Andehrs Behring Breivik no encaja en ninguna categoría existente de actuación violenta o política. Como lo revela su manifiesto, que dará que hablar durante años, Breivik es un terrorista sui generis.Brevemente, Breivik es un joven noruego que el pasado viernes cometió dos ataques terroristas. En el primero detonó una bomba en el distrito gubernamental de Oslo. En el segundo apareció disfrazado de policía en una pequeña isla donde se celebraba una reunión anual de las juventudes del Partido Laborista del país, y atacó a la multitud con armas y municiones de guerra.El manifiesto que el agresor envió a algunos miles de contactos horas antes de cometer el ataque es una obra sin precedentes en la historia de la acción criminal e ideológica. En primer lugar, el texto suma más de mil quinientas páginas, de las cuales Breivik es el autor de más de la mitad. En segundo lugar, la obra está escrita en perfecto inglés, con el objetivo expreso de difundir la ideología ahí presentada a la mayor cantidad de personas posible. En tercer lugar, los contenidos del trabajo son muy variados y llegan a un nivel de detalle inaudito. Este último aspecto es lo que hace de Breivik y su manifiesto algo extraordinario. Entre otras cosas, el lector encontrará:Una exposición detallada de la ideología política del autor (a la cual llama "Cultural conservatism or a nationalist/conservative direction"), con discusiones sobre Antonio Gramsci, György Lukács, Karl Marx, la historia del comunismo, tablas estadísticas sobre la demografía europea y otros elementos.Una descripción de los orígenes de la organización que pretende tener detrás, la Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Solomonici o PCCTS. El nombre es el término en latín para la orden medieval monástica y militar más conocida como los Templarios.Una guía meticulosa sobre cómo comprar los ingredientes para la elaboración de explosivos, así como su preparación, su detonación en ensayos, e incluso dónde y cómo esconderlos.Una guía similar para la obtención de armas, con discusiones de diversas fuentes como la mafia albanesa o la rusa. También explica cómo preparar una armadura de combate, así como los principios del combate urbano con armas de fuego.Una bitácora de su "trabajo" desde 2002 en adelante, que incluye su dieta con detalles sobre su ingestión de proteínas y su rutina diaria.Un presupuesto de toda su "obra" desde ese año en adelante. Breivik afirma haber invertido €317.000 a lo largo de una década en su "proyecto".Instrucciones para la construcción de su epitafio.Instrucciones para la implementación de un sistema de medallas, uniformes y ritos para la orden neo-templaria, con diagramas, nombres y criterios para la aplicación de cada una.Pasos básicos de contra-inteligencia para evitar ser detectado.Un currículum vitae completo.No hay cuestiones de menor importancia para Breivik: el ensayo también incluye discusiones detalladas sobre el estado actual de la educación terciaria en Estados Unidos y Europa, extensas explicaciones sobre la teología y la historia islámica, críticas hacia las letras del hip-hop misógino estadounidense, listas de canciones inspiradoras, etc. Una enorme proporción de los textos, como el propio Breivik admite, son de autores con argumentos válidos y que están muy lejanos de promover o aceptar actos de violencia como el suyo.El cuadro que ofrece la lectura de este ensayo es de una persona de una enorme inteligencia, capacidad de organización y, sobre todo, disciplina. Breivik es un individuo altamente preparado física y mentalmente para la grotesca tarea que se propuso. Tal como indica su ensayo, ya tiene preparados los discursos que realizará en su juicio, que pretende que sea altamente público. Antes de lanzar su ataque ya tenía decidido qué criterios aplicaría con el abogado que le asignara el estado, lo que le contestará al juez y demás quienes le digan que es un criminal psicótico, y cómo planea que termine el juicio.Esto último hace que sea poco probable que aparezcan otros Breiviks – aunque sigue siendo posible. Resulta simplemente increíble que pueda haber otro individuo que comparta la misma ideología hasta el mismo nivel de compromiso, y que sobre todo elija seguir el mismo camino.Breivik se ve a sí mismo como una persona fuertemente politizada, por lo cual es necesario discutirlo en esos términos. De los primeros que surgen apuradamente en los medios –seguramente por no haber leído el manuscrito-, no se aplica casi ninguno. Breivik no es nacionalsocialista o "neo-nazi"; tampoco es asimilable al Unabomber (por más que haya coincidencias en sus textos), ni al Ku Klux Klan o a los partidos nacionalistas europeos.De hecho, quizá la forma más correcta de definir a Breivik es resucitando el significado verdadero de un término muy abusado: "de derecha". Breivik ha elegido responder a la amenaza que percibe en Europa, que es sin dudas el Islam, con un remedio neo-medieval. En su ensayo, Breivik postula que la forma óptima de organización política en Europa debe estar basada en la monarquía, y no en repúblicas:"The king or queen of a country is more democratic than a president ever could be because he or she represents all citizens." (el original no es de Breivik).El noruego está a favor de la fusión de todas las iglesias bajo el Papa nuevamente, aún siendo él mismo luterano (no practicante, a diferencia de lo que sugieren los medios). La nueva mega-Iglesia tendría un monopolio público de la religión, así como acceso privilegiado a los contenidos de la educación y los medios. Su visión de una sociedad conservadora es esta: "Ladies should be wives and homemakers, not cops or soldiers (…) Children should not be born out of wedlock. Glorification of homosexuality should be shunned."Aunque Breivik dedica literalmente cientos de páginas a textos sobre la historia de la violencia islámica contra Europa (y también sobre el caso opuesto), en ningún momento menciona los más de mil años de calamidades, miseria y sufrimiento humano que fueron consecuencia directa del sistema medieval-monárquico-eclesiástico.El principal objetivo de Breivik y sus "templarios" es la erradicación de la presencia del Islam en Europa a través de tres modalidades. La primera es la conversión al cristianismo (incluyendo como variable su creación intelectual más débil, los cristianismos "agnóstico" y "ateo"). Esta vía tiene clarísimos componentes anti-liberales y anti-democráticos, ya que los musulmanes conversos deberían renunciar a sus nombres, idiomas, vínculos con sus países de origen (incluso por vía electrónica) y otras cuestiones básicas. Para Breivik, incluso será necesario que "All traces of Islamic culture in Europe will be eradicated, even locations considered historical" – algo por definición poco "conservador".Además, Breivik no tiene ilusiones sobre el "liberalismo islámico": "to take the violence out of Islam would require it to jettison two things: the Quran as the word of Allah and Muhammad as Allah's prophet. In other words, to pacify Islam would require its transformation into something that it is not."La segunda modalidad de erradicación del Islam es la limpieza cultural, que consistiría de deportaciones o expulsiones (Breivik menciona muchos modelos, incluyendo las gigantescas ordenadas por Stalin). La última es la exterminación.Es en referencia a esto último que Breivik dedica un pasaje a discutir a Adolf Hitler y el nacionalsocialismo. El autor se aleja de estos claramente, aunque por razones muy diferentes de las del ciudadano común. Su explicación es que la "causa" nacionalsocialista y el liderazgo de Hitler destruyeron a los nacionalismos europeos por más de un siglo (es decir, hasta bien entrado el siglo XXI), porque optaron directamente por el camino de la exterminación. El resultado fue una guerra que terminó en derrota, y la entrega del continente al bolchevismo y uno de sus herederos, la socialdemocracia multicultural.Esto explica una de las principales diferencias entre Breivik y el movimiento neo-nacionalsocialista es su posición respecto a Israel y los judíos. El terrorista noruego interpreta al estado israelí como un modelo a seguir de "reunión nacional" étnica, y simpatiza enormemente con su lucha anti-jihad. Ergo, para Breivik se trata de un aliado ante un enemigo en común. El mismo principio aplica Breivik, quien se define como anti-racista, a las alianzas que propone con asiáticos orientales, hindúes y otros con tal de luchar contra el Islam.A quien sí defiende Breivik abiertamente es a Slobodan Milosevic. De hecho, el noruego argumenta que fueron los ataques de la OTAN a la Serbia de ese dictador genocida lo que primero despertó su instinto conservador. Esa podría ser una pista significativa para entender el rompecabezas ideológico del agresor, ya que las dos intervenciones internacionales en Yugoslavia ocurrieron antes del Once de septiembre, que es el gran disparador de la actual preocupación por la jihad entre muchos occidentales.En la visión de Breivik, quizá el sistema de organización social ideal sería elapartheid, pero a diferencia del caso de Sudáfrica, no dentro de un país. Para él, los judíos deberían haber sido expulsados de Europa en los 1930s; ahora deberían ser expulsados los musulmanes. El autor incluso menciona los casos de países de Asia Oriental del presente, como Corea del Sur y Japón, como ejemplos de naciones étnicamente homogéneas y prósperas. Evidentemente, Breivik es una persona que piensa en términos profundamente colectivistas. No hay derechos individuales para las personas que no forman parte de su grupo. Esta forma de concebir el mundo, sumada a la forma en que Breivik se presenta como líder de un movimiento ideológico violento, lo hacen similar a figuras como Lenin, Hitler, Mao, el Che Guevara u Osama bin Laden.De hecho, como todo pretendiente a líder carismático, Breivik incluye en su manifiesto instrucciones para tener preparadas fotografías en las que el atacante se "vea bien", pensando en el momento en el cual su rostro sea visto por el mundo – tal como está ocurriendo ahora. Así se lo propuso Breivik: "As a Justiciar Knight you will go into history as one of the most influential individuals of your time. So you need to look your absolute best and ensure that you produce quality marketing material prior to operation." El texto incluso recomienda utilizar una cama solar y aplicarse maquillaje antes de tomarse las fotografías.El aspecto más sorprendente del planteo de Breivik es el blanco que escogió para su ataque. Al leer el inmenso manifiesto y contrastarlo con los hechos de los días pasados, es inevitable quedarse con la sensación de que fue todo una excusa para perpetrar un acto de extrema violencia contra jóvenes inocentes (y desarmados, por supuesto). El manifiesto incluso lo admite con una subsección entera: "The cruel nature of our operations". Breivik explica que aunque el enemigo objetivo es el Islam en Europa, el objetivo inmediato son los europeos que han trabajado durante cerca de medio siglo para que exista esa presencia islámica en la región.Estos son, para el noruego, los multiculturalistas, marxistas y demás miembros de una suerte de élite europea. De hecho, su objetivo explícito es que para el año 2020 ocurran golpes de estado en diversos países de Europa occidental (junto con la abolición de la Unión Europea), de modo de instalar regímenes conservadores que trabajen para la eliminación simultánea del marxismo multicultural y del Islam.Estas élites y su "political correctness" son las responsables, para Breivik, de que no se puedan discutir abiertamente cuestiones que preocupan a un nacionalista conservador como él. La principal de ellas es la presencia de musulmanes en Europa. La sección tres del manifiesto es fundamental, porque tras más de 750 páginas de "diagnóstico" sobre el estado actual de Europa, el autor quiebra con todos los demás que citó y anuncia su alejamiento de la vía pacífica. Por ejemplo, en la página 791 aparece, como un subtítulo más, un anuncio importante: "Why armed resistance against the cultural Marxist/multiculturalist regimes of Western Europe is the only rational approach".De hecho, en esa sección hay varias páginas dedicadas a enunciar los cargos legales que se le imputan a multiplicidad de líderes europeos. Como parte de su gigantesca acusación contra el sistema político-social europeo de posguerra, Breivik incluso ofrece cálculos específicos de las cantidades de europeos cuyos derechos han sido violados de diversas maneras por los efectos de esas políticos, que van desde la violación y el asesinato hasta los despidos de personas. Todos se imputan, en conjunto y criminalmente, a estas "élites" cuya muerte se anuncia poco a poco.En lugar de estas personas aparecerá, en palabras de Breivik, un "cultural conservative tribunal" en cada país que implemente un nuevo régimen político. Como parte de esta iniciativa, aparecen mencionadas casualmente algunas medidas atroces: "All Muslims are to be immediately deported to their country of origin. Each family (family head) will receive 25 000 Euro providing they accept the deportation terms. Anyone who violently resists deportation will be executed". Breivik también prevé compensaciones financieras para los sujetos que fueron "víctimas intelectuales" del sistema previo, así como específicamente para los ciudadanos de Serbia por el bombardeo de OTAN. También incluye los parámetros de su propia "ley de medios", por utilizar un desafortunado término rioplatense, que implica la imposición de cuotas de periodistas e intelectuales "conservadores" y nacionalistas en diversas organizaciones mediáticas.El método que ha elegido Breivik, conscientemente sin duda, es similar al viejo anarquismo de la propaganda por el hecho, que consiste de atacantes solitarios que cometen actos espectaculares de demostración e inspiración ideológica. El noruego llama a su campaña de violencia "A Declaration of pre-emptive War" contra sus dos enemigos. Breivik indica claramente que aquellos que existan como él actualmente en Europa son pocos pero que están en aumento; su ataque está pensado para encender la chispa de la conmoción en la región, lo cual incluiría también la aparición de más adeptos. Tácticamente, el ataque del pasado viernes 22 de julio en Noruega es definido por su autor como "military shock attacks by clandestine cell systems".Hay más pasajes que directamente preanuncian el ataque que Breivik escogió lanzar: "consider making use of a remote detonation, (…) to attract attention to one location. Ensure that the enemy forces are heading for this location. By then, you will be on the opposite side of town and in the middle of the process of finishing your primary goal." El blanco se vuelve cada vez más específico: el primero de la lista que hay en el manifiesto es "political parties - cultural Marxist/multiculturalist political parties."En el apartado correspondiente a este tipo de organización, el primer país detallado es Noruega, y el primer partido que aparece ahí es el "Norwegian Labour Party". Más adelante, nuevamente en primer lugar entre una lista de blancos, dice que un blanco primario es: "the annual party meeting of the socialist/social democrat party in your country."Curiosamente, aunque Breivik propone algunas formas de organización colectiva (como la neo-templaria), sus instrucciones para los actos de terrorismo son estrictas respecto a que las células deben ser individuales. Es por eso que Breivik el terrorista pasó desapercibido, a juzgar por la información disponible, incluso en los círculos nacionalistas no violentos.De los nueve miembros que supuestamente asistieron en 2002 a la reunión fundacional en Londres de la organización neo-templaria (todos anónimos), cuatro son descritos como "cristiano ateo" o "cristiano agnóstico". El propio Breivik está muy indeciso respecto a su religión: "I'm not going to pretend I'm a very religious person as that would be a lie (…) I consider myself to be 100% Christian (…) I'm not an excessively religious man". Sería interesante saber qué opinaría Hugues de Payens, fundador de la orden original, respecto a esta falta de disciplina teológica (que en realidad es una ausencia total). Son sin ninguna duda los nombres de estos nueve miembros iniciales, y de otros, lo que más están buscando los servicios de inteligencia de varios estados europeos.La visión del mundo de Breivik está claramente influenciada por el pensamiento colectivista, y su propia obra parece aproximarse a un sistema de pensamiento que podría llamarse ideológico. Es por eso que es posible concluir que no se trata de un lunático desequilibrado que pertenece a un manicomio. Es peor que eso: una persona que en todo momento supo lo que hacía, que se preparó durante años para hacerlo, y que desplegó un alto nivel de meticulosidad para lograrlo. Hasta el efecto de su ataque está pensado desde hace años: "The art of asymmetrical warfare is less about inflicting immediate damage but all about the indirect long term psychological and ideological damage. Our shock attacks are theatre and theatre is always performed for an audience".Las descripciones más personales de Breivik son reveladoras del grado de control que tenía sobre sí mismo: "I have managed to stay focused and highly motivated for a duration of more than 9 years now (…) I have never been happier than I am today (…) I do a mental check almost every day through meditation and philosophizing (…) I simulate various future scenarios relating to resistance efforts, confrontations with police, future interrogation scenarios, future court appearances, future media interviews etc".El objetivo de Breivik es la fundación de una nueva cadena de nacionalismos post-nazis en Europa, y es importante que ese proyecto fracase. El autor concibió un "100 year plan to contribute to seize political power in Western European countries currently controlled by anti-nationalists" (de ahí el título de su manifiesto: 2083). En sus planes más delirantes hacia el futuro, Breivik menciona todo tipo de planes, desde el robo y la detonación de armas nucleares en las capitales europeas hasta la colaboración con Al-Qaeda, el gobierno de Irán, y otros terroristas islámicos.Como se dijo anteriormente, el manifiesto es increíblemente largo y contiene todo tipo de cosas. Hay discusiones muy detalladas sobre la niñez ("My best friend for many years, a Muslim"), adolescencia (incluyendo encuentros con pandillas pakistaníes y un pasado como "graffiti artist") y juventud del autor, con descripciones (con nombres) de sus amigos y hasta las vidas sexuales de sus familiares más cercanos. Hay planes para la importación de inmigrantes en la era "post-islámica" de Europa, con detalles sobre los horarios, la compensación, las localidades y más. Breivik tiene hasta pensado cuál será el nuevo himno de Europa. También explica que él no fue el fundador de la organización neo-templaria, sino el octavo miembro (algo que recuerda a la historia de Adolf Hitler y su ingreso al NSDAP), y que a través de ella conoció a un criminal de guerra serbio en Liberia. Su mentor fue un inglés, fundador de la organización y sin duda un importantísimo blanco para la inteligencia doméstica británica en este mismo momento.Actualmente el "caso Breivik" se encuentra en una etapa que el propio terrorista ya tiene planeada desde hace años: "Your arrest will mark the initiation of the propaganda phase. Your trial offers you a stage to the world (…) A Justiciar Knight is not only a valorous resistance fighter, a one man army; he is a one man marketing agency as well". El terrorista está muy consciente de la opinión que el mundo se ha formado sobre él, y ya ha recorrido mentalmente el camino para superar el ostracismo de su causa: "It might sound completely ridiculous and funny to most people today. But by presenting the following accusations and demands in all seriousness we are indirectly conditioning everyone listening for the conflicts and scenarios ahead. They will laugh today, but in the back of their minds, they have an ounce of fear, respect and admiration for our cause and the alternative and authority we represent".Breivik no es un criminal o incluso un terrorista común. Es una figura nefasta con una ideología totalmente nueva. Es muy importante conocer los términos ideológicos y metodológicos en los que operó, porque existe una preocupante posibilidad de que haya otros como él en el futuro.*Licenciado en Estudios Internacionales - Universidad ORT Uruguay Candidato al Master of Arts in Security Studies - Georgetown University
Inhaltsangabe: Abstract: The US subprime-crisis became a headline in the global media starting in February 2007 after the US housing market had already shown first signs of a slowdown in late 2006. Previously, the US housing market had enjoyed a favorable environment, especially from 2002 to 2005, which was characterized by low interest rates, rising house values, and increasing home financing possibilities through subprime mortgages. However, more and more events were published during the year by US mortgage brokers, international investment banks, and central banks around the world that presented a picture which caused today's perception of the subprime-crisis. What's more, the subprime-crisis is far from being over: an end to the crisis is not yet in sight. One rather unique characteristic of this crisis is that its actual basis is the delinquencies and defaults of subprime single-family home mortgages in the US which is commonly not regarded to be of great relevance for the international capital markets. However, taking into account the originate and distribute business model of US mortgage brokers in connection with the securitization of these mortgages into various types of securities that are traded on a global basis, it is not surprising to observe that banks and investment funds around the world were invested into these securities. Before the crisis started, only a few banks or funds considered the liquidity of these securities when investing significant amounts of money in them because they focused on maximizing their returns. But, when larger problems in the US subprime mortgage market became evident, liquidity became the major concern for investors and investor preferences significantly shifted to safer assets such as government bonds. This caused severe problems in the money market, which ultimately brought the crisis across the Atlantic to Europe. Moreover, funding problems emerged and caused the first bank run in Europe in decades when depositors in Britain started to queue outside Northern Rock branches for hours to withdraw their deposits in light of fears that the bank might have to file for bankruptcy. In addition, another British bank had been in the spotlight earlier that year because HSBC was the first European bank to announce a billion dollar write-off linked to its exposure to subprime mortgages. Taking into consideration the subprime-crisis-related events in Europe, the British banking market can be characterized as the only banking market in Europe where the subprime crisis caused banks to substantially write down subprime-related assets on the one hand but where severe funding problems even led to a bank run that had to be bailed out by the central bank and the government on the other hand. Consequently, the British banking market can be considered to be the European banking market with the highest impact of the subprime-crisis and is, therefore, worth analyzing in detail. The objective of this thesis is to discuss the reasons for the emergence of the subprime-crisis and to empirically examine whether the subprime-crisis had an impact on the British Banking sector. The empirical analysis consists of two different approaches whereas an event study measures the short-term impact of certain news. The performance of the British banking sector in the full year 2007 is analyzed in a second approach that focuses on the long-term impact of the subprime-crisis. In addition, the paper provides an overview on the development of the subprime-crisis in 2007 based on a detailed description of the underlying fundamental market characteristics. In order to empirically measure the impact of the subprime-crisis on British banks, an event study will be conducted. Event studies are a widely-used empirical methodology in economics and finance to examine the impact of certain events: they are considered to be the standard method to measure security price reactions. An event study is an empirical study that measures if specific events have a significant impact on certain stock prices by calculating abnormal stock returns around predefined events. In this regard, an abnormal return is the difference between the actual return in the market and the expected return according to a return generating model. A common assumption in this regard is that positive events lead to positive abnormal returns whereas negative events cause the abnormal returns to be negative. Consequently, important news relating to the subprime-crisis will be categorized as positive or negative and its impact on stock returns will be determined. The event study, as well as the timeline of the subprime-crisis, include events from January 1, 2007 to December 31, 2007. The analysis of the year-round performance of the British banking sector in 2007 is conducted in addition to the event study and follows a different methodology. In contrast to the analysis of the impact of individual events, this approach deals with the performance of British banks and compares this to the performance of an alternative non-bank portfolio. Key to this analysis is that both portfolios have the same risk and return characteristics at the beginning of 2007 that have been determined through a backtesting of the portfolios' performance in 2006. Course of the Investigation: In the second chapter, important fundamentals of the subprime-crisis will be examined. These fundamentals explain how an environment was able to develop in the last decades that lay the foundation for today's crisis. In Chapter 2.1, an overview about the development and the structure of the US subprime mortgage market will be presented before specific characteristics of subprime mortgages will be outlined in 2.2. The unique business model of mortgage brokers is depicted subsequently. The last segments of Chapter 2 specify complex financial instruments that enabled the subprime-crisis to spread around the world and explain why the securitization process leads to high-risk securities. Chapter 3 specifically describes the development of the subprime-crisis in 2007. After presenting an overview about the situation of the US housing market up to 2007 in 3.1, a timeline about last year's subprime-crisis is outlined in 3.2, and the impact on international capital markets is discussed in 3.3. Chapter 3.4 focuses on the consequences for British banks and the actions of the British financial regulatory environment. An empirical analysis of the subprime-crisis is conducted in Chapter 4. A general overview about event studies and their historic development is presented in 4.1. After deducing the typical framework of an event study in 4.2, the relevant British banks in line with its market index as well as relevant news for the event study are determined in Chapter 4.3. The actual event study that analyzes the impact of the subprime-crisis on British banks will be presented in Chapter 4.4. Additionally, a comparison of the performance of a bank portfolio with an alternative non-bank portfolio is given in 4.5. Finally, Chapter 5 contains a summary of the theoretical concepts and the empirical results and gives an outlook about a potential development of the subprime-crisis, capital markets, and specifically the British banking market. Ideas for further research are also presented.