary of the Board of Trustees at. its recent meeting. '76. The Pittsburg Times of Jan. 2nd, says : "A remarkable action was taken by the Coun-cil of the First English Lutheran church, of which Rev. Wm. A. Shipman, a minister of much ability and great popularity, is pastor. Upon his solicitation an open court was estab-lished in which all literary, socialistic and soci-ological questions shall be discussed with open doors and free speech to all denominations.'' '77. The good people of Grace church, Win-chester, Va., celebrated, in a royal manner, the birthday of their pastor, Rev. W. L. Sea-brook. Both he and his family received many beautiful presents. '77. Harry M. Claybaugh, Attorney-Gen-eral for the State of Maryland, has been se-lected .as a member of the reception committee for the Inaugural Ball. '77 Rev. H. B. Wile, of Carlise, addressed the students in Brua Chapel, Sunday after-noon, Jan. 31st, the Day of Prayer for Col-leges. He also preached in Christ church in the evening to a large congregation. He is a THE COLLEGE MERCURY. very eloquent speaker and is very popular among the students. '78. Rev. Albert Bell, of St. Luke's church, York, is instructing a class in vocal music in his church. '79. Rev. Luther Kuhlmau, of Frederick, Md., filled the pulpit of Dr. Hamma, at Al-toona, Pa., recently, during the Doctor's ab-sence in Washington. '80. Rev. Geo. S. Bowers, pastor of St. Mark's Lutheran church, Hagerstowu, was re-cently presented with a large hall rack and a fine Smyrna rug besides many other useful things, by the members of his congregation. '80. Rev. L. N. Fleck, Stoyestown, Pa., was remembered by one of his Sunday Schools with a purse of money, and by another with the gift of a fine overcoat. The next conven-tion of the Allegheny Synod will be held in his church at Stoyestown. '81. Rev. S. J. Taylor, of Berlin, Pa., read a paper on "The New Birth" before the Min-isters' Club of Meyersdale, Berlin and Salis-bury at the regular monthly meeting, Feb. 1st. '83. Rev. L. M. Kuhns, of Washington, D. C, was recently in Akroii, O., preaching for pastors Keller and Lesher. '83. Rev. F. H. Crissman, ofthe Brushtown Avenue church, has been on the sick list but is now convalescent. '83. Rev. W. W. Anstadt was installed as pastor of Zion's Lutheran church, Hollidays-burg, on Sunday evening, January 17th. Rev. P. G. Bell, of Altoona, and Rev. W. A. Shipman, '76, of Johnstown, conducted the installation services. '84. Rev. L- M. Zimmerman, pastor of Christ Lutheran church, Baltimore, had a very severe attack of La Grippe recently. '86. Rev. Luther DeYoe, ofHarrisburg, Pa., is resting a little while at Atlantic City. He ministers to a very large congregation, and has been over-taxed-. He hopes very soon to be in his pulpit again. '86. The new church building at White-marsh, Pa., Rev. J. Eugene Dietterich, pastor, was dedicated on Sunday, February 7th. '88. On the 29th of Dec. Rev. S. D. Daugh-erty and his wife gave a reception to the young people of his church, in honor of the College and University students of the congregation, who were home for the holiday vacation. '88. Rev. J. M. Francis, of Columbia City, Indiana, is now writing his sermons on a new Universal "Hammond" typewriter, the gift of a few of his friends. '88. Rev. D. Frank Garland, of Taneytowu, Md., has been engaged by the Lutheran Pub-lication Society to write a "Life of Melanc-thon." The book will contain about 145 pages and is intended to serve as a hand-book. It will be published some time during the present year. '90. Rev. E. E. Blint recently held a two weeks' service in his church at Littlestown. The meetings were interesting and instructive. Rev. Blint is doing a most excellent work in his field. '90. Rev. W. J. Bucher, of New Bethle-hem, has been called to Clarion, Pa'., and will accept. '90. Rev. Noah E. Yeiser, of India, writes for the back numbers of the MERCURY and sends in his subscription for another year. Though thousands of miles away, he has not forgotten his Alma Mater. The MERCURY extends best wishes for his success in bis no-ble work. '91. Rev. Stanley Billheimer, of West Wash-ington, had his salary increased recently. Plis congregation is small, but appreciative, and owns a very valuable property. '92. E. H. Herman is in deserved promi-nence in the councils ofthe Republinan party of Maryland. '92. Rev. H. E. Berke}-, who was very in-fluential in the establishment of the new paper, The York County Lutheran, has been elected as its editor. '92. Rev. Jesse W. Ball, of Los Angeles, Cal., in a recent issue of The Littheran World writes of the polyglot character of his congre-gation, in which he has representatives of Norway, Sweeden, Denmark, Holland, an American Indian and a converted Jew. '93. Rev. Andrew J. Rudisill, of New Bloomfield, recently visited his parents near Gettysburg, and also looked up his friends at College and Seminar)'. '93. Rev. and Mrs. G. M. Diffenderfer, of Newport, visited friends in Gettysburg last month. '93. Rev. Marion J. Kline was installed pas-tor ofthe Bethlehem Lutheran church. Harris- THE, COLLEGE MERCURY. ■52 burg, Jan. 24. Rev. Dr. Huber, '55, deliv-ered the charge to the pastor, and Rev. Dr. Gilbert, '57, Harrisburg, to the people. '93. The address of Rev. Eugene E. Neu-dewitz is changed from 228 W. 10th St., New York, to 85 Wayne St., Jersey City, N. J. '95 Dr. M. L. Boyer is practicing medicine at 1309 N. 29th St., Phila., where he has a splendid practice. '95. EL L. M. Hoffman, (Yale '97) one of Yale's most prominent athletes, won another first prize at the recent exhibition in the Yale Gymnasium, for superior work on "the long horse." The prize awarded him is a very handsome gold cup, appropriately inscribed, and is the fifth trophy of the kind already won by Mr. Hoffman. The prizes previously won, were a "first" on "the side horse," "two firsts" in "tumbling," and a "second" on "the long horse." '96. W. H. Mengeslatelj' visited the College and Seminary for several days. He intends to enter the Seminary next Fall. LITERAL TRANSLATION OF THE IX ODE OF HORACE. You see Soracte deep with snow, And the trees with heavy weight bent low, And river chilled with stinging frost; Rut cheerful be what e'er the cost. Bring out the good old Sabine wine, And happy be while yet in prime, Leave else to gods who rule supreme, Whose power stills the winds most keen, The aged ash trees are unmoved, The cypress tree, the same doth prove. Ask not what chance may bring to thee. It may be sorrow, may he glee. While you are yet quite young in years, Have pleasure with the dearest dears Until old age his steps advance. Indulge at times in merry dance. Stroll on the campus and side-walks, And with the young have pleasant talks. If you in games were won't to play, Speak if light laugh did her betray. Steal golden ring from dimpled hand. She may resist, but not with stand. C. S. It., Professor—What is the difference between idealism and realism ? 'Varsity Girl—Idealism is when you con-template matrimony. Professor—Yes ; and realism? 'Varsity Girl—You get that afterward.— Philadelphia Review. OUE BABY. I heard a sweet sound soft and low, Come drifting 'mougst the trees, While on the Campus I stood frying each note to seize. I quickly urged myself to where I heard the sweet sound fall, And found out to my great surprise, It was in Phrena Hall. I stopped outside the door a while, Then quietly went in And pretty soon, just as before, I heard the sound again. The babe which made the sound I heard, Was not named John or Hannah, But merely bore this pretty name : "Our Babv"—Grand Piano. ATHLETICS. CHARI.ES T. LARK, Editor. Capt. Burns, '01, with his usual push and determination, has been getting our base-ball material together and unless appearances are very deceitful, the "orange and blue" will be represented on the diamond this spring by a finer team than she has had for some years. Our men are training hard and regular prac-tice in the "cage" and bowling alleys, is adhered to, from which there can be but good results. The problem of the pitcher is the most serious one which confronts a college team, and it very often happens that, through weak-ness in this respect, man}'otherwise fine teams fail to make the showing they should. We are indeed exceptionally fortunate in having so many applicants for this position, a number of whom have considerable reputation for their ability in this line, among which number are: Burns, '01; Dale, '00; Gladfelter, '00: Roehn, '99; Culler, '98. As most of the above mentioned men are in the lower classes we may feel sure of having good men in the box for some years to come. White, '97, who has had considerable ex-perience on his class team, will, in all proba-bility, occupy the position behind the bat, made vacant hy Tate, '96. Stifel, '00, has been elected by the Athletic Association to the managership of the Track Team of which Krb, '97, has been chosen cap-tain, and systematic practice is indulged in. The team already contains a number of ath- '53 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. letes of no mean ability and, as the new men are rapidly falling into line, we may confi-dently expect to be represented on the track by a lot of men who would be a credit to any institution. Our base-ball season will be considerably shortened, owing to the fact that College will close three weeks earlier than it did in former years, Commencement being on June 3rd. Manager Armstrong has already arranged for a number of games and has but a few more dates open. He is working hard to get a game with U. P. as we are quite desirous of crossing bats with the University. TOWN /\ND SEIVJINARY NOTES. s. J. MILLER, Editor. TOWN. A fire alarm system is being agitated in Get-tysburg, to be used in connection with the telephone. A large gong would be so placed that by touching a button at the exchange the alarm would be given indicating the location of the fire. The Lutheran Observer gives the following account of the battle-field parks at Chicka-mauga and Gettysburg. The Government has spent a much larger sum of money at the for-mer place than at the latter. Of the 3874 acres to be acquired at Gettysburg, the Government has 845 acres of which 521 acres were donated by the Gettysburg Battle-field Association. It has, on the other hand, bought 5568 acres at Chickamauga out of the 8000, within the limits prescribed by the Act. The Government has expended $758,876.20 at Chickamauga and only $251,219.46 at Gettysburg. The County Sunday School Convention will be held in this place, Feb. 23. It will likely j be held in the Presbyterian church. Rev. T. P. Ege, last Wednesday a week, at-tended the winter session of the Archdeaconry of the Episcopal church, convened in Harris- ! burg, and took part in the discussion, the sub-ject of which was the church's attitude toward the social element. A bill appropriating $50,000 for a statue of President Lincoln at Gettysburg, was passed by the U. S. Senate. About twenty-members of the Bar and Bench of Adams county attended the annual Bar supper on the evening of the 19th tilt. The occasion was an extremely pleasant one. 1 Speech-making was a very interesting feature of the evening. Judge Swope was toast-mas-ter and the following responses were made : "Some Words of Advice from the Nestor of Our Bar," Hon. D. McConaughy; "The Bench of Adams County," Wm. McSherry, Jr., Esq.; "The Bar of Adams County," C. S. Duncan, Esq.; "The Diligent Practitioner," Hon. G. J. Benner; "Our Law Makers," W. C. Sheely' Esq.; "Lawyers' Wives and Law-yers' Sweethearts," Judge Swope and Hon. G. J. Benner; "Legal Ethics," John B. McPher-son, Esq ; "Reminiscences of Our Last Bar Supper," Edw. A. Weaver, Esq.; "The Press and Its Mission," C. E. Stahley, Esq., "Rem-iniscences of Philadelphia Bar," J. L. Kendle-hart, Esq.; "Permanency of Our Annual Sup-per," Wm. P. Quimby, Esq.; "Cordiality of Bench and Bar," Judge Beales. A Farmers' Institute was held in Gettys-burg, Friday and Saturday, Feb. 12th and 13th, under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture of Pennsylvania. Day of Prayer for Colleges was observed Sunday, Jan. 31st, in Christ Lutheran church in the morning and in Brua Chapel in the af-ternoon. The morning services were con-ducted by the pastor. Rev. Herbert Alleman, and in the afternoon, under the direction of the College Y. M C. A., by Rev. Wile, of Carlisle, Pa., his theme being "Godliness." On Friday evening, January 29th, the re-cently elected pastor of the Presbyterian church, Rev. D. W. Woods, Jr., was installed. The exercises were very interesting and im-pressive and were largely attended. Rev. W. S. VanCleve presided and Rev. Wm. M. Pax-ton, D. D., LL. D., Prof, ot Homiletics in the Theological Department of Princeton Univers-ity, delivered the installation sermon. Rev. Dr. J. A. Crawford, of Chambersburg, deliv-ered the charge to the pastor, and Rev. Dr. S. A. Martin, President of Wilson College, the charge to the Congregation. SEMINARY. The Missionary Study Class has completed the course on Missionary Biography and has taken up for this term, "Missions and Apostles of Medieval Europe." Rev. Cross preached at Stone church, Sun-day, Jan. 17th. Revs. Nicholas and Ibach were out preach-ing on 31st ult. TH1C COLLEGE MERCURY. T54 Rev. Arthur Bredeubek, of the Senior class, was unanimously elected pastor of the Luth-eran church, at Thurmont, Md. Messers. Berger and Fulper made Home Missionary addresses at Flohr's church, on Jan. 31st. LITERARY SOCIETIES. JOHN W. OTT, Editor. PHRENA. The following officers were installed on Fri-day evening, Jan. 29th, 1897: Pres., Stockslager; V. Pres., Tholan; Rec. Sec, Bikle, Jr.; Chap., Woods; Mon., Miller; Critics, Bikle, Sr., Duck, Clare, Woods; Asst. Lib., Miller. The following special program was rendered by our '00 men on Friday evening, Feb. 5th. Piano Duet Gates and Frey Declamation .Bechtol Declamation - Young Essay Miss Frey Vocal Selection Quartette Declamation Hickman Essay Brandt Declamation Gilbert Declamation Hammacker Piano Duet Gates and Clare Essay .' Hurst Debate. Resolved, That despotism is the best form of government for an ignorant people. AFF. NEG. Miller, Frey, Ernest, Hummer, Weigle Clare. Vdcal Selection Quartette PHILO. Noticeable interest was taken in the first program of the term, and especially on the part of the new men. Koller and Sieber, '00, were initiated into the society on Jan. 22c!, '97. Preparations are being made for a special program to be rendered this mouth. Philo's interest in the "Amateur Theatrical" was evinced at the last meeting by the appoint-ment of a committee to consider the advisa-bility of getting up a dramatic entertainment. A complete catalogue of Yale has been for-warded to the society, for the reading room, by W. J. G., '93, on behalf of the Gettysburg Club of Yale. FRATERNITY NOTES. PHI KAPPA PSI. M. W. Weidman, M. D., '61, has been elected President of the Pennsylvania State Medical Board. Harry M. Clabaugh, '77, Attorney-General of the State of Maryland, was appointed a member of the Inaugural Ball Reception Com-mittee. S. D. Schmucker, Esq., '61, of Baltimore, and W. E. Parsons, D. D., '67, of Washing-ton, D. C, attended the recent meeting of the Board of Trustees of the College. M. C. Horiue, D. D:, '62, recently dedi-cated the new Bethany Evangelical Lutheran church, Reading. Rev. S. A. Martin, D. D., President of Wil-son College, Chambersburg, Pa., was present at the installation services of Rev. D. W. Woods, Jr., as pastor of the Presbyterian church, Gettysburg. W. R. Reitzell, '96, is studying law at Cor-nell Universit}'. PHI GAMMA DELTA. Bro. C. W. Fairbanks, Theta Deuteron, was elected by the legislature of Indiana to succeed Hon. D. W. Voorhees as Senator from that State. Bro. H. B. Wile, '77, delivered the address to the students in Brua Chapel on the 31st, ult, the Day of Prayer for Colleges, and preached in the College church in the evening. Bros. E. G. Miller. '85; D. F. Garland, '88, and L. E. DeYoe, '89, visited friends in town last month. Bros. H. L. Stahler, '82, and L. Y. Smith, '90, Sigma Deuteron, spent several days with the Chapter a short time ago. Bro. Shaar spent last Sunday with his par-ents at Steelton. SIGMA CHI. Rev. C. M. Stock, '74, was elected Secre-tary of the Board of Trustees of Pennsylvania College at a recent meeting held in Gettys-burg. Rosensteel visited the Chapter at Dickinson several weeks ago. Newton Fredericks, who left college a short 155 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. time ago, intends to enter the Lawrenceville Preparatory School at Lawrenceville, N. J. Wm. H. H. Bixler ex-'98 is taking a course in dentistry at Louisville, Ky. Garnet Gehr, '91, was elected attorney for the Commissioners of Franklin county. W. W. Good, ex-'99, has entered Troy Business College. Charles Humrichouse, ex-'97, has been made junior partner in his father's wholesale coffee and sugar house in Baltimore. PHI DELTA THETA. M. J. Killian, Va., Alpha, recently filled the pulpit of Trinity Lutheran church, Chambers-burg, Pa. D. Julian Forney has just recovered from a slight illness. Kain was elected historian of the Senior class, in place of Ott, resigned. A charter has been granted to the Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio. The annual chapter letters, now coming in, show marked progress in all of the sixty-nine. The Fraternity is preparing to celebrate the birthday of its oldest surviving founder—Rev. Robert Morrison, Miami, '49. ALPHA TAU OMEGA. William H. Menges, '96, spent Sunday, Jan. 30th, with the Chapter. Chas. B. Erb, '97, has been elected Captain of the College Track Team. Paul W. Roller, '94, recently preached in the College church. Paul W. Kuhns, '89, of Omaha, Neb., was married a few days ago. Maurice R. Zullinger, '98, is at the Johns Hopkins Hospital, having an operation per-formed for his disease. John W. Cable, ex-'97, is a student at F. and M. College. Joe S. Hay, ex '95, is in attendance at Bellevue Hospital, New York. Chas. S. Emmert, ex-'97, recently gave a German to his Hagerstown friends. estate now amounting to nearly $3,000,000 to colleges named in his will. This will be distributed equally to the fol-lowing institutions, after the legal expenses are deducted: Amherst, Boudoin, Dartmouth, Williams, Yale, Columbia, Hamilton, Lafay-ette, Lincoln, Maryville, Marietta, Adelbert, Wabash, Park, Wesleyan, Universities of Ro-chester, Cornell, Virginia, Hampton, and the Union Theological Seminaries.—Ex. In all the Universities of France there exists no college periodical, no glee clubs, 110 frater-nities, no athletics, no commencements. The requirements of Johns Hopkins Univer-sity have been so high that but 784 of 2,976 students have obtained degrees.—Ex. Princeton has made application to establish a chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa Society there. The request will probably be granted. The student who refuses to subscribe for a College paper and then reads it over the shoulder of his neighbor, is short enough to tie his shoe-strings to his necktie.—Ex. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. That is the reason they put a brass band around a dog's neck. Write for the MERCURY ! To increase its readers' knowledge : Subscribe for the MERCURY ! For the sake of the College : Encourage the MERCURY 1 In the work it is to do ! Support the MERCURY ! The whole year through. "Give me a kiss, my darling do," He said when he gazed in her eyes so blue. "I won't," she said, "you lazy elf, , - Screw up your lips and help yourself."—Ex. He hugged the fair Miss Lemon, And squeezed her very tight, She angry grew and drawing back Hit him with all her might. He sues her for striking him; ■ In court she him thus taunts, "Who could expect to squeeze a Lemon Unless a punch he wants?" —Princeton Tiger. EXCHANGES. FURNITURE. Cabinet Making, PICTURE FRAMES. Mr. Fayerweather has willed his residuary Baltimore street, Gettysburg, Pa. ADVERTISEMENTS. BASE ISisitors to J3 /A _J J_J £ettl/si>urSr College, . . SUPPLIES, . . cBpalcliqcj Loag ue Ball, jWiits, Mas^s, otQ. Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for TENNIS, GOLF, CRICKET, TRACK AND FIEI-D. GYMNASIUM EQUIPMENTS AND OUTFITS, COMPLETE CATALOGUE SPRING AND SUMMER SPORTS FREE. "This Name the Guarantee." A. Q. Spalding: & Bros., NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA, CHICAGO. iioa CHESTNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA *llJright's £ngraving jfcouse VflAS become the recognized leader in unique styles of *?& COLLEGE and FRATERNITY EN-GRAVINGS and STATIONERY, College and Class-Day Invitations, engraved and printed from steel plates; Programmes, Menus, Wedding and Reception Invitations, Announcements, etc., etc. Examine prices aud styles before ordering elsewhere. '50 Visiting Cards from New Engraved Plate for $1,00. ERNEST A. WRIGHT, 1108 Chestnut Street, PHILADELPHIA Hon. W. J. Bryan's Book All who ure interested in furthering the snle of flow. W. J. Bryan's vrw bonk sl.oultl correspond Immediately wit), the publishers. The work will contain . . . AN ACCOUNT OF HIS CAMPAIGN TOUR. HIS BIOGRAPHY, TCrnD'BYHISWIFB HIS V0S1 IMrORTADT SPStCHIS 'HI RIS1JI,TS OF THE CAUPAIGli OF \m. t REV IE* OF THE POLITICAL SITUA'lIOiN. • •OACCNTS WAMT^D © • • Mi myan tins an-nounced his intention of devoting: one-half of all roy ItH'S to furthering the cause of bimetallism. Tii^rH are already indications of an enormous sale. Address W. B. COlNKtY COMPANY, Publishers 341-351 Dearborn St.CHICAGO Settysburg, tPenn*a, -WILL FIX!) THE-Cumberland Valley R. R. running in a South-westerly direction from Harrisbnrg, Pa., through Carlisle. Cfiambcrshurg, Hagerstmvn tin 1 Martinsburg to Winchester, Via., a direct and available *£ route from the North, East and vyesl to Gettysburg, Pa., via. Harrisbnrg and Carlisle. Through tickets via. this route on sale at all P. R. R. offices, and baggage checked through to destination. Also, a popular route to the South via. Carlisle. Ask for your tickets via. I. F. BOYD, Superintendent. id Valley Railroad and Carlisle. Pa. II. A. RIDDLE, lien. Passenger Agent. FPU. H. MlNNlCH, onfeetionervj, OYSTERS Manufacturer, Wholesale and Retail hni/r,- in NEXT DOOF^ TO 5 Suits from $121 to Lowest Maes. 5 p° PAIR'S0 E' f Pants from S4.DD to $121, (^Centre ?«>quare.^ COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS 1 SURGEONS, -^-BALTIIVIOFIE, IV|D.-^ ^mmsm ?>i^^Y&zgmm3&Q%t&- KM The College of Physicians and Surgeons of Balti-more, Maryland, is a well-equipped school. Four ses-sions are required for graduation. For full informa-tion send for the annual catalogue, or write to THOMAS OPIE, M. D., Dean, Cor. Calvert and Saratoga Sts. Established 1876.- eSfPBNBOSB MYMSJ JEWELER, Gettysburg Souvenir Spoons, College Souvenir Spoons, No. 10 Baltimore Street, GETTYSBURG, PENN'A. J# A. TAWNEY Is ready to furnish clubs and boarding houses BREAD, ROLLS, &0., at short notice and reasonable rates. Cor.Washington and Middle Sts., Gettysburg. sy 6i£o. 1