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: LIST OF FIGURESI LIST OF TABLESII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSIII 1.INTRODUCTION1 1.1Motivation and Objective1 1.2Course of the Investigation3 2.FUNDAMENTALS OF THE SUBPRIME-CRISIS4 2.1The US Housing and Subprime Mortgage Market4 2.2Characteristics ofSubprime Mortgages7 2.3Business Model of US Mortgage Brokers9 2.4Financial Instruments Underlying the Subprime-Crisis10 2.5Consequences of the Fragmented Securitization Process14 3.THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUBPRIME-CRISIS15 3.1Situation of the US Housing Market up to200715 3.2Timeline of the Subprime-Crisis in 200717 3.3Spillover Effects from the Mortgage Market to the Global Capital Markets21 3.4Consequences for the British Banking Market22 4.EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS ABOUT THE SUBPRIME-CRISIS27 4.1History and Overview of Event Studies27 4.2Framework of an Event Study28 4.3Selection of Relevant Data31 4.3.1British Banks and Market Index31 4.3.2News about Private Financial Institutions and Central Banks32 4.4Event Study About the Subprime-Crisis34 4.4.1Event Study Methodology34 4.4.2Formulation and Testing of Hypotheses36 4.4.3Interpretation of Results37 4.5Year-round Performance of the British Banking Sector in 200740 5.SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION43 REFERENCES45 APPENDIXES51Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3.2,Timeline of the Subprime-Crisis in 2007: In February 2007, the first signs appeared that subprime mortgage brokers were in trouble as ResMae Mortgage filed for bankruptcy and Nova Star Financial reported a loss that was not expected by analysts. It was also the beginning of European banks having to announce losses that were caused by the subprime-crisis. HSBC reported losses of Dollar 10.5bn in its mortgage finance subsidiary in the US and, consequently, fired the head of that particular division. Problems of US mortgage brokers became more and more evident in March 2007 as People's Choice was the next mortgage broker that had to declare bankruptcy. Moreover, the brokers Fremont General and New Century Financial stopped making new subprime mortgages. Two weeks later, rumors appeared that New Century Financial may have to file for bankruptcy as well and these rumors became true in the beginning of April when the company had to file for Chapter 11. In May, the next European bank announced an involvement in the subprime-crisis when UBS had to close its US hedge fund operation Dillon Read Capital Management. In June 2007, rating agencies began appearing in the crisis. Moody's downgraded 131 subprime MBSs and announced to review the rating of an additional 260 securities. Moreover, two Bear Stearns hedge funds that heavily invested in subprime-backed securities lost a significant part of their value and Bear Stearns had to bail-out the hedge funds and provide them with Dollar3.2bn to cover their subprime exposure. As a result, they fired their head of asset management who was responsible for the hedge fund business. July 2007 is considered the first month when the subprime-crisis had a significant impact on the stock market. After closing above 14,000 points for the first time in history, the Dow Jones lost about seven percent until the end of September. UBS brought the crisis back to Europe once more when they suddenly fired their chief executive officer (CEO) Peter Wuffli, mentioning problems relating to the subprime crisis as the cause of this decision. Ration agencies also played a major role in July when Standard Poor's (SP) and Moody's downgraded the ratings of subprime MBSs with values of Dollar 7.3bn and Dollar 5.0bn, respectively. On July 7, SP announced a review of the ratings of numerous CDOs with investments in subprime structured products; Moody's was said to review 184 mortgage-backed CDO tranches. Mortgage brokers were in the spotlight again when American Home Mortgage had difficulties in the refinancing of loans. Countrywide, another major mortgage broker announced a drop in earnings as more and more of their subprime loans defaulted. Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke also mentioned rising defaults in the subprime market and estimated that total losses caused by the subprime crisis could add up to Dollar 100bn. Suddenly, on July 30, the German bank IKB Deutsche Industriebank (IKB) had to announce that one of its ABCP conduits that invested in subprime structured products had troubles refinancing itself. As a consequence, IKB's main shareholder, state-owned KfW, had to bail-out IKB and guaranteed liquidity lines for the conduit Rhineland Funding. One day later, on August 1, 2007, the whole picture of IBK was presented to the public. Total losses due the Rhineland Funding conduit were Euro 3.5bn and a rescue fund by KfW and other German private banks was installed. The mortgage broker American Home Mortgage finally declared bankruptcy and extended the terms on ABCP that were issued by one of its funding conduits. Liquidity problems in the markets for structured products became obvious when BNP Paribas stopped the redemption of three of its funds with a total value of Euro 2bn because they were not able to calculate a fair price for the funds due to the illiquid subprime MBS market. This announcement triggered concerns about market prices of structured credit products in general and interbank lending rates such as LIBOR strongly increased as banks sought liquidity. ABCPs were also priced with higher premiums. This closure of BNP Paribas funds can be regarded as one of the key events in the subprime-crisis because it caused central banks to heavily intervene in the money markets. One day later, the European Central Bank (ECB) injected Euro 95bn of short-term liquidity into the European money market and, subsequently, the Fed as well as the Bank of Japan provided liquidity to their respective money markets. These central banks continued to provide hundreds of billions of dollars of short-term liquidity to the global money markets in the following weeks. The Fed intervened again, by reducing the discount rate in order to provide liquidity to the markets. Goldman Sachs was the next company that had to inject money into a hedge fund in mid-August. The investment bank injected Dollar3bn into one of its hedge funds that suffered from losses in subprime structured products. Citigroup closed seven SIVs with a value of Dollar49bn and took the SIVs' subprime debt on its balance sheet as the SIVs were not able to receive funding due to the illiquidity in the money markets. Morgan Stanley announced to a write-off of Dollar 9.4bn due to investments in the subprime market and sold a 9.9 percent stake to a Chinese investment company in order to strengthen its equity base later that month. Countrywide also suffered from the illiquid markets and had to draw down Dollar 11.5bn from the company's credit lines before receiving a Dollar2bn cash injection from Bank of America. Similar to the losses of IKB, SachsenLB, another German bank, reported refinancing problems in one of its conduits that invested into subprime mortgage products and was, consequently, sold to LBBW after receiving a Euro17.3bn credit line. Looking at the British Banking market, Barclays received a Pounds1.6bn short-term loan from the Bank of England. In the beginning of September 2007, it became evident that the subprime-crisis was a truly global crisis when Bank of China revealed that they made losses of Dollar 9bn that can be attributed to subprime investments. The major event of the subprime-crisis in Britain started on September 13, when the BBC announced that Northern Rock received an emergency loan from the Bank of England in order to solve its refinancing problems. As a consequence, a bank run started that could only be stopped when the British government guaranteed all savings. A more detailed analysis of Northern Rock is presented in Chapter 3.4. A number of investment banks announced their quarterly results in September. Goldman Sachs reports net earnings of Dollar 2.8bn, which were mainly due to short positions in structured subprime mortgage products, whereas Deutsche Bank announced losses of Euro1.7bn. HSBC had losses of Dollar 880m in the third quarter and announced the closure of its US subprime mortgage unit. International banks continued to announce quarterly results in October. UBS reveled an unexpectedly high loss, wrote down Dollar3.4bn in its fixed income division, and fired its Chief Financial Officer and its investment banking head. Moreover, Citigroup had to write-off Dollar 5.9bn in addition to its earlier write-offs. Merrill Lynch's write-offs accounted for Dollar 7.9bn and caused total losses of Dollar 2.3bn. As a result, CEO Stan O'Neil resigned from his position. The Japanese Bank Nomura also announced a substantial loss and closed its US MBS department. The US government initiated the Hope Now initiative that was set up in order to support homeowners to avoid defaults on their mortgage. The US Treasury Department also made major US banks install the Master Liquidity Enhancement Conduit that was supposed to buy illiquid structured products to reestablish liquidity in the market. SP downgraded another Dollar23bn worth of structured products that were backed by mortgage loans and unlike the downgrades in August, SP also downgraded securities that had an AAA rating before. On October 31, the Fed announced the expected reduction of the federal funds target rate by another 25 basis points to 4.5 percent. Investment banks continued to report their subprime exposure in November 2007. Citigroup started with admitting an additional write-down requirement between Dollar8bn and Dollar11bn after already having to write-off Dollar5.9bn in October. As a consequence of these substantial losses, CEO Charles Prince resigned. Morgan Stanley reported a Dollar3.7bn loss in its subprime mortgage investments, whereas Wachovia announced a total loss of Dollar1.7bn. Bank of America wrote off Dollar3bn due to investments in the subprime market and the GSE Freddie Mac reported a loss of Dollar2bn. Besides US banks, UK banks were also again affected by the subprime-crisis. Barclays and HSBC had to write down Dollar2.7bn and Dollar3.4bn, respectively. At the end of November, Citigroup announced an increase in its equity base and sold additional shares to an investment fund based in Abu Dhabi in order to raise Dollar7.5bn. Moreover, Freddie Mac increased its equity by issuing Dollar6bn worth of new shares. In line with Freddie Mac's capital increase, Fannie Mae also issued new shares worth Dollar7bn in the beginning of December 2007. On December 3, Moody's announced a review of additional subprime debt. The British banks Royal Bank of Scotland and Lloyds TSB reported subprime write-offs with a value of Pounds1.25bn and Pounds200m, respectively. On December 6, the Bank of England lowered the interest rate by 25 basis points while the ECB left the interest rates at a constant level following its regular meeting on the same day. In the US, the Fed lowered the discount rate by 25 basis points one week later although some directors were in favor of a 50 basis points interest rate cut. UBS announced that the bank had to write-down another Dollar10bn due to its subprime mortgage market investments. In addition, the company received an Dollar11.5bn capital infusion by investors from Singapore and the Middle East. The last banks that reported substantial losses in 2007 were Washington Mutual, who reported fourth quarter losses of Dollar1.6bn and Morgan Stanley, who wrote off an additional 9.4 Dollar bn and also sold new equity to a foreign investor. In order to provide European banks with sufficient liquidity at the end of the year, the ECB provided banks with 500 Dollar bn at the end of December. This timeline of the development of the subprime-crisis in 2007 shows the huge impact on the international financial markets and global financial institutions that the problems in the US subprime mortgage market have caused. The next chapter will highlight how the crisis in the subprime mortgage market was able to spill over to other asset classes on a global basis. In order to understand the consequences of the subprime-crisis and especially the need for central bank interventions in the money markets, it is necessary to understand the emergence of the liquidity crisis that appeared in the second half of 2007. Many economists such as Buiter define August 9, 2007 as the day when the subprime-crisis was evidently the trigger for the global capital markets crisis. The closure of the BNP Paribas funds due to its inability to value ABS had a spill-over effect on many asset classes and also forced the central banks to massively intervene in the money markets. In economic theory, these spill-over effects are called contagion, which is defined as the spread of a crisis from one specific market into different countries or asset classes. One major consequence was the widening in credit spreads in the global money markets that were caused by the liquidity shortage in the interbank market. Banks across the globe were more and more uncertain about other banks' involvement in subprime MBSs and CDOs and the financial health of their counterparties in money market transactions and became reluctant to lend money, even on a short-time basis. As a result, a liquidity crisis occurred that forced the central banks to provide enormous amounts of liquidity to the interbank markets. One characteristic of the liquidity crisis was a so-called flight to quality which means that banks and fund managers sell riskier assets such as subprime MBSs and CDOs and invest in safe assets such as government bonds. A flight to quality is generally regarded to be based on uncertainty in the markets or uncertainty about counterparties rather than on the risk of specific assets itself. This also seems to hold true for the subprime-crisis. Due to the large supply in these risky asset classes, the markets for MBSs, CDOs, and ABCPs became very illiquid because many sellers were opposing few buyers. As a result, credit spreads in these asset classes significantly increased. As a reaction to the liquidity crisis in the interbank market, central banks intervened several times and provided liquidity to the market.
[SPA] En el sur de Túnez, el sector de la palmera datilera (Phoenix dactylifera L.) representa el principal recurso socioeconómico del oasis y tiene un papel importante en la agricultura tunecina y el desarrollo de la economía nacional. El dátil es el tercer producto agrícola más exportado en Túnez, después del aceite de oliva y los productos del mar. La principal variedad exportada es Deglet Noor, que se produce especialmente en Argelia y Túnez, seguidos por Israel con menos producción. En la última década, Túnez fue el primer productor mundial de Deglet Noor con 190.600 tn en 2012, convirtiéndose en un sector estratégico del país. Sin embargo, la globalización de los mercados ha tenido un enorme impacto en el concepto tradicional de los índices de la ventaja comparada, de lo cual se benefició Túnez en el sector de las exportaciones de dátiles, destacando los aspectos fundamentales para optimar su competitividad en el mercado internacional. Por otro lado, el sector de la palmera datilera en Túnez se enfrenta a varios problemas técnicos, entre ellos, la infestación en campo y durante el almacenamiento. La polilla del dátil, Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller), se considera la principal plaga de los dátiles que causa graves pérdidas económicas durante el almacenamiento y la exportación de los dátiles tunecinos Deglet Noor. El bromuro de metilo ha sido, en varios países, el principal fumigante para la desinsectación de estos frutos, aunque su uso se prohibió en 2015 en los países en vía desarrollo. Por ello, los tratamientos físicos postcosecha se presentan como una alternativa relativamente simple a los fumigantes químicos en general, pudiendo desinsectar los productos perecederos como el dátil. La presente Tesis Doctoral se divide en dos partes, en la primera se evalúa la ventaja competitiva del sector de la palmera datilera en Túnez en la Cuenca Mediterránea e Irán. En la segunda parte, una vez determinada la posición competitiva del sector, se estudia el efecto de varios tratamientos físicos postcosecha sobre la desinsectación de los dátiles tunecinos Deglet Noor y los parámetros de calidad del fruto. Del análisis de la ventaja competitiva del sector de la palmera datilera de Túnez en la Cuenca Mediterránea e Irán en los últimos 20 años se obtuvo que Túnez se haya mantenido como principal proveedor de dátiles a la UE. La variedad Deglet Noor, en particular, sitúa a Túnez por delante de los competidores tradicionales como Argelia e Irán, con promedios de índices de competitividad bastante favorables, alcanzando el índice de especialización de Balassa un valor de 6405.99, el índice de dependencia fue de 17.38, la parte constante de mercado obtuvo un valor de 41.04 y el índice de la balanza comercial fue de 99.50. Todos estos índices fueron más estables en Túnez que en Argelia e Irán durante el período estudiado. Sin embargo, Túnez se enfrenta actualmente a nuevos competidores como Israel y los países re-exportadores como Francia. Nuevas estrategias comerciales como el acondicionamiento, tratamientos físicos postcosecha para la desinsectación, embalaje, la apertura de nuevos mercados, nuevos canales de distribución, etc serían medidas positivas para enfrentar las limitaciones actuales del mercado, la aparición de productores emergentes y las políticas restrictivas de la UE. En la segunda parte de la presente Tesis Doctoral se ha abordado el estudio de los efectos de tratamientos térmicos, proporcionados por agua o aire caliente, así como, tratamientos de congelación, sobre la mortalidad del E. ceratoniae y el mantenimiento de la calidad postcosecha del dátil Deglet Noor. En cuanto a los tratamientos de agua caliente, se propusieron tres combinaciones de temperatura/tiempo (50 °C 10 min, 55 °C 5 min y 60 °C 3 min) en dátiles Deglet Noor que fueron posteriormente conservados, en atmósfera de aire, durante 30 d a 2 °C, seguidos de un periodo de comercialización de 4 d a 23 °C. Los resultados mostraron que todos los tratamientos utilizados lograron la mortalidad de la larva E. ceratoniae y una reducción microbiológica del orden de 3 log ufc g-1 para los mesófilos y 4 log ufc g-1 para las levaduras y mohos obteniendo unos recuentos finales de <1 log ufc g-1 y <2 log ufc g-1, respectivamente. Estos tratamientos de agua caliente indujeron cambios en el color de la piel reduciendo la luminosidad de los dátiles de 36 (testigo) a una media de 35 en los dátiles tratados. Igualmente, se observó una reducción en la actividad antioxidante, pasando de un contenido inicial de 73.8 mg AAE 100 g-1 para FRAP y 62.7 mg AAE 100 g-1 para DPPH a un descenso del 10 a 15% en FRAP y del 17 a 22% en DPPH. Con respecto a los compuestos fenólicos totales, el contenido inicial fue de 90.1 mg GAE 100 g-1 reduciéndose entre un 9 a 14% en los dátiles tratados con agua caliente. La calidad sensorial del fruto disminuyó ligeramente con el tratamiento de 60 °C durante 3 min aunque todos los tratamientos mantuvieron los dátiles por encima del límite de comercialización, sin observarse daños térmicos en el fruto. El periodo de almacenamiento de 30 d a 2 °C seguido por un periodo de comercialización de 4 d a 23 °C, afectó a los parámetros anteriormente mencionados, además se incrementaron los monosacáridos tras la comercialización pasando de 119 g kg-1 a 132 g kg-1 en glucosa y de 96 g kg-1 a 120 g kg-1 en fructosa. Tras la comercialización, también se detectó un ligero incremento en el contenido algunos aminoácidos, como alanina, ácido aspártico y prolina, aumentando de 2.2 mg kg-1 a 2.8 mg kg-1 en alanina, 6.9 mg kg-1 a 7.2 mg kg-1en ácido aspártico y de 6.7 mg kg-1 a 9.6 mg kg-1en prolina. Con respecto al estudio de tratamientos de aire caliente, se probaron tres combinaciones de temperatura/tiempo (55 °C 30 min, 60 °C 15 min y 60 °C 20 min) para la desinsectación de los dátiles Deglet Noor, almacenándose en atmósfera de aire, 45 d a 2 °C, seguidos de un período de comercialización de 4 d a 23 °C. Los resultados obtenidos indicaron que todos los tratamientos de aire caliente alcanzaron el 100% de la mortalidad de las larvas de E. ceratoniae en dátiles infestados de forma natural. Estos tratamientos no causaron ningún daño superficial en el tejido del fruto y no afectaron a la calidad del dátil, logrando una reducción de 3 log ufc g-1 en el crecimiento de bacterias mesófilas, obteniendo recuentos finales de <1 log ufc g-1. Los tratamientos de aire caliente utilizados, especialmente la combinación de alta temperatura y mayor tiempo de aplicación, 60 °C durante 20 min, redujo la actividad antioxidante, pasando de un valor inicial de 42.2 mg AAE 100 g-1 determinada por DPPH y 63.7 mg AAE 100 g-1 para FRAP, a una reducción del 25% y del 14%, respectivamente. El tiempo de conservación también tuvo un impacto significativo, reduciendo la tonalidad del color (63 a 60 h°), el contenido total de polifenoles (88.7 a 54.1 mg GAE 100 g-1), la firmeza del fruto (12.7 N a 10.6 N) y la calidad sensorial global del fruto (4 puntos a 3.3). No obstante, todos los dátiles tratados con aire caliente mantuvieron la calidad sensorial por encima del límite de comercialización. Finalmente, se estudió el efecto de la congelación a -18 °C sobre la mortalidad de E. ceratoniae. Se estudiaron tres tratamientos de congelación a -18 °C con diferentes tiempos de aplicación (50, 77 y 125 horas). Los resultados mostraron que sometiendo los dátiles a tan sólo 50 h a -18 °C se lograba el 100% de la mortalidad de E. ceratoniae (larva, pupa y adulto) en dátiles infestados de forma natural. Se seleccionó este tratamiento de congelación y se analizaron los parámetros de calidad del fruto. Se observó que la congelación inducía un ligero incremento en el contenido de monosacáridos, pasando de 139 g kg-1 de glucosa y de 171 g kg-1 de fructosa a 162 g kg-1 y 209 g kg-1, respectivamente. Hubo una reducción en la actividad antioxidante, del 40 a 45% en FRAP y DPPH, siendo la AAE inicial de 109.0 mg 100 g-1 para FRAP y 86.0 mg 100 g-1 para DPPH. Sin embargo, otros parámetros como el color, los aminoácidos, polifenoles totales, recuentos microbiológicos y la calidad sensorial no se vieron afectados por dicho tratamiento, manteniéndose el fruto por encima del límite de comercialización y sin observarse daño por congelación. Mencionar que en esta Tesis también se ha estudiado el uso de atmósferas controladas, evaluando tres combinaciones de O2 y CO2: bajo O2 (2% O2), bajo O2 combinado con alto CO2 (2% O2 y 90% CO2) y moderado O2 combinado con alto CO2 (10% O2 y 90% CO2). Los frutos infectados de forma natural, se mantuvieron 3 días a 23 °C, bajo las combinaciones gaseosas mencionadas, sin lograrse la mortalidad total de la larva de E. ceratoniae. Tras la conservación en atmósfera controlada, la actividad antioxidante determinada por DPPH pasó de 86.4 mg AAE 100 g-1 a 60.0 mg AAE 100 g-1 y en el caso del FRAP, se obtuvo inicialmente 108.8 mg AAE 100 g-1 reduciéndose a 84.7 mg AAE 100 g-1. El contenido en polifenoles totales también disminuyó, pasando de 95.7 mg GAE 100 g-1 a un contenido medio de 84.3 mg GAE 100 g-1. A pesar de que la calidad sensorial del fruto se mantuvo siempre por encima del límite de comercialización, las combinaciones gaseosas estudiadas, no pudieron ser recomendadas para la desinsectación de E. ceratoniae. Las conclusiones de la presente Tesis Doctoral, se pueden sintetizar en la importante posición comercial que Túnez tiene en el sector datilero en comparación con sus principales competidores de la Cuenca Mediterránea. Sin embargo, se necesitan nuevas estrategias para mantener esta posición competitiva en el futuro. Por otra parte, todos los tratamientos físicos postcosecha propuestos en este trabajo, agua caliente, aire caliente y congelación a -18 °C, fueron eficaces para lograr el 100% de mortalidad de larvas de E. ceratoniae y mantener una calidad óptima de la fruta. En particular, el tratamiento de agua caliente a 55 °C durante 10 min, el de aire caliente a 60 °C durante 15 min y la congelación a -18 °C durante 50 horas se recomiendan como alternativas a vi los tratamientos químicos para el control de la polilla de dátil, permitiendo la exportación del dátil Deglet Noor a mercados internacionales y manteniendo su competitividad. ; [ENG] In South of Tunisia, the palm dates sector (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is the main socioeconomic resource of oases and has a major role in Tunisian agriculture and the development of the national economy. Tunisian dates occupy the third place in agricultural exports after olive oil and seafood. The major exported cultivar is Deglet Noor, which is mainly produced in by Algeria and Tunisia, with Israel producing a somewhat lesser amount. Tunisia is the world"s leading producer of Deglet Noor, with 190,600 metric tons in 2012, making it a strategic sector within the country. However, the market globalization has had a large impact on the traditional concept of comparative advantage indexes enjoyed by Tunisia with date exports, highlighting the fundamental aspects needed to increase competitiveness in the international scenario. On the other hand, the palm date sector in Tunisia faces several technical problems including insect infestation caused by Ectomyelois ceratoniae or carob moth, which is one of the main postharvest disease pests of date fruits that causes serious economic losses during storage and export of Tunisian palm date fruit Deglet Noor cv. Methyl bromide is the most widely used fumigant on stored dates in several countries, although by 2015 it had been withdrawn in developing countries. Physical postharvest treatments are currently a relatively simple, non-chemical alternative that can kill quarantine pests in perishable commodities such as palm date fruit. The current PhD Thesis is divided into two parts; the first is focused on the analysis of the competitive advantage of the Tunisian date sector in the Mediterranean basin and Iran. In the second part, once the competitive position of the sector is studied, the Thesis investigates the efficacy of various physical postharvest treatments for sanitizing palm date fruit (Deglet Noor) and their effects on fruit quality parameters. The results of the analysis of the competitive advantage of the Tunisian date industry in the Mediterranean basin and Iran over the last 20 years shows that Tunisia is still the main supplier of dates to the EU. The Deglet Noor cv., in particular, places Tunisia ahead of traditional competitors such as Algeria and Iran, with averages of competitiveness indices such as the Balassa Index of Specialization (BIS) 6405.99; Dependency Index (DI) 17.38, Constant Market Share (CMS) 41.04 and Trade Balance Index (TBI) 99.50. For Tunisia, these indices were more stable than those countries during the studied period. However, it is currently facing new competition from countries such as Israel and re-exporting countries such as France. New business strategies such as conditioning, new non-chemical treatments, packaging, opening new markets, new distribution channels, etc. would be positive measures that could be used to tackle current market limitations, the emergence of new producers and restrictive EU policies. In the second part of the current Thesis, a study of the effects of physical treatment provided by hot water treatments (HWT), hot air treatments (HAT) and freezing treatments on the Ectomyelois ceratoniae mortality and maintenance of fruit quality parameters was performed. Regarding HWT, three combinations of temperature/time were studied (50 °C 10 min, 55 °C 5 min and 60 °C 3 min) in Deglet Noor date fruits. After HWT, date fruits were stored for 30 d at 2 °C followed by a retail period of 4 d at 23 °C. Results showed that all the HWTs led to 100% E. ceratoniae larvae mortality, reduced the microbial growth to about 3 log cfu g-1 for mesophilic bacteria and 4 log cfu g-1 for yeasts and molds, obtaining final microbial counts of <1 log cfu g-1 for mesophilic bacteria and < 2 log cfu g-1 for yeast and molds. HWTs induced a slight change in skin color, reducing the luminosity from 36 (control) to an average of 35. The antioxidant activity was also idecreased from an initial content of around 73.8 mg AAE 100 g-1 for FRAP and 62.7 mg AAE 100 g-1 for DPPH, reducing it about 10 to 15% and 17 to 22%, respectively. The initial content of total phenolic compounds was about 90.1 mg GAE 100 g-1, decreasing 9 to 14% with HWTs. Overall quality was slightly reduced when using 60 °C for 3 min, although all the treatments the fruit remained above the limit of marketability as there was no heat damage. The storage time of 30 d at 2 °C followed by a retail period of 4 d at 23 °C also affected the parameters mentioned above and increased the concentration of monosaccharides from 119 g kg-1 to 132 g kg-1 for glucose and from 96 g kg-1 to 120 g kg-1 for fructose. The concentrations of some amino acids such as alanine, aspartic acid and proline increased during the final retail period, from an initial content of about 2.2 mg kg-1 to 2.8 mg kg-1 for alanine, from 6.9 mg kg-1 to 7.2 mg kg-1 for aspartic acid and from 6.7 mg kg-1 to 9.6 mg kg-1 for proline. Three combinations of HATs (temperature/time) were studied (55 °C for 30 min, 60 °C for 15 min, 60 °C for 20 min) for disinfesting Deglet Noor dates. Fruits were stored for 45 d at 2 °C followed by a retail period of 4 d at 23 °C. The results showed that the use of HATs resulted in 100% E. ceratoniae larvae mortality in naturally-infested date. These HATs did not cause any damage to fruit quality and reduced mesophilic bacterial counts to about 3 log cfu g-1 obtaining at final counts of < 1 log cfu g-1. These HATs, especially the combination of highest temperature and longer time of application (60 °C for 20 min), decreased the antioxidant activity from 42.2 mg AAE 100 g-1 for DPPH and 63.7 mg AAE 100 g-1 for FRAP in control samples to 25% in and 14% in HATs, respectively. Storage time also had a significant impact, reducing color (63 to 60 h°), the total phenolic content of date fruits (88.7 to 54.1 mg GAE 100 g-1), firmness (12.7 N to 10.6 N) and overall quality (score 4 to 3.3). Nevertheless, all date x fruits from HATs and control treatments maintained their marketability quality during the shelf-life period. Lastly, the effect of freezing treatments at -18 °C on the E. ceratoniae mortality and fruit quality parameters of Deglet Noor dates was studied, by the application of three different treatment times (50 , 77, and 125 hours). Results showed that the use of freezing at -18 °C for 50 h resulted in to 100% of E. ceratoniae mortality (larva, pupa and adult) in naturally-infested date. Fruit quality was also examined under this selected sanitizing freezing treatment. Results showed that this freezing treatment induced an increase on monosaccharide concentration from 139 g kg-1 of glucose and 171 g kg-1 of fructose to 162 g kg-1 and 209 g kg-1, respectively. A 40 to 45% reduction in FRAP and DPPH of antioxidant activity was detected, with an initial content of 109.0 mg 100 g-1 for FRAP and 86.0 mg 100 g-1 for DPPH. However, other parameters as color, amino acids, total phenolic, microbial and sensorial quality were not affected by that freezing treatment. All samples remained above the limit of marketability as there was no cold damage. This treatment can be recommended as an alternative to chemical treatment to control carob moth, as it yielded optimum-quality Deglet Noor date fruits. In the current Thesis, the use of controlled atmospheres (CA), with three combinations of O2 and CO2: low O2 (2% O2), low O2 combined with high CO2 (2% O2 and 90% CO2) and moderate O2 combined high CO2 (10% O2 and 90% CO2) was also studied. Naturally infested fruits were kept for 3 days at 23 °C under these CA, without achieving total mortality of the E. ceratoniae larvae. After CA storage, the antioxidant activity estimated by DPPH decreased from 86.4 mg AAE 100 g-1 to 60.0 mg AAE 100 g-1 and as measured by FRAP from 108.8 mg AAE 100 g-1 to 84.7 mg AAE 100 g-1. The total polyphenol content also decreased from 95.7 mg GAE 100 g-1 to an average content of about 84.3 mg GAE 100 g-1. Although the sensory quality of the fruit was maintained above the limit of marketability, the gaseous combinations studied could not be recommended for disinfestation of E. ceratoniae. As the main conclusions of current PhD Thesis we can state that Tunisia has a highly important trade position in the palm date fruit sector as compared to the rest of the Mediterranean basin. Nevertheless, new business strategies are needed to maintain this competitive position in the future. Moreover, all the suggested physical postharvest treatments studied in this Thesis were effective in achieving 100% E. ceratoniae larvae mortality while maintaining a suitable fruit quality parameter. Specifically, HWT of 55 °C 10 min, HAT of 60 °C 15 min and a freezing treatment of 50 hours at -18 °C are recommended as an alternative to chemical treatments to control carob moth, as these yielded optimum-quality of Deglet Noor date fruits that could be exported to the international markets, so that Tunisia maintains its position of competitiveness. ; Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Técnicas Avanzadas en Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario y Alimentario
Das International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) ist ein länderübergreifendes, fortlaufendes Umfrageprogramm, das jährlich Erhebungen zu Themen durchführt, die für die Sozialwissenschaften wichtig sind. Das Programm begann 1984 mit vier Gründungsmitgliedern - Australien, Deutschland, Großbritannien und den Vereinigten Staaten - und ist inzwischen auf fast 50 Mitgliedsländer aus aller Welt angewachsen. Da die Umfragen auf Replikationen ausgelegt sind, können die Daten sowohl für länder- als auch für zeitübergreifende Vergleiche genutzt werden. Jedes ISSP-Modul konzentriert sich auf ein bestimmtes Thema, das in regelmäßigen Zeitabständen wiederholt wird. Details zur Durchführung der nationalen ISSP-Umfragen entnehmen Sie bitte der Dokumentation. Die vorliegende Studie konzentriert sich auf Fragen zu Religion und religiöser Identität.
The Modern Language Association (MLA) report "Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World" (2007) recommended that the language disciplines decenter off literature and design programs that are more directly related to "real world" contexts. This recommendation has awoken renewed discussion about how best to promote and develop multilingualism and intercultural competence in the United States. In order to change undergraduate offerings, it would be necessary to change the focus of graduate programs. Changing the focus of graduate programs is a delicate and high stakes task, which can influence both the nature of intellectual production in the United States as well as impact the employability of thousands of new PhDs. Will the MLA 2007 report stimulate any lasting change? Will the number of jobs which deviate from the traditional literature, linguistics and second language acquisition fields merit redesign of graduate programs to train future professors to meet this demand? The MLA Foreign Language Job Information List contains a plethora of data that can provide answers for some of these questions. This article seeks to create insights into a significant subcategory of the Foreign Language profession by presenting an analysis of job announcements for Language for Specific Purposes (LSP). ; To cite the digital version, add its Reference URL (found by following the link in the header above the digital file). ; LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 15 Language for Specific Purposes Job Announcements from the Modern Language Association Job Lists: A Multiyear Analysis Mary K. Long University of Colorado at Boulder Abstract: The Modern Language Association (MLA) report "Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World" (2007) recommended that the language disciplines decenter off literature and design programs that are more directly related to "real world" contexts. This recommendation has awoken renewed discussion about how best to promote and develop multilingualism and intercultural competence in the United States. In order to change undergraduate offerings, it would be necessary to change the focus of graduate programs. Changing the focus of graduate programs is a delicate and high stakes task, which can influence both the nature of intellectual production in the United States as well as impact the employability of thousands of new PhDs. Will the MLA 2007 report stimulate any lasting change? Will the number of jobs which deviate from the traditional literature, linguistics and second language acquisition fields merit redesign of graduate programs to train future professors to meet this demand? The MLA Foreign Language Job Information List contains a plethora of data that can provide answers for some of these questions. This article seeks to create insights into a significant subcategory of the Foreign Language profession by presenting an analysis of job announcements for Language for Specific Purposes (LSP). Keywords: jobs, job announcements, Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP), Modern Language Association (MLA), non-tenure track (NTT), tenured/tenure track (TTT) Introduction Since its release five years ago, the Modern Language Association (MLA) report "Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World" (2007) has awoken renewed discussion in the profession about how best to promote and develop multilingualism and intercultural competence in the United States. The suggestion that the language disciplines should decenter off literature and design programs that are more directly related to "real world" contexts has caused both consternation and excitement as well as much discussion about what steps would be necessary to redesign both undergraduate and graduate programs in order to train future faculty to teach within the proposed new scenarios (e.g., Porter, 2009; Rifkin, 2012). Changing the focus of graduate programs is a delicate and high stakes task that can influence both the nature of intellectual production and international understanding in the United States as well as impact the employability of thousands of new PhDs. Thus, those in the profession are wise to move deliberately and to consider the multiple angles. From the point of view of preparing future professors, some very pragmatic issues of job market demand must be considered. For example, will the MLA 2007 report stimulate any lasting change? Are departments truly moving to transform their undergraduate offerings away from literature? If so, in what ways are they redefining their programs and who will teach these courses? What is the balance between tenured/tenure track (TTT) and non-tenure track (NTT) jobs LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 16 in these areas? Will there be steady demand for future faculty trained to meet the new scenarios? Are new research fields emerging? If so, what do they look like? Will the number of jobs that deviate from the traditional literature, linguistics and second language acquisition fields merit redesign of graduate programs to train future professors to meet this demand? Or, is it more a question of helping future professors to enhance the traditional fields of specialization with new pedagogical approaches and secondary content expertise? The MLA Foreign Language Job Information List contains a plethora of data that can provide answers for some of these questions and be used to gauge the direction of the Foreign Language professions. In fact, the MLA itself releases yearly summaries of many of the overarching themes, such as number of jobs overall, changes in demand between languages, and so forth, but the potential exists to provide much more detailed analysis, which will be useful—and even crucial—to shaping the future of Foreign Language education in the United States. Along those lines, this article seeks to create insights into a significant subcategory of the Foreign Language profession by presenting an analysis of MLA Job List announcements with a focus on Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP). Since the late 1940s, the LSP field has been meeting the 2007 MLA report's stated goals of increasing the number of "educated speakers who have deep translingual and transcultural compentence" as well as the ability to carry that competence beyond the classroom into the world (MLA, 2007, p. 3). The LSP field continues to represent a significant area of Foreign Language Education in the United States. The national survey "Evolution of Language for Specific Purposes programs in the United States: 1990–2011" conducted by Long and Uscinski (2012), shows that, since the early 1990s, overall offerings of LSP have remained stable at 62% while at the same time the sophistication and variety of offerings have become deeper and more focused in response to the nuanced needs within different multilingual settings. The LSP faculty profile created as part of this survey indicates a more or less even split between TTT faculty and NTT faculty. In addition, while 20% of faculty listed LSP as their primary field of academic preparation, a dramatic 80% indicated another field as their primary field of academic preparation. Of these, the majority listed Literature as their primary focus, with Linguistics and Cultural Studies running a distant second and third (Long & Uscinski, 2012, p. 183). In part, this mix of primary fields has a very pragmatic explanation since as new fields develop, there will necessarily be a large number of "ground breakers" who are willing and able to expand their research and pedagogical skills beyond their original areas of content expertise. But, in addition, and more importantly, this mix of expertise is by definition one of the advantages and challenges for any interdisciplinary field. Recent volumes focused on LSP (e.g., Gueldry, 2010a, Gueldry 2010b; Lafford, 2012; Pérez-Llantada & Watson, 2011) showcase the rich research potential of the LSP focus for a variety of fields and point to the advantages of interdisciplinary research for addressing many of the complex intercultural issues faced in today's "global setting." These publications also provide significant insights into the history, current state and future potential for the LSP field. One of the difficulties highlighted in this body of work is that interdisciplinary work often blocks the professional progress of faculty since tenure and promotion structures are more suited to single focus research fields. Against this backdrop of past practices, the following analysis of LSP job announcements will shed light on how the profession envisions the future of the LSP field as well as offer insight LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 17 into what provisions (if any) are being made in the design of new positions to support and promote the professional success of faculty who possess highly needed interdisciplinary expertise. Methodology The job announcements have been analyzed for two "snap shot" moments: the online MLA Foreign Language Job Information list September 2008–January 2009 and the online MLA Foreign Language Job Information list from September 2011–June 2012 (and, one chart shares additional data on Spanish for Business from September 2007–January 2008). It should be noted that in 2008–2009 there was an historic decline in job announcements that continued into 2009–2010. Since 2010–2011, there has been a "tentative climb upwards" (Lusin, 2012, p. 95). Because of the unique moment represented by the job market during these years, and because only two years of data are presented, there has been no analysis performed to determine if changes in raw numbers or percentages represent statistically significant changes overtime. Rather than attempting to track statistical changes, the goal of this current project has been to have a more clear understanding of the quantity and specific profiles of jobs in the LSP field both in relation to the overall job market, and within the LSP profession itself. The data was collected as follows: the search function included in the electronic posting of the job list was used to first search each language for the total number of jobs for all ranks and regions in each language (both expired and current listings). The categories offered on the MLA job list that were searched are: Arabic, Chinese, French, German and Scandinavian, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian and Slavic, Spanish, Other languages, Linguistics and ESL, Generalist, and Other. After establishing the total number of jobs for each language, several new searches were conducted per language using the keyword function to limit results. For the 2008–2009 list, the search was repeated for each language using the keyword 'business,' and this keyword brought up announcements that also contained other LSP terms such as 'professions,' 'translation,' 'medical,' etc. For the search of the 2011–2012 MLA list, a more expanded set of keywords was used. Each language was searched separately for the following keywords: business, translation, medicine, medical, professions, professional and specific/special purposes. To avoid double counting of announcements that included several of the search words and to eliminate "false positives" when the keywords were used in non-LSP contexts, once they were identified, the LSP announcements were read individually and hand-sorted. After extracting the number of LSP jobs in relation to the overall number of jobs for each language, further analysis was conducted on the specific nature of the LSP jobs, whether the LSP field was listed as primary or secondary, the split between TTT and NTT positions within these categories, and in the case of jobs that list LSP as a secondary field, what primary fields are most often combined with LSP. LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 18 Results Search terms. For the 2008–2009 search, even though additional search terms emerged through the key word 'business,' the majority of jobs were for 'language for business' with 'translation' coming in second. In 2011–2012, the highest results were for business, translation, professions, medical and specific/special purposes in descending order. 'Medicine' and 'professional' did not achieve any results in any language. This process revealed that when the keywords 'specific/special purposes' and 'professions' are used they are frequently followed by a parenthetical list of examples that duplicated other keywords (most often 'business' and 'translation') along with words not used in the search function. For example, for Spanish, other parenthetical examples included 'legal,' while for German, 'engineering' is a significant 'specific purpose.' 'Medical' only appeared in Spanish LSP job announcements, occasionally as a stand-alone term, but most often as one possible professional use. 'Translation,' on the other hand, was a stand-alone term that rivaled 'business' in Spanish, French, German, and Japanese. (In these cases, only non-literary translation positions were counted since there is a clear distinction in announcements between literary translation theory and applied professional translation.) Categories with LSP announcements. Categories that included jobs with an LSP focus in both 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 are Arabic, Chinese, French, German and Scandinavian, Japanese and Spanish. Categories that had no LSP jobs linked to the keywords in either sample are Hebrew, Italian, Portuguese, Russian and Slavic, Other languages, and Generalist. The Linguistics and ESL heading had no LSP jobs in the 2008–2009 list, but in the 2011–2012 had 10 LSP jobs out of 120 total (8.3%), 2 in ESL and 8 in Spanish. However, since the focus of this article is not on ESL and the Spanish linguistics/LSP jobs have also been counted in Spanish and will be analyzed there, the Linguistics and ESL category will not be analyzed further in this article. In each of the years, the category 'other' has a few interdisciplinary opportunities with a professional focus that breaks away from categorization by language. Overall numbers. Table 1 shows the total number of jobs compared to total LSP jobs and percentages for all languages from the 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 samples. Overall, the LSP job offerings fluctuate between 2 and 9% of all jobs, depending on specific language and year. LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 19 Table 1 Total jobs vs. total LSP jobs and percentages by language 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 Language 2008–2009 Total of all jobs in sample of MLA job list 2008–2009 Number of jobs with LSP element in sample 2008–2009 % of jobs with LSP element out of all jobs in sample 2011–2012 Total of all jobs in sample of MLA job list 2011–2012 Number of jobs with LSP element in sample 2011–2012 % of jobs with LSP element out of all jobs in sample Arabic 46 2 4.3% 46 1 2.1% Chinese 64 6 9.3% 79 4 5% French 150 6 4% 177 9 5% German and Scandinavian 90 4 4% 120 9 7.5% Italian - - - 59 0 0 Japanese ? 2 38 2 5% Portuguese - - - 39 0 0 Russian and Slavic - - - 34 0 0 Spanish 377 13 3% 365 29 7.9% Other languages - - - 64 0 0 Linguistics and ESL - - - 120 2 ESL and counted in Spanish 8 linguistics (5 required and 3 possible field) 8.3% Generalist - - - 34 0 0 Other ? 3 137 1 NA LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 20 Table 2 breaks down the total number of LSP jobs for both sample years into categories of LSP as a primary or secondary field of interest and also indicates whether the jobs are TTT or NTT. Table 2 Total number of LSP jobs compared to primary or secondary field and Tenured/Tenure Track (TTT) or Non-Tenure Track (NTT) by language for 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 Language 2008–2009 Total number LSP in sample 2008–2009 LSP as Primary field and TTT or NTT 2008–2009 LSP as secondary field and TTT or NTT 2011–2012 Total number LSP in sample 2011–2012 LSP as Primary field and TTT or NTT 2011–2012 LSP as secondary field and TTT or NTT Arabic 2 1 (NTT) 1 (TT) 1 0 1 (NTT) Chinese 6 2 (NTT) 4 (TTT) 4 1 (TT) 3 (2 TT/1 NTT) French 6 3 (2 TTT/1NTT) 3 (TTT) 9 2 (1 TT/1 NTT) 7 (3 TT/ 4 NTT) German and Scandinavian 4 4 (2TTT/2NTT) 0 9 1 (TT) 8 (4TT/3 NTT) Japanese 2 1 (NTT) 1 (TTT) 2 2 (1 TT/1 NTT) Spanish 13 6 (NTT) 7 (TTT) 29 13 (9 TT/ 4 NTT) 16 (11 TT/ 5 NTT) Other 3 1 (TT) Primarily business, PhD in applied linguistics or other fields of linguistics and MA in one of the World Languages) 2 post docs language open PhD field open; work on creating connection between the arts and the sciences and business 1 1 (TT) Director of a center for International Understanding Total 36 18 (5 TTT/13 NTT) 18 (16 TTT/2 post docs) 53 20 (14TTT/6NTT) 34 (21 TTT/ 13 NTT) LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 21 Table 3 transforms the raw numbers from Table 2 into percentages from the 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 samples of TTT LSP positions overall, and the split for jobs with LSP as the primary field or secondary field. In order to provide context, the percentages of TTT jobs by language for the overall profession from the 2011–2012 job list is also provided in this table. Table 3 2011–2012 percent of tenured/tenure track (TTT) for all jobs vs. 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 percent of TTT in LSP total and percentages of TTT with LSP as primary or secondary field Language 2011–2012 % TTT of total jobs in MLA sample 2008–2009 % TTT of total LSP in sample 2008–2009 % TTT LSP as primary within total LSP sample 2008–2009 % TTT LSP as secondary within total LSP sample 2011–2012 % TTT of total LSP sample 2011–2012 % TTT LSP as primary within total LSP sample 2011–2012 % TTT LSP as Secondary within total LSP sample Arabic 43% 50% 0% 50% 0% 0% 0% Chinese 47.5% 66% 0% 66% 75 % 25% 50% French 47.9 % 83% 33% 50% 44% 11% 33% German and Scandinavian 38% 50% 50% 0% 55 % 11% 44% Japanese 48% 50% 0% 50% 50 % 50% 0% Spanish 53% 53% 0% 53% 68% 31% 37% Overall 49% 58% 50% 8% 64% 25% 39% The percentages of TTT positions for the overall profession by language range from 38% (in German) to 53% (in Spanish). For 2008–2009 the percentages of TTT positions out of the body of LSP jobs ranged between 50% and 83% while in 2011–2012 the percentages ranges from 0% to 75%. When the LSP jobs are analyzed for TTT positions with LSP as a primary field or as a secondary field, the TTT positions with LSP as a secondary field are slightly more than LSP as a primary field for both samples. From 2008–2009 to 2011–2012 there would seem to be a decrease in the overall number of TTT primary LSP positions, but these numbers are misleading, since in 2008–2009 only two languages (French and German) had TTT primary LSP positions, while in 2011–2012 all languages except for Arabic have at least one TTT primary LSP position. LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 22 Discussion of overall numbers. At first the overall percentages of LSP positions to total jobs may seem low, but it helps to contextualize them by briefly comparing with the percentages of other more traditional specializations within the language professions. So for example, from the 2011–2012 list, a search in late July for Spanish with keyword 'Mexico' reveals 18 out of 359 or 5% of jobs focused on this specialization, while the keywords 'Golden Age' yield 12 out of 359 or 3% of jobs, 'Modern Peninsular' appears in 16 out of 359 or 4.4%, 'Applied Linguistics' in 41 out of 359 or 11% of announcements, and 'Cultural Studies' tallies a dramatic 82 out of 359 or 22% of all jobs in Spanish. For French, the keywords '18th century' exist in only 5 out 175 or 2% of jobs, while '20th century' yields 12 out of 175 for 6%, 'Francophone' 54 out of 175 for 30%, 'Applied Linguistics' 11 out of 175 for 6%, and 'Cultural Studies' 57 out of 175 for 32%. In contrast, the 'Generalist' category defines 34 out of 359 or 9% of jobs for Spanish but for French only 6 out of 175 or 3%. One could continue to generate multiple different combinations of keywords. For the purposes of this article the point meant to be illustrated by this quick comparison of some literary and linguistic categories is to show that the percentages for job offerings requiring some LSP content, while not in the double digits, are as significant as many other smaller fields of specialization within the profession, and thus, LSP is a viable career enhancing area of expertise for those who have an interest or previous experience in an LSP area or who have access to LSP content and/or teaching experience through their graduate institution. In regards to the percentage of TTT positions, it appears that the ratio of TTT to NTT within the LSP profession is slightly better than in the overall job market. But, as stated earlier, no analysis has been done to determine statistical significance. What is clear, however, is that the ration of TTT to NTT for LSP is at least the same as for the overall market. However, the most important element in the analysis of TTT vs. NTT positions is the split between primary and secondary fields. In this case, the numbers do not seem to justify advising graduate students to focus exclusively on an LSP field. Rather, they should pursue LSP as a strong secondary field and be prepared in the case of primary LSP positions to expand on their LSP expertise further. This leads to the question of which primary fields are most often combined with a secondary interest in LSP in the job announcements. It is not possible to make overall generalizations about this, since the primary/secondary field combinations are quite specific to each language. So, in what follows, the results for each language will be presented and discussed individually. Arabic In 2008–2009, there were 2 LSP jobs out of a total of 46 announcements or 4.3% of jobs had an LSP element. One of these jobs was a tenure track position with a primary field listed as expertise in language, culture and civilization with business and comparative literature as desirable secondary fields. The other was a non-tenure track position with primarily a focus on Arabic for business and additional duties as administrator of the Arabic minor. In 2011–2012, the sample also revealed 46 jobs but just one (or 2.1%) had an LSP focus. This non-tenure track position offered a 3 year renewable contract but had a hefty list of requirements: LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 23 Required: Experience with the proficiency communicative approach; ability to teach at least one colloquial dialect in addition to Modern Standard and Classical Arabic at all levels, and content courses such as Newspaper/Media Arabic and Business Arabic; experience in curriculum development and supervision, along with full competency to teach language and content courses at all levels; completed doctoral degree by time of appointment. Chinese In the 2008–2009 sample, there were 6 LSP jobs out of a total of 64 for Chinese, which represented 9.3% of all jobs in this language. For the 2011–2012 sample, the percentage is lower at 5%, while the total number of jobs is higher at 79 only 4 positions mention LSP. In 2008–2009, there was one tenure track assistant level position and 3 tenured at the level of Associate or Full. All of these positions were at the City University of Hong Kong and listed cultural management communication as the primary field with business as a secondary area. The jobs that listed business as a primary field were both non-tenure track: one visiting professorship focused on policy and business and one non-tenure track full-time position, which also included administration of the minor. In 2011–2012, there were 3 TTT positions: two had a primary focus on LSP, one