The rapid growth in Islamic Finance Industry such as in Islamic banking, takaful, waqf, and sukuk gain more awareness and interest from around the world including Islamic countries and non-Islamic countries such as Singapore, South Korea, Japan, Europe, Australia, Brazil, and America Latin. Based on Islamic Financial Services Board (IFSB) and Ernst & Young Report in 2016 it stated that Islamic finance industry had reached a gross value USD 1.88 trillion in 2015. In addition, it also maintained double-digit growth rates despite sustained low energy prices, geopolitical conflicts and economic uncertainty. Meanwhile, Global Islamic Finance Report 2017 reported that in December 2016 global Islamic financial service industry stood at USD2.293 trillion. According to El-Qorchi (2005) that highlights there have three motivation of shifting to Islamic finance because strong demand for Shariah compliant products and services, demand from Gulf region or oil rich nation for Shariah compliant investment and lastly non-muslim investor also attracted with competitiveness of Shariah compliant products and services. Furthermore, there have numerous capital structure modern theories that have been developed since 1958 begin with MM Irrelevance Theory and continue with Trade-off Theory, Pecking Order Theory, Agency Theory and Market Timing Theory. As an example, trade-off theory is encouraging the firms to use debt financing rather than retained earnings and equity financing in order to utilise the tax deduction benefit from interest on debt financing. Each of this theory has different vi approach to manage and oversee the capital structure decision. Unfortunately, not all these theories explain adequately the effect of capital structure on corporate performance for Shariah compliant companies. Therefore, the question that can been arisen which is the most appropriate and suitable capital structure theory under Shariah principles? Firstly, this study intends to determine until to what extent the capital structure of Shariah compliant companies (SCC) can be different from Non Shariah compliant companies (NSCC). Many studies have been done on capital structure. However, most of the studies focused on the capital structure determinants, impacts of capital structure on financial performance, how the tax affected capital structure and short-term debt during financial crisis period. All of these past studies using financial institution, small and medium enterprises (SME) and public listed companies (PLC) as samples in their study. Nevertheless, there are few studies relate to the impact of capital structures on corporate performance during financial crisis. Shariah compliant companies presume to be more resilent during financial crisis based on their characteristic. However, there is no study on how SCC manages their capital structure during financial crisis period. Therefore, in order to fill the research gap, it is necessary to carry out a study on impact of capital structure on corporate performance during financial crisis by using SCC as sample. The main objective of this study is to investigate the impact of capital structure on corporate performance of SCC predominantly during financial crisis period. To the best of our knowledge, there is no such empirical study that has been conducted until nowadays. As information, Shariah compliant companies (SCC) are deemed to comply with Shariah principles, rules, values and restrictions when dealing with the financing activities. In order to ensure SCC comply with all the Shariah principles and free from prohibited elements such as interest (riba), gambling (masyar) and speculation (gharar), Shariah advisory board (SAC) are established to monitor the SCC's activities. Besides, before being listed in Islamic index all the firms must be complying with the qualitative and quantitative criteria for screening process that are set by the index provider. This study will take the sample from FTSE Shariah global index series, therefore under this index provider, Yasaar Ltd is an impartial consultancy and leading authority on handling Shariah matters including the screening process. Under quantitative screening, there have several financial vii benchmarks that the firms need to follow in order to acquire the shariah-compliant status. According to Haron and Ibrahim (2012) due to the benchmark that are set by index provider, it leads SCC to raise capital via equity financing. Empirically, firms that rely more on equity-based financing tend to be more resilient during financial crisis period. Gitman and Zutter (2012, p.508) defines the capital structure as "the mix of debt and equity maintained by the firm". Thus, the main concern is how the firm decision to optimize the capital structures by combining debt and equity financing. There have a number of previous studies that explored how the firms or financial managers determine the optimum capital structure to ensure they can maximize the firm's corporate performance. Based on the empirical results it shows that there has numerous factor that influenced the firms and financial manager in order to make the capital structure financing decision such as profitability, growth, size, tangibility, tax, leverage, liquidity, and industry. Meanwhile, this study will focus on some financial benchmarks in order to achieve the objective of this study. Such example this study uses corporate performance, debt to equity ratio, debt financing ratio (short-term debt ratio and long-term debt ratio), tangibility ratio, cash plus account receivables ratio, growth ratio, and size ratio. Corporate Performance In this study, two proxies will be used to measure the corporate performance of the firm. Firstly, this study decides to use profit before tax and zakat over total asset or it called pre-tax return on assets (Pre-tax ROA) to measure the firm's corporate performance. This ratio is to measures how the efficiency of the firm can earn on its investment in its assets. In other words, how the firm used its assets effectively to generate the income or profit from that assets. Like the previous study that have been used earnings before interest and tax (EBIT) over total assets and profit before interest and tax to measure the firm's corporate performance. Initially, this study intends to show the different significant impact to the firm's corporate performance if the firm paying taxes or zakat or both. It is due to the SCC has special taxes that are called 'zakat' under Shariah term and it viii has fixed-rate 2.5 percent from the net profit or income. However, until nowadays zakat still voluntary basis in most of the Muslim countries. Based on the sample in this study, Malaysia is the only country that implemented zakat system however it based on voluntary basis and none of the samples shows the zakat amount in their financial statement. The second proxy in this study for dependent variables that represents for firm's corporate performance is return on equity ratio (ROE) ratio. Based on the previous studies, there has been used net income after tax over total equity to measure the ROE in their studies. Therefore, this study also decides to use the same measurement as the prior studies. This ratio will measure by the firm's profitability using net profit after interest, tax and preference dividend divided by ordinary share capital plus reserves at the end of the financial year. ROE ratio is one of the main profitability ratios that concentrate on the firm's ordinary shareholders and compares the profit that has been earned and its capital. Some of the investors are using this ratio to measure the firm's ordinary shares desirability. Debt to Equity Ratio Some of the Islamic index provider set the financial benchmark that the total debt must be less than 33 percent from the total equity. Such an example, Dow Jones Global Islamic Index (DJIM) set the debt to equity ratio as one of their financial benchmarks. However, FTSE Global Equity Shariah Index does not include this benchmark under their screening process. Therefore, this study intends to use this benchmark to see whether there have significant differences between SCC and NSCC. This study decides to use total debt divided by total equity as a measurement of debt to equity ratio. It supported by other studies such as Margaritis and Psillaki (2010) and Memon et al., (2012) that also used the same measurement in their studies. This ratio is to evaluate a firm's financial leverage by measuring the degree of firm financing based on debt to equity or wholly-owned funds. In case if the company downturn, it measures the ability of the shareholder equity to cover all the debts in the firms. ix Debt Financing Under FTSE Global Equity Shariah Index quantitative screening, the debt ratio must be less than 33 percent of total assets. Due to this study's objective to determine the impact of capital structure on corporate performance during financial crisis, therefore the debt ratio divided into two categories, which are short-term debt financing and long-term debt financing. Based on Fosberg (2013) conducted a study on public listed companies in US and found that short-term debt financing increased from 1.3 percent in 2006 to 2.2 percent in 2008 which represent $34 million increase due to the financial crisis that are happened in 2008. It supported by numerous studies (see Brealey et al., 2008; Almeida et al., 2011; Federal Reserve, 2012; Fosberg, 2013) that during the stock market collapsed in 2008, the borrowing power of firms becomes fewer than before due to the credit supply was limited. Therefore, firms intend using more STD financing during financial difficulties. Hassan and Samour (2016) added that it highlighted that capital structure financing decision were impact during financial crisis period. Cheema et.al (2017) and Shahar and Shahar (2015) found that SCC using long-term debt (LTD) financing more than short-term debt (STD) financing. It might be due to the restriction for limited interest and risk sharing under Shariah guidelines. However, for NSCC, they are using more STD in order to meet the working capital requirement. On the other hand study by Sahudin, Ismail, Sulaiman, Rahman, and Jaafar (2019) found that SCC using more STD financing compared to LTD financing. STD financing is more widely used compared to LTD financing by the SCC in Malaysia because the majority of Islamic debt instruments issued short-term debt rather than long-term debt (Aggarwal & Yousef, 2000). This also supports agency theory whereby it justifies the function of STD financing as a mechanism to control the debt and mitigate the agency problem. Therefore, this study intends to examine the significant differences in financing patterns particularly before, during and after the financial crisis period. x Tangibility Ratio Tangibility assets become more popular as a measurement for bank viability after the financial crisis occurred. Bank viability means the bank's judgment on the ability of the firms to meet ongoing financial obligation with the additional investment and financing such as from the banks and investors. One of the reasons because tangible assets are liquid compared to intangible assets. It supported by Charalambakis and Garrett (2012) that stated tangible assets are the main point in explaining the capital structure within the firms. As a result, tangible assets have a higher value in the market and even if firms have financial problem or going to bankrupt, the firms can easily and quickly in selling their tangible assets. Scott (1977) and Titman and Wessels (1988) stated that less profitable firm intends to have a high value of tangible assets and the firms will use tangible assets as collateral in order to get more debt financing. Therefore, any firm that has higher tangibility ratio will issue more debt financing. This is in line with trade-off theory that highlight, firms need to enjoy the advantage of tax with issuing more debt financing while having more profit to the firm. Ahmad and Azhar (2015) added that this would give assistance to the firms that have default in their debt to use the tangible asset to avoid being bankrupcy. Cash plus Account Receivables Ratio Most of the previous studies used the liquidity ratio in order to measure the firm's ability to meet the short-term financial obligation. Even Thabet and Hanefah (2014) found in their study that liquidity were one of the factors that have the impact on the corporate performance to the firm. This ratio is important to ensure the firms have cut limit for total cash and account receivables in one time in order to avoid excess or lack of cash in the firms. In addition, it also to reduce the agency cost. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that examines the impact on total cash plus account receivables over total assets (CashAR) to the corporate performance. This variable is chosen as an independent variable for this study due to the characteristics for SCC must be following and passed the benchmark in order to be listed in the Islamic index. Farooq xi and Alahkam (2016) also mentioned that the Islamic financial system was more stable and resilient because of the economy based on Islamic guidelines. Growth Ratio This study decides to use the different amount of this year sales minus last year sales divided by this year sales as a proxy of firm growth ratio. It is supported by prior studies (Salim and Yadav, 2012; Bundala, 2012; Proença et al., 2014; Cheema et al., 2017) that are also used the same measurement for growth ratio in their studies. According to Titman & Wessel (1988) and Rajan & Zingales (1995) shows that the firms with high future growth turns out to be used less leverage in the financing decision. It is because the firm will shift from debt financing to equity financing. In addition, growth ratio are influence by the profitability of the firm. This study will be focused on selected countries from Southeast Asia, which are Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Singapore, and Thailand. The selection sample is justified that Southeast Asia is the most progressive region in the Islamic capital market in the Asia region (Yakcop, 2002). Initially, this study has identified 595 samples of Public Listed Companies under industrial sector in Southeast Asia. Nevertheless, 114 samples have been excluded due to the several reasons such as incomplete financial statement and change of accounting year during the period of study. Thus, the final samples selected are 197 PLC from Shariah-compliant companies and 284 PLC from Non-shariah compliant companies. All the sample are collecting through DataStream that is published by Thomson Reuter Eikon. This study gathers all the financial statements such as balance sheet, income statement and cash flow statement in order to achieve the objective of this study. The unique for this study, the data is analyzed using Python Pandas programming software. This is the first study using Python Pandas to analyze the impact of capital structure on corporate performance during the financial crisis. As information, Pandas are the software library written for the Python programming language for data manipulation and analysis. Undoubtedly, Pandas offer data structures and operations for manipulating numerical tables and time series. Therefore, the first step to do to analyze the data by creating the coding system that is xii required for this study. In order to accomplish the objective in this study, the regression equations have been developed as follows: 1. Y (Pretax ROA) = β0 + β1D/Eit + β2Tangit + β3STDit + β4LTDit + β5CASH/ARit + β6GRWit + β7SIZEit + β8(X) + ε 2. Y (ROE) = β0 + β1D/Eit + β2Tangit + β3STDit + β4LTDit + β5CASH/ARit + β6GRWit + β7SIZEit + β8(X) + ε Whereby: Pre-tax ROA = Return on asset before tax ratio ROE = Return on equity ratio D/E = Debt to equity ratio STD = Short term debt ratio LTD = Long term debt ratio TANG = Tangibility ratio CASHAR = Cash plus account receivable ratio GRW = Growth ratio SIZE = Size ratio ε = Error term X = dummy variable 0: Non-Shariah Compliant Companies (NSCC) 1: Shariah Compliant Companies (SCC) The analysis begins with the multicollinearity test and the purpose of this test to ensure there is no problem of multicollinearity among the variables. Based on the result, none of the tolerances value is less than 0.2 and none of the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) is greater than 10. As a result, it found that there is no multicollinearity problem in this study. The analyses continue with the descriptive statistic analysis that found the corporate performance of Shariah compliant companies (SCC) is higher than Non Shariah compliant companies (NSCC) during the financial crisis and after the financial crisis for both proxies, pre-tax return on assets (Pre-tax ROA) and return on equity (ROE). However, for independent variables those are debt to equity ratio, short-term debt ratio, long-term debt ratio, cash plus account receivables ratio shows that SCC has lower ratio through out the periods which are before, during and after financial crisis. These results have been expected due to the benchmarks that are set xiii by index providers during the quantitative (financial) screening process. Furthermore, SCC requirements to follow all the time the benchmark in order to be listed in Shariah index and maintain as shariah status. Due to this reason, we can observe that SCC always has a lower leverage ratio compare to NSCC. In addition, firms that have lower ratio are better because high leverage ratio or debt financing ratio contributes to the high risk of solvency and instability of the firms. Tangibility ratio for SCC is higher than NSCC before, during and after the financial crisis period. This ratio becomes more important after the financial crisis period. It is because it uses as a measurement for bank viability and indicate the firm's collateral level. Therefore, SCC with a higher tangibility ratio can issue more debt financing. It becomes more secure in case of bankruptcy; the firm can sales its tangible assets in order to pay their debt financing. Cash plus account receivables ratio is lower than NSCC before, during and after financial crisis period. Even though high liquidity can attract more lender and manager to make investment easily however there have high risk of bankruptcy and high risk of non-payment. Besides, the lower liquidity can contribute to the lower agency problem. Growth ratio shows before and during financial crisis period NSCC have higher ratio than SCC. However, after financial crisis period, SCC demonstrates higher ratio than NSCC. It indicates that SCC's growth better after financial crisis period. In addition, it proved that SCC gets more attention from the investor after financial crisis period. The second major finding are from multiple regression analysis based on pre tax ROA as the first proxy for corporate performance. It found that all the independent variables are significant except for debt to equity ratio before the financial crisis period. However, during the financial crisis period, only long-term debt ratios not significant and after the financial crisis period both short-term debt and long-term debt do not significant. Shariah-compliant companies only have a significant level after the financial crisis period. The impact of capital structure on corporate performance, pre-tax ROA for SCC is 1.6617 times higher than NSCC after financial crisis period. xiv Second proxy of corporate performance is a return on equity (ROE). All the independent variables are significant with the ROE except for debt to equity ratio and cash plus account receivable ratio before the financial crisis period, while long-term debt ratio during and after the financial crisis period. SCC significantly with ROE before the financial crisis and it shows that the impact of capital structure on SCC for corporate performance, ROE is -2.9264 times lower than NSCC. However, after the financial crisis period, the impact of capital structure on corporate performance, ROE for SCC is 4.3171 times higher than NSCC. The findings in this study posed an important implications for academicians, researchers, regulatory bodies as well as the management of the firms particularly Shariah compliant and non-shariah compliant companies, as they pave for further exploration. It offers knowledge to the regulatory bodies and related government agencies to come out with the guidelines and framework regarding shariah compliant status. Therefore, in order to set up with the new regulations and guidelines, these agencies need to understand the needed of investors and the characteristics of SCC itself in order to develop new guidelines to attract more investors. Such cases in Malaysia, the government give incentive to the new shariah compliant companies with five years tax exemption. Other, in UK and France they have amended their tax structure to compatible with Islamic finance guidelines. There have several limitations encountered in conducting this study. This study did not take into consideration the effects of the Asian financial crisis because there have different impact between the countries due to the different level of development in the financial market, the policies of the government and the sensitivity of that country to external incidents. In addition, due to this was the cross country study, therefore the differences are expected due to difference law system and regulation, bureaucracy, dissimilar costs and benefits that the companies face in each country. These limitations have paved the way to future research. Therefore, in the future it hopes to take consideration for these limitations in order to fill the research gap in this area ; slami finans özellikle son zamanlarda, İslami