focused especially on "courses related to Chinese Business Language and Culture" the other specified that "research should focus on the knowledge and behavioral demands confronting nonnative speakers seeking professional level competencies in contemporary China, issues of cross-cultural communication between Americans and Chinese, and the development of pedagogical instruments for training in these areas." The other TTT position and the NTT position listed the interest in and ability to teach Chinese for business as a plus, while leaving the actual specialty open. French In the 2008–2009 sample, there were 6 LSP jobs out of a total of 150 for 4% and in 2011–2012, 9 out of 177 for 5%. The 2008–2009 positions were split equally between primary and secondary with a majority of the jobs (5) as TTT, and the only NTT was in the primary LSP category. The field combinations during this year were quite interesting with the primary fields being defined as "Business French and also Italian with a PhD in French from any field" and "open area able to teach Business French and Francophone cultural studies" for the TTT positions, and "French and Spanish able to interact with regional business" for the NTT position. When LSP was listed as a secondary field the primary fields were: 1) French literature and/or Francophone studies, in a program that had an Undergraduate major in Global studies, 2) 19th-and 20th-century literature or Francophone studies or linguistics, and 3) Post-1600 French studies and an "active participation in Language and Cultures for Professions and ability to create internships/study abroad." In 2011–2012 the French LSP positions were split 2/7 with a distribution of 1 TTT and 1 NTT in primary LSP and 3 TTT to 4 NTT in the category of secondary field. For the TTT primary LSP position, the description specified a Generalist, with preference being LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 24 given to specialists in Cultural Studies and Business French. The NTT position required a PhD or equivalent in French or related field but stated that the successful candidate: must be familiar with current business and economic issues in Francophone countries and the EU and be able to develop and maintain links to the Francophone business and cultural community in the Greater Atlanta area and also serve as academic advisor for students in the Language and Business concentrations and interest/experience with Study Abroad programs is a plus. For the jobs that specified interest in LSP as a secondary field, the specified primary fields were: 1) pre-20th-century French literature and culture and the LSP field was translation, 2) Linguistics and pedagogy, and 3) PhD in Spanish, French or Romance Languages, with preference for those who can teach both French and Spanish though candidates who can "teach only French will be considered." The NTT positions in the secondary LSP category listed language teaching, pedagogy and phonetics as primary interests and the LSP fields were translation and business. It is important to note that in the French announcements, when LSP capabilities are listed as secondary interest they are most often included in a list of possible secondary fields like phonetics, phonology and stylistics. Keywords 'business' and 'translation' predominate. It is also important to note the frequent combination of Francophone studies with LSP fields. German and Scandinavian In this category, all the LSP jobs were for German with 4 out of 90 or 4% from the 2008–2009 sample and 8 out of 120 or 6% for the 2011–2012 sample. In 2008–2009, all the jobs were for primary LSP field with 2 TTT and 2 NTT. The TTT positions listed the PhD field as open and emphasized the "ability to develop Professions Focus" for the first and phonetics and business for the second. For the NTT positions one had an open PhD field, and also asked for English in addition to German for Business, and the other NTT position, which was renewable, included the administrative task of directing the Business German PhD and required a PhD in Applied Linguistics with a focus on language and identity. In 2011–2012, the sample yielded one primary LSP job seeking a colleague with PhD in any area to contribute to a "new beginning in the German studies program." The primary interest was in "practical experiences" for the student such as "cultural studies (politics, society, business, media, film) literature and second language acquisition." The TTT LSP secondary jobs had primary fields of: 1) 19th- through 21st-century German Studies, the LSP fields of interest were film, professions (engineering and business) and language-across-the-curriculum, 2) German literature with an LSP field in translation, 3) German or German studies, and 4) German and German Cultural Studies. The NTT positions did not specify the PhD field and were primarily focused on general language teaching and some advising and administrative tasks. Of particular note in these announcements is the predominance of German studies or German Cultural studies over literature. LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 25 Japanese In the 2008–2009 list sample, there were two LSP jobs (the overall number of Japanese positions is unclear). They are: one NTT primary LSP position to administer the Japanese for business minor and one TTT secondary LSP position which called for the ability to teach all levels of language, civilization, history, business, contemporary culture and literature. In 2011–2012, there were 2 jobs out of 38 or 5%. Both were primary LSP positions. The TTT position was for the University of Hong Kong and stated, "Those specializing in literature, film, translation, linguistics, business culture, anthropology, and/or religion are especially encouraged to apply." The NTT position clarified that the candidate is expected to work with faculty to design and develop content-based/thematic-based courses and/or Japanese language for special purposes. Spanish The data for Spanish LSP is more extensive since the majority of LSP jobs are in this language. Also, the data is drawn from three sample moments since in addition to the 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 sample used for the other languages, data was also collected for Spanish from the September 2007–January 2008 portion of the MLA list, which can be seen in Table 4. Table 4 Breakout of data for Spanish job listings for 2007–2008, 2008–2009, and 2011–2012 Spanish Total jobs 2007–2008 LSP jobs 2007–2008 Total jobs 2008–2009 (Sep–Jan 23) LSP jobs 2008–2009 Total jobs 2011–2012 LSP Totals 514 40 377 13 365 29 (5 specifically call for linguist) Primary LSP Focus 0 6 (NTT) 13 ( 9 TTT/ 4 NTT) Secondary LSP focus 40 7 (TTT) 16 (11 TTT/ 5 NTT) In the 2007–2008 sample (which was the year before the dramatic drop in job offerings), there were 40 LSP jobs out of a total of 514 Spanish positions, which equaled 9% of jobs. In the 2008–2009 sample, there were 13 LSP jobs out of 377 for 3% and in 2011–2012, 29 LSP jobs out of 365 for 7.9%. In 2007–2008, data was not collected for TTT vs. NTT positions, but all the LSP designations were listed as a preferred secondary field, 26 in the area of business, 15 for professional (non-literary) translation/interpretation, and 9 for medical. Typical announce-ments were "Assistant Professor of Spanish (Golden Age). . . . [S]trong preparation in LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 26 Golden Age literature. . . . [W]illingness to teach Business Spanish. . ." and "Tenure-track position. . . . [F]ield of specialization open, but generalist with Latin American studies preferred. Must be prepared to teach all levels of language (including business Spanish) as well as Hispanic Americana and Peninsular literatures and cultures." In the 2008–2009 list, though the overall numbers had dropped, the number of primary LSP positions had increased dramatically to 6, although all were NTT positions some requiring only a MA. The 7 secondary LSP positions were all TTT. The designated primary fields followed the standard areas of specializations of the Spanish profession with a predominance of literature positions and the announcements were characterized by the "laundry list" nature shown in the examples above. In the 2011–2012 sample, of the 29 positions 13 were for primary LSP positions and 9 of these were TTT. Of the 16 secondary LSP positions, 11 were TTT. There are some dramatic changes in the nature of the job announcements in this sample. For example, where as in previous job list samples 'business' was the primary word, and most often was a stand-alone term, this time none of the job announcements called only for 'business,' rather 'business' was always included in a list of options (e.g., medical, legal, interpretation, etc.) most often under the heading 'Spanish for the Professions.' 'Spanish for Health Professions' or 'Medical Spanish' seemed to gain ground, with 3 TTT positions (two primary LSP and 1 secondary LSP). Translation and interpreting studies showed a marked increase with 8 TTT positions of which 5 were primary LSP and 3 secondary LSP positions. Translation also appeared in 4 NTT secondary LSP positions. In addition, whereas earlier lists had predominantly shown literary fields combined with LSP, in this sample, applied linguistics showed significant gains with 4 jobs specifically designating a combination of applied linguistics and an LSP field (translation, interpretation, or medical) and 3 listing linguistics in general as one of the possible primary fields. Some of the announcements still combined seemingly disparate primary and secondary fields. For example "Contemporary Peninsular Literature with emphasis on theatres and /or poetry. . . . [E]xperience teaching Spanish for the Professions a plus" or "Preferred specialization Peninsular and Cultural studies; ability to contribute to Spanish for health professions (interest in interdisciplinary research/program development)." The mention of interdisciplinary research marks an opening up that is observable in many of the Spanish announcements. Yet, in spite of the mention of interdisciplinary research being a valued interest, in this sort of advertisement, there is really no clear vision of what that interdisciplinary research might look like. While it is true that this kind of open-endedness can be exhilarating and freeing for a creative professional, it can also be somewhat problematic at the time of tenure and promotion review. In contrast to this sort of announcement that has previously characterized LSP job descriptions, there were a number that had very specific and extensive LSP designations. Consider for example this announcement for an Assistant Professor in Spanish Applied Linguistics: The Department of Modern Languages and Literature at the University of [X] is seeking an innovator in Spanish applied linguistics or Latin American or Latina/o cultural studies research and pedagogy with interdisciplinary skills to engage the complex socio-cultural dimensions of health-related issues in South Texas. This position requires a willingness to develop a research plan and engage in cross-LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 27 disciplinary research in healthcare issues of particular importance to the region of South Texas, such as health literacy, diabetes, obesity, or health issues surrounding poverty, race, gender, class, immigration, or legality. The successful candidate will participate in teaching and mentoring in the Department's unique program in Medical Spanish for Heritage Learners, will collaborate with faculty from other departments in advancing research in healthcare, and will teach undergraduate and graduate courses in the area of specialization. A PhD in Spanish is required prior to start date in Fall, 2012. The successful candidate will have native or near native fluency in Spanish. The candidate must demonstrate potential for teaching excellence, research and publication, and grantsmanship. Or another from a criminal justice program "[X University] seeks an Assistant Professor of Spanish/Specialist in Translation and Interpreting (Foreign Languages), PhD in Spanish Translation, interpreting or related field." The specificity and focus of these job announcements mark a significant change in the envisioning of Spanish LSP fields and seem to create clear direction for the expected research agenda, which would allow the faculty member to develop a unified body of research and facilitate the path to tenure/promotion. One question that comes to mind when reading these more detailed job descriptions is how many candidates there might be for such jobs given the very specific qualifications (especially in the Applied linguistics ad for the medical field). Also, one is lead to ponder what the doctoral programs that are producing such specialists might look like. There are a few doctoral programs around the nation that are already preparing candidates for such positions and a description and analysis of these programs is material for another article. For our purposes here, these job announcements lead us to return to the questions posed at the beginning of the article. Conclusions Are departments truly moving to transform their undergraduate offerings away from literature? Are new research fields emerging? If so, what do they look like? What is the balance between TTT and non-tenure track NTT jobs in these areas? Will there be steady demand for future faculty trained to meet the new scenarios? Based on the information presented here, there does not seem to be a dramatic increase in the quantity of LSP positions, but rather a steady demand at a level that is similar to other less common research fields. However, there are indications that the LSP positions are becoming better defined as announcements move away from the "laundry-list" format to specific visions for new programs. Also, there is a slight increase in TTT primary LSP positions and these positions are also slowly becoming more focused on specific regional and/or discipline needs (i.e. health issues in South Texas, Francophone outreach in the Atlanta metropolitan area, translation and interpretation programs). The emergence of the phrase 'cultural studies' or 'specific area studies' (i.e., German, Francophone) in many of these LSP announcement and the large number of jobs in Spanish and French that come up with a keyword search for 'cultural studies' does suggest a shift away from literature. It seems that perhaps the cultural studies field might ultimately provide an umbrella for LSP programs that could afford LSP faculty a more LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 28 central institutional position. This data seems to echo Doyle's (2012) extensive and convincing argument in favor of a nomenclature change in the Language for Business field to Business Language studies. But, ultimately, will the number of jobs, which deviate from the traditional literature, linguistics and second language acquisition fields, merit redesign of graduate programs across the board to train future professors to meet this demand? Or, is it more a question of helping future professors enhance the traditional fields of specialization with new pedagogical approaches and secondary content expertise? In spite of the examples of very specific jobs given here, the number of these is still so low, that it would not seem feasible to suggest that all doctoral programs be transformed away from literature at this time, though certainly the PhD and Master's programs that have already developed these sorts of focus will become an ever more vital part of the foreign language education mission. What seems to be a more feasible approach for doctoral programs with a strong literature tradition is to begin a more gradual expansion into complementary areas. This can be accomplished by providing opportunities to doctoral candidates to develop secondary expertise in LSP content areas and to develop frameworks of practice that allow them to move between the theories of scholarly analysis to the practicalities of application to real world scenarios. The forum for such training can be graduate seminars and/or certificate programs through language resource centers. References Doyle, M. (2012). Business language studies in the United States: On nomenclature, context, theory and method [Special Issue]. The Modern Language Journal, 96, 105–121. Gueldry, M. (Ed.). (2010a). Consistent incorporation of professional terminologies into the world's languages: The linguistic engine of a global culture. Lewiston, ME: The Edwin Mellen Press. Gueldry, M. (Ed.). (2010b). How globalizing professions deal with national languages studies: Cultural conflict and cooperation. Lewiston, ME: The Edwin Mellen Press. Lafford, B. (Ed.). (2012). Languages for specific purposes in the United States [Special Issue]. The Modern Language Journal, 96. Long, M., & Uscinski, I. (2012). Evolution of languages for specific purposes programs in the United States: 1990–2011 [Special Issue]. The Modern Language Journal, 96, 173–189. Lusin, N. (2012). Trends in the foreign language Job Information List. ADFL Bulletin, 42, 195–197. Retrieved from http://www.adfl.org/bulletin/ Modern Language Association (MLA). (2007). Foreign languages and higher education: New structures for a changed world. Retrieved from http://www.mla.org/pdf/forlang_newspdf.pdf Modern Language Association (MLA). (2008). Foreign language Job Information List. September 2007–January 2008. Retrieved from http://www.adfl.org/jil/index.htm Modern Language Association (MLA). (2009). Foreign language Job Information List. September 2008–January 2009. Retrieved from http://www.adfl.org/jil/index.htm Modern Language Association (MLA). (2012). Foreign language Job Information List. LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 29 September 2011–July 2012. Retrieved from http://www.adfl.org/jil/index.htm Pérez-Llantada, C., & Watson, M. (Eds.). (2011). Specialized languages in the global village: A Multi-perspective approach. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Porter, C. (2009). The MLA recommendations: Can we get there from here? ADFL Bulletin, 41(1), 16–23. Retrieved from http://www.adfl.org/bulletin/ Rifkin, B. (2012). "Learners' goals and curricular designs: The field's response to the 2007 MLA report on foreign language education" ADFL Bulletin, 42(1), 68–75. Retrieved from http://www.adfl.org/bulletin/
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It speaks volumes that the death of Henry Kissinger, announced on Wednesday, drew major news obituaries that rivaled those of late American presidents' in length and depth. The news was met with equal parts of vitriol and paeans across social media, the former reflected in words like "war criminal" and "monster," the latter, "genius" and "master."His intellectually-driven, hard-nosed statecraft and strategy has long been embraced by realists who appreciate Kissinger's rejection of ideological doctrine in favor of interest-driven realpolitik. They credit him with détente and managing the Soviet threat in the Cold War. His critics say his approach was responsible for government-led massacres in developing nations and Washington's scorched earth policies in Indochina. Humanity suffered while the "great game" was played, no matter how well, from the Nixon White House and in later presidencies (12 total) for which Kissinger advised.But was his impact on U.S. foreign policy ultimately positive or negative? We asked a wide range of historians, former diplomats, journalists and scholars to pick one and defend it.Andrew Bacevich, George Beebe, Tom Blanton, Michael Desch, Anton Fedyashin, Chas Freeman, John Allen Gay, David Hendrickson, Robert Hunter, Anatol Lieven, Stephen Miles, Tim Shorrock, Monica Duffy Toft, Stephen WaltAndrew Bacevich, historian and co-founder of the Quincy InstituteI met Kissinger just once, at a small gathering in New York back in the 1990s. When the event adjourned, he walked over to where I was sitting and spoke to me. "Did you serve in the military?" "Yes," I said. "In Vietnam?" "Yes." His tone filled with sadness, he said: "We really wanted to win that one."I did not reply but as he walked away, I thought: What an accomplished liar.George Beebe, Director of Grand Strategy, Quincy InstituteHenry Kissinger's impact on American foreign policy, although controversial, was on balance overwhelmingly positive. As he entered office in 1968, America was overextended abroad and beset by domestic political conflict. An increasingly powerful Soviet Union threatened to achieve superiority over America's nuclear and conventional arsenals. The United States needed to extract itself from Vietnam and focus on domestic healing, yet any retreat into isolationism would allow Moscow a free hand to intimidate Western Europe and spread communism through the post-colonial world. Kissinger's answer to this problem, conceived in partnership with President Nixon, was a masterwork of diplomatic realism. Seeing an opportunity to exploit tensions between Moscow and Beijing, he orchestrated a surprise opening to Maoist China that reshaped the international order, counterbalancing Soviet power and complicating the Kremlin's strategic challenge. In parallel, the United States pursued détente with Moscow, producing a landmark set of trade, arms control, human rights, and confidence-building arrangements that helped to constrain the arms race and make the Cold War more manageable and predictable.By comparison to 1968, the scale of the problems we face today seems more daunting. The Cold War architecture of arms control and security arrangements is in tatters. Our middle class is more distrustful and disaffected, our international reputation more damaged, and our ability to manage the challenges of a peer Chinese rival more limited. A statesman with Kissinger's strategic acumen and diplomatic skill is very much needed. Tom Blanton, Director, National Security Archive, George Washington UniversityThe declassified legacy of Henry Kissinger undermines the triumphant narrative he labored so hard to build, even for his successes. The opening to China, for example, turns out to be Mao's idea with Nixon's receptiveness, initially dissed by Kissinger. His shuttle diplomacy in the Middle East did reduce violence but it took Anwar Sadat and then Jimmy Carter to make the peace that Kissinger failed to accomplish. The 1973 Vietnam settlement was actually available in 1969, but Kissinger mistakenly believed he could do better by going through Moscow or Beijing. Meanwhile, Kissinger's callousness about the human cost runs through all the documents. Millions of Bangladeshis murdered by Pakistan's genocide while Kissinger stifled dissent in the State Department. A million Vietnamese and 20,000 Americans who died for Kissinger's "decent interval." Some 30,000 Argentines disappeared by the junta with Kissinger's green light. Thousands of Chileans killed by Pinochet while Kissinger joked about human rights. Untold numbers of Cambodians dead under Kissinger's secret bombing.Adding insult to all these injuries, Kissinger cashed in over the past 45 years through sustained influence peddling and self-promotion, paying no price for repeated bad judgments like opposing the Reagan-Gorbachev arms cuts, and supporting the 2003 Iraq invasion. A dark legacy indeed.Michael Desch, Professor of International Relations at the University of Notre Dame Almost all of the obituaries for Henry Kissinger characterize him as the quintessential realist, harkening back to a bygone era of European great power politics in which statesmen played the 19th century version of the board game Risk otherwise known as the balance of power. Kissinger seemed straight out of central casting for this role with his deep, sonorous voice and perpetual Mittel-Europa accent. All that was missing was a monocle and a Pickelhaube. But in reality, Kissinger was at best an occasional realist. His best scholarly book — "A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace 1812-22" — came out in 1957 and was more of a work of history than an articulation of a larger realpolitik theory of global politics in which power is used, and more importantly not used, to advance a country's national interest.And while his (and Richard Nixon's) opening to the People's Republic of China in 1972 remains a masterstroke of balance of power politics in action, at the drop of an egg-roll dividing the heretofore seemingly monolithic Communist Bloc, he was more often an inconstant realist.At times Kissinger embraced a crude might-makes-right approach (think of the Athenians bullying of the Melians in Book V of Thucydides) epitomized by the escalation to deescalate the war in Vietnam by invading Cambodia and the meddling in the fractious politics of Third World countries like Chile, seemingly to no other end than that's what great powers do. More recently, he's worked to remain the indispensable statesman through an embarrassingly obsequious pattern of making himself indispensable to nearly every subsequent president, whether or not they were really interested in sitting at the knee of the master realpolitiker. His hedged endorsement of George W. Bush's disastrous Iraq war is exhibit A on this score.Kissinger kept himself in the limelight for much of his career but not as a consistent voice of realism in foreign policy.Anton Fedyashin, associate professor of history, American UniversityIn his long and distinguished career, Henry Kissinger made many decisions that history may judge harshly, but oversimplifying and exaggerating complex geopolitical issues was not one of them. With their instinctive aversion to the trap of conceptual binarism, Kissinger and Nixon applied their flexible realism to China and the USSR in 1972. Abandoning the assumption that all communists were evil forced Beijing and Moscow to outbid each other for U.S. favors. Treating the USSR as a post-revolutionary state that put national interests above ideology, Nixon and Kissinger decided to bring the Soviets into the American-managed world order while letting them keep their hegemony in Eastern Europe.In Kissinger's realist version of containment, statesmanship was judged by the management of ambiguities, not absolutes. As Kissinger put it in an interview with The Economist earlier this year, "The genius of the Westphalian system and the reason it spread across the world was that its provisions were procedural, not substantive." Kissinger's realist wisdom would serve American leaders well as they navigate the rough waters of transitioning to a multipolar world order. The era of great power balancing is back, and non-binarist realism can help Washington manage hegemonic decline rather than catalyzing it.Ambassador Chas Freeman, visiting scholar at Brown University's Watson Institute for International and Public AffairsKissinger embodied a global and strategic view and because it was global, it often offended specialists in regional affairs. Because it was strategic, he often made tactical sacrifices for strategic gain. And the tactical sacrifices that he made were often rather ugly at the regional or local level. The classic example of that is the refusal to intervene in the war in Bangladesh. Obviously, he had nothing but contempt for ideological foreign policy. This has led ideologues, of which we have an abundance, to see him as an enemy, and you're seeing this now with some of the coverage after his passing.Kissinger's achievement of detente at a crucial point in the Cold War will be remembered for its brilliance, as will his significant scholarship. His statecraft and scholarship were inseparable. He was a very good negotiator and probably had more experience negotiating great power relations than any secretary of state since early in the Republic. He was moderately successful in the short term. He was not successful in the long term because his interlocutors correctly perceived that he was manipulative. If one wishes to keep relationships open to future transactions, one must not cheat on current transactions. But this problem is not uncommon. It's very typical in American politics. For example, Jim Baker was famously uninterested in nurturing relationships. He was interested in immediate results in his dealings with foreign governments. He left a lot of anger and dissatisfaction in his wake. Kissinger less so, but the same for different reasons, reflecting his personality, his character, and the character of the president he served.John Allen Gay, Executive Director, John Quincy Adams SocietyKissinger's legacy in the Third World commands the most attention and criticism. He has been made the face of the tremendous toll the Cold War took on the wretched of the earth. Yet his work on great power relations deserves more regard. The opening to China he engineered with President Richard Nixon was a masterstroke to exploit division in the Communist world. Granted, the Sino-Soviet split had happened long before, and the opening was more a Nixon idea, but Kissinger set the table. And Kissinger was also a central figure in détente with the Soviet Union.Both policies were deeply unpopular with the forerunners to the neoconservative movement, but reflected the Continental realist mindset that Kissinger, along with thinkers like Hans J. Morgenthau, brought into the American foreign policy discourse. The opening to China and détente were, in fact, linked. As Kissinger pointed out, the opening to China challenged the Soviet Union to prevent the opening from growing; contrary to the advice of Sovietologists, this did not prompt new Soviet aggression, but made the Soviets more pliable. As Kissinger wrote in his 1994 book "Diplomacy" — "To the extent both China and the Soviet Union calculated that they either needed American goodwill or feared an American move toward its adversary, both had an incentive to improve their relations with Washington. […] America's bargaining position would be strongest when America was closer to bot communist giants than either was to the other." And so it was. Today's practitioners of great-power politics would do well to borrow more from this happier part of Kissinger's legacy. They have instead helped drive China, Russia, Iran, and North Korea together, and have no answer to this emerging alignment beyond lectures and sanctions. The19th century European statesmen Kissinger admired would have seen the failure of such a policy. David Hendrickson, author, "Republic in Peril: American Empire and the Liberal Tradition"The great oddity of Nixon and Kissinger's record in foreign policy is that they gave up as unprofitable and dangerous the pursuit of ideological antagonism with the Great Powers (the Soviet Union and China), but then pursued the Cold War crusade with a vengeance against small powers. Kissinger's diplomatic career reminds me of the charge that Hauterive (a favorite of Napoleon's) brought against the confusions of the ancien regime, that it applied "the terms sound policy, system of equilibrium, maintenance or restoration of the balance of power . . . to what, in fact was only an abuse of power, or the exercise of arbitrary will."Parts of Kissinger's record, like the bombing of Cambodia, are indefensible, but there are good parts too: had Henry the K been in charge of our Russia policy over the last decade, we could have avoided the conflagration in Ukraine. He was sounder on China and Taiwan than 90 percent of the howling commentariat. He was, in addition, a serious scholar who wrote some good books about the construction of world order (A World Restored, Diplomacy). Young people should take his thought seriously, not consign him to the ninth circle.Robert Hunter, former U.S. Ambassador to NATOLike all outstanding teachers, Henry Kissinger was also a showman — and he could be fun. He used his accent and self-deprecating humor as weapons for his policies and getting them taken seriously. Journalists might at times scorn what he was doing and how he did it, but they were still charmed and tended so often to give him the benefit of the doubt — as well as the credit, even when not deserved. Everyone recalls his roles in promoting détente with the Soviet Union and, even more, the opening to China, with Richard Nixon following in his wake. In fact, both policies sprang from Nixon's mind. But when the dust settled, Kissinger was the Last Man Standing."Henry," we could call him who never worked for him (!), made intelligent and literate speeches on foreign policy that everyone could understand, bringing it into the limelight. A man of great ego, he still recruited and inspired talented acolytes at the State Department and White House — matched only by Brent Scowcroft and Zbig Brzezinski. He had other policy positives in the Middle East ("shuttle diplomacy") but major negatives in Chile, in prolonging the Vietnam War, and bombing Cambodia.Take him altogether, a true Man of History.Anatol Lieven, Director of the Eurasia Program at the Quincy InstituteThe problem about any just assessment of Henry Kissinger is that the good and bad parts of his record are organically linked. His Realism led him to an awareness of the vital interests of other countries, a willingness to compromise, and a prudence in the exercise of U.S. power that all too many American policymakers have altogether lacked and that the United States today desperately needs. This Realist acceptance of the world as it is however also contributed to a cynical disregard for basic moral norms — notably in Cambodia and Bangladesh — that have forever tarnished his and America's name.When in office, reconciliation with China and the pursuit of Middle East peace took real moral courage on Kissinger's part, given the forces arrayed against these policies in the United States. But in his last decades, though he initially criticized NATO expansion and called for the preservation of relations with Russia and China, he never did so with the intellectual and moral force of a George Kennan.Perhaps in the end the best comment on Kissinger comes from an epithet by his fellow German Jewish thinker on international affairs Hans Morgenthau: "It is a dangerous thing to be a Machiavelli. It is a disastrous thing to be a Machiavelli without Virtu" — an Italian term embracing courage, moral steadfastness and basic principle.Stephen Miles, President, Win Without WarNearly as many words have been spilled marking the end of Henry Kissinger's life as the lives he's responsible for ending, but let me add a few more. It would be easy to simply say that the devastating impact of Kissinger on U.S. foreign policy was clearly and wholly negative. As Spencer Ackerman noted in his essential obituary, few Americans, if any, have ever been as responsible for the death of so many of their fellow human beings. But Kissinger's true impact was not just in being a war criminal but in setting a new standard for doing so with impunity. Earlier this year, he was feted with a party for his 100th birthday attended not just by crusty old Cold Warriors remembering 'the good ole days,' but also by a veritable who's who of today's elite from billionaire CEOs and cabinet members to fashion megastars and NFL team owners. Sure, he may have been responsible for a coup here or a genocide there, but shouldn't we all just look past that and recognize his influence, power, and intellect? Does it really matter what he used those talents for?And in the end, that's the benefit of Kissinger's horrific life and decidedly not-untimely death. By never making amends for the harm he did and never being held accountable for the horrors he caused, he made clear just how truly broken and flawed U.S. foreign policy is. Perhaps now that he has finally left the stage, we can begin to change that. Tim Shorrock, Washington-based journalistKissinger nearly destroyed three Asian countries by causing the deaths of thousands in U.S. bombing raids, covertly intervened to subvert democracy in Chile, and encouraged an Indonesian dictator to invade newly independent East Timor and inflict a genocide upon its people. These were criminal acts that should have made him a pariah. Instead, he is lauded as a visionary by our ruling elite. And it was mostly accomplished through lies and deceit, in the name of corporate profit.I'll never forget in 1972 watching Kissinger declare "peace is at hand" in Vietnam. After years of protesting this immoral war, I truly thought that Vietnam's suffering, and my own countrymen's, was finally over; they had won and we had lost. But my hope was shattered that Christmas, when Kissinger and Nixon ordered B-52s to carpet-bomb Hanoi in an arrogant act of defiance and malice. Afterwards, a shaky peace agreement was signed that could have sparked an honorable U.S. withdrawal. But it took 3 more years of bloodshed before the United States was forced out.Kissinger broke my trust in America as a just nation and overseas sparked a deep hatred of U.S. foreign policy. Few statesmen have caused such harm.Monica Duffy Toft, Professor of International Politics and Director, Center for Strategic Studies, Fletcher School, Tufts UniversityI have a pair of midcentury teak chairs once belonging to the late eminent scholar Samuel P. Huntington in my office. Sam was a colleague and friend of Henry Kissinger's, and a mentor to me. Sam and I sat in these chairs discussing world politics and the everyday challenges of running a scholarly institute. When a new set of chairs arrived, Sam insisted I take the old ones, but not before emphasizing their significance — reminders of the hours he and Kissinger spent in deep debate and casual banter. These chairs have history.Henry Kissinger was, and shall remain, a controversial figure. His gifts were two. First, across decades of U.S. foreign policy challenges, he remained consistent in his conception of power, and how U.S. power should be used to enhance the security of the United States. Second, he was gifted at assembling, mentoring, and deploying cross-cutting networks of influential people. Like many of my colleagues who study international politics, there are policies — his support of Salvador Allende's ouster in Chile, for example — I find odious. I am also uncomfortable with Kissinger's elitism: his preferred policies favored those with wealth and political power at the expense of those without.But what I admire about Kissinger's U.S. foreign policy legacy and, by extension, international politics, was his profound grasp of the importance of historical context: a thing as important to sound U.S foreign policy today as it is rare; and of which I am pleasantly reminded every time I sit in one of Sam's chairs.Stephen Walt, Quincy Institute board member, professor of international affairs at the Harvard Kennedy SchoolHenry Kissinger was the most prominent U.S. statesman of his era, and that era lasted a very long time. His main achievements were not trivial: a long-overdue opening to China, some high-wire "shuttle diplomacy" after the 1973 October War, and several useful arms control treaties during the period of détente. But he was also guilty of some monumental misjudgments, including prolonging the Vietnam War to no good purpose and expanding it into Cambodia at a frightful human cost. His diplomatic acrobatics in the Middle East were impressive, but they were only necessary because he had missed the signs that Egypt was readying for war in 1973 in order to break a diplomatic deadlock that he had helped orchestrate. His indifference to human rights and civilian suffering sacrificed thousands of lives and made a mockery of U.S. pretensions to moral superiority.Kissinger owed his enduring influence not to a superior track record as a pundit or sage but to his own energy, unquenchable ambition, unparalleled networking skills, and the elite's reluctance to hold its members accountable. After all, this is a man who downplayed the risks of China's rise (while earning fat consulting fees there), backed the disastrous invasion of Iraq in 2003, opposed the 2015 nuclear deal with Iran, and dismissed warnings that open-ended NATO enlargement would make Europe less rather than more secure. Kissinger also perfected the art of transmuting government service into a lucrative consulting career, setting a troubling precedent for others. Debates about his legacy will no doubt continue, but one suspects that the reverence that his acolytes exhibit today will gradually fade now that he is no longer here to sustain it.Dear RS readers: It has been an extraordinary year and our editing team has been working overtime to make sure that we are covering the current conflicts with quality, fresh analysis that doesn't cleave to the mainstream orthodoxy or take official Washington and the commentariat at face value. Our staff reporters, experts, and outside writers offer top-notch, independent work, daily. Please consider making a tax-exempt, year-end contribution to Responsible Statecraft so that we can continue this quality coverage — which you will find nowhere else — into 2024. Happy Holidays!
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Many countries with scheduled elections this year face a difficult choice in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic: how to balance public health considerations with holding a free and fair election. Learn more from NDI Senior Associate and Director of Electoral Programs Pat Merloe and Program Director Julia Brothers as they talk about democratic back-sliding during this crisis, electoral integrity, and ways civil society organizations can still make a difference. Find us on: SoundCloud | Apple Podcasts | Spotify | RSS | Google Play Pat Merlow: In the public health crisis, especially where governments are weak or people are suspicious of governments, trusted voices are really important to get out accurate information. Julia Brothers: Hello, this is Julia Brothers. I'm the Program Director for Elections at the National Democratic Institute. Welcome to Dem Works. JB: Around the world, the COVID-19 pandemic is sewing insecurity among the public, which can be exploited by authoritarians to consolidate power in sideline democratic institutions. It also poses severe technical, political, and social threats to elections themselves. In many countries, the effects of the virus may strain citizen relationships with government and elected [inaudible] officials, intensify political tensions and the potentials for violence, disenfranchise voters and increase conditions for democratic backsliding. Today I'm joined by Pat Merlow, senior associate and director of electoral programs at NDI. Welcome to the podcast, Pat. Thank you for being here. Pat Merlow: Hi, Julia. JB: So the COVID-19 crisis is causing enormous challenges for every country, including those with scheduled elections this year. What are the biggest concerns deciding whether to hold or postpone elections? PM: Elections must be held in ways that safeguard public health and in ways that ensure genuine opportunities for the electorate to vote. Universal and equal suffrage, which is in every modern constitution, means inclusion, not exclusion. So we have to also hold elections in ways where the political parties and the candidates have a fair chance to compete for votes without a playing field that's being manipulated or intentionally or unintentionally tilted in one party's favor. So striking a proper democratic balance of public safety and credible election processes is different and really difficult in every country. Depends a lot on the level of economic and technological development in the country on the nature of social cohesion versus divisions in the country and political polarization. So in many countries where NDI works, the concern is whether authoritarians will rush through elections with undue public health risks in order to gain an electoral advantage or to postpone elections under conditions that advantage their attempts to gain and maintain more power. A second troubling circumstance in countries that are unstable or prone to various kinds of violence, where constrains of the public health crisis can be used by malign actors to flood the population with this information... I mean we're hearing this term infodemic; also hate speech and other means to scapegoat religious or ethnic minorities, LGBTQ people or women in order to gain political advantage. That's not all the countries where NDI works, but even those are neither authoritarian nor fragile states, the COVID-19 crisis is still posing gigantic challenges both on the public health and to electoral integrity. JB: Right. I mean these factors present themselves as challenges to electoral integrity, not just where there might be bad faith actors that are trying to utilize this crisis to consolidate power, but also just in addressing basic issues related to how to make sure that you're maximizing participation during a public health crisis. What are some of the factors that these countries would need to think about in terms of actually implementing elections either during a public health crisis or immediately after. PM: There really are a number of factors that have to be considered. So the first thing that comes to everybody's mind of course is what do you do? Can people actually go to polling places or should they be under some sort of the shelter in place lockdown-like circumstances. That doesn't just affect whether to vote. That really has to do with whether you can register to vote safely or not. In countries where there are not a high level of electronic engagement where the digital divide falls really widely across broad swipes of the population, gathering those people into places to register to vote or to vote is really the only means of doing it. So the question of a postponement becomes really an operative question. Then we're concerned with what are the conditions for the postponement and how does that interrelate with the declarations of states of emergency, whether they're being done properly with the kinds of constraints on limitations on powers or whether they're being done in ways that usurp power. JB: Yeah. I think one of the major concerns, especially thinking about citizens being able to participate in the process, is that during a pandemic, if voters are concerned about going out to vote, chances are that that's not going to be an equal distribution among the population, where there are a vulnerable populations that will be more impacted. You'll see disproportionate levels of low turnout among certain communities like senior citizens or persons with disabilities or women who disproportionately have the burden of childcare and are in a situation where you don't have options for even temporary childcare because of social distancing regulations. Well, this seems like a good place to take a short break. For more than 35 years, NDI has been honored to work with courageous and committed pro-democracy activists and leaders around the world to help countries develop the institution's practices and skills necessary for democracy success. Welcome back. JB: So we talked a bit about the postponements that we're seeing around the world in terms of electoral timelines. Are election observers relevant during electoral delays, especially if there's restrictions on movement in the population if they're under some form of shelter in place or lockdown. PM: Yeah. So Julie, you mentioned that NDI works in more than 70 countries and in fact, working with nonpartisan citizen groups and coalitions and various organizations is one of the hallmarks of NDI's work over more than 35 years now and certainly the 25 years where I've been involved. There's a network of citizen election observers, there are nine of them in various regions of the world and they're amalgamated in more than 250 organizations from 90 countries. Those organizations have been sharing best practices and ideas about what can be done. So let me just quickly mention a couple of them. There are four areas where they have been able to focus. One are ways to assist; that is, to assist public health agencies and the electoral authorities to bring about safe elections and fair elections. The second is ways to address authoritarian opportunism and how states of emergency and various conditions are being used by those who would usurp the citizens of power. The third are ways to address disinformation, hate speech and attempts at hyperpolarization that influence and create unfair conditions for elections. The fourth way is to address, as you mentioned earlier, examples of where a health crisis can lead to disenfranchisement or further tilt the playing field so that it's an unfair circumstance. JB: Yeah, I mean you mentioned especially tracking the authoritarian leaders who are potentially taking advantage of the health crisis to grab power and subvert democracy and in some unstable countries, this can threaten heightened instability. What can election servers be doing to address that or what are they currently doing to address that? PM: The most important thing is citizen election observers in all kinds of countries have been time tested and over the series of elections cycles two, three, even four in many countries, they've built national networks and they've established themselves as trusted voices. In a public health crisis, especially where governments are weak or people are suspicious of government, trusted voices are really important to get out accurate information from the health authorities, accurate information from the electoral authorities about what to do, where to do things and so on. Also, they have networks that can collect information; even during lockdowns. You and I were in a conversation with one of the partner organizations with whom we work in Sri Lanka just last week. The head of that organization is working on a civil society task force. That task force is considering how to gain access to women's shelters, to older people's homes, to places where there's foster children's care, drug treatment centers, and so on because these are vulnerable populations that are being hit hard by the crisis. One of the things that he pointed out in our conversation is that the government is taking advantage of the postponement of the election for electoral advantage by handing out dry goods to citizens and even medical supplies through the political party rather than as an impartial governmental service to the people. So the question that he posed was, even during lockdown, is there a way that our network of over 1,000 people could begin to document this and report it so that we can lift up to the public the nature of this problem that's coming about and see if we can't get some accountability and get them to cut back. So even during a lockdown, it's possible for the citizen observer groups to do things that are extraordinarily relevant. JB: Yeah, I mean it seems like there are certainly opportunities for electoral observers to be monitoring the kinds of things that they would normally be looking at in a pre-election period when their elections are delayed... Issues related to is the government still helping to create conditions for a credible and competitive process in the midst of a public health emergency. Are conditions being put in place to ensure that marginalized populations are not sidelined from the process. But it also kind of expands it a little bit too in that there are these potentially other issues that that groups may consider looking at. Like you mentioned, how health resources are being distributed and what kinds of policy changes are being made and how were those being made? What's the decision-making process around things like delaying the elections, around emergency voting procedures? Are they inclusive? Are all the parties being brought in to them? Is civil society be brought into these discussions and taking a look at some of these new conditions that observers may otherwise not necessarily be monitoring in a pre-election period. I think the other issue here is there are constraints here in terms of potentially being able to deploy a bunch observers out into the field to collect information if you're in a lockdown situation. So it's been interesting talking with groups to see how they're thinking creatively about how they can collect some of this information remotely. What kind of data exists that you can collect whether it's open data sources from the government looking at budgets, looking at how budgets are changing and how resources are moving. You mentioned looking at disinformation, being able to monitor social media and seeing what data could be collected from that. It's been interesting to see how citizen election observers around the world are getting creative and still doing their jobs while being sometimes trapped at home. PM: Absolutely. You mentioned the disinformation... One of the things that we've been seeing is that in Russia for example, they have been making use of the COVID crisis to begin to track people even more carefully to introduce facial recognition technologies and cameras. The term that's been throwing around is cybergulags being created there. With China's facial recognition technologies and the way that's been used to suppress the weaker minorities, China has been introducing that working with governments and other places in the world to try to get that into voter registration so that you have biometric voter registration data that includes facial recognition technology. So in this era, getting access to government decision making, getting access even to the health data and disaggregated by gender, by vulnerable groups and so on is part of the work that election observers normally do. Demanding open electoral data can lead easily to the same kinds of advocacy around open health data. One of the other things I thought that you've touched on that's interesting is the states of emergencies and the relationships between that and postponement. There's more than 45 countries at this point that have postponed elections at the national and sub-national level. Not all of them are problematic by any means, but in a lot of countries, there have been extended states of emergency without any end date. The postponements have no end date on them. One of the things that election observers can do is to join with... And many of them are human rights organizations and bringing about the rules that have been established in the international arena for limiting the duration of states of emergencies, that the measures that are taken have to be proportionate to the nature of the threat to the nation to bring those issues up and do advocacy around them and to help those of us in the international arena be aware of where these problems are in various countries. JB: With that, I think we'll take a quick break. We'll be back after this quick message. One of the things that Secretary Albright has said is that it's absolutely essential for young people to understand that they must participate and that they are the energy behind democracy. You can hear more from other democracy heroes by listening to our Dem Works podcast. It is available on iTunes and SoundCloud. So before the break, we were talking about the role that citizen election monitors are playing in the COVID-19 crisis and its impact on electoral integrity. Are there other considerations that citizen election groups should be thinking about in the need for electoral integrity in their countries? I'm thinking especially related to how groups can make sure that their observers are safe while also being able to collect information and an advocate for critical processes and good governance. PM: That's really a critical question, Julia. A good example that comes to mind is in Mali, which has had very few reported cases of COVID-19, there was a parliamentary election just two weeks ago. The government, for national security reasons, has had to postpone those elections for almost two years and they were really in a phase of saying we need to push it ahead. In fact, there had not been a reported COVID-19 death until just a few hours before the election date. So it went forward and the citizen observers with which NDI has been working in that country in the weeks leading up to that advocated that the polling stations had to have masks for the staff; had to have gloves; had to have hand sanitizers or hand washing stations because hand sanitizer is hard to get in a lot of places in Mali. They made sure that their observers had those materials themselves. I think 1,500 observers went out to polling stations across the country. In their own headquarters and gathering data, there was social distancing that took place and they did a lot of checking in with their observers about how they were doing, how they were feeling over the course of the day. So one thing that the citizen observers can do is to join with organizations that are health advocates for those places where either voter registration is about to take place or voting is about to take place to ensure that the conditions minimize the risk. We just saw this over this past weekend in the elections that were held in South Korea. Whether or not you might think that the election should go forward, there was a country where there's a lot of public confidence in what the government has been doing and