bankacılık, tekaful, vakıf ve sukuk gibi bir çok alanda hızlı bir büyüme göstermektedir. İslami finans İslam ülkelerinin yanında, Singapur, Güney Kore, Japonya, Avrupa, Avustralya, Brezilya ve Amerika Latin gibi İslami olmayan ülkeleri de kapsayacak şekilde dünyanın dört bir yanından, gittikçe daha fazla farkındalık ve ilgi kazanmaktadır. İslami Finansal Hizmetler Kurulu (IFHK) ve 2016'da Ernst & Young raporuna dayanarak, İslami finans sektörünün 2015 yılına kadar brüt 1,88 trilyon ABD doları değerine ulaştığını belirttimektedir. Üstelik bu sektörün büyüme hızı, düşük enerji fiyatlarının sürmesine, jeopolitik çatışmalara ve ekonomik belirsizliğe rağmen, çift haneli büyüme oranlarını korumuştur. Örneğin, 2017 yılına ait Küresel İslami Finans Raporunda, Aralık 2016'da küresel İslami finansal hizmet sektörünün 2,293 trilyon ABD doları bulduğu raporlanmıştır. El-Qorchi'ye (2005) göre İslami finansa geçiş konusunda üç motivasyon bulunduğu vurgulamaktadır: Şeriat uyumlu ürün ve hizmetlere yönelik güçlü talep, Körfez bölgesindeki petrol zengini uluslardan gelen Şeriat uyumlu yatırım için talep ve ve son olarak Şeriat uyumlu ürün ve hizmetlerin rekabet gücünden etkilenen gayrimüslim yatırımcıların ilgisi. Ayrıca, 1958'den bu yana geliştirilen ve MM Teorisi ile başlayan ve Takas Teorisi (Trade-Off Theory), Finansman Hiyerarşisi Kuramı (Pecking Order Theory), Vekâlet Maliyeti Teorisi (Agency Theory) ve Piyasa Zamanlama Teorisi (Market xvi Timing Theory) ile devam eden çok sayıda sermaye yapısı teorisi vardır. Örnek olarak Takas teorisi, firmaları borcun faizinden faydalanmak için birikmiş karlar ve özkaynak finansmanı yerine, borç finansmanı kullanmaya teşvik etmektedir. Bu teorilerinin her birinin sermaye yapısı kararını yönetmek ve denetlemek için farklı bir yaklaşımı vardır. Bu çalışmanın temel amacı, finansal kriz döneminde sermaye yapısının kurumsal performans üzerindeki etkisini incelemektir. İlk olarak, bu çalışma Şeriat uyumlu şirketlerin (ŞUŞ) sermaye yapısının Şeriat uyumlu olmayan şirketlerden (ŞUOŞ) ne kadar farklı olabileceğini belirlemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Sermaye yapısı üzerinde çok sayıda çalışma yapılmıştır. Bununla birlikte, çalışmaların çoğu sermaye yapısı belirleyicileri, sermaye yapısının finansal performans üzerindeki etkileri, verginin finansal yapıdaki sermaye yapısını ve kısa vadeli borçları nasıl etkilediğine odaklanmıştır. Bu geçmiş çalışmalarda örneklem olarak, finansal kurumlar, küçük ve orta ölçekli işletmeler ve halka açık şirketler kullanmaktadır. Ancak Şeriate Uygun Şirketlerin sermaye yapıları ve sermaye yapısının finansal performans üzerindeki etkisi konusunda az sayıda çalışma vardır. Özellikle ŞUŞ'lerin sermaye yapıları göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, bu şirketlerin kriz döneminde daha avantajlı olmaları beklenmektedir. Ancak ŞUŞ'lerin finansal yapılarının, fiannsal kriz döneminde onlar için nasıl bir avantaj sağladığı bugüne kadar bir araştırma konusu yapılmamıştır. Bu nedenle, araştırma boşluğunu doldurmak için, ŞUŞ'lerin örnek olarak kullanıldığı, finansal kriz sırasında sermaye yapısının finansal performans üzerindekini araştıran bir çalışma yapılması gerektirmektedir. Bildiğimiz kadarıyla, bugüne kadar yapılmış böyle bir ampirik çalışma yoktur. Şeriat uyumlu şirketler (ŞUŞ), finansman faaliyetlerini yürütürken Şeriat ilkelerine, kurallarına, değerlerine ve kısıtlamalarına uymaktadır. ŞUŞ'in tüm Şeriat ilkelerine uyması, ayrıca riba, masyar ve gharar gibi yasaklanmış unsurlardan arındırılmasını sağlamak için, Şeriat Danışma Kurulu (ŞDK) ŞUŞ'lerin faaliyetlerini izlemek üzere kurulur. Bunlara ek olarak İslami endekste listelenmeden önce, tüm şirketler, endeks sağlayıcısı tarafından belirlenen tarama süreci için nitel ve nicel kriterlere uymalıdır. Bu çalışmada kullanılan örneklem, FTSE şeriat küresel sermaye endeksinde yer alan şirketlerden oluşturulmuştur. Bu endeks sağlayıcısı altında, xvii tarama süreci de dahil olmak üzere Şeriat konularının ele alınmasında Yasaar Ltd. tarafsız bir danışmanlık ve lider otorite olarak kabul edilmektedir. Şirketlerin Şeriat uyumlu statüsünü elde edebilmesi için, nicel tarama başlığı altında, uyması gereken bir dizi finansal kriterler de vardır. Haron ve Ibrahim'e (2012) göre, endeks sağlayıcı tarafından belirlenen kriter nedeniyle, ŞUŞ'ler sermaye arttrırımı yoluyla finansmanı tercih etmek durumunda kalmaktadır. Ampirik olarak, özkaynağa dayalı finansmana daha fazla ağırlık veren firmalar, finansal krizler sırasında daha dirençli olma eğilimindedir. Gitman ve Zutter (2012, s.508) sermaye yapısını "firma tarafından tutulan borç ve özkaynak karışımı" olarak tanımlar. Bu tanım doğrultusunda asıl amaç, borç ve özkaynak finansmanını çeşitli bileşimleri ile sermaye yapılarının nasıl optimum hale getirileceğidir. Ayrıca, sermaye yapıları aslında borç sahiplerini borç sahipleri olarak, özkaynakları ise hissedarlar veya hissedarlar olarak temsil etmektedir. O halde ortaya çıkan soru, şeriat ilkeleri uyarınca en uygun sermaye yapısı teorisi hangisidir? Firmaların veya finansal yöneticilerin, şirket performansını en üst düzeye çıkarabilmelerini sağlamak için optimum sermaye yapısını nasıl belirlediğine dair daha önce yapılmış çok sayıda çalışma vardır. Ampirik sonuçlar, kârlılık, büyüme, büyüklük, maddi varlık, vergi, kaldıraç, likidite ve sanayi gibi finansman kararını vermek için firmayı ve finans yöneticisini etkileyen çok sayıda faktöre sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu arada, bu çalışmada, çalışmanın amacına ulaşmak için bazı finansal ölçütlere odaklanılacaktır. Bu örnekte, bu çalışmada kurumsal performans, borç / özsermaye oranı, borç finansman oranı, maddi duranlık oranı, nakit artı hesap alacakları oranı, büyüme oranı ve büyüklük oranı kullanılmıştır. Kurumsal Performans Bu çalışmada, kurumsal performansı ölçmek için iki bağımlı değişken kullanılmıştır. Şirketin kurumsal performansını ölçmek için il olarak vergi ve/veya zekat öncesi karın toplam varlığa olan oranıyla elde edilen ve varlıkların vergi öncesi getirisi (Vergi Öncesi Varlık Getirisi- Pre-tax Return of Asset) denilmektedir. Bu oran, işletmenin varlıklarına yaptığı yatırımdan elde ettiği getiri ile işletmenin xviii etkinliğini ölçer. Diğer bir deyişle, işletmenin varlıklarını gelir veya kârı elde etmek içine ne kadar etkin kullandığını gösterir. Önceki çalışmalarda olduğu gibi şirketin finansal performansını ölçmek için toplam aktifler üzerinden faiz ve vergi öncesi kazanç (faiz ve vergi öncesi kâr) kullanılmıştır. Öncellikle, bu çalışma, şirketin vergi veya zekat veya her ikisini birden ödemesi durumunda, işletmenin kurumsal performansının bundan önemli derecede etkilendiğini göstermeyi amaçlamaktadır. ŞUŞ'lerin Şeriat yönergelerine göre 'zekat' olarak adlandırılan, kâr veya gelirden yüzde 2,5 sabit oranda ödenen özel vergilere tabidir. Ancak, günümüze kadar zekat Müslüman ülkelerin çoğunda hala gönüllü olarak kullanılmaktadır. Bu çalışmadaki örneklem ile ilgili olarak, zekat sistemini uygulayan tek ülke Malezya'dır. Ancak burada da gönüllülük temeline dayanmaktadır ve örneklemdeki şirketlerin hiçbiri mali tablolarında zekat miktarını göstermemektedir. Bu çalışmada, firmanın kurumsal performansını temsil eden ikinci bağımlı değişken, özkaynak karlılığı (ÖKK) oranıdır (Return Of Equity-ROE). Önceki çalışmalara dayanarak, çalışmalarında ÖKK'nı ölçmek için vergi sonrası toplam özsermaye üzerinden net kar kullanılmıştır. Bu nedenle, bu çalışma daha önceki çalışmalarla aynı ölçümü kullanmaya karar verilmiştir. Bu oran, faiz, vergi ve imtiyazlı temettü sonrası net karın kullanılması suretiyle şirketin kârlılığına göre hesaplanır. ÖKK oranı, firmanın olağan hissedarlarına odaklanan ve kazanılan kar ile sermayelerini karşılaştıran ana karlılık oranlarından biridir. Bazı yatırımcılar bu oranı firmanın adi hisse senedinin cazibesini ölçmek için kullanmaktadır. Borç / Varl k Ora Bazı İslami Finans Endeksleri, örneğin Dow Jones Küresel İslam Endeksi (DJIM) tarafından yapılan nicel gözetimde, finansal kriterlerden biri özkaynak oranıdır. Toplam borç, toplam özkaynağa göre % 33'ten az olmalıdır. Bununla birlikte, bu çalışmanda kullanılan 'FTSE Global Equity Shariah Index' serisi bu oranın gözetim sürecine dahil etmemektedir. Bundan dolayı, bu çalışmada, ŞUŞ'ler ve ŞUOŞ'ler arasında önemli farklılıklar olup olmadığını genel olarak görmek için, bu oranın kullanılmasına karar verilmiştir. Toplam borcun toplam özkaynağa bölünmesiyle bulunan özkaynak oranını, bağımsız bir değişken olarak çalışmada yer xix almıştır. Margaritis ve Psillaki (2010) ve Memon ve diğerleri, (2012) gibi diğer bazı çalışmalar özkaynak oranı için, aynı ölçümü kullanmışlardır. Bu oran, borç / özkaynak veya tamamen sahip olunan fonlara dayalı şirket finansman derecesini ölçerek, bir şirketin finansal kaldıracını değerlendirmektir. Bu gösterge, şirketin bir finansal sorun yaşaması halinde, özkaynakların şirketteki tüm borçları karşılama kabiliyetini ölçer. Borç Fi a s a FTSE Global Equity Shariah Index nicel gözetimi kapsamında borç oranı, toplam varlıkların yüzde 33'ünden az olmalıdır. Bu çalışmanın amacı nedeniyle, finansal kriz sırasında etkisini daha ayrıntılı görmek amacıyla, borç oranı ikiye ayrılmıştır. Nitekim Fosberg (2013), ABD'de borsada işlem gören şirketler üzerinde bir çalışma yürütmüş ve kısa vadeli borç finansmanının 2006'da yüzde 1,3'ten 2008'de yüzde 2,2'ye yükseldiğini ve bunun 2008'de meydana gelen finansal kriz nedeniyle 34 milyon dolarlık bir artışı temsil ettiğini bulmuştur. 2008 yılında borsada çöktüğünde, kredi arzının sınırlı olmasından dolayı, şirketlerin borçlanma gücünün daha önce olduğundan daha zayıf hale geldiği sayısız çalışma ile desteklenmiştir (bakınız Brealey ve ark., 2008; Almeida ve ark., 2011; Federal Rezerv, 2012; Fosberg, 2013). Bu nedenle, firmalar finansal zorluklar sırasında KVYK finansmanını daha çok kullandılar. Hassan ve Samour (2016) sermaye yapısı finansman kararının finansal kriz sırasında etkili olduğunu açıkça belirtmişlerdir. Cheema ve arkadaşları (2017) ve Shahar ve Shahar (2015), ŞUŞ'lerin uzun vadeli borç finansmanını kısa vadeli borç finansmanından daha fazla kullandığını bulmuşlardır. Bunun nedeni, Şeriat yönergelerine göre sınırlı ilgi ve risk paylaşımının kısıtlanması olabilir. Bununla birlikte, ŞUOŞ'ler, işletme sermayesi ihtiyacını karşılamak için daha fazla KVYK kullanmaktadır. Ancak Sahudin, Ismail, Sulaiman, Rahman ve Jaafar (2019) tarafından yapılan çalışma, ŞUŞ'lerin UVYK'a kıyasla daha fazla KVYK kullandığını buldurmuştur. Malezya'daki ŞUŞ'ler uzun vadeli borcuna kıyasla daha yaygın olarak kısa vadeli borç kullanılmaktadır, çünkü İslami borçlanma araçlarının çoğu uzun xx vadeli borçtan ziyade kısa vadelidir (Aggarwal ve Yousef, 2000). Bu aynı zamanda, kısa vadeli borç fonksiyonunun, borcu kontrol etme ve acente sorununu azaltma mekanizması olarak haklı kıldığı kurum teorisini de destekler. Bu nedenle, bu çalışma özellikle finansal kriz öncesinde, sırasında ve sonrasında finansman modellerindeki önemli farklılıkları incelemeyi de amaçlamaktadır. Maddi Varl k Ora Maddi duran varlıklar, bankaların finansal krizden sonra işletmelerin yaşayabilirliğini ölçtükleri için daha popüler hale gelmektedir. Bunun nedeni maddi duran varlıkların maddi olmayan duran varlıklara göre daha fazla likidit olmasıdır. Charalambakis ve Garrett (2012) maddi duran varlıkların firma içindeki sermaye yapısını açıklamada ana nokta olduğunu belirtmiştir. Sonuç olarak, maddi duran varlıklar piyasada daha yüksek değere sahiptir ve firmalar finansal problemleri olsa veya iflas ederse bile, firmalar maddi varlıklarını kolayca ve hızlı bir şekilde satabilmektedirler. Scott (1977) ve Titman ve Wessels (1988), daha az kârlı firmanın maddi duran varlıkların yüksek değerine sahip olma eğiliminde olduğunu ve firmaların maddi duran varlıklarını daha fazla borç almak veya daha fazla borç almak için teminat olarak kullandıklarını belirtmiştir. Bu nedenle, daha yüksek somutluğu olan herhangi bir firma daha fazla borç alacaktır. Bu işletmenin daha fazla borç finansmanı sağlayarak verginin avantajından faydalanması gerektiğini vurgulayan değiş tokuş teorisine uygun şekilde, işletmenin daha fazla kâr elde etmesini sağlar. Ahmad ve Azhar (2015) bunun borcunda temerrüde düşüren işletmelere, iflastan kaçınmak için bu maddi varlığı kullanmaları için bir seçenek oluturduğunu eklediler. Naki e Alacak Topla Ora Önceki çalışmaların çoğu, işletmelerin kısa vadeli finansal yükümlülüğünü yerine getirme kabiliyetini ölçmek için likidite oranını kullanmıştır. Thabet ve Hanefah (2014) da çalışmalarında likiditenin işletmelerin kurumsal performansı üzerinde etkili olan faktörlerden biri olduğunu bulmuşlardır. xxi Bu oran, işletmenin aşırı nakit veya nakit eksikliğinden kaçınmak için, nakit ve alacakları için bir limit belirlemek açısından önemlidir. Buna ek olarak, temsil maliyetini de düşürmektedir. Bildiğimiz kadarıyla bu çalışmamızda, nakit ve alacaklar toplamı, toplam varlıklar içindeki yerinin (CashAR) kurumsal performansa etkisini inceleyen ilk çalışmadır. Bu değişken, ŞUŞ için İslami endekste listelenmesi için yerine getirmesi gereken bir ölçüt olduğu için, bu çalışmada bağımsız bir değişken olarak seçilmiştir. Farooq ve Alahkam (2016), İslami esaslara dayanan ekonomi nedeniyle, İslami finansal sistemin daha istikrarlı ve dayanıklı olduğunu çalışmalarıyla desteklemişlerdir. Büyüme Ora Bu çalışmada, cari yılki satış eksi geçmiş yılki satışların cari yılki satışlara bölünmesi, işletme büyüme oranının bir göstergesi olarak kullanılmıştır. Çalışmalarında büyüme oranı için aynı ölçümü kullanan önceki çalışmalar (Salim ve Yadav, 2012; Bundala, 2012; Proença ve diğerleri, 2014; Cheema ve diğerleri, 2017) bulunmaktadır. Titman & Wessel'e (1988) ve Rajan & Zingales'e (1995) göre, gelecekteki büyümesi yüksek olan firmaların finansman kararlarında daha az kaldıraç kullanıldığını göstermektedir. Çünkü firma borç finansman yerine özkaynakla finansmanı tercih edecektir. Ayrıca, büyüme firmanın karlılığını etkileyecektir. Bu çalışma Güneydoğu Asya'dan Malezya, Endonezya, Vietnam, Singapur ve Tayland gibi seçilmiş ülkelere odaklanacaktır. Örneklem seçimi, Güneydoğu Asya bölgesindeki İslami sermaye piyasasının en ilerici bölgelerini içermektedir (Yakcop, 2002). Bu çalışmanın başlangıcında, Güneydoğu Asya'da sanayi sektörü altındaki Halka Açık Şirketlerden 595 örnek tespit edilmiştir. Bununla birlikte, tamamlanmamış finansal tablolar ve hesap dönemi boyunca muhasebe yılı değişikliği gibi çeşitli nedenlerden dolayı 114 şirket, örneklemden çıkarılmıştır. Bu nedenle, seçilen son örnekler ŞUŞ'lerden 197 ve ŞUOŞ'lerden 284 halka açık şirketten meydana gelmektedir. Tüm örnekler, Thomson Reuter Eikon tarafından yayınlanan DataStream aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. Bu çalışma, amacına ulaşmak için bilanço, gelir tablosu ve nakit akım tablosu gibi tüm finansal tabloları bir araya getirmektedir. Bu çalışmada veriler, Python Pandas yazılımı kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Bu, sermaye yapısının xxii finansal kriz sırasında kurumsal performans üzerindeki etkisini analiz etmek için Python Pandas'ın kullanıldığı ilk çalışmadır. Pandas veri işleme ve analiz için Python programlama dili için yazılan yazılım kütüphanesidir. Pandas sayısal tabloları ve zaman serilerini değiştirmek için veri yapıları ve işlemler sunar. Bu nedenle, bu çalışma için gerekli olan kodlama sistemini oluşturmak, verileri analiz etmek için ilk adım olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu çalışmada amacına ulaşmak için regresyon denklemleri aşağıdaki gibi geliştirilmiştir: 1. Y (Pretax ROA) = β0 + β1D/Eit + β2Tangit + β3STDit + β4LTDit + β5CASH/ARit + β6GRWit + β7BOYUTit + β8(X) + ε 2. Y (ROE) = β0 + β1D/Eit + β2Tangit + β3STDit + β4LTDit + β5CASH/ARit + β6GRWit + β7BOYUTit + β8(X) + ε Vasıtasıyla: Pre-tax ROA = Vergi oranından önce varlığın getirisi ROE = Özkaynak karlılığı D/E = Borç / Özkaynak oranı STD = Kısa vadeli borç oranı LTD = Uzun vadeli borç oranı TANG = Maddi varlık oranı CASHAR = Nakit artı alacak oranı GRW = Büyüme oranı BOYUT = Boyut oranı ε = Hata terimi X = kukla değişken 0: Şeriat Uyumlu Olmayan Şirketler (ŞUOŞ) 1: Şeriat Uyumlu Şirketler (ŞUŞ) xxiii Analiz, çoklu doğrusallık testi ile başlar ve bu testin amacı, değişkenler arasında çoklu doğrusallık sorunu bulunmadığından emin olmaktır. Sonuçlara göre, tolerans değerlerinin hiçbiri 0,2'den az ve hiçbir Varyans Enflasyon Faktörü (VIF) 10'dan büyük değildir. Bu nedenle, bu çalışma için çoklu bağlantı sorunu yoktur denilebilir. Analizlere, tanımlayıcı istatistik analizleri ile devam edilmiştir. Şeriat uyumlu şirketlerin (ŞUŞ) kurumsal performansının mali kriz sırasında ve her iki bağımlı değişken için de, vergi öncesi varlık karlılığı (vergi öncesi AK) ve özkaynak kârlılığı (ÖKK), finansal krizden sonra şeriat uyumlu olmayan şirketlerde (ŞUOŞ) daha yüksek olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Ancak bağımsız değişkenler, borç / özkaynak oranı için kısa vadeli borç oranı, uzun vadeli borç oranı, nakit artı hesap alacakları hesap oranı, SCC'nin finansal öncesi, sırasında ve sonrasındaki tüm dönemler için daha düşük bir orana sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu sonuçlar, niceliksel tarama işlemi sırasında endeks sağlayıcı tarafından belirlenen koşullar nedeniyle beklenen bir durumdur. Ayrıca Şeriat endeksinde yer almak ve Şeriat statüsü kazanmak için bir ŞUŞ'in, her zaman söz konusu koşulların yerine getirildiği takip etmesi gerekir. Bu nedenle, ŞUŞ'lerin ŞUOŞ'lere kıyasla her zaman daha düşük kaldıraç oranına sahip olduğunu gözlemleyebiliriz. Bu oranların düşük olması daha iyidir, çünkü yüksek kaldıraç oranı veya borç finansman oranı, şirketin ödeme gücü ve istikrarsızlık riskini arttırabilir. ŞUŞ için maddi varlık oranı finansal kriz öncesinde, sırasında ve sonrasında ŞUOŞ'lerden daha yüksektir. Bu oran mali kriz döneminden sonra, daha da önem kazanmaktadır. Çünkü, bankalar şirketin yaşama yeteneği için bu oranı dikkate alırlar ve şirketin teminat seviyesinin göstergesidir. Bu nedenle, daha yüksek maddi varlık oranına sahip ŞUŞ'e daha fazla borç verebilir. İflas durumunda daha güvenli hale gelir, şirketler, borçlarını ödemek için maddi duran varlıklarını satabilir. Toplam nakit ve alacak oranı, finansal kriz öncesinde, sırasında ve sonrasında ŞUOŞ'den daha düşüktür. Her ne kadar yüksek likidite ile daha fazla kredi hacmine ulaşmayı ve yöneticilerin yatırım yapmasını kolaylaşsa da, bu durum yüksek bir iflas riskini ve yüksek ödeme yapmama riskini beraberinde getirir. Ek olarak, düşük likidite temsil sorununun artmaması açısından bir avantaj sağlar. xxiv Öncesinde ve mali kriz döneminde ŞUOŞ'lerin ŞUŞ'lerden daha yüksek bir büyüme oranına sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Ancak, mali kriz döneminden sonra ŞUŞ'ler, ŞUOŞ'lerden daha yüksek bir büyüme oranına sahiptir. Finansal kriz döneminden sonra ŞUŞ'lerin daha iyi büyüdüğünü göstermektedir. Ayrıca, finansal kriz döneminden sonra ŞUŞ'lerin yatırımcıdan daha fazla ilgi gördüğü kanıtlanmıştır. Kurumsal performans için ilk bağımlı değişken olarak, vergi öncesi AK'na dayalı çoklu regresyon analizinden elde edilen ikinci önemli bulgu, finansal kriz döneminden önceki borç / özkaynak oranı hariç tüm bağımsız değişkenlerin istatistiksel olarak önemli olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Ancak finansal kriz döneminde sadece uzun vadeli borç oranları anlamlı değildir ve finansal kriz döneminden sonra hem kısa vadeli borç hem de uzun vadeli borç değişkenleri istatistiksel olarak önemli değildir. Şeriat uyumlu şirketler ancak finansal kriz döneminden sonra önemli bir seviyeye sahiptir. Sermaye yapısının vergi öncesi AK için ŞUŞ üzerindeki etkisi, finansal kriz döneminden sonra ŞUOŞ'lerden 1,6617 kat daha yüksektir. Kurumsal performansın ikinci bağımlı değişkeni ÖKK'dır. Finansal kriz döneminden önce borç / özsermaye oranı ve nakit artı hesap alacak oranı hariç, finansal kriz dönemi içinde ve sonrasında uzun vadeli borç oranı hariç tüm bağımsız değişkenler ÖKK açısından istatistiksel olarak önemlidir. Finansal krizden önce ÖKK ile ŞUŞ önemli ölçüde artmakta ve sermaye yapısının ÖKK için ŞUŞ üzerindeki etkisinin finansal kriz döneminden önce ŞUOŞ'lerden -2.9264 kat daha düşük olduğunu göstermektedir. Ancak, finansal kriz döneminden sonra, sermaye yapısının ÖKK için ŞUŞ üzerindeki etkisi ŞUOŞ'lerden 4.3171 kat daha fazladır. Bu çalışmada elde edilen bulgular, akademisyenler, araştırmacılar, düzenleyici kurumlar ve özellikle ŞUŞ ve ŞUOŞ gibi şirketlerin yönetimi için daha fazla araştırma yapmalarının gerektiğini sonucunu doğurmuştur. Bu çalışma düzenleyici kurumlara ve ilgili devlet kurumlarına, şeriat uyumlu statüye ilişkin yönergeler ve çerçeve çıkarmaları rehber olabilir. Bu nedenle, yeni düzenleme ve kılavuz ilkeler oluşturmak için, bu kurumların daha fazla yatırımcı çekmek için yeni kılavuzlar geliştirmek amacıyla yatırımcıların ihtiyaçlarını ve ŞUŞ'lerin özelliklerini anlamaları gerekmektedir. Malezya'da hükümet beş yıl vergi muafiyeti ile yeni xxv ŞUŞ'lere teşvik vermektedir. Ayrıca, İngiltere ve Fransa'da ŞUŞ'ler de dahil olmak üzere İslami finans sektörü için vergi yapılarını değiştirdiler. Bu çalışmanın yürütülmesinde bazı sınırlamalar bulunmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, finansal piyasadaki farklı düzeylerde gelişme, hükümet politikaları ve o ülkenin dış olaylara duyarlılığı nedeniyle Asya'daki finansal krizin ülke genelinde farklı olduğu göz önünde bulundurulmamıştır. Buna ek olarak, ülkeler arası bu çapraz çalışma nedeniyle, farklı hukuk sistemleri ve düzenlemeleri, bürokrasi, şirketlerin her ülkede karşılaştığı farklı maliyetler ve faydalar nedeniyle farklılıklar beklenmektedir. Bu sınırlamalar gelecekteki araştırmaların yolunu açmaktadır. Dolayısıyla, gelecekte sermaye yapısı alanındaki araştırma boşluğunu doldurmak için bu sınırlamaları dikkate alınmalıdır