in the integrity of the election authorities and voter turnout was not terribly affected by this. So there is something that can be done immediately and as you have mentioned, there are numerous things that can be looked at by citizen observers without ever really leaving their homes or their headquarters. One of those, as you mentioned, is disinformation. Our partners in Georgia, for example, have uncovered a link between Russian propaganda, which has gone up around disinformation around COVID-19 and linking it to destabilizing public trust in Georgia's government. There's a really interesting report that they came out with just last week on that front. So how does COVID-19 and elections interface is something that can be explored in a number of dimensions. JB: We've talked mostly about the work of nonpartisan civil society organizations and their own countries that are confronting this challenge. Is there a role for international election observers on terms of electoral oversight during a public crisis, especially knowing that they will have some of the same if not even more constraints than citizen election monitors? PM: It's a very difficult role at the moment for international election observers. We've been in touch with our colleagues at the African Union and the European Union, at the United Nations and Organization of American States and so on. Many of them have been bringing teams home from countries. Some of them have been postponing or canceling sending teams out. At the same time, there are a number of things that international observers can do. As you mentioned, you can look at things from a distance. You can review the legal framework, which is part of what every international election observation and citizen observers do. You can compare what has been done over the past few cycles of elections, where recommendations have been made, whether those recommendations were acted upon or whether you find the same problem repeating in the next report and prioritize the issues that you might look to and even be able to inform diplomats and others about things that they should be raising with government. You can look at disinformation and other information disorder, hate speech and so on, from afar. Certainly you can tune in with what the critical people inside a country who are working on these issues have been doing. You can conduct some long distance interviews with key people in the citizen groups and in the election authorities and the political leaders to learn their opinions about what the state of play is in the country and their concerns going forward. But when it comes time to put people on the ground, we have to look at travel restrictions. We have to look at countries where foreigners have been seen as people who bring in COVID-19 and there's been violence against them; so security of observers is important. And the numbers of people who may go or where they may be deployed depending upon hotspots in the country and so on. So this is something that over the course of this year will be a challenge. And the next thing will be a challenge for international election observers is that as so many elections are being postponed, they're being postponed probably towards the end of this year or the beginning of next year, which already has many scheduled elections. So there may be an overwhelming demand for which the supply of financial and human resources runs short. JB: It does seem like at this point, especially knowing that international election observers in a lot of the places just can't deploy right now, one of the roles to play here is really trying to raise the voices of the citizen groups on the ground that are able to actually do some on the ground observation. Also keeping in mind, especially for the places we're concerned about authoritarian overreach, thinking about how we can use some of these international mechanisms to push back on democratic backsliding and mitigate tensions in places where it could potentially be a bit more unstable with the current situation. PM: You're right. That's the contribution that the international community can do, too... To really amplify the voices of the citizenry and to augment their efforts to bring about respect for civil and political rights. When you have a network of thousands of citizens who have taken the time and the effort to go out of their homes, into the street, to look at what the nature of the threats of violence or vote buying or intimidation to document how these things of disproportionally driven women or restricted women's political and electoral participation, would they have taken the time to go into polling stations, sometimes under threat or coercion? These people have become a solid core of citizen empowerment in so many countries around the world, and each of those citizens, of course, is using WhatsApp and other ways of talking and they're influencers within a country. They can gather information, they can give accurate information out, but as they report up through their networks, if there's good collaboration between the reputable citizen groups and the credible international election observers and the international community more broadly, we can use that cooperation that we've been working on over the years to try to bring attention, even when it's hard to shine a light directly on problems in countries that are being affected by this crisis and facing political challenges and stress. JB: Well, thank you again, Pat, for joining us. I think this has been a particularly relevant discussion. I'd also like to say thank you to our listeners. To learn more about NDI or to listen to other Dem Works podcasts, please visit our website@www.ndi.org PM: Thank you, Julia and thank you to the listeners.
En el presente resumen de tesis doctoral, se desarrollarán tres grandes vertientes. Primeramente, se estudiará la Forma Jurídica, de acuerdo a la aplicación de cuestionarios empresariales, en virtud de analizar dichas Formas Jurídicas de las Empresas a las cuales se les aplicaron los cuestionamientos. Conformando dichas Formas Jurídicas la: Sociedad Anónima, Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada, Sociedad Civil y Sociedad Cooperativa. Además, se abordará la esencia jurídica de las leyes que le dan vida a las mencionadas Formas Jurídicas, destacando a la Ley General de Sociedades Mercantiles que auspicia, tanto a la Sociedad Anónima, como a la Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada. Por otro lado, el Código Civil que alberga a la Sociedad Civil. Asimismo, se analizará la Ley General de Sociedades Cooperativas, que da origen a la Sociedad Cooperativa. Adicionalmente, exploraremos en este resumen de tesis doctoral el Régimen Fiscal, con lo cual, se identificará el tipo de Régimen Tributario, que le brinda a las Empresas de Baja California, México, la posibilidad de interactuar en el mercado de una manera distinta, dependiendo del grado de derechos y obligaciones tributarias, que atesora cada Régimen Fiscal. Finalmente, se examinará la Actividad Emprendedora, derivado de una investigación de campo, en donde se aplicaron cuestionarios a 102 empresas ubicadas en distintas ciudades del estado de Baja California, en México. Lo anterior, fue motivado por la búsqueda de indicadores que nos dieran lugar a conocer lo que está sucediendo en nuestra región. Puesto que la actual situación económica ha dificultado el desarrollo financiero, tanto de las empresas, como del gobierno. Por lo cual, es menester identificar, a través de estas aplicaciones de cuestionarios, cuáles son las estrategias de negocios que están aplicando las empresas ubicadas en el estado de Baja California, en México. 2. CONTENIDO Se ha desarrollado un trabajo de investigación sobre la Influencia de la Forma Jurídica y del Régimen Fiscal en la Actividad Emprendedora de las Empresas en el Estado de Baja California, México. En donde después de analizar distintas normativas, tanto societarias, como tributarias, nos arrojan varios criterios que indican precisamente que ni la Forma Jurídica, ni el Régimen Fiscal de Empresa, ejercen un efecto diferenciador, sobre la Actividad Emprendedora de las Empresas en el Estado de Baja California, México. Sin embargo, en la interpretación de los distintos indicadores de las hipótesis de los cuestionarios aplicados, da como resultado que la Forma Jurídica de la Sociedad Anónima, es la que más Influye positivamente sobre la Actividad Emprendedora y, ésta a su vez, en el desempeño empresarial y exportador, en relación a las otras Formas Jurídicas de empresas encuestadas. Primeramente, destacaremos que dentro del marco de la legislación mexicana, para la constitución y funcionamiento de la empresa mexicana existen importantes consideraciones, en relación con las figuras que se han abordado en el presente estudio. Enunciativamente, es importante resaltar que se trata de dos sociedades mercantiles, una sociedad de carácter civil y una de carácter social. Todas ellas, representativas del sector productivo empresarial. Predominantemente, la Sociedad Anónima, es la máxima exponente del tipo empresarial basada en el capital, y que en la empresa mexicana ocupa un lugar trascendental, toda vez que las grandes organizaciones, y aún las pequeñas, en una gran mayoría se constituye bajo éste andamiaje jurídico. Obviamente, las Empresas investigadas del Estado de Baja California, predominaron en esta Forma Jurídica, en donde como ya se mencionó son las que por su capacidad y estructura administrativa, operativa y tecnológica, más Influyen en la Actividad Emprendedora y, ésta a su vez, a un mejor desempeño empresarial y exportador, en comparación con las otras Formas Jurídicas analizadas en la tesis doctoral. Posteriormente, tenemos a la Sociedad Civil que opera, ya no desde el marco mercantil, sino en el mundo de lo civil y, que sirve como una estructura para reunir a profesionistas cuyas principales actividades, sí están orientadas a realizar actividades de beneficio económico, pero que no constituyen una especulación comercial. Por su estructura legal y, versatilidad en el principio de libertad de las partes, la Sociedad Civil ofrece grandes posibilidades para la empresa, cuyo eje es la suma de esfuerzos y del carácter de socios, sin que ello demerite las aportaciones en dinero y en especie que, también se pueden realizar. Además, como punto intermedio, se encuentra la Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada que, es una media entre la Sociedad Anónima y de Sociedad Civil por su estructura de capital y, el carácter personal que hacen a este tipo de organización empresarial, una estructura noble que puede aportar al empresariado, tanto nacional, como extranjero, enormes posibilidades de desarrollo corporativo, sólo que hace falta un mayor conocimiento de dicho tipo de sociedad y, su mejor difusión. No obstante, en el otro extremo analizamos en el estudio de investigación, una organización cuyo fundamento es la aportación de esfuerzos humanos, dirigidos al logro de los propósitos personales, que se encuentran regidos por principios y valores. Siendo ésta, la Sociedad Cooperativa y en específico, la de Producción. Así, para estar acorde al análisis que se desarrolla, debe decirse en función con estos tipos de sociedades, lo siguiente: Legislativamente, en relación a la Sociedad Anónima, cabe advertir la necesidad que existe de una reforma a la Ley General de Sociedades Mercantiles respecto al órgano de administración, pues además de que la figura, así como la presenta la legislación actual, resulta un poco obsoleta, se necesita que se impongan ciertos márgenes, sobre todo en el tema de responsabilidades en las que pueden incurrir los administradores, puesto que en ningún momento, se les impone por ejemplo, alguna medida coercitiva, como el pagar daños y perjuicios, cuando su actuar sea de forma dolosa. Alternativamente, si bien, la Sociedad Anónima ha sido un tipo de empresa predominante en la economía mexicana, es conveniente considerar que existe otro tipo de sociedad de capital, como lo es la Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada, que ofrece amplias posibilidades como organización empresarial y, que la escasa regulación que existe en la Ley General de Sociedades Mercantiles ofrece amplias posibilidades, para un desarrollo empresarial desde una postura creativa. Un ejemplo de ello es que las convocatorias o, las reuniones de las asambleas en la Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada, puede resultar mucho más práctica, el buscar tomar las decisiones a distancia, sin tener que reunir a los accionistas, sobre todo en el actual ambiente globalizado y con alta tecnología de comunicación. Lo anterior, es tan solo una muestra de las amplias posibilidades que ofrece la estructura jurídica de este tipo de sociedad, todo ello, basado en el principio jurídico de que todo lo que no le está prohibido al particular, les está permitido. Así cabe aplicar el razonamiento en el sentido de que si algo no se encuentra regulado en la Ley General de Sociedades Mercantiles, es un área de oportunidad y desarrollo, para que la Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada, implemente mecanismos ágiles de funcionamiento, con mejores posibilidades que en la obesa y entramada estructura legal de la Sociedad Anónima. Por otro lado, en el caso de la Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada, para que los socios puedan mantener su estatus personal y, se conserve su elemento intuitu personae, se establece un límite de máximo cincuenta socios, y además, se prohíbe que se constituya mediante suscripción pública. Adicionalmente, las aportaciones suplementarias en la Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada, responden a la necesidad de flexibilizar el procedimiento de aumento de capital. Igualmente, si bien, la Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada no contempla explícitamente las aportaciones en trabajo, es decir, de los socios industriales; no obstante, debe considerarse que en las prestaciones accesorias que los socios puedan aportar, se podría contar con la asistencia técnica de determinados socios. Lo cual, nos lleva a concluir que la Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada, no se caracteriza precisamente por considerar las aportaciones en trabajo de socios a la sociedad, como otras que sí lo hacen, como son el caso de la Sociedad Civil y, de la Sociedad Cooperativa de Producción. Excepcionalmente, el régimen de responsabilidad en la Sociedad Civil, corresponde a una obligación respecto del monto de las aportaciones por parte de los socios y que, para el estatus de los socios industriales, éstos no responderán de las pérdidas, salvo que se estipule explícitamente un pacto en contrario. Insoslayablemente, existe una responsabilidad mucho más amplia que, sólo corresponde a los administradores, y que dicho sea de paso, sólo los socios pueden ser administradores (con una postura un tanto rígida en cuanto a la integración de su órgano de administración), se trata de la responsabilidad de tipo subsidiaria, solidaria e ilimitada, respecto del pago de las deudas sociales. En otro orden de ideas, las Sociedades Cooperativas de Producción, son organizaciones que cuentan con amplios apoyos y beneficios, por tratarse de empresas de tipo social, muy adaptadas para la organización del trabajo, basada en principios y, a efecto de lograr mayores beneficios sociales, pero no muy ágiles en el control de capitales, toda vez que en la toma de decisiones, se deben tomar las consideraciones de manera democrática de los socios. Internacionalmente, la Organización de las Naciones Unidas (ONU), mediante la resolución 63/136, aprobada por la Asamblea General, decretó el 2012 como el Año Internacional de las Cooperativas. Y, en ese año, se hizo un enorme despliegue de esfuerzos a nivel mundial, para difundir a las Sociedades Cooperativas, como organizaciones empresariales de tipo social, para promover el empleo, el autoempleo en sectores vulnerables, así como una organización alternativa, para contribuir a la mejor distribución de la riqueza. Así, las Sociedades Cooperativas, basadas en sus principios de economía solidaria, tejen una extraordinaria red de organizaciones como Uniones, Federaciones, Confederaciones y otros organismos legales con el propósito de promover los vínculos cooperativos. Con lo cual, los cooperativistas hacen de su forma de empresa, un estilo de vida y, una forma de actuar en consecuencias favorables, hacia su entorno y medio ambiente. Internacionalmente, en diversas legislaciones a nivel mundial, las Sociedades Cooperativas cuentan con organismos de apoyo y, estímulos de distinta índole que van, desde generosos financiamientos o subvenciones, hasta estímulos fiscales. Esencialmente, las Sociedades Cooperativas son un tipo de organización que aún tiene mucho que dar, todavía tiene mucho que trabajar y, velar por los intereses de la clase que requiere obtener los beneficios de su trabajo, esfuerzo, dedicación y, es de justicia que quienes todo lo producen, tengan derecho a la posesión de todo lo que existe. Por lo tanto, es necesario reivindicar a éstas figuras empresariales que, están construyendo mayores beneficios, para quienes dan lo mejor de sí. Por otro lado, en el ámbito fiscal se ha demostrado en la tesis doctoral que las Formas Jurídicas de las Sociedades, pueden marcar la pauta en cuanto a prerrogativas en función a dichas estructuras societarias, y sobre todo, el hecho de que las propias leyes que le dan vida a cada tipo de sociedad, le brinda ciertas ventajas legales- fiscales desde su constitución. Razón por la cual, desde la elección de la Forma Jurídica de Empresa, ya se tiene contemplado ciertas bondades en el Régimen Fiscal que elijan, puesto que para cada una de las sociedades existen pros y contras. En honor a ello, describiré a continuación las principales ventajas fiscales de cada Forma Jurídica de Empresa. Accionariamente, la Sociedad Anónima y la Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada al momento de distribuir los dividendos, previamente decretados por acuerdo de asamblea de socios, tienen una retención adicional del 10%, esta retención aplica al socio ya en lo personal. Fungiendo la sociedad como retenedora y, debiendo enterar el impuesto al mes siguiente a dicha distribución. Sin embargo, la Sociedad Anónima es el tipo de empresa que cuenta con mayores cargas administrativas de diversa índole. Es decir, que la estructura administrativa de estas empresas, obligan a contar con personal especializado, para atender las referidas obligaciones, desde la contabilidad, declaraciones de pagos, informativas, anuales, contratos, convocatorias, asambleas y actas. Por otro lado, en relación a la Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada, radican los mismos compromisos tributarios, que la Sociedad Anónima. Es decir, la diferencia la encontraremos simplemente en las disposiciones contenidas en la Ley General de Sociedades Mercantiles, no en las fiscales. Quizás una de las mayores bondades se encuentra en el capital social, debido a que son sociedades de personas y, ello significa, que cada socio cuenta con una parte social, lo cual representa una importante protección, en función al incremento desmedido que puede tener la Sociedad Anónima, con los incrementos de capital, en donde se puede perder la proporción accionaria. En relación a la Sociedad Civil, tenemos que esta tributa de acuerdo al flujo financiero, esto es, al cobro de los ingresos, y deduce según los pagos efectuados de sus erogaciones: compras, gastos, intereses y deducción de las inversiones de activo. Así, la Sociedad Civil puede diferir el momento de acumulación de ingresos, hasta que efectivamente sean cobrados. Brindando con ello, un gran beneficio de pago de impuestos, hasta que cuente con lo cobrado. Y, una vez cobrados, puede disminuir la base tributaria con los pagos deducibles del negocio. Por lo tanto, existe diferencia fiscal entre la Sociedad Civil, con relación a la Sociedad Anónima y la Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada, puesto que éstas tienen que acumular sus ingresos, desde que facturan, entregan el bien u ofrecen el servicio. Desventaja marcada sobre todo, en el flujo financiero de estas sociedades. Por lo tanto, la Sociedad Civil tiene una ventaja competitiva sobre las otras, al diferir el pago del Impuesto sobre la Renta, al momento de cobro. Adicionalmente, la Sociedad Civil puede anticipar sus utilidades a sus socios durante el ejercicio, lo cual, representa otra prerrogativa atractiva, puesto que financieramente pueden disfrutar de dicho anticipo a las utilidades del ejercicio. Además, a los mencionados anticipos de utilidades se les aplica una tarifa de retención del Impuesto sobre la Renta, que va desde el 1% al 35% sobre los anticipos de utilidades. Que a diferencia de las sociedades mercantiles antes nombradas, ellas no pueden anticipar utilidades, y la tasa como ya se mencionó es de 30%, más el 10% sobre el dividendo y, un 10% de la participación a los trabajadores de las utilidades de las empresas, es decir, llegando hasta un 50% la carga tributaria, sobre las utilidades del ejercicio fiscal. En otro orden de ideas, dentro de las Sociedades Cooperativas encontramos una gran diversidad de beneficios tributarios, puesto que gozan de un Título de Estímulos Fiscales y, dentro de éste, de un Capítulo especial de Sociedades Cooperativas, en donde no causa el Impuesto sobre la Renta la sociedad, sino los socios al momento de recibir sus utilidades. Razón por la cual, durante el periodo que los socios determinen reinvertir sus utilidades, no se causará dicho impuesto. Divergentemente, con las otras tres Formas Jurídicas de Sociedades, la Ley General de Sociedades Cooperativas, otorga a éste tipo de empresas, la posibilidad de formar fondos sociales, los cuales pueden estructurarse desde sus estatutos sociales, para brindar satisfactores de calidad de vida a sus integrantes. Dichas Sociedades Cooperativas pueden realizar pagos en servicios, durante cada mes del ejercicio, a cada socio cooperativista, brindando así un pago en servicio, los cuales al no estar tipificados dentro de la Ley del Impuesto sobre la Renta, son considerados como ingresos no objeto de dicha ley, por lo tanto, tendrán los socios cooperativistas la posibilidad de recibir utilidades anticipadas, libre de causar el Impuesto sobre la Renta, a través de los pagos en servicios. El anterior argumento, es el beneficio más grande que tiene ésta Forma Jurídica de Empresa, puesto que en lugar de pagar cargas fiscales de hasta el 50% sobre las utilidades, los socios de la Sociedad Cooperativa, no son sujetos del Impuesto sobre la Renta. Es decir, no causan impuestos, consolidando esto como la mayor prerrogativa tributaria, en comparación con los Regímenes Fiscales de las otras Formas Jurídicas de empresas analizadas en la tesis doctoral, brindando ello la posibilidad de mejorar su Actividad Emprendedora, al tener menor menoscabo financiero y reinvertir las utilidades. Estratégicamente la Sociedad Cooperativa representa un enorme potencial de interactuar en el mercado, sin pago de impuestos sobre las utilidades, repartiéndose los anticipos a rendimientos y, el pago en servicios sobre las participaciones acordadas en los estatutos y refrendadas ante la asamblea, para cada socio cooperativista, de acuerdo a su trabajo prestado dentro de la empresa, ya sea por razón de tiempo, nivel técnico o académico e incluso, por la calidad de sus funciones, de acuerdo a la Ley General de Sociedades Cooperativas. Por ello, se distingue que incluso los mayores beneficios fiscales, tienen su origen en la propia ley que le da vida a las sociedades, además goza dicha Ley General de Sociedades Cooperativas, de mayor jerarquía Legal, al ser una Ley Reglamentaria de la Constitución, y la Fiscal simplemente una Ley Ordinaria. En otro orden de ideas, después de la aplicación de 102 cuestionarios a Empresas ubicadas en diversas ciudades del Estado de Baja California, en México. Se ha mostrado, que efectivamente tienen una mejor Actividad Emprendedora, las Sociedades Anónimas que aplican innovación, proactividad y tienen mayor asunción de riesgo, influyendo positivamente dicha orientación emprendedora, en el desempeño empresarial y exportador, en comparación con las otras Formas Jurídicas analizadas. Definitivamente, el modelo individual de cada dimensión de la orientación emprendedora, influye en el desempeño empresarial y, confirma que cada una de las dimensiones: innovación, proactividad y asunción de riesgos, Influyen positivamente en la Actividad Emprendedora de las Empresas del Estado de Baja California, en México. Evidentemente, las Empresas del Estado de Baja California poseen una perspectiva de futuro, anticipa?ndose a los cambios y oportunidades, que aparecen en el entorno y, detectando futuras tendencias del mercado y, modificando sus estrategias para alcanzar mayores resultados. Las empresas deben desarrollar comportamientos innovadores, proactivos y asumir riesgos, para adaptarse a la turbulencia del entorno en el que operan. Puesto que ello, permitirá mayores rendimientos empresariales y, sustentabilidad en los resultados financieros. La globalización de las economías, está obligando a las empresas a salir al exterior si desean mantener sus niveles de competitividad; de ahí que analicemos la Influencia de la Forma Jurídica y del Régimen Fiscal en la Actividad Emprendedora de las Empresas de Baja California, México. Por lo cual, se ha analizado el desempeño exportador, siendo la Forma Jurídica de la Sociedad Anónima, la que más Influye de acuerdo a su estructura y capacidad empresarial. Nos hemos centrado en las Sociedades, por ser el tipo de empresas que a nivel mundial generan mayor porcentaje de PIB, empleo y riqueza. Asimismo, se elijió al Estado de Baja California, en México, por ser el Estado con mayor índice de estructura competitiva recientemente y, con mayor número de establecimientos maquiladores, manufactureros y de servicios de exportación, siendo además, el segundo Estado de México con una economía más abierta según la Secretaría de Economía. Categóricamente, se puede analizar que tanto la innovación, como la asunción de riesgos y proactividad, dentro de la orientación emprendedora, conllevan a una mejor Actividad Emprendedora de las Empresas situadas en el Estado de Baja California, México y, consecuentemente a un mejor desempeño tanto empresarial, como exportador, con mayor énfasis en la Forma Jurídica de la Sociedad Anónima. 3. CONCLUSIONES Definitivamente, las empresas en la región ya sean: Sociedad Anónima, Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada, Sociedad Civil o Sociedad Cooperativa, evolucionan de una mejor manera, sin dentro de sus estrategias de negocio se encuentran, viven y aplican: innovación, asunción de riegos y proactividad, desarrollando así, una mejor Actividad Emprendedora. Sin embargo, no depende determinantemente, ni de la Forma Jurídica, ni del Régimen Fiscal, una mejor Actividad Emprendedora, sino de la aplicación de la orientación emprendedora, para un mejor desempeño empresarial y exportador. Sobre todo, encontrándose en frontera con el Sur de California, en Estados Unidos. Es decir, con unos de las regiones más competitivas del mundo. Además, los resultados de las encuestas de campo, determinaron indicadores de fiabilidad, para compartir con la comunidad empresarial y estratégica internacional, como instrumento de aportación, en estos momentos tan difíciles mundialmente. Adicionalmente, la Organización Internacional del Trabajo (de la cual México forma parte), establece la Recomendación 193 sobre la Promoción de las Sociedades Cooperativas, en relación a la aplicación de medidas de apoyo legislativo, que le brinden ventajas fiscales a éste tipo de agrupación de trabajadores. Finalmente, la Sociedad Cooperativa es la Forma Jurídica de Empresa en la legislación mexicana, que cuenta con mayores beneficios tributarios como Régimen Fiscal. Sin embargo, la Sociedad Anónima es la más recurrida, para efectos empresariales, aunque con mayor carga fiscal, de acuerdo al universo de las Empresas de Baja California, México a las cuales se les aplicaron los cuestionarios, sobre la investigación de campo que se efectuó en ésta tesis doctoral. Es decir, que ni la Forma Jurídica, ni el Régimen Fiscal, Influyen en la Actividad Emprendedora de la Empresa de Baja California, México. Sino la innovación, proactividad, asunción al riesgo, orientación emprendedora, grado de cambio y creación de nuevos negocios, que Influyen positivamente en sus Actividades Emprendedoras, que fortalecen el desempeño empresarial y exportador.