Robert Wade on Zombie Ideas, Being inside the World
Bank, and the Death of Ethics in Economics after the Marginal Revolution







The global
economy is at the core of some of the main issues in contemporary International
Relations. But how do we understand the global economy and what impact does
that have on how we deal with the power politics around it? A fault line seems
to have emerged between those who take economic theory seriously and those who
denounce it for being part of the problem. Informed by his training as an
anthropologist, Robert H. Wade—professor at the LSE—takes a different tack: he
bases his engagement with the way in which Adam Smith has been appropriated to
advocate for a dominant view of 'free markets' on real-world economics and in-depth
accounts of insiders. In this Talk,
Wade—among others—discusses experimentation in international economic
regimes, why the International Financial Institutions don't fight economic
crises, and the powers and perils of being inside the World Bank.




Print version of this Talk (pdf)




What is,
according to you, the biggest challenge / principal debate in current
International Relations? What is your position or answer to this challenge / in
this debate?



If we'd reframe
your question as being more broadly about global studies, I think that one of
the really fundamental questions is how and why it is that the precepts of neoliberalism
have penetrated into every nook and cranny of Western societies, and have
penetrated to a very large extent many non-Western countries.



This has
happened especially, but not only, through the agency of the IMF and the World
bank, which have imbued these neoliberal principles; through the mechanism of
graduate education: children of the elites in developing countries go out to
American, British, other Western universities, and they learn that this is
'true' economics, or 'true' IPE, or 'true' Political Science, and then they
come back and implement these same principles and make them a reality back
home. But across the globe, this even holds for the Nordic countries. In
Iceland and other Nordic countries, from the 1980s, networks of people sharing
a belief in neo-liberal precepts, began to form and sort of place each other in
key positions within the state, and in politics, and built a momentum in this
direction. These precepts have become understood as just natural, as in
Margaret Thatcher's 'there is no alternative'.



I live in the
UK, and the great bulk of the British public really does believe that the
government is just like a household writ large, and the same rules of budgeting
that apply to the household should apply to the state. That when times are
tough the household has to tighten its belt, cut back on spending, and it is
only fair that the government does the same, and if the government does not, if
the government runs a deficit in hard times, then the government is being
irresponsible. And this is a completely mistaken and pre-Keynesian idea, but it
is a 'zombie idea'—that is, however much arguments and evidence may be mounted
against it, it just keeps coming up and up and up, and governments come to
power riding on this zombie idea and a flotilla of related ideas.



The persistence
of this zombie idea is all the more amazing as we just had a global financial
crisis in 2007/8, which would prompt a rethinking of these ideas. But these
neoliberal precepts have been, if anything, more strongly reinforced. In
previous hard times—and obviously the 1930s depression is the exemplary
case—there has been a stronger move towards, what you could call, social
democratic precepts. But not this time! Indeed, even after the crisis, the
whole of the European Union with 500 million people is even more thoroughly structured
on the basis of these ideas. I am thinking of what is popularly known as the Fiscal Compact signed by the EU Member States in 2012, which commits all governments
to balance budgets all the time—that is, first, the structural deficit may not
rise above 0.5 percent of GDP. Second, the public debt may not rise above 60
percent of GDP. Third, automatic financial sanctions are levied on governments
that exceed these two thresholds. Fourth, the whole procedure is supervised by
the European Commission, and this is presented as in the name of sound
budgeting. This package is presented as justified by the proposition that
government is a household writ large. The most elementary principles of
Keynesian macroeconomics show why this is not simply mistaken, but a disaster,
and will keep generating recessionary pressures. It is sold as a kind of excuse
for avoiding to put in place the essential conditions for the monetary union,
namely, a common budget and a sizable transfer mechanism to the regions just as
exists in the United States. But they do not want to do that, but still they
call this agreement 'cooperation', which is all about not cooperation, but
about writing these dictates around this zombie idea written into the very
basic architecture of the EU. Beyond EU politics, it materializes all the way
down to, I don't know, the function of the privatization of the Post Office, it
goes all the way down to the sort of capillaries of how universities are run,
and the incentive systems that have placed upon academics, and there is very
little pushback. The one reason, why I am almost completely delighted about
Jeremy Corbyn's election as the leader of the Labour party, is that this is one
small case of where there seems to be some concerted pushback against these
zombie ideas. The point being that the established Labour party basically
bought into this whole set of neo-liberal ideas. It combined maintaining the
overall structure of inequality in society with more emphasis on providing some
help to the poor, but they had to be hardworking poor.



Yet, one knows
that there can be dramatic changes in the prevailing zeitgeist of norms. One
knows that there can be big changes in the space of a few decades and the
question is can one imagine a scenario in which they might be a big change in
norms back to a more kind of social-democratic direction. So where will this
take place? Because of technological change in the labor market, there is a
real big crisis of employment with many middle-class jobs cut out and
polarization in the labor market. This might then induce a political movement
to have a much bigger change in income distribution than anybody with power is
now talking about. Talk of re-distribution these days is really almost entirely
around redistribution through the state, but the point I would make is that if
there is to be any significant reduction of inequality, especially inequality
at the top, there has to be more attention to changes in market-income
distribution.



Let me explain. The
share of profits in national income has been going up and the share of labor
income has been going down. So we should harness the shareholder structure of
the market to affect a more equal income distribution by enabling a much wider
section of the population to buy into the profit share. At the moment the
profit share goes to senior executives and equity holders, but equity holders
are highly concentrating at the top of the income and wealth distribution. If
equity earners could be spread much more equally, then a much wider section of the
population would get income, while they sleep so to speak. We could institute
something like trusts, whose members could be the employees of a company, the
customers, the neighbors of the company, and the trust would borrow on capital
markets and take out insurance against the repayment of the lending of loan and
then it would buy shares, it would use that borrowed money to buy shares in the
company, and the company would pay out dividends on the shares and then that
dividend income coming out of profits would be distributed to the members of
the trust. That would be a way of getting the rising share of profits in
national income distributed out to the population at large. I particularly like
this metaphor of "earning income while you sleep", since at the moment it is
only the rich people, who are earning income while they sleep. Somehow that facility
of earning income while you sleep has to be made much more widely and available—by
using the market against itself, so to speak.





How did you arrive at where
you currently are in your thinking about International Relations?



I suppose the starting point was really this; my
father was a New Zealand diplomat, so we moved quite often. By that time I was
twelve my parents were posted to Colombo, Ceylon as it was called then. After
having lived just in Western countries, I suddenly encountered at this very
formative age Colombo and Sri Lanka. I was just amazed by that experience; by
the color, the taste, the exoticness, but I was also very struck by how the
many boys at the same age as me, were walking around with no shoes. I particular
remember this boy carrying a baby on his shoulder, the baby looked half-dead
and covered in scabs, and I think it was then I got the idea of just how
unequal the world was. Then at university I studied economics, but I also
visited my parents in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and I got another sense of that
great disparity in wealth and living standards. At this time I had come across
Adam Smith and the wealth of nations question and that helped to encapsulate or
to crystalize my interests. So I wanted to go the Institute of Development
Studies in Sussex and  got enrolled for a
PhD in economics, but en route I spent several weeks in India and during that
time I began to dwell upon just how boring and how useless everything I studied
under the name of microeconomics. I kept thinking of these dreadfully dry
textbooks of marginal cost curves and marginal revenue curves and utility function
and difference curves etc., which I had forced myself to sit exams in. By this
time I had done a little bit of fieldwork, living on Pitcairn Island in the
middle of the Pacific.



When I got back to Sussex after fieldwork I announced
that I wished to not do a PhD in economics, but to do one in anthropology
thinking all the time, that this would actually be more use for understanding
why for example India, where I had been, was so very poor. So that's what I did:
a PhD in anthropology… In some ways I regard that as having been a mistake,
because the sort of mainstream of anthropology is very far away from the Adam
Smith questions. Having done the degree in anthropology, pretty soon I began to
change direction and pay much more attention to the state, to the state
bureaucracy. I went to India and I studied the Irrigation Department and other
related departments. I went to South Korea and I studied state irrigation
agencies and I went to Taiwan and I studied the state more broadly. So I was
kind of moving up from my Italian village, moving kind of up the scale in terms
of state agencies and then the state as a whole.



Then I went to work for the World Bank in the 1980s and
my main reason for doing that was not to do the research the World Bank wanted
me to do, but rather to study the World Bank from the inside as fieldwork. If
in some ways switching to anthropology was a mistake, in other ways it was not,
because I approached those kind of Wealth-of-Nations-questions in a way very
different from how economists approached them. For example when I went to
Taiwan and studied the trade regime, the first thing I did was to go and talk
to people who operated through the trade regime, whereas I noticed that the
published works by economists celebrating Taiwan's free trade regime was based
on what the rules said and what certain government officials told them was the
case. They had never actually talked to
people who traded through the trade regime. If they would have, they would
have learned about all the covert controls that went on such that there was
quite a distinction between the liberal face of the trade regime and the
reality of the trade regime. The reality was that the government was managing
trade in line with industrial policy, but the government absolutely did not
want the world to know that. So all this was kept hidden and I was really
regarded as rather unwelcome visitor—and in fact to this day my book Governing the Market (1990, read the
introduction here) is not well
received in Taiwan. It says the government of Taiwan did a good job of managing
the market, but they want the world to believe that Taiwan is a free trade
country. So that is the kind of intellectual trajectory that I have been on.



So I think that the value of the anthropology PhD was
that it really taught me, in practical terms, the meaning of the
anthropological maxim, which is 'soaking and poking'. To put it another way—I
love this—anthropologists are social scientists, who believe that the plural of
anecdote is evidence. And indeed I place a lot of weight on anecdotes, on
gossip, on the stories people tell, whereas economists would be much happier
reducing, let us say, South Korea's trade regime to one data point in a matrix,
and then compare that data point with, let us say, Malaysia's data point to see
how the trade regimes are correlated with growth, or something like that, and
that is really not my interest.





What would a student need to
become a specialist in IR or understand the world in a global way?



Despite what I've just said, I do think that a graduate
training in economics is very useful, provided one does not believe it. And that is really
difficult, because the socialization pressures are intense: if you do not say
the right things—which are neoliberal type things on the whole—then you will
likely not get a high grade. But I have noticed that economists tend to know
how to think, how to make arguments,
they tend to understand the idea of causality, and that may seem an astonishing
thing to say on my part, because it implies that students coming from other
disciplines are often weak in understanding the very basic ideas of causality,
but that is my experience. I had many students coming from, who knows, IR or
Political Science or Sociology or Anthropology, who clearly do not have much
idea of causality; they can describe things, but they find thinking in terms of
cause and effect, in terms of independent and dependent variables, in terms of
left and right side, they just find it difficult. So I do think that there is a
lot to be said for studying economics, and mastering the maths, provided that
the critical facility is not lost. That is point number one.



Point number two is that I think that there is a huge
premium on doing fieldwork, and the field work maybe in developing countries,
but when I say field work, I don't just mean going out to villages, going out
to see poor people 'over there'. I am talking of fieldwork inside bureaucracies:
to try and understand the culture, the incentive systems that people are
working under—fieldwork at home so to speak, in the countries one comes from. From
the students' point of view, it is clearly much easier to sit in the LSE
library to do the research. So in my marking I give quite a premium to a
student actually doing fieldwork, going out and interviewing, and having the
experience of writing up and interpreting the interviews and somehow fitting it
back into a larger argument—but really few students actually do that, and I
think that that is a real, real big mistake. Mind you, the same risk holds for fieldwork in economics as it does for
studying economics: I encourage students to work for (do fieldwork in,
experience) the World Bank; and several have—but to the best of my knowledge
almost none of them has kept their critical perspective. They really come to
buy into it.





The relations between states are settled
either through diplomacy or warfare. Why would we have to focus on economics to
understand IR?



Because economics—such as
for example balances of payment, surpluses and deficits—set the constraints and
incentives on countries in terms of their relationships with each other. A great
deal of diplomacy is driven by economic pressures: diplomacy to get other
countries to for example open their markets, or to cut deals with countries—'if
you do this, we will do that'—deals that may relate to areas that are rather
different, for instance if you buy more of these of our exports, we will help
you fight such and such country, because the manufactures are in my
constituency.



So, in a way, the way you
framed the question is part of the reason why I react against the discipline of
IR: because it tends to treat diplomacy, war, and so on, as somehow rather
separate from economic pressures, and I see these economic pressures as very
powerful drivers of both of the other two things. As another example, one of
the drivers of the Syrian conflict was that there was an acute drought (like
Weizman observed in Theory Talk #69, red), which meant that many people
were rendered destitute; rural areas flooded into the cities, and the Assad
regime just was—understandably—unable to cope; and large numbers of young men,
concentrated in cities, rootless and with no jobs, just were recruiting fodder for
the Wahhabi sect. I have always thought of economics—not so much as in the
making choices in conditions of scarcity, that is sort of Lionel Robin's definition—in the sense of Alfred Marshal, about how people make a
living, as a very fundamental driver of a lot of what happens in International
Relations.





Pikkety recently published Capital in the
21st Century, causing quite the stir. But why would inequality
between people matter for IR?



Let me comment by invoking
a very contemporary exhibit—the migration crisis in Europe now. Maybe a decade
ago I looked at the figures and if you took the
average income of the EU-15 prior to latest extensions and then expressed the
average income of countries outside of the EU—including sub-Sahara Africa—as a
percentage, then there was a really dramatic falling away of income levels
relative to the EU, in countries all around the EU and whether you took market
exchange rates or purchasing power parity. If you went round to sub-Sahara
Africa and took the average, it was more like two percent in market exchange rates
and seven percent in purchasing power parity; and the 'problem' is that there
is certainly here a rather thin slither of sea between Africa and the promised
land of Europe and to the east there are these great open planes, where armies
can go up and down to the speed of light, so to speak, but people can also move
pretty quickly across these planes.



So all one has to do—and this
might just be only a bit of an exaggeration—if one is on the poor end of this
poverty pyramid is hop across the border and you have a chance at least of
getting a very appreciable increase in living conditions and income, with which
you can then get savings to remit back to home. So the migrations pressures are
just huge. So that is one reason for linking inequality to issues in International
Relations—really fundamental issues, and very very difficult to dissolve.





You've done anthropological fieldwork inside
the World Bank—an institution drawing a lot of criticism from its detractors in
IR. Can you shed some kind of light about what kind of 'animal' the World Bank
is?



First of all, let me say
that at the micro-level—the level of the people you know and the people I know
inside the World Bank—I agree that there are people doing a lot of good work.
But if you look at the organization more generally—the World Bank and also the
IMF—they are clearly instruments mainly of US foreign policy—and any number of
US senators, members of the House, have basically said that. When they are
defending the International Financial Institutions (they often criticize them),
they do so by saying they are important for US foreign policy. And you have to
look at the governance structures to see how it is that the US in particular—but
Western states more generally—have from the beginning, through the very Articles
of Agreement, created a structure which locks in their power, and has made it
very difficult for other countries (including Japan) to significantly increase their
shareholdings. The US has kept the presidency of the Bank and the much less
recognized Number Two position of the IMF, and has used these positions to have
a very strong influence.



Just to illustrate what the
Bank and the Fund do: at the time of the East-Asian crisis—specifically the
Korean crisis in 1997-1998—the IMF mission was in Seoul. The negotiations were
in a hotel there. David Lipton from the US Treasury (and a former student of
Larry Summers who was by then Deputy Secretary) was just down the corridor of
where the negotiations took place, and every so often the IMF people would walk
out of the negotiations and consult with David Lipton, then come back in and—as
Paul Blustein reports in his book called The Chastening—often said
something rather different from what they had been saying before they consulted
with David Lipton.



Just to take another
example, the US being able to appoint the president of the Bank—to appoint a
person known personally to the Treasury Secretary or to the Secretary of the
State, or both—is really of great value: when there is a 'trustful relationship'—or
a relationship of dependency, the president being dependent on those who
appointed him in the Administration—it is possible for those people in the Administration,
or people close to them, to just ring up the president of the Bank, and talk in
a very informal, confidential, trustful way about what is happening in Latin
America, or what is happening in the Middle East, and what the US thinks the
Bank should or should not be doing in those places. Larry Summers appointed a
protégé of his to one of the regional development banks, and this person—who is
very senior in the bank—told me that Larry would frequently ring him, while he
is being driven home in the evening from the Treasury, just to have a chat
about how things were going in her region, and to pass on suggestions about
what the Bank should be doing there, and to get intelligence from her about
what was happening in the region, and so on. The point is that, making these
personal connections is of immense value, but at the same time, the US
Congress, in particular, is very much against having a big Bank against allowing
a capital increase for the World Bank—so that the bank could, as it should be
doing, increase its lending for infrastructure investment ten times. It is just
a complete scandal how little the Bank has been lending for the past 20 years
or more for infrastructure, for roads and power stations and so on. The US does
not want the Bank providing socialistic competition with the private sector: it
says these things are for the private sector to do, and the Bank has to take
care of poverty, because the private sector is not interested in poverty.



So the US wants to keep the
presidency of the Bank, it wants to keep, secondly, its unique veto right on
the big decisions, such as decisions on whether to increase the capital base—but
provided those two things are met it does not care that much about the Bank. In
the case of the Fund, the US is also very powerful, but of course the Europeans
have a bit more relative power. Right now I think the world is in an even more dangerous
sort if financial condition than might appear, because the IMF is acutely short
of secure or guaranteed lending resources, so if there is to be another round
of crisis—as I think is entirely likely within the next five years—the Fund
depends upon borrowing short-term from member countries, like on six months
terms, but member countries can say 'no', and that means that the Fund's
ability to fight crises is quite constrained. The Fund should implement what
was agreed in 2010 by all the member countries represented on the board of the
IMF: to roughly double the quote of the guaranteed lending resources, that is,
resources the countries actually hand over to the Fund, over which they
actually give up country control. All the relevant capitals ratified it with
one exception—the US—because Congress refused because the individual barons,
who are not under that much party discipline, each said to the Treasury: 'look,
the question of the IMF is of zero significance to my electorate, so if you
want my vote on the IMF, you have to give me things that I want like projects
in my constituency and so on'. The Treasury added up the demands of the people,
whose vote had to be won, and it considered those demands were just way, way,
way over the top. As long as a Democrat is in the presidency, while the House
is controlled by Republicans the world is sort of held hostage to this. Beyond
this example, this actually entails a structural problem: the US blocking or
producing a gridlock in international organizations, because the Congress is
hostile to international organizations, because Congress sees it to imply a
loss of US sovereignty. The only way to end this gridlock is to end the US veto
in the Fund and the Bank, but the problem is that the US can veto any measures.



One response of the big
developing countries is to create bypass organizations—such as the Asian
Infrastructure Investment Banks, such as the new Development Bank, such as the
Contingent Reserve arrangement the BRICs have established, and then a growing
number of sort of regional development banks. And I think that that is a good
thing, but it does raise questions about coordination, about who is looking
after, if you will, the global interests, global issues such as climate change.
In short, we need a genuine World Bank, rather than the American-Bank-in-the-World
we have today.



You engage thoroughly with economics and
economic theory. Now there seem to be two kinds of critical approaches to
economics in IPE: one criticizes its rationality as flawed, and another buys
into its rationality but attempts to point out where actual policy gets it
wrong. Where do you stand in this?



If you take the example of
how the EU attempted to impose fiscal rules on Greece, you see a notion of
rationality which draws upon these very primitive notions that I referred to
right at the beginning, where the government is just a household writ large,
and the same set of rules that apply to the budgeting of the household must
apply to the government as well. Here, the assumption is that any macroeconomic
proposition must have microeconomic foundations, that it must be derivable from
propositions about microeconomic agents acting in this sort of self-maximizing
way, and if you cannot derive macroeconomic propositions from those micro
foundations, then there is something unreliable, un-rigorous about your macroeconomics.
So what are then the sources of these micro-economic assumptions?



This leads us to one
fundamental and almost completely unaddressed weaknesses of economics can be
traced back to the Marginal Revolution in the late 19th
century. From that moment onwards, there has been an attempt to model economics
on physics, and that was very explicit on the part of people like Pareto and
Walras, and Jevons, early Marginalist thinkers. They even drew up tables with
terms of physics, like velocity, on one side, and then corresponding terms in
economics on the other. That had a huge benefit in terms of the 'science' of
economics, because it cut economics loose from Adam Smith's and other classical
economists' preoccupations with issues of morality and ethics. Adam Smith
thought his most important book was not the Wealth of Nations but his Theory of Moral Sentiments, on which he was working,
revising yet again, when he died. For Smith, economics and morals were never
separate worlds, but intimately related. So for him, the Theory of Moral
Sentiments and the Wealth of Nations were just twins. The point
about the marginalist revolution, and the embrace of physics as the model, was
that it cut economics free of all that sort of subjective stuff about values. So
economics after the marginalist revolution set off with the assumption that not
production, but the movement of individuals in markets engaged in trading with
each other became the center of gravity of economics. Making the study of exchange
rather than the study of production central was analogous to, say, Boyle's Law
in physics. Boyle's Law in physics explained the
movement of molecules in gasses, as a function of the pressure applied to the
gas. So why did they make that analogy?



The point of likening of
individuals in microeconomic actions with molecules in gasses was the
following. Everybody knows that we do not apply any consideration of
ethics or moral sentiments to the movement of the molecules in gas, so neither should
we apply any notions of ethics or moral sentiments to the movements of
individuals in market exchanges. And that was the way that all considerations
of ethics, of morality were just removed from economics. I for instance asked the
question to well-known American growth theorist, as we were walking down the
street in Providence at Brown University: 'is it moral for people to freeride?'
And he said, 'yes of course, provided they do not break the law'. So ethics and
questions of morality have been almost completely expunged from economics in a
way that would horrify classical economists including Smith; and a particular idea
of rationality has been an important part of cleansing economics from those
moral considerations. George DeMartino, editor of the Oxford Handbook of
Professional Economics Ethics which just appeared has a wonderful phrase to
capture this—'econogenic harm': the harm built into the way that economics,
professional economists work.





Haven't specific fields, like development
economics—a field you engage with yourself—advanced to overcome these
weaknesses in economic theory?



Let me root my answer again
in observations about the linkages between theory and practice, for it is in
practice that economic theory really does its work and its politics becomes
visible. It always amazes me we have had a development industry in place for
roughly the past 70 years with vast numbers of people, organizations, money all
orchestrated underneath this umbrella of development; yet if you go back and
read what the early writers about development and economic growth said—I am
thinking of people like Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, Myrdal, Hirschman, Prebisch, but also Moses Abramovitz. If you go back and look
at what they were saying, it seems to me that we have not advanced all that
much. Sure, we have advanced a lot in terms of econometric techniques, but in
terms of substance we have not. One conclusion I draw from that is that it is
really important that international regimes—for example, World Bank and IMF
loan conditions, but also WTO regimes—give room for experimentation, because it
is really not the case that 'there is no alternative'. This Washington
Consensus agenda has clearly not been effective in accelerating production,
upgrading it, and production diversification, or export upgrading, or export
diversification. So, there should be written into the regimes a lot of room for
experimentation. But this isn't there because of the political origin of these
regimes; because of what western countries want for the rest world, namely, to
open the rest of the world to their markets.



In the 80s there were a lot
of experts in industrial development in the World Bank and they did good work,
promoting industrial growth and investment in productive infrastructure. But
then Anne Krueger came in as chief economist, and brought in a whole lot of
people with her—who, like here, were arch-neoliberals. The industrial growth
people were invited to find employment elsewhere, or to rebrand themselves as
experts in who knows what, environmental assessment, primary education, or good
governance. There was no room for them. This also fitted well with some bad
experiences the Bank had had with investing in infrastructure. It had gotten
into a lot of trouble with large-scale infrastructural interventions such as
roads and dams and the like from, especially, US NGOs mobilizing Congress—which
then put pressure on the Treasury and so on. My lament throughout this whole
conversation has been that we seem to have become just locked into this
direction that was set in the 1980s, and it is very difficult to see what kind
of economic catastrophe would be necessary to give a sufficient shock to
reroute the global system of economic governance.



So after the 1980s, the
Bank sort of backed off and began saying that development, economic
development, was about poverty reduction—the slogan of the Bank became, 'our
dream is a world free of poverty'. You can understand that shift partly in
terms of pulling out of the concern with production to get into safe territory,
but also because poverty reduction seemed to sort of take care of inequality,
because you reduced inequality to poverty—to the poor 'over there', and we can
feel good about helping them; but we do not want talk about inequality, which
involves us, because then there is the question of justice of our income.



But then the most recent
turn is that we're seeing a renewed push for infrastructure in the World Bank
and western development agencies. I think that you can link this recent
infrastructure push to uncertainty about the sources of economic growth. In the
West there is a real question about sustaining economic growth without housing
bubbles and stock market bubbles—in other words, without endogenously building
financial instability. There may well be a similar sort of issue in terms of
the growth of developing countries.





Last question. Adam Smith seems to be
constantly present in your work as a critical interlocutor. How come?



I kind of engage in a
critical debate with Adam Smith, but especially with people today, who believe
his ideas. I often start to frame arguments in terms of his famous 40 word
summary of the causes of the relative wealth of nations, which he actually
wrote in 1755, which is to say long before the first edition of the Wealth
of Nations. I will just tell you what these 40 words say, and then I will
tell you the significance of them. He said:



'Little else is
requisite to carry a state to the highest degree
of opulence from the lowest
barbarism than peace, easy taxes, and tolerable
administration of justice; all the rest being
brought about by the natural course of things.'



So I am struck by how today
many economists say or imply that this is essentially right; you need some
qualifications of course, but essentially that is the nub of it. You might have
to translate peace, easy taxes, tolerable administration of justice into more
modern terms, but that is the essence of it. For example, Gregory
Mankiw—Professor of economics at Harvard, former chair of the National Council
of Economic Advisers during the Bush administration, and author of a very
popular textbook in economics—said in the Wall Street Journal in 2006: Adam Smith was right to
say that – and then he gave the 40 word quote. The renowned economists Timothy
Besley and Torsten Persson wrote Pillars of Prosperity, which also
begins with Smith's 40 words, and they even see the book as a kind of
elaboration, but in that same kind of spirit, of Smith's basic idea. So my
point is that these ideas are still current; they are still the sort of front
of a lot of neoliberal thinking. I am just astonished these ideas all these
centuries later remain so powerful. I have had at the back of my mind the idea
of organizing an international competition to provide a contemporary 40 word
statement, which is sort of equivalent to Smith's, which would obviously have
to be of a more global character, encompassing the globalized world economy.







Robert Hunter Wade worked at the Institute of
Development Studies, Sussex, 1972-95, World Bank, 1984-88, Princeton Woodrow
Wilson School 1989/90, MIT Sloan School 1992, Brown University 1996-2000.
Fellow of Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton 1992/93, Russell Sage
Foundation 1997/98, Institute for Advanced Study, Berlin 2000/01. Fieldwork in
Pitcairn Is., Italy, India, Korea, Taiwan. Research on World Bank
1995-continuing. Author of Irrigation and Politics in South Korea (1982), Village
Republics: The Economic Conditions of Collective Action in India (1988,
1994), Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government
in East Asia's Industrialization (1990, 2003). Latter won American
Political Science Association's award of Best Book in Political Economy, 1992.



Related links





Faculty profile at LSE
Read Wade's The Piketty
phenomenon and the future of inequality (2014, real-world economics review)
here (pdf) 
Read Wade's Capitalism
and Democracy at Cross-Purposes (2013, Challenge) here (pdf) 
Read Wade's Rethinking
Industrial Policy for Low Income Countries (2007 ADB Conference paper) here
(pdf) 
Read Wade's Bringing the
State Back In (2005, IPG) here (pdf) 
Read Wade's Is
Globalization Reducing Poverty and Inequality? (2004, World Development)
here (pdf) 
Read Wade's Creating
Capitalisms (Introduction to 2003 book 'Governing the Market') here (pdf) 


Print version of this Talk (pdf)