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John Dewey on the Horror of Making his Poetry Public
This April's Fools interview is a preview for 'The Return of the Theorists: Dialogues with Great Thinkers in International Relations' (ed. Ned Lebow, Peer Schouten & Hidemi Suganami), now available at Palgrave.
After various rounds of experimentation, two youthful IR scholars (the editor-in chief of this venture and Christian Bueger) bend space-time and access an alternate reality with the ambition to conduct an interview for Theory Talks with John Dewey. Dewey (1859-1952) was an American thinker often associated with a school of thought that has become known as American pragmatism. He is today largely known for his contributions to education studies, philosophy of science, and the theory of democracy. In this Talk, the young scholars sound out Dewey on what thinking tools his original worldview would provide for IR—after resolving a small embarrassment.
TT Dear Mr. Dewey. Thank you so much for your willingness to participate in this Talk. Theory Talks is an open-access journal that contributes to International Relations debates by publishing interviews with cutting-edge theorists. It is not often that Theory Talks is able to overcome space-time limitations and conduct a Talk with a departed theorist.
I am sorry—I think I have to interrupt you there…
TT Well, all right?
Yes, yes, the fact of the matter is that I am not a theorist and refuse to be associated with that label! To purify theory out of experience as some distinct realm, sirs, is to contribute to a fallacy that I have dedicated my life to combat! I am afraid that this venture of yours, of involving me in this Theory Talks, is stillborn.
TT Dear Professor Dewey—with all due respect, we are running ahead of matters here a little. The reason why we invited you is exactly for you to expound your ideas—and reservations—regarding theory, practice, and international relations. Would you be willing to bracket your concern for a minute? We promise to get back to it.
Well my dear sirs—it is that you insist on a dialogue—that restless, participative and dramatic form of inquiry that leads to so much more insight than books—and that you have travelled from far by means that utterly fascinate me, so I will give you the benefit of the doubt.
TT Thank you. And let us from the outset emphasize that by interviewing you for Theory Talks, we don't necessarily want to reduce your contribution to thought to the practice of theorizing. Isn't it also correct you have written poetry?
Now I am baffled a second time! I have never publicly attempted my hand at the noble art of the poetic!
TT It has to be said, Mr. Dewey, that the problem of what is and isn't public has perhaps shifted a bit since your passing away. That's something we'd like to discuss, too, but the fact of the matter is that what you have consistently consigned to the trashcan of your office at Columbia University has been just as meticulously recovered by 'a janitor with a long view'.
Oh heavens! You tell me I have been uncovered as a versifier? What of my terrible scribbling has been uncovered you say?
TT Well, perhaps you recognize the one that starts like:
I hardly think I heard you call
Since betwixt us was the wall
Of sounds within, buzzings i' the ear
Roarings i' the vein so closely near…
… 'That I was captured in illusion/Of outward things said clear…' I well remember—a piece particularly deserving of oblivion. I wrote that in the privacy of lonely office hours, thinking the world would have the mercy not to allow a soul to lay its eyes on it!
TT We are sorry to say that besides this one, a total of 101 poems has been recovered, and published in print—and you know, given some advances in technology, circulation of text is highly accelerated, meaning that one could very well say your poetry is part of the public domain.
So there I am, well half a decade after my death, subject to the indirect effects of advances in technology interacting with the associations I myself carelessly established between roses, summer days, and all too promiscuous waste bins! Sirs, in the little time we have conversed, I see the afterlife hasn't brought me any good. Hades takes on a bleaker shade…
TT Well, in reality, the future has been good to you: you are firmly canonised as one an authentic American intellectual, and stand firmly on a pedestal in the galleries occupied by the notables of modern international social thought. So why don't we explore a little bit why that is, within the specific domain of political theory? Theory Talks actually poses the same first three questions to every interviewee, followed by a number of questions specific to your thought. The first question we always pose is: What, according to you, is the biggest challenge or central debate in International Relations and what is your position vis-à-vis that challenge/debate?
I think that while it must have been noted by other interviewees that in fact this question is two separate questions—one about real-world challenges and another about theoretical debates—I would be the last to do so, and I am happy you mix concerns of theory and practice. I have always fought against establishing such a fictional separation between seemingly distinct domains of thought and practice. It is a dangerous fiction on top of it. The same goes for International Relations—while I have not dedicated myself to the study of the international as a discrete field of action, I do think that this domain does not escape some of the general observations I have made regarding society and its politics.
I hold that "modern society is many societies more or less loosely connected" by all kinds of associations. As I explain in The Public and its Problems, a fundamental challenge of modern times is that the largely technically mediated associations that constitute societies have outstretched the social mechanisms that we had historically developed on the human scale of the village to mitigate their indirect effects on others. During my life, I witnessed the proliferation of railway, telegraph, radio, steam-driven shipping, and car and weapon industries—thoroughly extending the web of association and affectedness within and across borders. This means action constantly reaches further. People close by and in far-off places are suddenly confronted with situations that they have to relate to but which are out of their control. This automatically makes them part of interested publics, with a stake in the way these mechanisations work. Now this perhaps seems abstract but consider: the spread of a new technology—I see you both looking on some small device with a black mirrored screen nervously every 5 minutes—automatically involves users as a 'stakeholder'. Your actions are mediated by them. You become affected by their design and configuration—over which you have little control. In that regard, you are part of a concerned public, but you have no way to influence the politics constitutive of these technologies.
I would say the largest challenge is to amplify participation and to institutionalize these fleeting publics. The proliferation of technologies and institutions as conduits for international associations has rendered publics around the globe more inchoate, while seemingly making it easier than ever before to influence—for good or ill—large groups through the manipulation of these global infrastructures of the public. We sowed infrastructures, we reap fragilities and more diffusely affected publics: each new technological expansion of the possibility to form associations leads to concomitant insecurities.
TT How did you arrive where you currently are in your thinking?
I have had the sheer luck or fortune to be engaged in the occupation of thinking; and while I am quite regular at my meals, I think that I may say that I would rather work, and perhaps even more, play, with ideas and with thinking than eat. I was born in the wake of the Civil War, and in times of a profound acceleration of technology as a vehicle of social, economic, and political development. Perhaps, as in your own times, upheaval and change was the status quo, stability a rare exception. My studies at Johns Hopkins with people such as Peirce had tickled an intellectual curiosity as of yet unsatisfied. I subsequently went to the University of Chicago for a decade in which my commitment to pragmatist philosophy consolidated. Afterwards at Columbia, and at the New School which I founded with people such as Charles A. Beard and Thorsten Veblen, this approach translated into a number of books. In these I applied my pragmatist convictions to such disparate issues as education, art, faith, logic and indeed politics, the topic of your question. For me, these are all interdependent aspects of society. This interdependence and inseparability of the social fabric means that skewed economic or political interests will reverberate throughout. But I am an optimist in that I also believe in the fundamental possibility and promise of science and democracy to curb radical change and reroute it into desirable directions for those affected. Good things are also woven through the social and we should amplify those to lessen the effects of negative associations.
TT What would a student require to become a specialist in International Relations or to see the world in a global way?
A question dear to my heart. You might know that throughout my entire life I have striven for transforming our understanding and practice of education. Human progress is dependent on education, and as I have learned during my travels to Russia, reform is not to be had by revolution but by gradual education. Education is training in reflective thinking. The quality of democracy depends on education.
Towards the end of my life I witnessed the creation of the United Nations. This was a clear signal to me that "the relations between nations are taking on the properties that constitute a public, and hence call for some measure of political organization". Having this forum implied that we saw the end of the complete denial of political responsibility of how the policies in one national unit affect another as we find in the doctrine of sovereignty. That the end of this doctrine is within reach means that we require global education which will ensure the rise of informed global publics which can develop the tools required to respond to global challenges.
In a more substantive fashion, I would insist that students hold on to the essential impossibility to separate out experience as it unfolds over time. The divisions and preferences that have come to dominate academic knowledge in its 20th century 'maturing' are for me a loss of rooting of knowledge in experience.
TT We're sorry, but isn't the task of social sciences to offer universal or at least objective analytical categories to make sense of the muddle of real-world experience? What you seem to be proposing is the opposite!
I align with Weber in lamenting the acceleration of the differentiation of understanding in society. This has made it difficult for your generations to address social, political and economic challenges head on while avoiding getting lost in one of its details or facets. Isn't the economic and the political, constantly encroaching on everyday life? In the end, this perhaps explains my insistence on democracy and schooling as the pivots of good society: democracy to reconstruct and defend publics, and schooling to defend individuals against (mis)understanding the world in ways that cannot be reduced to their own lived experience. If students could only hold on to this holistic perspective and eschew isolating subject matters from their social contexts.
TT Throughout your 70 years of active scholarship you have written over a thousand articles and books. One commentator of your work suggested that your body of writing is an "elaborate spider's web, the junctions and lineaments of which its engineer knows well and in and on which he is able to move about with great facility. But for the outsider who seeks to traverse or map that territory there is the constant danger of getting stuck." Many find your work difficult to navigate—what advice would you give the reader?
Sirs why would anyone want to engage in a quest of mapping all of my writings? You have to understand that thought always proceeds in relations. A web, perhaps, yes. A spider's web certainly not. A spider that spins a web out of himself, produces a web that is orderly and elaborate, but it is only a trap. That is the goal of pure reasoning, not mine. The scientific method of inquiry is rather comparable to the operations of the bee who collects material within and from the world, but attacks and modifies the collected stuff in order to make it yield its hidden treasure. "Drop the conception that knowledge is knowledge only when it is a disclosure and definition of the properties of fixed and antecedent reality; interpret the aim and test of knowing by what happens in the actual procedures of scientific inquiry". The occasion of thinking and writing is the experience of problems and the need to clarify and resolve them. Everything depends on the problem, the situations and the tools available. Inquiry does not rely on a priori elements or fixed rules. I always attempted to start my work by understanding in which problematic situations I aimed at intervening. Philosophy and academic, but also public life, in my time was heading in wrong directions that called upon me to initiate inquiry to resolve issues—in media res, as it were. When I wrote Logic, I tried to rebut dogmatic understandings. Now it appears that I am on the verge of becoming a dogma myself. In a sense, the most tragic scenario would be if people develop a "Deweyan" perspective or theory. Now I am curious, what problem brought you actually to converse with me?
TT Well, we are here today because we have been asked to contribute to an effort to collect the views of a number of different theorists, who, like you, live in different space-time. Now that we are here, could we ask you to tell us how you use the term 'inquiry'? It is one of your core concepts and in our conversation you already frequently referred to it. It is often difficult to understand what you mean by this term and how it provides direction and purpose for science…
It's a simple one, provided you have not been indoctrinated by logical positivists. You, me, all of us, frequently engage in inquiry. There is little distinction between solving problems of everyday life and the reasoning of the scientist or philosopher. Most often habit and routine will give you satisfaction. Yet when these fail or give you unpleasant experience, then reasoning begins. Without inquiry, sirs, most likely you wouldn't have been able to speak to me today! You will have to explain later how you bended time and space and which technology allowed you to travel through a black hole. But Albert was right, time travel is possible! Could we converse today without Einstein's fabulous inquiry that led him to the realization of space-time? Until the promulgation of Einstein's restricted theory of relativity, mass, time and motion were regarded as intrinsic properties of ultimate fixed and independent substances. Einstein questioned this on the basis of experimentation and an investigation of the problem of simultaneity, that is, that from different reference frames there can never be agreement on the simultaneity of events.
Reflection implies that something is believed in (or disbelieved in), not on its own direct account, but through something else which stands as witness, evidence, proof, voucher, warrant; that is, as ground of belief. At one time, rain is actually felt or directly experienced without any intermediary fact; at another time, we infer that it has rained from the looks of the grass and trees, or that it is going to rain because of the condition of the air or the state of the barometer. The fact that inquiry intervenes in ever-shifting contexts demands us to restrain from eternal truths or absolutistic logic. Someone believing in a truth such as "individualism", has his program determined for him in advance. It is then not a matter of finding out the particular thing which needs to be done and the best way, and the circumstances, of doing it. He knows in advance the sort of thing which must be done, just as in ancient physical philosophy the thinker knew in advance what must happen, so that all he had to do was to supply a logical framework of definitions and classifications.
When I say that thinking and beliefs should be experimental, not absolutistic, I have in mind a certain logic of method. Such a logic firstly implies that the concepts, general principles, theories and dialectical developments which are indispensable to any systematic knowledge are shaped and tested as tools of inquiry. Secondly, policies and proposals for social action have to be treated as working hypotheses. They have to be subject to constant and well-equipped observations of the consequences they entail when acted upon and subject to flexible revision. The social sciences are primarily an apparatus for conducting such investigations.
TT Doesn't such a form of reasoning mean we'll just muddle through without ever reaching certainty?
Absolutely correct! Arriving at one point is the starting point of another. Life flowers and should be understood as such; experimental reasoning is never complete. I can imagine the surprise you must feel at sudden unforeseen events in international political relationships when you hold on to fixed frames of how these relationships do and ought to look. That we will never reach certainty does not imply to give up the quest of certainty, however. We have to continuously improve on our tools of scientific inquiry…
TT Sorry to interrupt you here. Now it sounds as if you have a sort of methods fetish. Do you imply that everything can be solved by the right method and all that we have to do is to refine our methods? That's something that our colleagues running statistics and thinking that the problems of international can be solved by algorithms argue as well.
It might be that mathematical reasoning has well advanced since my departure, and that the importance granted to the economy and economic thinking as the sole conditioning factor of political organisation has only increased, but you haven't fully grasped what I mean by 'tools'. Tell your stubbornly calculating colleagues that inquiry is embedded in a situation, hence there cannot be a single method which would fix all kinds of problems. Second, while I admire the skill of mathematicians, what I mean by tools goes well beyond that. A tool can be a concept, a term, a theory, a proposal, a course of action, anything that might matter to settle a particular situation. A tool is however not a solution per se. It is a proposal. It must be tested against the problematic material. It matters only in so far as it is part of a practical activity aimed at resolving a problematic situation.
TT You emphasize that language is instrumental and reject the idea of a private language. You also spent quite some energy to demolish the "picture theory" of language. These arguments form the basis of what we call today "constructivism", yet they are mainly subscribed to the Philosophical Investigations of the later Ludwig Wittgenstein.
Earhh, I am aware of this fellow. He is an analytical philosopher, so develops his argument from a different background. I started to work on the social and cultural aspects of language use from around 1916. I don't know whether Wittgenstein actually read my work when he set out to write Philosophical Investigations, but you are quite right, there are obvious parallels. I think my own term of "conjoint activity" expresses pretty much the same, perhaps less eloquently, what Wittgenstein termed language games. I am pleased to hear, however, that the instrumental view on language, that objects get their meanings within a language in and by conjoint community of functional use, has become firmly established in academia. I'd have reservations about the term, 'constructivism'. It might be useful since it reminds us of all the construction work that the organization of politics and society entails. Indeed I have frequently stressed that instrumentalist theory implies construction. If constructivism doesn't mean post-mortem studies of how something has been constructed, but is directed towards production of better futures, I might be fine with the term. But perhaps I would prefer 'productivism'.
TT That is a plausible term, but we are afraid, the history of science has settled on constructivism. And you are right, the tendencies you warn us of are significantly present in our discipline.
Sirs, if you permit. I have to attend to other obligations. I wish you safe travels back. Make sure you pick up something from the gift shop before you leave.