I've been reading a lot of macro lately. In part, I'm just catching up from a few years of book writing. In part,  I want to understand inflation dynamics, the quest set forth in "expectations and the neutrality of interest rates," and an  obvious next step in the fiscal theory program. Perhaps blog readers might find interesting some summaries of recent papers, when there is a great idea that can be summarized without a huge amount of math. So, I start a series on cool papers I'm reading. Today: "Tail risk in production networks" by Ian Dew-Becker, a beautiful paper. A "production network" approach recognizes that each firm buys from others, and models this interconnection. It's a hot topic for lots of reasons, below.  I'm interested because prices cascading through production networks might induce a better model of inflation dynamics. (This post uses Mathjax equations. If you're seeing garbage like [\alpha = \beta] then come back to the source  here.) To Ian's paper: Each firm uses other firms' outputs as inputs. Now, hit the economy with a vector of productivity shocks. Some firms get more productive, some get less productive. The more productive ones will expand and lower prices, but that changes everyone's input prices too. Where does it all settle down? This is the fun question of network economics. Ian's central idea: The problem simplifies a lot for large shocks. Usually when problems are complicated we look at first or second order approximations, i.e. for small shocks, obtaining linear or quadratic ("simple") approximations. On the x axis, take a vector of productivity shocks for each firm, and scale it up or down. The x axis represents this overall scale. The y axis is GDP. The right hand graph is Ian's point: for large shocks, log GDP becomes linear in log productivity -- really simple. Why? Because for large enough shocks, all the networky stuff disappears. Each firm's output moves up or down depending only on one critical input. To see this, we have to dig deeper to complements vs. substitutes. Suppose the price of an input goes up 10%. The firm tries to use less of this input. If the best it can do is to cut use 5%, then the firm ends up paying 5% more overall for this input, the "expenditure share" of this input rises. That is the case of "complements." But if the firm can cut use of the input 15%, then it pays 5% less overall for the input, even though the price went up. That is the case of "substitutes." This is the key concept for the whole question: when an input's price goes up, does its share of overall expenditure go up (complements) or down (substitutes)? Suppose inputs are complements. Again, this vector of technology shocks hits the economy. As the size of the shock gets bigger, the expenditure of each firm, and thus the price it charges for its output, becomes more and more dominated by the one input whose price grows the most. In that sense, all the networkiness simplifies enormously. Each firm is only "connected" to one other firm. Turn the shock around. Each firm that was getting a productivity boost now gets a productivity reduction. Each price that was going up now goes down. Again, in the large shock limit, our firm's price becomes dominated by the price of its most expensive input. But it's a different input.  So, naturally, the economy's response to this technology shock is linear, but with a different slope in one direction vs. the other. Suppose instead that inputs are substitutes. Now, as prices change, the firm expands more and more its use of the cheapest input, and its costs and price become dominated by that input instead. Again, the network collapsed to one link.  Ian: "negative productivity shocks propagate downstream through parts of the production process that are complementary (\(\sigma_i < 1\)), while positive productivity shocks propagate through parts that are substitutable (\(\sigma_i > 1\)). ...every sector's behavior ends up driven by a single one of its inputs....there is a tail network, which depends on \(\theta\) and in which each sector has just a single upstream link."Equations: Each firm's production function is (somewhat simplifying Ian's (1)) \[Y_i = Z_i L_i^{1-\alpha} \left( \sum_j A_{ij}^{1/\sigma} X_{ij}^{(\sigma-1)/\sigma} \right)^{\alpha \sigma/(\sigma-1)}.\]Here \(Y_i\) is output, \(Z_i\) is productivity, \(L_i\) is labor input, \(X_{ij}\) is how much good j firm i  uses as an input, and \(A_{ij}\) captures how important each input is in production. \(\sigma>1\) are substitutes, \(\sigma<1\) are complements. Firms are competitive, so price equals marginal cost, and each firm's price is \[ p_i = -z_i + \frac{\alpha}{1-\sigma}\log\left(\sum_j A_{ij}e^{(1-\sigma)p_j}\right).\; \; \; (1)\]Small letters are logs of big letters.  Each price depends on the prices of all the inputs, plus the firm's own productivity.  Log GDP, plotted in the above figure is \[gdp = -\beta'p\] where \(p\) is the vector of prices and \(\beta\) is a vector of how important each good is to the consumer. In the case \(\sigma=1\) (1)  reduces to a linear formula. We can easily solve for prices and then gdp as a function of the technology shocks: \[p_i = - z_i + \sum_j A_{ij} p_j\] and hence \[p=-(I-\alpha A)^{-1}z,\]where the letters represent vectors and matrices across \(i\) and \(j\). This expression shows some of the point of networks, that the pattern of prices and output reflects the whole network of production, not just individual firm productivity. But with \(\sigma \neq 1\) (1) is nonlinear without a known closed form solution. Hence approximations. You can see Ian's central point directly from (1). Take the \(\sigma<1\) case, complements. Parameterize the size of the technology shocks by a fixed vector \(\theta = [\theta_1, \ \theta_2, \ ...\theta_i,...]\) times a scalar \(t>0\), so that \(z_i=\theta_i \times t\). Then let \(t\) grow keeping the pattern of shocks \(\theta\) the same. Now, as the \(\{p_i\}\) get larger in absolute value, the term with the greatest \(p_i\) has the greatest value of \( e^{(1-\sigma)p_j} \). So, for large technology shocks \(z\), only that largest term matters, the log and e cancel, and \[p_i \approx -z_i + \alpha \max_{j} p_j.\] This is linear, so we can also write prices as a pattern \(\phi\) times the scale \(t\), in the large-t limit \(p_i = \phi_i t\),  and  \[\phi_i =  -\theta_i + \alpha \max_{j} \phi_j.\;\;\; (2)\] With substitutes, \(\sigma<1\), the firm's costs, and so its price, will be driven by the smallest (most negative) upstream price, in the same way. \[\phi_i \approx -\theta_i + \alpha \min_{j} \phi_j.\] To express gdp scaling with \(t\), write \(gdp=\lambda t\), or when you want to emphasize the dependence on the vector of technology shocks, \(\lambda(\theta)\). Then we find gdp by \(\lambda =-\beta'\phi\). In this big price limit, the \(A_{ij}\) contribute a constant term, which also washes out. Thus the actual "network" coefficients stop mattering at all so long as they are not zero -- the max and min are taken over all non-zero inputs. Ian: ...the limits for prices, do not depend on the exact values of any \(\sigma_i\) or \(A_{i,j}.\) All that matters is whether the elasticities are above or below 1 and whether the production weights are greater than zero. In the example in Figure 2, changing the exact values of the production parameters (away from \(\sigma_i = 1\) or \(A_{i,j} = 0\)) changes...the levels of the asymptotes, and it can change the curvature of GDP with respect to productivity, but the slopes of the asymptotes are unaffected....when thinking about the supply-chain risks associated with large shocks, what is important is not how large a given supplier is on average, but rather how many sectors it supplies...For a full solution, look at the (more interesting) case of complements, and suppose every firm uses a little bit of every other firm's output, so all the \(A_{ij}>0\). The largest input  price in (2) is the same for each firm \(i\), and you can quickly see then that the biggest price will be the smallest technology shock. Now we can solve the model for prices and GDP as a function of technology shocks: \[\phi_i \approx -\theta_i - \frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha} \theta_{\min},\] \[\lambda \approx  \beta'\theta + \frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha}\theta_{\min}.\] We have solved the large-shock approximation for prices and GDP as a function of technology shocks. (This is Ian's example 1.) The graph is concave when inputs are complements, and convex when they are substitutes. Let's do complements. We do the graph to the left of the kink by changing the sign of \(\theta\).  If the identity of \(\theta_{\min}\) did not change, \(\lambda(-\theta)=-\lambda(\theta)\) and the graph would be linear; it would go down on the left of the kink by the same amount it goes up on the right of the kink. But now a different \(j\) has the largest price and the worst technology shock. Since this must be a worse technology shock than the one driving the previous case, GDP is lower and the graph is concave.  \[-\lambda(-\theta) = \beta'\theta + \frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha}\theta_{\max} \ge\beta'\theta + \frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha}\theta_{\min} = \lambda(\theta).\] Therefore  \(\lambda(-\theta)\le-\lambda(\theta),\) the left side falls by more than the right side rises. Does all of this matter? Well, surely more for questions when there might be a big shock, such as the big shocks we saw in a pandemic, or big shocks we might see in a war. One of the big questions that network theory asks is, how much does GDP change if there is a technology shock in a particular industry? The \(\sigma=1\) case in which expenditure shares are constant gives a standard and fairly reassuring result: the effect on GDP of a shock in industry i is given by the ratio of i's output to total GDP. ("Hulten's theorem.") Industries that are small relative to GDP don't affect GDP that much if they get into trouble. You can intuit that constant expenditure shares are important for this result. If an industry has a negative technology shock, raises its prices, and others can't reduce use of its inputs, then its share of expenditure will rise, and it will all of a sudden be important to GDP. Continuing our example, if one firm has a negative technology shock, then it is the minimum technology, and [(d gdp/dz_i = \beta_i + \frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha}.\] For small firms (industries) the latter term is likely to be the most important.  All the A and \(\sigma\) have disappeared, and basically the whole economy is driven by this one unlucky industry and labor.   Ian: ...what determines tail risk is not whether there is granularity on average, but whether there can ever be granularity – whether a single sector can become pivotal if shocks are large enough.For example, take electricity and restaurants. In normal times, those sectors are of similar size, which in a linear approximation would imply that they have similar effects on GDP. But one lesson of Covid was that shutting down restaurants is not catastrophic for GDP, [Consumer spending on food services and accommodations fell by 40 percent, or $403 billion between 2019Q4 and 2020Q2. Spending at movie theaters fell by 99 percent.] whereas one might expect that a significant reduction in available electricity would have strongly negative effects – and that those effects would be convex in the size of the decline in available power. Electricity is systemically important not because it is important in good times, but because it would be important in bad times. Ben Moll turned out to be right and Germany was able to substitute away from Russian Gas a lot more than people had thought, but even that proves the rule: if it is hard to substitute away from even a small input, then large shocks to that input imply larger expenditure shares and larger impacts on the economy than its small output in normal times would suggest.There is an enormous amount more in the paper and voluminous appendices, but this is enough for a blog review. ****Now, a few limitations, or really thoughts on where we go next. (No more in this paper, please, Ian!) Ian does a nice illustrative computation of the sensitivity to large shocks:Ian assumes \(\sigma>1\), so the main ingredients are how many downstream firms use your products and a bit their labor shares. No surprise, trucks, and energy have big tail impacts. But so do lawyers and insurance. Can we really not do without lawyers? Here I hope the next step looks hard at substitutes vs. complements.That raises a bunch of issues. Substitutes vs. complements surely depends on time horizon and size of shocks. It might be easy to use a little less water or electricity initially, but then really hard to reduce more than, say, 80%. It's usually easier to substitute in the long run than the short run. The analysis in this literature is "static," meaning it describes the economy when everything has settled down.  The responses -- you charge more, I use less, I charge more, you use less of my output, etc. -- all happen instantly, or equivalently the model studies a long run where this has all settled down. But then we talk about responses to shocks, as in the pandemic.  Surely there is a dynamic response here, not just including capital accumulation (which Ian studies). Indeed, my hope was to see prices spreading out through a production network over time, but this structure would have all price adjustments instantly. Mixing production networks with sticky prices is an obvious idea, which some of the papers below are working on. In the theory and data handling, you see a big discontinuity. If a firm uses any inputs at all from another firm,  if \(A_{ij}>0\), that input can take over and drive everything. If it uses no inputs at all, then there is no network link and the upstream firm can't have any effect. There is a big discontinuity at \(A_{ij}=0.\) We would prefer a theory that does not jump from zero to everything when the firm buys one stick of chewing gum. Ian had to drop small but nonzero elements of the input-output matrix to produces sensible results. Perhaps we should regard very small inputs as always substitutes? How important is the network stuff anyway? We tend to use industry categorizations, because we have an industry input-output table. But how much of the US industry input-output is simply vertical: Loggers sell trees to mills who sell wood to lumberyards who sell lumber to Home Depot who sells it to contractors who put up your house? Energy and tools feed each stage, but don't use a whole lot of wood to make those. I haven't looked at an input-output matrix recently, but just how "vertical" is it? ****The literature on networks in macro is vast. One approach is to pick a recent paper like Ian's and work back through the references. I started to summarize, but gave up in the deluge. Have fun. One way to think of a branch of economics is not just "what tools does it use?" but "what questions is it asking?  Long and Plosser "Real Business Cycles," a classic, went after idea that the central defining feature of business cycles (since Burns and Mitchell) is comovement. States and industries all go up and down together to a remarkable degree. That pointed to "aggregate demand" as a key driving force. One would think that "technology shocks" whatever they are would be local or industry specific. Long and Plosser showed that an input output structure led idiosyncratic shocks to produce business cycle common movement in output. Brilliant. Macro went in another way, emphasizing time series -- the idea that recessions are defined, say, by two quarters of aggregate GDP decline, or by the greater decline of investment and durable goods than consumption -- and in the aggregate models of Kydland and Prescott, and the stochastic growth model as pioneered by King, Plosser and Rebelo, driven by a single economy-wide technology shock.  Part of this shift is simply technical: Long and Plosser used analytical tools, and were thereby stuck in a model without capital, plus they did not inaugurate matching to data. Kydland and Prescott brought numerical model solution and calibration to macro, which is what macro has done ever since.  Maybe it's time to add capital, solve numerically, and calibrate Long and Plosser (with up to date frictions and consumer heterogeneity too, maybe). Xavier Gabaix (2011)  had a different Big Question in mind: Why are business cycles so large? Individual firms and industries have large shocks, but \(\sigma/\sqrt{N}\) ought to dampen those at the aggregate level. Again, this was a classic argument for aggregate "demand" as opposed to "supply."  Gabaix notices that the US has a fat-tailed firm distribution with a few large firms, and those firms have large shocks. He amplifies his argument via the Hulten mechanism, a bit of networkyiness, since the impact of a firm on the economy is sales / GDP,  not value added / GDP. The enormous literature since then  has gone after a variety of questions. Dew-Becker's paper is about the effect of big shocks, and obviously not that useful for small shocks. Remember which question you're after.My quest for a new Phillips curve in production networks is better represented by Elisa Rubbo's "Networks, Phillips curves and Monetary Policy," and Jennifer La'o and  Alireza Tahbaz-Salehi's "Optimal Monetary Policy in Production Networks," If I can boil those down for the blog, you'll hear about it eventually.  The "what's the question" question is doubly important for this branch of macro that explicitly models heterogeneous agents and heterogenous firms. Why are we doing this? One can always represent the aggregates with a social welfare function and an aggregate production function. You might be interested in how aggregates affect individuals, but that doesn't change your model of aggregates. Or, you might be interested in seeing what the aggregate production or utility function looks like -- is it consistent with what we know about individual firms and people? Does the size of the aggregate production function shock make sense? But still, you end up with just a better (hopefully) aggregate production and utility function. Or, you might want models that break the aggregation theorems in a significant way; models for which distributions matter for aggregate dynamics, theoretically and (harder) empirically. But don't forget you need a reason to build disaggregated models. Expression (1) is not easy to get to. I started reading Ian's paper in my usual way:  to learn a literature start with the latest paper and work backward. Alas, this literature has evolved to the point that authors plop results down that "everybody knows" and will take you a day or so of head-scratching to reproduce. I complained to Ian, and he said he had the same problem when he was getting in to the literature! Yes, journals now demand such overstuffed papers that it's hard to do, but it would be awfully nice for everyone to start including ground up algebra for major results in one of the endless internet appendices.  I eventually found Jonathan Dingel's notes on Dixit Stiglitz tricks, which were helpful. Update:Chase Abram's University of Chicago Math Camp notes here  are also a fantastic resource. See Appendix B starting p. 94 for  production network math. The rest of the notes are also really good. The first part goes a little deeper into more abstract material than is really necessary for the second part and applied work, but it is a wonderful and concise review of that material as well.  

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tumkur-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 643 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 605 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 38 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 25 per cent area are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm), 69 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm).  About 12 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 15 per cent area is loamy soils and 68per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 91 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 14 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 14 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 12 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 1 per cent area.  4 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 90 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha).  About 55 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 39 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 25 per cent.  About 4.5 ppm) in an area of about 80 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 24 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 436(68) 92(14) Guava - 75(12) Maize 67(10) 452(70) Sapota - 75(12) Bajra 75(12) 453(70) Pomegranate - 444(69) Groundnut - 75(12) Musambi 335(52) 109(17) Sunflower 149(23) 295(46) Lime 335(52) 109(17) Redgram - 444(69) Amla 340(53) 188(29) Bengal gram 436(68) 84(13) Cashew - - Cotton 335(52) 184(29) Jackfruit - 75(12) Chilli - 528(82) Jamun - 369(57) Tomato 67(10) 133(20) Custard apple 436(68) 91(14) Brinjal 142(22) 386(60) Tamarind - 369(57) Onion 142(22) 92(14) Mulberry - 75(12) Bhendi 142(22) 386(60) Marigold - 528(82) Drumstick - 444(69) Chrysanthemum - 528(82) Mango - 41(6)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  Results indicated that 36 farmers were sampled in Tumkur-1 micro watershed among them 8 (22.22%) were marginal farmers, 10 (27.78%) were small farmers, 12 (33.33%) were semi medium farmers, 3 (8.33%) were medium farmers, 1 (2.78%) and 2 (5.56%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 161 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 100 (62.11%) men and 61 (37.89%) were women. The average family size of landless, marginal and small farmers was 5. Semi medium and large farmers were 4 and medium farmer was 3. On an average the family size was 4.  The data indicated that 22 (13.66%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (45.96%) were in 16-35 years of age, 52 (32.30%) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (8.07%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Tumkur-1 had 37.89 per cent illiterates, 18.63 per cent of them had primary school education, 9.94 per cent of them had both middle school, 14.29 per cent them had high school education, 9.94 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.24 per cent them had ITI education, 4.97 per cent of them had degree education, 1.24 per cent of them had masters education and 1.86 per cent them had others.  The results indicated that, 86.11 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 2.78 per cent of the household heads were general labour and in government service. 5.56 per cent of the household heads were in private service.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 68.32 per cent of the household members, 0.62 per cent were agricultural labourers, 4.97 per cent were general labours, 0.62 percent were in household industry and in government service, 1.86 per cent of them were in private sector, 11.80 per cent of them were students, 3.11 per cent of them were children and 6.83 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 80 per cent were general labourers and 20 per cent were doing other jobs. In case of marginal farmers 72.97 per cent were agriculturist and 10.81 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 86.96 per cent of them were agriculturist and 10.87 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 59.26 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 1.85 per cent of them were agricultural labour and in government service, 5.56 per cent of them were in private service, 16.67 per cent of them were students, 12.96 per cent of them were housewives and 1.85 per cent of them were children. In case of medium farmers 82 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 10 per cent of them were students and housewives respectively. In medium farmers, 75 per cent of them were doing agriculture and 25 per cent of them were children. 2  100 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicated that 47.22 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 41.67 per cent of the households possess Pucca house and 11.11 per cent of them possess Thatched house.  The results showed that, 80.56 per cent of the households possess TV, 61.11 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 8.33 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 86.11 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.78 per cent of the households possess landline and 91.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 6,655, mixer grinder was Rs.1650, bicycle was Rs.3666, motor cycle was Rs.59375, landline phone was Rs. 500 and mobile phone was Rs.1475.  Data showed that 16.67 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 22.22 per cent of them possess plough, 36.11 per cent of the households possess tractor, 13.89 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 5.56 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 22.22 per cent of the households possess weeder and 11.11 per cent of the households possess harvester.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.14875; the average value of plough was Rs. 1772, the average value of tractor was Rs. 234615, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 2812, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 2333, the average value of weeder was Rs. 169 and the average value of harvester was Rs. 220.  The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 52.78 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.78 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, sheep and goat respectively and 27.78 per cent of the households possess buffalo. In land less farmers 50 per cent of the households possess buffalo and goat respectively. In case of marginal farmers, 50 per cent of the households possess bullock, 62.50 per cent of the households possess local cow, 25 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 12.50 per cent of the households possess sheep and poultry birds respectively. In case of small farmers, 30 per cent of households possess bullock and buffalo and 40 per cent of the households possess local cow respectively. In case of semi medium farmers 41.67 per cent of the households possess bullock, 75 per cent of the households possess local cow, 8.33 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow and 16.67 per cent of the households possess buffalo. In medium farmers 33.33 per cent of the households possess buffalo and in large farmers 100 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo respectively.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.00, average own labour (women) available was 1.26, average 3 hired labour (men) available was 9.62 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.97.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.88, average own labour (women) was also 1.38, average hired labour (men) was 6.38 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.88. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2.20, average own labour (women) was 1.30, average hired labour (men) was 9.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.20. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.00, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 10.67 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.50. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 1.67, average own labour (women) was 1.00, average hired labour (men) was 13 and average hired labour (women) available was 13. In large farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.00, average hired labour (men) was 15 and average hired labour (women) available was 15.  The results indicated that, 94.44 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Tumkur-1 micro watershed possess 28.96 ha (53.67%) of dry land and 24.99 ha (46.33%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.46 ha (91.69%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (8.31%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.12 ha (86.25%) of dry land and 1.77 ha (13.75%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 13.38 ha (57.26%) of dry land and 9.98 ha (42.74%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.72 ha (100%) of irrigated land and large farmers possess 5.12 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 448,777.08 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 448,727.33. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 761,378.07 for dry land and Rs. 1482000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 557,480.90 for dry land Rs. 507,534.26 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 254,099.85 for dry land and Rs. 532,646.94 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 310,854.74 for irrigated land and in large famers; the average land value was Rs. 390,822.77.  The results indicated that, there were 1 functioning and 1 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 2.78 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 2.12 meters. 4  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0. 40 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown cotton (20.57 ha), paddy (17.34 ha) and redgram (10.88 ha). Marginal and small farmers had grown cotton and redgram respectively. Semi medium farmers had grown cotton, paddy and redgram. Medium and large farmers had grown paddy.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Tumkur-1 micro watershed was found to be 95.09 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers it was 96.27, in semi medium farmers it was 98.18, in medium farmers it was 79.02 per cent and in large farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 61.11 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicated that, 37.50 per cent of marginal, 60 per cent of small, 25 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 37349.61. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 70103.06. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 32753.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.88.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 31366.95. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 96591.22. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 65224.27. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.08.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 44880.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 114607.74. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 69727.12, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.55.  The results indicated that, 63.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.78 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated, in landless farmers, that the average income from wage was Rs. 105000, in marginal farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 36250, agriculture was Rs.51000, dairy farm was Rs.6250 and goat farming was RS.2500. In small farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 10000, wage was Rs.39000, agriculture was Rs.68350 and dairy farm was Rs.6000. In semi medium farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 31666.67, agriculture was Rs.156875 and dairy farm was Rs.1250. In medium farmers, the average income from agriculture was Rs.222000 and dairy farm was Rs.5000.  The results indicated that in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs.40000. In marginal farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs.12142.86, agriculture was Rs.23750, dairy farm was Rs.4250 and goat farming 5 was Rs.10000. In small farmers, the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.30000, wage was Rs.13750, agriculture was Rs.25000 and dairy farm was Rs.5000. In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 19,375, agriculture was Rs. 54,833.33 and dairy farm was Rs.5000. In medium farmers, the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs.108333.33 and dairy farm was Rs.5000. In large farmers the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs. 70,000.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 1 mango tree in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 52 neem trees and 1 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, cotton, paddy and red gram crops were sold to the extent of 95.25 per cent, 86.67 per cent and 100 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 94.44 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant.  The results indicated that 72.22 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transport and 22.22 per cent of them have used truck.  The results indicated that, 25 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 12.50 percent of marginal farmers, 30 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers and 100 per cent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 75 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 25 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 100 per cent and 2.78 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, semi medium and large farmers, 12.50 per cent of marginal, 10 per cent of small and 33.33 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility respectively.  The results indicated that, 91.67 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 11.11 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 69.44 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. 6  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 94.44 per cent, 100 per cent, 61.11 per cent, 44.44 per cent, 8.33 per cent, 75 per cent, 30.56 per cent and 8.33 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were inadequate for 2.78 per cent of the households, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 38.89 per cent, 55.56 per cent, 91.67 per cent, 22.22 per cent, 69.44 per cent and 91.67 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 91.67 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (88.89%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (86.11%), inadequacy of irrigation water (27.78%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.56%), high rate of interest on credit (27.78%), low price for the agricultural commodities (77.78%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (58.33%), inadequate extension services (25%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88.89%) and less rainfall (13.89%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkashindhag-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 659 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 94 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 5 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 87 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 63 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 14 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 80 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 36 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 58 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 53 per cent soils are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 41 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 46 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 89 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 81 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 101(15) 362(55) Sapota - 139(21) Maize - 462(70) Pomegranate - 300(45) Bajra 139(21) 323(49) Guava - 139(21) Groundnut 33(5) 106(16) Jackfruit - 139(21) Sunflower 1(<1) 299(45) Jamun - 288(44) Cotton 1(<1) 463(70) Musambi 1(<1) 299(45) Red gram - 289(44) Lime 1(<1) 299(45) Bengalgram 1(<1) 462(70) Cashew - 139(21) Chilli 106(16) 33(5) Custard apple 140(21) 322(49) Tomato 106(16) 33(5) Amla 139(21) 323(49) Brinjal 139(21) 323(49) Tamarind - 149(23) Onion 33(5) 106(16) Marigold - 462(70) Bhendi 33(5) 429(65) Chrysanthemum - 462(70) Drumstick - 300(45) Jasmine - 302(46) Mulberry - 299(45) Crossandra - 152(23) Mango - 98(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 109 (54.50%) men and 90 (45%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 7.1, small farmers' was 6.1, semi medium farmers' was 6.1, medium farmers' was 9.5 and for large farmers it was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (21%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (44%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (25.50 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (9.50 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Chikkasindhogi-1 had 29.50 per cent illiterates, 12.50 per cent of them had primary school education, 22.50 per cent of them had middle school education, 25.50 per cent of them had high school education, 4 per cent of them had PUC education, 1 per cent of them had diploma, 0.5 per cent of them had ITI and 4.5 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 6.45 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 67 per cent of the household members, 2 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1 per cent had household industry, 27.5 per cent of them were student, 1.5 per cent of them were housewife and 0.5 per cent of them were in government and private services.  The results shows that 8 per cent of the households participated in user groups and 91.50 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 35.48 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 6.45 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 54.84 per cent of them possess pucca house and 3.23 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 93.55 per cent of the households possess TV, 77.42 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 51.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.45 per cent of the households possess tempo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and bicycle, and 93.55 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The average value of television was Rs.6276, mixer grinder was Rs.1515, motor cycle was Rs.52437, mobile phone was Rs.1710, refrigerator was Rs.8000 and bicycle was Rs.3000.  About 22.58 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.23 per cent of them possess tractor, 12.90 per cent of them posses bullocks cart, 38.17 per cent of them power tiller and 93.55 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1,500, the average value of tractor was Rs. 5,00,000 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.3,953, the average value of bullock cart Rs.18,500, and the average value of weeder Rs.95. 2  The results indicate that, 16.13 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, goat and poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.27, average own labour (women) available was 1.90, average hired labour (men) available was 3.47 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.77.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 3.23 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, 6 (3.0%) persons were migrated from the micro watershed which includes 3 persons from semi medium farmers and 3 persons from medium farmer category.  People have migrated on average of 299.2 Kms and average duration was 8 months. Semi medium farmers have migrated 433.33 kms and on an average 10 months in a year.  Improved quality of the life was the major positive consequence of migration of 16.67 per cent of the households and construction house was the major positive consequence for 33.33 per cent.  Increased workload for other family members was the major negative consequence of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed possess 17.89 ha (39.72%) of dry land and 27.14 ha (60.28%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs. 267994.14 and average value of irrigated was Rs.1, 89,272.  The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning bore wells and 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed which was possessed by small farmers, medium farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers.  The depth of bore well was found to be 47.64 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.29 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 1.75 hectares, small farmers had 6.67 hectares, semi medium farmers had 8.73 hectares, medium farmers had 7.69 hectares and large farmers had 4.05 hectares of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (26.34 ha), Tomato (2.4 ha), Cotton (2.05 ha), Groundnut (1.68 ha), Pearlmillet (2.59 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha), Sorghum (0.81 ha), Bengal gram (0.51 ha), Chilly (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed was found to be 96.83 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 87.82 per cent, for small farmers it was 93.99 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 100 per 3 cent, medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent and large farmers had 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the households possess bank account and 12.90 per cent of them have savings. Around 50 per cent of landless, 44.44 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 50 per cent semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  About 10 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank, 40 per cent have availed loan from friends and relatives and 100 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture, 4.55 per cent have borrowed for buying irrigation related equipments and 4.55 per cent have borrowed for social functions like marriage, from institutional and non institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 234356.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 167960. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -66396.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 46729.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67925.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 21195.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 72133.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62490.23. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -9643.26. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 44743.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75381.17. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 30637.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.68.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 251848.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -140698.19, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.44.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25747.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. - 1047.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 76456.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 22343.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50384.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38902.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 11481.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77. 4  The results indicate that, 35.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. Only 19.35 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder is adequate. The data also revealed that 19.35 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 22500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61655.56, for small farmers it was Rs.56222, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.94688, for medium farmers it was Rs.191500 and for large farmers it was Rs.73000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13296.47. For landless farmers it was 6250, for marginal farmers it was Rs 8969, for small farmers it was Rs. 4464.51, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 10348.48 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 70500 and for large farmers it was Rs. 55000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 22 coconut, 19 mango and 3 sapota trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 5 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers.  Households have planted 31 neem trees, 1 banyan tree in field and 9 neem trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6193 for land development, Rs. 2241 for irrigation facility, Rs.4113 for improved crop production and Rs.1774 for improved livestock management.  Loan from bank is the major source of investment for 78.13 per cent of households for land development. For irrigation facility 25 per cent of the households depend on loan from bank, 12.5 per cent depend on own funds and 9.38 per cent of the households depend on soft loans. For improved crop production 59.38 per cent of the households depend on bank loan and for improved livestock management 21.88 per cent of the households depend on bank loan.  The results indicated that, Bengal gram, chilly, cotton, maize and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, About 73.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants includes 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 85.71 per cent of the small farmers, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 33.33 per cent medium farmers. About 23.33 per cent of the households have sold in regulated markets, which include 14.29 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  About 9.68 per cent of the households have used tractor as mode of transport and 116.13 per cent have used truck. 5  The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 88.89 per cent of marginal farmers and 100 per cent of small, semi medium, medium and large farmers. 90.32 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 51.61 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted contour bunds, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted farm pond, 29.03 per cent have adopted bore well recharge pit and 45.16 per cent of the households are following summer ploughing.  About 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding, farm pond and contour bund and 33.33 per cent the households who adopted bore well recharge pit, opined that they were in good condition. Around 66 per cent of the households opined that bore well recharge pits require full replacement.  The results indicated that 87.10 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 41.94 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 3.23 per cent is constructed by farmer organizations.  The results indicated that, canal was the major source of drinking water for 93.55 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 3.23 per cent of the households.  About 83.87 percent used fire wood and another 12.9 percent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for all the households in micro watershed.  About 25.81 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 11.11 per cent of marginal, 11.11 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 3.23 per cent of the households possessed APL and 6.45 per cent did not possess PDS card.  About 67.74 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 55.56 percent of the marginal, 55.56 per cent of the small, 75 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 90.32 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 87.10 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 3.23 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 80.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.58 per cent, milk was adequate for 83.87 per cent, egg were adequate for 16.13 per cent and meat was adequate for 6.45 per cent of the households.  Cereals were inadequate for 3.23 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 6.45 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 3.23 per cent, fruits were inadequate 6 for 25.18 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.48 per cent and meat was inadequate for 41.94 per cent of the households.  Oilseeds were market surplus for 70.97 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 3.23 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 16.13 per cent, eggs were market surplus for 6.45 per cent and meat was market surplus for 9.68 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 48.39 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.19%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (3.23%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (41.94%), high rate of interest on credit (29.03%), low price for the agricultural commodities (3.23%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (9.68%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (16.13%), less rainfall (87.10%) and source of Agri–technology information (News paper/TV/Mobile) (16.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bikkanahalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 548 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soil and 4 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 17 soil series and 26 soil phases (management units) and 8 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 13 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 83 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 37 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 83 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 41 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 55 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 2 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), 44 per cent moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 22 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 28 per cent very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 337 kg/ha) in 93 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 71per cent and high (>20 ppm) in 25 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 174(32) 182(33) Sapota 54(10) 135(24) Maize 42(8) 313(58) Pomegranate 96(18) 220(40) Bajra 119(22) 250(45) Musambi 168(31) 149(28) Groundnut 12(2) 271(49) Lime 168(31) 149(28) Sunflower 168(31) 132(24) Amla 148(27) 289(53) Redgram 54(10) 237(43) Cashew 96(18) 94(17) Bengal gram 119(22) 236(43) Jackfruit 54(10) 135(24) Cotton 131(24) 224(41) Jamun 12(2) 290(52) Chilli 77(14) 150(27) Custard apple 267(49) 170(31) Tomato 77(14) 150(27) Tamarind 12(2) 221(41) Brinjal 159(29) 209(39) Mulberry 96(18) 281(51) Onion 108(20) 132(24) Marigold 54(10) 301(55) Bhendi 108(20) 260(48) Chrysanthemum 54(10) 301(55) Drumstick 96(18) 265(48) Jasmine 54(10) 173(31) Mango 12(2) 107(20) Crossandra 54(10) 195(36) Guava 54(10) 133(24) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 131 (59.01%) men and 91 (40.99%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 4.3, small farmers' was 5.27, semi medium farmers' was 5, medium farmers' was 7.33 and large farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (18.92%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 95 (42.79%) were in 16-35 years of age, 64 (28.83%) were in 36-60 years of age and 21 (9.46%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Bikkanahalli had 23.87 per cent illiterates, 25.68 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.76 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.67 per cent of them had high school education, 9.91 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.90 per cent had diploma, 4.50 per cent of them did ITI, 9.46 per cent of them had degree education and 0.45 per cent did masters.  The results indicate that, 82.22 per cent of households were practicing agriculture and 17.78 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 42.34 per cent of the household members, 22.97 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.90 per cent of the households general labourers, 0.90 per cent of the households were in government service, 1.35 per cent were in private service, 27.48 per cent were students and 1.80 per cent were children.  The results show that 98.65 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions, 0.45 per cent of the population participated in sthree shakthi sangha and 0.90 per cent participated in self help group.  The results indicate that 4.44 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 84.44 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 11.11 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 4.44 per cent of the households possess radio, 75.56 per cent of the households possess TV, 24.44 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 6.67 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 28.89 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.22 per cent of the households possess landline phone and 95.56 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of radio was Rs.750, television was Rs.5426, mixer grinder was Rs.1290, bicycle was Rs. 866, motor cycle was Rs.31307, landline phone was Rs.1250 and mobile phone was Rs.2281.  About 22.22 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 8.89 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.22 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill, 2.22 per cent of them possess tractor, 2.22 per cent of them possess sprayer and 20 per cent of them possess weeder. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.22400, the average value of plough was Rs.2250, the average value of seed/fertilizer drill was Rs.3000, the average value of tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.50.  The results indicate that, 22.22 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.11 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6.67 per cent of them possess buffalo and 2.22 per cent of the households possess poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.93, average own labour (women) available was 1.23, average hired labour (men) available was 7.55 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.38.  The results indicate that, 62.22 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 24.44 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Bikkanahalli micro-watershed possess 73.47 ha (89.81%) of dry land and 8.34 ha (10.19%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 12.10 ha (96.76%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (3.24%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 17.42 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.48 ha (65.04%) of dry land and 3.48 per cent (34.96%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 9.15 ha (67.26%) of dry land and 4.45 ha (32.74%) of irrigated land; large farmers possess 28.33 ha (100%) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 151,492.43 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 389,684.47. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 417,034.44 for dry land and Rs. 1,235,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 225,823.66 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 192,968.75 for dry land and Rs. 545,697.68 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 65,575.22 for dry land and Rs. 190,863.64 for irrigated land and in case of large farmers it was Rs. 10,585.71 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning and 5 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 17.78 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 14.09 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 1.21 ha, 3.08 ha and 4.45 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (21.98 ha), bajra (6.30 ha), sunflower (6.73 ha), Bengal gram (1.42 ha), sorghum (8.42 ha), redgram (1.82 ha), navane (1.01), blackgram (0.40), Greengram (0.81), horsegram (0.81), onion (0.40) and chilly (0.65 ha). 3  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Bikkanahalli micro-watershed was found to be 66.07 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 86.40 per cent, small farmers it was 76.21 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 81.46, medium farmers it was 45.35 per cent and in case of large farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 75.56 per cent of the households have bank account and 24.44 per cent have savings.  The results indicate that, 44.44 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 46549.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33923.77. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -12625.90, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.73.  The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 36636.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 4763.57. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -31872.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.13.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 31736.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 18149.41. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 13586.80. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.57.  The total cost of cultivation for Green gram was Rs. 20029.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 7410. The net income from Green gram cultivation was Rs. -12619.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.37.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 30931.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27787.50. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. - 3143.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.9.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 37640.24. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22297.69. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -15342.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.59.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 49117.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25214.58. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -23902.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.51.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25990.03. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 17599.03. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -8391.01. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.68.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 22542.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 8892. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. - 13650.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.39.  The total cost of cultivation for blackgram was Rs. 29957.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25935. The net income from blackgram cultivation was Rs. -4022.73. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87. 4  The total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 34435.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 6669. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. -27766.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.19.  The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 89144.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. - 59504.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.33.  The results indicate that, 28.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.22 per cent opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 27,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 43,955.79, for small farmers it was Rs. 40,545.45, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 135,300, for medium farmers it was Rs. 170,333.33 and for large farmers it was Rs. 25,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 5,601.85. For landless households it was Rs. 1,500, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 1,820.18, for small farmers it was Rs. 2,727.27, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9,111.11, for medium farmers it was Rs. 30,111.11 and for large farmers it was Rs. 35,000.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 2933.33, for improved crop production Rs.1822.22 and for improved livestock management Rs. 1066.67.  The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment capacity for 7.5 per cent for irrigation facility and 2.5 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 22.22 per cent for land development, for another 22.22 per cent for improved crop production and 13.33 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds were the source of additional investment for 13.33 per cent for land development and 8.89 per cent for improved crop production. Soft loan was the source of additional investment capacity for 2.22 per cent for land development, for 6.67 per cent for improved crop production and for 6.67 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except blackgram (66.67), sorghum (96.94%) and sunflower (98.41%).  The results indicated that, about 46.67 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 77.78 per cent of the farmers have sold to local/village merchants and 2.22 per cent have sold their produce to cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 122.22 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce and 2.22 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport for their agricultural produce. 5  The results indicated that, 86.67 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 89.47 per cent of the marginal farmers, 100 per cent of the small farmers, 100 per cent of semi medium, 100 per cent of medium and large farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent have shown interest in soil test i.e 94.74 per cent of marginal, 90.91 per cent of small, 66.67 per cent of semi medium, 100 per cent of medium and large farmers.  The results indicated that, 84.44 per cent of the households used firewood and 17.78 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 28.89 per cent of the households, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 60 per cent of the households and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 4.44 per cent of the households and canal/nala was the source of drinking water for 2.22 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 42.22 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 21.05 per cent of the marginal farmers, 36.36 per cent of the small farmers, 33.33 per cent of the semi medium farmers, 100 per cent of the landless, medium and large farmers.  The results indicated that, 95.56 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 4.44 per cent of the households possessed APL card and 2.22 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 42.22 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 91.11 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 51.11 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 11.11 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 46.67 per cent, fruits were adequate for 6.67 per cent, milk was adequate for 57.78 per cent, eggs were adequate for 31.11 per cent and meat was adequate for 20 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 8.89 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 48.89 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 84.44 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 44.44 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 77.78 per cent, milk was inadequate for 31.11 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 62.22 per cent and meat was inadequate for 51.11 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 2.22 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 11.11 per cent and milk was market surplus for 2.22 per cent of the households. 6  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 84.44 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (71.11%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (46.67%), inadequacy of irrigation water (13.33%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (35.56%), high rate of interest on credit (40%), low price for the agricultural commodities (51.11%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (57.78%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80%), inadequate extension services (24.44%), less rainfall (22.22%) and source of agri-technology information (17.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mainahalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 510 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and 1 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 7land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 8 per cent area has loamy soils and 92 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 66 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 87 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 13 per cent area has nearly sloping (0-1%) lands.  An area of about 28 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 72 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 7 per cent are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 8.4), 32 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 35 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 26 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Available phosphorus is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in about 57 per cent and 42 per cent soils are high (>20 ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 32 per cent area and 67 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm).  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 1 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 119(23) 315(62) Sapota 38 (8) 45 (9) Maize - 434 (85) Pomegranate 63 (12) 247 (49) Bajra 63 (12) 416 (82) Musambi 119 (23) 192 (38) Groundnut 38 (8) 89 (17) Lime 119 (23) 181 (35) Sunflower 119 (23) 178 (35) Amla 63 (12) 416 (82) Red gram 38 (8) 254 (50) Cashew 63 (12) 14 (3) Bengalgram 80 (16) 384 (76) Jackfruit 38 (8) 45 (9) Cotton 119 (23) 315 (62) Jamun 38 (8) 261 (51) Chilli 38 (8) 75 (15) Custard apple 143 (28) 336 (66) Tomato 38 (8) 75 (15) Tamarind 38 (8) 247 (49) Brinjal 24 (5) 366 (72) Mulberry 63 (12) 104 (21) Onion 24 (5) 45 (9) Marigold 38 (8) 249 (49) Bhendi 24 (5) 366 (72) Chrysanthemum 38 (8) 395 (78) Drumstick 63 (12) 234 (46) Jasmine 38 (8) 214 (42) Mango 38 (8) 24 (5) Crossandra 38 (8) 79 (15) Guava 38 (8) 45 (9) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  Results indicated that 37 farmers were sampled in Mainahalli micro watershed among them 15 (40.54%) were marginal farmers, 12 (32.43%) were small farmers, 5 (13.51 %) were semi medium farmers, 1 (2.70%) were medium farmers and 4 (10.81%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 168 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 94 (55.95%) men and 74 (44.05%) were women. The average family size of landless and small farmer was 4, marginal farmers and semi medium farmers were 5 and medium farmers were 7. On an average the family size was 6.  The data indicated that 36 (21.43%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 65 (38.69%) were in 16-35 years of age, 52 (30.95%) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (8.93 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Mainahalli had 29.76 per cent illiterates, 30.36 per cent of them had primary school education, 9.52 per cent of them had both middle school, 13.10 per cent them had high school education, 8.93 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.60 per cent of them had diploma and ITI education, 6.55 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicated that, 86.49 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 10.81 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 2.70 per cent of the household heads were doing trade and business.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 20.24 per cent of the household members, 48.81 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.60 per cent were general labours, private sector, trade and business and children respectively. 28.57 per cent of them were students. In case of landless households 6.67 per cent were agriculturist, 86.67 per cent were agricultural labors and 6.67 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 19.18 per cent were agriculturist, 54.79 per cent were agricultural labour and 24.66 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 27.66 per cent of them were agriculturist, 36.17 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 2.13 per cent were trade and business and 34.04 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 19.23 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 34.62 per cent were agriculture labour and 42.31 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 14.29 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 42.86 per cent of them were agriculture labors and 28.57 per cent were students and 14.29 per cent of them were children.  The results showed 100 per cent of the farmers have not participated in any local institutions. 2  The results indicated that 94.59 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 5.41 per cent of the households possess Pucca house and 2.70 per cent of them possess Thatched house.  The results showed that, 70.27 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.70 per cent of them possess DVD/VCD Player, 10.81 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.41 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 24.32 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 75.68 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 6076, DVD/VCD Player was Rs.3000, mixer grinder was Rs.1250, bicycle was Rs.400, motor cycle was Rs.37666 and mobile phone was Rs.4336.  About 8.11 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 2.70 per cent of them possess plough 21.62 per cent of the households possess weeder.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.21666; the average value of plough was Rs. 2000 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 24.  The results indicated that, 10.81 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 5.41 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.70 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 8.11 per cent of the household possess buffalo and 5.41 per cent of the households possess sheep.  In case of marginal farmers, 6.67 per cent of the households possess bullock, local cow, crossbred cow and buffalo respectively. In case of small farmers, 8.33 per cent of households possess bullock, local cow, buffalo and sheep respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 40 per cent of the households possess bullock and 20 per cent possess buffalo and sheep respectively.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.78, average own labour (women) available was 1.36, average hired labour (men) available was 8.11 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.69.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 2.00, average own labour (women) was also 1.47, average hired labour (men) was 6.47 and average hired labour (women) available was also 6.73. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.58, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 6.75 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.58. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.80, average own labour (women) was 1.40, average hired labour (men) was 9.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.60. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 30 and average hired labour (women) available was 30.  The results indicated that, 8.11 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 89.19 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate. 3  The results indicated that, households of the Mainahalli micro watershed possess 38.26 ha (90.61%) of dry land and 3.97 ha (9.39%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 10.44 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 15.95 ha (92.27 %) of dry land and 1.34 ha (7.73 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 7.43 ha (73.84%) of dry land and 2.63 ha (26.16%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.45 ha (100%) of dry land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 233,807.51 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 441,071.43. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 426,027.13 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 206,878.17 for dry land Rs. 486,515.16 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 121,144.41 for dry land and Rs. 418,000 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 67,363.64 for dry land and.  The results indicated that, there were 1 functioning and 1 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 2.70 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 3.77 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of small farmers there was 0.81 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (7.81 ha), maize (19.33 ha), sorghum (5.26 ha), red gram (0.20 ha) and sunflower (8.15 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers had grown bajra, sorghum and maize. Small farmers had grown bajra, sorghum, maize and sunflower. Semi medium farmers had grown bajra, sorghum, maize, red gram and sunflower. Medium farmers had grown sunflower.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Mainahalli micro watershed was found to be 78.16 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 83.93 per cent, in case of small farmers it was 75.66 per cent, in case semi medium it was 70.24 per cent and medium farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 81.08 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings. 100 percent of the marginal and medium farmers possess bank account and savings respectively. 83.33 per cent of small farmers possess both bank account and savings. Semi medium farmers possess 80 per cent of both bank account and savings.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of marginal, 83.33 per cent of small, 80 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 33170.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26696.83. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -6473.21, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.8. 4  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 38478.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31675.95. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -6802.28. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.82.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 61336.98. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49804.52. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. -11532.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.81.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 41245.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27371.03. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -13874.80. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.66.  The results indicated that, 5.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 13.51 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated that, in case of landless, the average income from wage was Rs. 52000. In case marginal farmers the average income from wage was Rs.666.67, agriculture was Rs.40666.6 and dairy farm was Rs.1333.33. In small farmers, the average income from service/salary was Rs.3333.33 and agriculture was Rs. 46,666.67. In semi medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 2400, agriculture was Rs.137000, dairy farm was Rs. 1200 and goat farming was Rs.8000. In medium farmers the average income from agriculture was Rs.100000.  The results indicated that, in case of land less, the average expenditure from wage Rs. 17500. In marginal farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs.5000, agriculture was Rs.20200 and dairy farm was Rs.3500. In small farmers, the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.10000 and agriculture was Rs.24833.33. In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.8000, agriculture was Rs.39000, dairy farm was Rs.2000 and goat farming was Rs.15000. In medium farmers the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs.70000.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 3 coconut trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 2 teak trees, 21 neem trees, 1tamarind tress, 4 banyan and 1 peeple trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4108.11 for land development and Rs.270.27 for improved crop production.  Marginal farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5333.33 for land development and Rs.266.67 for improved crop production. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4250 for land development. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3800 for land development and Rs. 600 5 in irrigation facility. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2000 for land development and Rs. 3000 in irrigation facility.  The results indicated that for land development, 2.63 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from bank and own funds respectively and 50 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loan. 7.89 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loan for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, bajra, sorghum, maize, redgram and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 48.65 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant and 59.46 percent of the households sold their produce to regulated market.  The results indicated that 2.70 per cent of the households have used head load and truck as a mode of transport, 13.51 per cent of the households used cart as a mode of transport and 89.19 per cent of them have used tractor.  The results indicated that, 27.03 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 46.67 percent of marginal farmers and 25 per cent of small farmers.  The results indicated that, 75.68 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing includes 93.33 per cent of the marginal, 75 per cent of the small, 80 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 2.70 percent of them used LPG.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 35.14 per cent households and 67.57 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 59.46 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 100 per cent of marginal, 8.33 per cent of the small, 20 per cent of the semi medium and 100 medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 37.84 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 26.67 percent of the marginal, 25 per cent of the small, 40 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk and egg were adequate for 97.30 per cent, 86.49 per cent, 43.24 per cent, 43.24 per cent, 62.16 per cent, 29.73 per cent and 51.35 per cent respectively. 6  The results indicated that, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 10.81 per cent, 51.35 per cent, 54.05 per cent, 24.32 per cent, 24.32 per cent, 35.14 per cent and 5.41 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 89.19 per cent of the households experienced by lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint, wild animal menace on farm field (67.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (51.35%), inadequacy of irrigation water (24.32%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (32.43%), high rate of interest on credit (10.81%), low price for the agricultural commodities (16.22%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (8.11%), inadequate extension services (10.81%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (27.03%), less rainfall (64.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (13.51%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Abbagiri Tanda-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 877 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 96 per cent is covered by soils and 4 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 52 soil phases (management units) and 8 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 6 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 57 per cent soils are loamy and 16 per cent clayey soils at the surface  About 32 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 4 per cent in the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 69 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 6 per cent area is gently sloping (3-5% slope)  An area of about 59 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 19 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 21 per cent soils are strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5), an area of about 21 per cent soils are moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), an area of about 13 per cent soils are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) in soil reaction, an area of 10 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5- 7.3), 5 per cent soils are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 7 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 2 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in 61 per cent area.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in an area 25 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in an area of 54 per cent.  About 43 per cent is low (145 kg/ha) in available potassium, 27 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 8 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 67 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 38 per cent area.  Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 40 (5) 177 (20) Pomegranate - 180 (20) Maize 15 (2) 202 (23) Guava - 158 (18) Bajra 19 (2) 316 (36) Jackfruit - 158 (18) Groundnut - 471 (54) Jamun - 160 (18) Sunflower 22 (3) 58 (7) Musambi 22 (3) 158 (18) Cotton 22 (3) 194 (22) Lime 22 (3) 158 (18) Red gram - 80 (9) Cashew 15 (2) 233 (27) Bengalgram 22 (3) 205 (23) Custard apple 79 (9) 531 (60) Chilli 18 (2) 199 (23) Amla 46 (5) 557 (64) Tomato 18 (2) 199 (23) Tamarind - 24 (3) Drumstick 2 (<1) 253 (29) Marigold 15 (2) 202 (23) Mulberry 2 (<1) 426 (48) Chrysanthemum 15 (2) 202 (23) Mango - 2 (<1) Jasmine 15 (2) 180 (20) Sapota - 158 (18) Crossandra 15 (2) 180 (20)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 124 (53.45%) men and 108 (46.55%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of land less farmers was 4, marginal farmers were 4, small farmer was 5, semi medium farmer was 5 and medium farmers were 3.  There were 55 (23.71%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 101 (43.53%) were in 16-35 years of age, 57 (24.57 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (8.19%) were above 61 years of age.  The micro watershed had 34.48 per cent illiterates, 0.43 per cent functional literates, 34.48 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.59 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.36 per cent of them had high school education, 7.33 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.66 per cent of them diploma, 0.86 per cent of them had ITI, 3.45 per cent of them had degree education and 1.29 per cent of them had other education.  The results indicate that, 81.63 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 4.08 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 53.88 per cent of the household members, 7.33 per cent were agricultural laborers, 4.31 per cent were general labours, 0.43 percent were in government service, 0.86 per cent of them were in private sector, 0.43 per cent of them were in trade and business, 21.98 per cent of them were students and 1.72 per cent were housewives.  The results shows that 1.72 per cent of them participated in self help groups, 0.86 per cent of them participated in gram panchayat, 0.43 per cent of them participated in Raitha Sangha and 96.98 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Semi medium farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions.  The results indicate that 87.76 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 10.20 per cent of them possess Pucca house and 2.04 per cent them possess semi Pucca house. 100 percent of the landless, marginal and small farmers possess Katcha house.  The results shows that 57.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 34.69 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 42.86 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 83.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The average value of television was Rs.3178, mixer grinder was Rs.1876, DVD player was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.33857, bicycle was Rs.1250, Auto Rs.200000 and mobile phone was Rs.1736.  About 34.69 per cent of the households possess plough, 30.61 per cent of them possess bullock cart and 26.53 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 12.24 2 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 46.94 per cent of the households possess weeder. The average value of plough was Rs.748, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 18750 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.2117.  The results indicate that, 36.73 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 18.37 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6.12 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 2.04 per cent of the households possess equally for sheep and goat respectively.  Average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.91, average own labour (women) available was 1.45, average hired labour (men) available was 11.36 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.41.  The results indicate that, 89.80 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, 1 person was migrated from micro watershed that belonged to semi medium farmer category. People have migrated on an average of 450 Kms and average duration was 10 months. Job/work was important reason for migration for all the migrants.  Households of the Abbagiri Tanda-1 micro watershed possess 40.54 ha (68.45%) of dry land and 18.69 ha (31.55%) of irrigated land. The average value of dry land was Rs.260116.79 and average value of irrigated was Rs.316639.24. There were 14 functioning and 7 defunct bore wells in the micro watershed. Bore well was the major irrigation source for 28.57 per cent of the farmers. There were 10.76 ha of irrigated area in total in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (29.38 ha), Navane (0.81 ha), Bajra (7.32 ha), Paddy (1.22 ha), Sorghum (3.04 ha), and Red gram (2.49ha) in kharif season and Bengal gram (4.08 ha), groundnut (1.21 ha), Red gram (1.21 ha) and sorghum (0.81 ha) in Rabi season.  Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sorghum, Ground nut, Bengal gram and Redgram. Small farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sorghum, Bengal gram and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown Maize, bajra, Bengal gram and Paddy. Medium farmers have grown Maize and Bengal gram. Medium farmers have grown Maize and Bengal gram.  The cropping intensity in Abbagiri Tanda-1 micro watershed was found to be 90.91 per cent. In case of Marginal farmers it was 96.40 per cent, for small farmers it was 87.36 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 89.84 per cent and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 55.10 per cent and 53.06 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 63.64 percent of them possess both bank account and savings. 65 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 60 per cent of savings. Semi medium farmers possess 54.55 per cent of both bank account and savings and medium category of farmers possess 50 per cent of bank account and also savings. 3  The results indicate that, 65.22 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank, 43.48 per cent have availed loan in money lender and 4.35 per cent have availed loan from cooperative bank. Marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs.16142.86, Rs. 114444.44, Rs.50000, and Rs. 250000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 73608.70.  The results indicate that, 18.75 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially which includes 22.22 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The data also showed that 56.25 per cent of households have unpaid their loans and only 25 per cent of households have fully repaid their loans. The results also indicated that 20 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially and 80 percent of the households have unpaid their loan.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23153.0. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22838.19. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -314.89, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.99.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 20389.96. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47012.31. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 26622.35, and the income generated from red gram was Rs. 10618.55, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.31.  Total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 12067.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25935. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 13867.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.15.  Total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 35259.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41003.63. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 5744.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 14260.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27694.88. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 13715.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.96.  The total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 41141.81. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80509.57. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 39367.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.96.  Total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 48921.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80878.78. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 31957.66. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.65.  The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 13963.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25468.44. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 11505.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.82. 4  The results indicate that, 59.18 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 4.08 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate also the data revealed that 24.49 per cent of the farmers opined that green fodder is adequate.  The table indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 3571.43, business Rs.3632.65, wage Rs.27367.35, agriculture Rs. 52992.86, farm income Rs.1632.65, Non farm income Rs.3061.22, dairy farm Rs.2215.31 and goat farming was Rs.3061.22.  The results indicated that, 44.90 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 45.45 per cent marginal farmers, 55 per cent small farmers, 45.45 per cent semi medium farmers and 50 per cent medium farmers.  The results indicated that for 12 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for land development. Similarly for the dependency was for irrigation facility 48 percent and only 2 percent for improved crop production. The results indicated that, only Navane was sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The data regarding marketing channels used for sale of agricultural produce was showing that 57.14 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 42.86 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and only 4.08 per cent of the households sold their produce to agents/traders.  The data about mode of transport of agricultural produce indicated that 75.51 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 28.57 per cent have used tractor. The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing i.e. 63.64 per cent of marginal farmers, 70 per cent of small farmers, 54.55 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers have shown interest in soil testing.  The data pertaining to soil and water conservation practices and structures adopted in micro watershed was indicating that, 10.20 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 18.18 per cent of marginal, 10 per cent of small farmers, and 50 per cent of medium farmers. Summer ploughing was adopted by 57.14 per cent of the households i.e.63.64 per cent of the marginal farmers, 70 per cent of the small farmers, 54.55 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent medium farmers.  Form pond was adopted by the farmers was 2.04 per cent. The data regarding agencies involved in soil conservation structures in was showing that 2.04 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 8.16 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 2.04 per cent is constructed by farmer's organization. 5  The results indicated that, 83.67 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel, and 14.29 percent of the households used LPG. Also results indicated that, piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 53.06 per cent which includes 100 per cent of landless, 45.45 per cent of marginal, 40 per cent of small farmers, 63.64 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers and 10.20 per cent of the households were using bore well as a source of drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light which was found to be 93.88 per cent. The results indicated that, 34.69 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 60 per cent of landless, 45.45 per cent of marginal, 3 per cent of small, 9.09 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 91.84 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.04 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 36.73 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 45.45 percent of the marginal, 4 per cent of the small, 36.36 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers.  The result of data regarding adequacy of food items was showing that that, 97.97 per cent of cereals, 79.59 per cent of pulses, 63.27 per cent of oilseeds and 67.35 percent of both milk and egg were adequate for the households. Vegetables and fruits were adequate only for 10.20 per cent and meat was 4.08 per cent for the households respectively.  Also, the results indicated that, both vegetables and fruits were inadequate for 85.71 per cent of the households. Milk and egg were inadequate for 30.61 per cent respectively; meat was inadequate for 89.90 per cent. Cereals, pulses and oilseeds were inadequate for 2.04 per cent, 18.37 per cent and 8.16 per cent respectively.  The results of the farming constraints experienced by households in studied micro watershed was indicating that Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 32.65 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (59.18%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (55.10%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.10%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (65.31%), high rate of interest on credit (63.27%), low price for the agricultural commodities (65.31%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (67.35%), inadequate extension services (63.27%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (79.59%), less rainfall (30.61%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (12.24). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Katrahalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 444 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 90 per cent is covered by soil and 10 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 14 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 3 per cent is sandy (loamy sand) at the surface, 15 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 72 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 56 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) available water capacity.  An area of about 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 77 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 50 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 40 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 86 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 4 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in 31 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 5 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 85 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 64 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 42 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in <1 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 127 (29) 157 (35) Pomegranate 48(11) 267(60) Maize 69 (16) 217 (49) Guava 14(3) 140(31) Bajra 82(18) 269(60) Jackfruit 48(11) 105(24) Redgram 34(8) 145 (32) Jamun 34(8) 168(22) Bengal gram 58(13) 234(53) Musambi 106(24) 209(47) Groundnut 14(3) 179 (40) Lime 106(24) 209 (47) Sunflower 93 (21) 165 (37) Cashew 48(11) 105(24) Cotton 93(21) 193(43) Custard apple 154(35) 227(51) Chilli 82(18) 14(3) Amla 95(22) 285 (64) Tomato 82(18) 14(3) Tamarind 95(22) 285(64) Drumstick 48(11) 240(54) Marigold 69(16) 215(49) Mulberry 48(11) 263(59) Chrysanthemum 69(16) 215(49) Mango 34(8) 39(9) Jasmine 69(16) 53(12) Sapota 48(11) 105(24) Crossandra 69(16) 141(32)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data on households sampled for socio economic survey in Katarahalli microwatershed indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Katarahalli microwatershed among them 5 (14.71 %) were landless farmers, 7 (20.59 %) were marginal farmers, 10 (29.41 %) were small farmers, 5 (14.71 %) were semi medium farmer, 6 (17.65 %) were medium farmers and 1(2.94 %) were large farmers.  The data indicated that there were 95 (56.21 %) men and 74 (43.79 %) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of large farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 3.4, small farmers' was 5.8, semi medium farmers' was 6, medium farmers' was 4.5 and large farmers' was 5.  The data indicated that, 28 (16.57 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 72 (42.60 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (30.18 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (10.65 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Katarahalli had 27.22 per cent illiterates, 19.53 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.06 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.02 per cent of them had high school education, 15.98 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.18 per cent of them had Diploma, 1.78 per cent of them had ITI, 7.10 per cent of them had degree education and 0.59 per cent of them did Masters.  The results indicate that, 50 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 47.06 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.94 per cent of the household heads were in Trade & Business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 26.04 per cent of the household members, 33.14 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1.78 per cent were in government service, 5.33 per cent were in private service, 2.37 per cent were in trade and business, 22.49 per cent were students, 2.96 per cent were housewives and 3.55 per cent were children.  The results show that, 0.59 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in Gram Panchayat, Dairy Cooperative and Raitha Sangha.  The results indicate that 64.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 14.71 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and 20.59 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results show that 76.47 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.94 per cent of the households possess DVD/VCD Player, 58.82 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Refrigerator, 26.47 per cent of them possess bicycle, 52.94 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94per cent of the households possess Computer/Laptop and 91.18 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. 2  The results show that the average value of television was Rs 5,807, DVD/VCD Player mixer was Rs 2,000, grinder was Rs 2,350, Refrigerator was Rs 12,000, bicycle was Rs 5,425, motor cycle was Rs.38,250 mobile phone was Rs. 1,998 and Computer/Laptop was Rs. 45,000.  About 5.88 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 26.47 per cent of them possess plough, 2.94 per cent of them possess Irrigation Pump, 5.88 per cent possess tractor, 17.65 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.94 per cent of them possess Sprinkler, 76.47 per cent of them possess weeder, 23.53 per cent of them possess Thresher, 2.94 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 2.94 per cent of them possess earth remover/duster.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17,500, plough was Rs. 1,820, Irrigation Pump was Rs.7,000, tractor was Rs 350,000, sprayer was Rs.3,828, Sprinkler was Rs. 8,000, average value of weeder was Rs. 159, Harvester was Rs. 84,000, Thresher was Rs. 277, average value of chaff cutter was 3,000 and the average value of earth mover/duster was Rs. 15,000.  The data regarding the Livestock possession by the households in Katarahalli micro-watershed is presented in Table 13. The results indicate that, 8.82 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 17.65 per cent of the households possess local cow, 23.53 per cent of the households possess Crossbred cow, 5.88 per cent of the households possess Buffalo and 5.88 per cent of the households possess Goat.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.41, average own labour (women) available was 1.19, average hired labour (men) available was 13.55 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.23.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 5.88 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Katarahalli micro-watershed possess 17.74 ha (36.01 %) of dry land and 31.51 ha (63.99 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.30 ha (85.80 %) of dry land and 0.55 ha (14.20 %) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 5.65 ha (52.11 %) of dry land and 5.19 ha (47.89 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 5.90 ha (58.47 %) of dry land and 4.19 ha (41.53 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.89 ha (16.56 %) of dry land and 14.56 ha (83.44 %) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 7.03 ha (100 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 431,108.83 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 382,220.36. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 726,470.58 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.67. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 398,101.72 3 for dry land and Rs. 731,566.65 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 237,336.99 for dry land and Rs. 441,497.59 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 553,501.40 for dry land and Rs. 322,651.47 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers, the average land value was Rs. 113,824.88 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 22 functioning and 17 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 64.71 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 48.68 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium, medium farmers and large farmers had an irrigated area of 1.09 ha, 7.31 ha, 4.96 ha, 11.91 ha and 2.83 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Bajra (2.91 ha), Bengal gram (2.18 ha), Cotton (5.26 ha), Drumstick (1.26 ha), Groundnut (3.79 ha), maize (12.01 ha), Sorghum (0.88 ha), Onion (1.76 ha), Red gram (.96 ha), bajra (2.91 ha) and Pearl millet (8.10 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Katarahalli micro-watershed was found to be 74.72 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 47751.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33186.64. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -14564.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.69.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 51818.36. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74236.52. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 22418.17. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.43.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 318503.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 78255.19. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. -240248.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.25.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 57538.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 52673.65. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -4864.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.92.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 113731.40. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 195184.89. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. 81453.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.72. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 46264.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 107609.70. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 61345.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.33.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 51344.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23903.22. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -27441.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.47.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 60030.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32057.96. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -27972.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.53.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Drumstick was Rs. 40072.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 223096.78. The net income from Drumstick cultivation was Rs. 183024.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 5.57.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 78158.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 61688.25. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -16470.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.79.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cowpea was Rs. 29807.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38285. The net income from Cowpea cultivation was Rs. 8477.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.28.  The results indicate that, 26.47 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 23.53 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and dry fodder was inadequate for 17.65 per cent of the households.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 2,400 for landless households, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 89,571.43, for small farmers it was Rs. 184,770, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 103,200, for medium farmers it was Rs. 126,208.33 and for semi large farmers it was Rs. 138,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 18,960.57. For landless households it was Rs. 600, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 14,234.69, for small farmers it was Rs. 24,260, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 22,400, for medium farmers it was Rs. 12,069.44 and for large farmers it was Rs. 115,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 68 coconut trees in their field and1 in backyard, 3 Custard apple trees in their field, 5 Guava trees in their field, 10 Lemon trees in their field, 19 Mango trees in their field, 4 Pomegranate in their field and 3 lime in their field. . 5  The results indicate that, households have planted 40 Teak, 47 neem, 2 tamarind and 7 banyan trees in their field. Also, 1 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, Bengalgram, Cow Pea, Drumstick, Garlic, cotton and Redgram were sold to the extent of 100 per cent, bajra was sold to the extent of 91.83 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 40.38 per cent, Maize was sold to the extent of 98.01 per cent, Onion was sold to the extent of 64.14 per cent, Sunflower was sold to the extent of 62.5 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 86.67 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 61.76 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 2.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market, 8.82 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Cooperative marketing Society and 52.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Agent/Traders.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 47.06 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 73.53 per cent of the households used firewood, 20.59 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel and 2.94 per cent of the households used Kerosene and Biogas as a source of fuel .  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 67.65 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 32.35 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.94 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 55.88 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 67.65 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 41.18 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 61.76 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 100 per cent, milk was adequate for 88.24 per cent, Fruits was adequate for 11.76 per cent, eggs were adequate for 29.41 per cent and meat was adequate for 47.06 per cent.  The results indicated that, Cereals were inadequate for 32.35 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 58.82 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 38.24 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 50 per cent, milk 6 was inadequate for 2.86 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.29 per cent and meat was inadequate for 20.59 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 44.12 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (50 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (47.06 %), inadequacy of irrigation water (35.29 %), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (52.94 %), high rate of interest on credit (47.06 %), low price for the agricultural commodities (35.29 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (50 %), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (20.59 %), less rainfall (38.24 %) and source of agri-technology information (26.47 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project