Putu Yulita Ayu Werdhaningrum D3 – Business English, Faculty of Languages and Arts, University State of Surabaya, hyoelita@yahoo.co.id Abstract UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya is a technical services unit that can carry out the promotion and development of SMEs and Human Resources through technical training in the field of management, technology, process, production, standardization, environmental, and information. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya has the aim to improve the performance of the technical implementation of various industrial units and crafts as well as developing human resource to support the competitiveness of the global market. In support of all the aim of the UPT, the researchers looked at the role of leadership to participate in the process of developing the performance of the craftsmen. Therefore, researchers are trying to see and understand firsthand how the leadership role to improve the performance of the craftsmen and what the response generated afterwards. Through the process of making this final assignment, the author can know that leadership is very supportive to improve the performance of the craftsmen. And by conducting job training, participated in various exhibitions, and provide counseling and guidance on a variety of crafts has given quite satisfactory results for the craftsmen in preparation to launch a new world in opening a small business and can also be one way to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. Keywords: Leader, Managerial Skill, Craftsmen. Introduction High unemployment in Indonesia, including the city of Surabaya. It then becomes a reference for policy actors seek alternative employment for others to absorb the available labor. Entrepreneurship is one alternative that can provide solutions to these problems. As of 2009, the number of unemployed in Indonesia as many as 3.713 million people, higher than the desired target of government at the level of 2.38 million people (Kompas, 2009). In addition, until 2007, there were 740,206 unemployed college graduates. This proves that the field work in Indonesia is very small while the number of graduates each year continues to grow, Eddy Suryanto Soegoto, 2010. Entrepreneurship in the goods sector is economic artery in big cities like Surabaya. The high increase of population, resulting in the need for goods is also increasing rapidly. The problem becomes more complex due to the time available did not allow the public to be able to do all the priority needs at once. Bids will need items that instantly becomes an option. According Ritonga (2011), unemployment is mainly due to the problem of unskilled labor and skilled. The company prefers candidates who already have the skills or expertise. The issue is very relevant in our country, given the large numbers of unemployed are people who do not have the skills or expertise. The causes of unemployment are very visible from the complaint that the lack of skills in a person. The lack of confidence in one's soul, lack of interest and lack of socializing with others is also very influential in the intensity rising unemployment. It also agrees with Drs. Sudrajad, MM. (2011) who said "Cause Unemployment in Indonesia is the lack of desire to work, lack of skills and have thoughts just want to be an employee." This should be addressed with all efforts possible, because the average company today want and need employees who have the skill and expertise. Strengthening small and medium business sector is one of Indonesia's development policy. SMEs have the ability to survive in times of economic crisis gripping the country. At great effort faltered storm knocked down the financial crisis, the SME sector is able to give breath to the nation's economy. On this basis then arise initiative on craftsmen, to be able to meet those needs, by following the guidance and development by implementing the rules or ordinances of a leader who is really to improve the performance skills of a craftsman and judge it as something that is fairly decent to undertake entrepreneurial activities. Therefore, this is the reason why the researcher write about the efforts of a craftsman in business by implementing the rules of a good leader to improve their skills. In this case why the writer discuss this issue in order to make a useful input for all beginner craftsmen in Indonesia in order to become a successful craftsman and can open their own business field and in order to reduce the value of unemployment in Indonesia, especially in Surabaya. In the discussion of this material writer took guidance on UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. Because according to the writer here is one of the features of a good government and the right to develop one's own skills to become a craftsman by implementing the rules of a successful leader as well. And in this case, the craftsmen also want to improve the quality and quantity of a craftsman in Indonesia. And with the application is expected to be more able to produce more young craftsmen who are talented and can create new business field and to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. By conducting training to improve the skills of a person more likely to get jobs than those who do not. This is because companies prefer to hire people with the skills, so do not bother to practice again. And can even be a great opportunity to expand the opening of a new business pitch. This is also one way to overcome the educated unemployment is mostly done by the government, AnneAhira (Social and Cultural Rights, 2012). Based on the research, the objective of the study are : To describe the implementation of leadership role, To implementation of leadership role of the craftsman, To analyze the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role. The researcher hopes this study can give contribution to the student, craftsmen, University, the institution and for the readers. For the student it can be provide new insights about the real world of work to students in the field of trade and industry and can prepare themselves before entering the world of work firsthand. For the Craftsmen to be a reference to become a successful entrepreneur by implementing the rule of a leader. For the University as input to evaluate the Extend to which the curriculum has been implement in accordance with requirements of skilled manpower in the field. For the Institution as a media to open up new business opportunities as an example for students. For the Readers can provide the information needed by the reader. Definition of Leadership Leadership is a person or a leader who can build the subordinates especially in this case is a craftsman to craftsmen to become a more developed and has a broad view of creativity in him. By applying the concepts and meaning of fostering a craftsman can be expected to be a key new birth craftsmen talented and have high creativity. A leader in this regard should be always trying to develop the talents of the craftsmen gradually and regularly which lead to the desired goals or objectives. Leaders and leadership can be approached from different angles (Thoha, 1986:3). Each approach will bear different meanings with other approaches. Leaders and leadership needed by humans due to the advantages and disadvantages possessed by each human being. The leader is a person who has certain skills that can influence their followers to cooperate towards the achievement of predetermined objectives. The ideal leader is a dream for every person, because that's what leaders will bring forward-pullback of an organization, institution, company, state and nation. Surely the soul of a leader must have good soul of leadership that has been described in the above basic concepts and leadership should not be viewed as a facility for control, but meant as a sacrifice that must be carried out as well as possible. Leadership is also not arbitrary to act, but the power to serve and protect and do the fairest. Miftha Thoha in his book Organizational Behavior (1983:255) leader is someone who has the ability to lead, it means having the ability to influence another person or group without regard to the form of reason. Kartini Kartono (1994:33) the leader is a person who has the skills and strengths in particular skills and strengths in one area, so he was able to influence others to jointly carry out certain activities, for the achievement of one or more goals. Concept of Leadership The basic concept of the soul of leadership by Mr. Athoenk's (2010): Leadership is a force that flows in a way that is not known to the leader of the disciples, encouraging his followers to be mobilized on a regular basis to the point that formulated. Working towards goals and achievements provide satisfaction for leaders and followers. Leadership is also coloring and colored by the place, the environment and climate in which it serves. Leadership does not work in an empty room, but the atmosphere created by the various elements. Leadership is always active, it could change in rank, intensity and extent. Leadership works according to the principles, tools and methods are defined and fixed. Leadership Function According to Yuki (1998) the function of leadership is trying to influence and direct the employees to work hard, have high morale and high motivation to achieve organizational goals. This is primarily tied to the function of regulating the relations between individuals or groups within the organization. Craftsmen Subject (actor) and object in every handicraft industry development program. People who work to make craft items or people who have specific skills related to the craft. These items are not made by machines, but by hand so often called handicraft items. Craftsman is a professional who works consistently high quality, "as an actor he was a perfect craftsmen". Craftsmen create great skill in the manual arts. Craftsmen also called creator, which means people who grow or make or create things. The Relationship between Leadership and Craftsmen In this case the role of a leader is also very important and participate in fostering and development by conducting training and exhibitions the work of craftsmen. And may provide a strategy to cultivate the efforts of craftsmen. It is expected that the craftsmen also have the soul of a leader in developing a business. It is also stated by Ari Setiawanan (2011) in his personal blogger states "Leadership is the process of influencing or give examples of leaders to followers in an effort to achieve organizational goals. Natural way to learn leadership is to "do it in the workplace" with practices like apprenticeship in a skilled artist, craftsman, or practitioner. In this connection, the expert is expected as part of its role providing teaching / instruction ". Discussion about leaders and leadership as well as its influence on a craftsman in general explains how to be a good leader, and a style that suits the nature of leadership and what conditions need to be possessed by a good leader. Nevertheless it is still difficult to implement in full, so that in practice only a few leaders are able to perform well and the leadership to bring his followers to the desired state. The conclusion is that the performance can be improved either craftsmen, company or institution requires a good leader. Performance can be affected craftsmen of how leaders motivate, leadership style, giving implementation skills of the craftsmen, performance planning, and human resource management policies. Someone craftsmen who satisfied the leadership of the head or leader, will show a good attitude and strive earnestly perform their duties as the reciprocal of the leaders and organizations that have given him satisfaction. If the quality of work improved craftsmen, will have an impact on the quality of earnings in a personal effort to open his business. Leadership positive influence in improving the performance of craftsmen, craftsmen positive influence on the performance of the work of art. With so very obvious that the relationship between the two closely related and have a positive impact for both parties. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research activities will not regardless of where the data is the raw material of information to provide a specific description of the object of research. Data are facts collected by researchers for the purpose of solving the problem or answer the research questions. Research data can come from a variety of sources collected by using a variety of techniques during the course of the study. Based on the source, research data can be grouped into two types of data qualitative research and quantitative research data. In this research, entitled "The Implementation of Leadership Role in Improving Managerial Skill of Craftsmen in UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya". Based on the question "How does the implementation of leadership role in improving managerial skill of craftsmen? And How does the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role?" so this research used qualitative research. Qualitative data is data that collected by means of a process that saw the object of research. Such data over see the process rather than the result because it is based on a description of the process and not on mathematical calculations. Data collection techniques include observation, interviews, literature reviews, etc. It also agrees with Cahya Suryana (2010:115) which says the data is qualitative data in the form of words, not in the form of numbers. Qualitative data obtained through a variety of data collection techniques such as interviews, document analysis, the discussion focused or observations that have been set forth in the notes field (transcript). Other forms of qualitative data was obtained through shooting images or video recordings. In this research the researcher conducted research in UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. UPT is Technical Services Unit are carrying out promotion and development of Small and Medium Industries (SMEs) and the Human Resources or business through Technical Training in the field of Management, Technology, Production Process, Standardization, Environment and Information. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya is located on Jl. Pagesangan II / 38-42 Surabaya. In this place has two training rooms, each for a capacity of 40 people, has 10 bedrooms for 40 craftsmen, and other facilities provided. The writer believe this place highly qualified resource persons and trusted to get info on how the implementation of leadership role of the craftsmen to improve their performance and other info needed writer. In this case the implementation of leadership role is expected to improve the managerial skills of the craftsmen and to cultivate leadership skills and can teach it back to the new craftsmen later. In improving the performance of the craftsmen, the researcher often do see education and training, held an exhibition to the work of the craftsmen, and attend job training activities in the field of craft in UPT. Therefore the role of leadership is needed to manage and cultivate the managerial skills of the craftsmen. The role of leaders build skills one must master thriving. This is the next level of the management skills pyramid. Someone who must master personal development. This is the level of management skills, which shows the skills a person must master to be successful and show how management skills build on each other toward success. These are the basics that made the role of a leader for the management skill craftsmen: Plans Set Direct Control Motivation Conducting Training and Coaching The direct involvement of leader In this study the data of things that can be applied by craftsmen is the attitude of leadership, responsibility, caring and discipline. All that can be applied when crafting artisan training, opened the exhibition and even open their own craft business. Which was all the training can provide the knowledge and skills in the use of natural materials as craft materials. Preparing artisans to improve their skills through training and creative design products. Facilitate in developing its business so as to improve the competitiveness of products in the local and international markets. By implementing a leadership role in the managerial skill craftsmen are expected to increase knowledge of the design and color combination to make crafts. Craftsmen can transfer the new knowledge gained to other craftsmen and all those who would learn a new craftsmen. Craftsmen can be more creative in making other handicrafts. RESULT AND DISCUSSION This chapter will analyze the data that has been collected. The purpose of analyzing the data is to answer the questions of the researcher. As mentioned in the first chapter, "How does the implementation of leadership role in improving managerial skill of craftsmen?" and "How does the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role?". The subject in this research are the craftsmen. From sources that the authors could have about ±30 craftsmen who are doing the implementation and development of skill. In this research the author prefers the craftsmen making plaiting and ceramic or gypsum. The Implementation of Leadership Role in Improving Managerial Skill of Craftsmen In this case the data subject can be applied by craftsmen is the attitude of leadership, responsibility, a sense of caring and discipline. All that can be applied when artisans craft training, opened the exhibition and even opened his own craft business. Which is the training it can provide all the knowledge and skills in the use of natural materials as craft materials. Preparing crafters to enhance the capabilities and skills through creative design products. Facilitate in developing its business so as to improve the competitiveness of products in the local and international markets. With the moral support and provide the necessary facilities, providing motivation, conduct training and job fairs for the efforts of craftsmen also a way to improve the performance of the leader of the craftsmen. Here are some ways to improve the performance of the craftsmen: Guide and cultivate prospective new employers that will be developed into an independent businessman. Given coaching or income. Given technical training. Examples given creative woven design, gypsum, and ceramics. Held the exhibition of the craftsmen. The purpose of these activities is intended to: Improve the skills of the craftsmen, To foster the craftsmen in order to thrive, That the craftsmen more creative, Can give entrepreneurs insight, To support the welfare and craftsmen, Fostering the craftsmen to be independent and get satisfactory results, Mental strengthen the craftsmen to become a successful entrepreneur, as a successful entrepreneur should require struggle and sacrifice. The Craftsmen Respond after the Implementation of Leadership Role Subject (actor) and object in every handicraft industry development program. People who work to make craft items or people who have specific skills related to the craft. These items are not made by machines, but by hand so often called handicraft items. Craftsman is a professional who works consistently high quality, "as an actor he was a perfect craftsmen". For craftsmen to apply leadership role to improve the managerial skills of the craftsmen is very important because it can help the craftsmen to be able to perform all the activities during the training on the craft. In this case that is the primary motivation is a craftsman wants to be a successful artisans, craft businesses can open and create new jobs to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion The conclusion is that the performance can be improved either craftsmen, company or institution requires a good leader. Performance can be affected craftsmen of how leaders motivate, leadership style, giving implementation skills of the craftsmen, performance planning, and human resource management policies. Someone craftsmen who satisfied the leadership of the head or leader, will show a good attitude and strive earnestly perform their duties as the reciprocal of the leaders and organizations that have given him satisfaction. If the quality of work improved craftsmen, will have an impact on the quality of earnings in a personal effort to open his business. Leadership positive influence in improving the performance of craftsmen, craftsmen positive influence on the performance of the work of art. With so very obvious that the relationship between the two closely related and have a positive impact for both parties. Suggestion The expectations of the craftsmen is that welfare can be much better and can open their own business field by always applying a given leadership roles during a training run. And hopefully this research can be useful for readers to find the information they want to know about the craftsmen can add insight and knowledge. And also can make a new discourse about the craftsmen at UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. REFERENCE Peraturan Gubernur Jawa Timur, 2008, Organisasi Dan Tata Kerja Unit Pelayanan Teknis Dinas Perindustrian Dan Perdagangan Provinsi Jawa Timur, Surabaya. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Jawa Timur, 2012, Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Karyawan dan Pengrajin, Jawa Timur, Surabaya. Reh, F. John. 2009. Management Skill. About.com Guide Http//.www.geogle.com.Bisnis dan Kewirausahaan Qibtiyah, Mariyatul. 2008. "PENGEMBANGAN USAHA SENTRA PENGRAJIN BATIK". Malang: UIN. Reh, F. John. 2009. Management Guide. About.com Guide. It's retrieved from http://management.about.com/bio/F-John-Reh-229.htm http//.www.geogle. com.What is Leadership Drs. Sudrajad, MM. 2011. Kiat Mengentaskan Pengangguran dan Kemiskinan melalui Wirausaha. Bumi Aksara Athoenk's. Mr. (2010) Konsep Jiwa Pemimpin / Leadership. http://athoenk46.wordpress.com/?s=konsep+jiwa+pemimpin Zahra. Fatimah. 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20 años las naciones ricas pensando el Desarrollo; 20 años las naciones pobres defendiendo los recursos; 20 años, sin recursos y sin Desarrollo. 4. Movimientos sociales se resisten a la minería a gran escala en América LatinaAsí como se evidencia la relación entre conflictos mineros y violaciones a los derechos de las personas que cohabitan en zonas con recursos, podemos afirmar que existe una capacidad de organización social, que denuncia y defiende derechos con base en la universalidad (para todos), la inviolabilidad, en la no negociabilidad, en la imprescriptibilidad, en la indivisibilidad y en la irreversibilidad. Sin embargo esta protesta y resistencia por parte de los ciudadanos que están directamente involucrados en conflictos mineros en América Latina, presentan problemas de todo tipo que van desde la criminalización de la protesta hasta la expulsión de sus territorios (1) (Gráfico 6). El cuadro 3 demuestra los casos de criminalización, siendo esta la práctica más reiterada en los países con mayores recursos y también en donde sus poblaciones en buen porcentaje son comunidades étnicas (indígenas). Cuadro 3.PaísCasos de criminalizaciónMéxico1Nicaragua1Colombia1Brasil1El Salvador2Guatemala3Perú7Ecuador10Es importante resaltar que no se trata de una serie de protestas sociales de tipo reaccionario al sistema económico, como fueron los discursos anti-imperialistas de los años 70. Se trata de justas reclamaciones por la defensa de la Vida y la exigencia a las multinacionales a la extracción responsable; no solo con la naturaleza sino con las comunidades que conviven en ambientes llenos de recursos. En este sentido la organización social latinoamericana, se ha ido cuantificando y cualificado especialmente en aquellas regiones / países en donde se presentan más conflictos y a su vez mayor inversión externa al sector minero. (Cuadro 4) Cuadro 4. Matriz de organizaciones involucradas asuntos mineros según el Observatorio de conflictos Mineros de América Latina y el I Encuentro Nacional Minero, Colombia, 2012 (2) PaísOrganizacionesColombia (3)Censat Agua Viva / AICO Pueblo de los Pastos, AIDA, Asentamiento indígena wayuú de Tamaquito II, Asociaciones de Zonas de Reserva Campesina, ASOCOMUNAL (Caldono), Asociación Minga, ASAPAZ, ASOCAMPO, BIOSIGNO, FEDERACIÓN DE MINEROS DEL CHOCO (AFROS), Colectivo de Abogados José Alvear Restrepo, CAMAWARI Pueblo (Awá de Ricaurte Nariño), CEAT (UN) UNIVALLE, Cimarrón, CIMA, Cinep, CODHES, Colectivo C.A.M.P.O, Colectivo S.E.A.T., Comisión de Seguimiento a sentencia 072, CSJ, Consejos Comunitarios del Chocó, Corporación Arco iris, Corporación Compromiso – Bucaramanga, CRIHU (Huila), CRIR (Risaralda), Espacio Regional de Paz del Cauca, Fundación Natura, Gidca, Instituto de Estudios para el Desarrollo y la Paz – INDEPAZ, Informe de desarrollo humano PNUD, International Alert, Mesa joven minería, Mesa de Unidad Agraria – MUA, OIA (Antioquia), ONIC, PCN, Pensamiento y Acción Social, PAS, Planeta Paz, Pueblo PASTOS (Nariño), Pueblo Wayuú (GUAJIRA), Pueblo Piaroa de Vichada, Pueblo Nasa de Caquetá, Suippcol, Red de justicia ambiental, Resguardo indígena Wayuú de Provincial.EcuadorAcción Ecológica, Pastoral Shuar, Pueblo Shuar Arutam, FICSH, Coordinadora de mujeres Intag, CDNV, Fundación Vientos de VidaPerúGrufides, Cooperación, Vima, ConacamiBoliviaCEPA, CEDIB, Centro Vicente Cañas, SOPE, EcomujeresArgentinaAsamblea Patagónica por la vida y el territorio contra el saqueo y la contaminaciónChileOlca, Conferre, Justicia paz e integralidad de la creación de St Columbano, Defensa del Valle Chalinga, Pastoral Salvaguarda de la creación, OCAS, Consejo Ciudadano Salamanca, Grupo Atacama LimpiaFuente: Elaboración propia con base en información del Observatorio de Conflictos mineros de América Latina, disponible en http://www.conflictosmineros.net/quienessomos, mayo 2012 El trabajo que adelanta el Observatorio de Conflicto mineros es importante. Sin embargo existe otro cúmulo de organizaciones que realizan un trabajo similar y no hacen parte de él como por ejemplo la Asamblea Popular por el Agua en Argentina y en Colombia, el Consejo Nacional Indígena del Cauca, CRIC.En Argentina, La Asamblea Popular por el Agua es una iniciativa ciudadana que surgió en el año 2006 como una expresión de rechazo a los proyectos de la mega minería y por la defensa del agua. La Asamblea que reúne diferentes sectores sociales de la provincia de Mendoza, logro en junio de 2007 que se sancionara la ley 7722 la cual prohíbe la minería contaminante. Desde entonces, esta asamblea conformada por un cúmulo de organizaciones sociales y comunitarias de la provincia, trabaja por defender el ambiente libre de minería contaminante por medio de la movilización social, la pedagogía ciudadana entre otras (4). En Colombia existen muchos más colectivos y asambleas populares y sociales que de a poco se han ido organizando para debatir y hacer propuestas sobre el impacto y los costos de la mega minería. El ejemplo más reciente, fue el Primer Encuentro Nacional Territorio, productividad, ambiente y minería, La María- Piendamó, Cauca- Colombia, 27 de abril de 2012, convocado principalmente por el Consejo Regional Indígena del Cauca- CRIC. Este primer encuentro denotó la necesidad apremiante de las comunidades que se resisten a salir de sus territorios o permitir el uso indiscriminado de los recursos, dando paso a la contaminación del ambiente, la desigualdad económica, la ausencia de transparencia institucional entre otras.Conclusiones del Primer Encuentro Nacional Territorio, productividad, ambiente y mineríaa) que la política se orienta en beneficio de favorecer la privatización de empresas públicas mineras y el manejo exclusivo de las transnacionales; siendo declarada como actividad de utilidad pública e interés social lo que habilita un proceso de reforma y transformación del Estado por medio de una locomotora legislativa que facilita la expropiación de tierra e irrespeta el derecho fundamental a la consulta previa. Informando que se han protocolizado 156 procesos de consulta previa en el 2012 referidos a proyectos de inversión donde ha sido característico que su realización se hace desconociendo la participación de las organizaciones regionales.b) que hay especulación por parte de las compañías en las fases previas a la explotación, y que los recursos que pagan las compañías por concepto de regalías e impuestos sobre la renta, les son devueltos luego en exenciones fiscales y subsidios; facilitados por la corrupción de las instituciones locales, departamentales y nacionales.c) que se han ejecutado desalojos de comunidades, desplazamientos masivos y pérdida de territorios ancestralesd) que hay contaminación del aire por las explosiones para extraer el carbón, derrame de sustancias tóxicas, muerte de peces, contaminación de fuentes hídricas, deforestación y erosión de suelos, destrucción de las redes de acueductos comunitarios Se presentan fenómenos de transformación de las culturas, ruptura del tejido social, pérdida de usos y costumbres, afectación a las economías locales (trueques), invasión de tecnología que afecta a la población joven de los resguardos, llegada de programas asistenciales gubernamentales que afectan la cohesión de los pueblos indígenas, pérdida de medicina tradicional y de sabios indígenas cuidadores del territorio.f) que la amenaza minera se extiende en la mayoría de los territorios, utilizando nueva tecnología para adelantar las actividades de prospección y exploración en especial sobre territorios ocupados ancestralmente por comunidades indígenas, campesinas y afro descendientes; lo cual produce alteración de usos del suelo y de la productividad de la tierra, y que las empresas transnacionales, por medio de actos de corrupción estatal diseñan planes de ordenamiento territorial de los municipios. También que las zonas entregadas en concesión en territorios indígenas coinciden con sitios sagrados o con sus áreas circundantes. Se denuncia que muchos proyectos de infraestructura vial están al servicio de megaproyectos mineros.g) Que los conflictos mineros acrecientan la presencia de actores armados, fuerza pública, guerrilla, paramilitares, en particular la creación de unidades militares minero-energéticas especializadas en la custodia y protección de los proyectos y batallones de alta montaña en territorios indígenas; se intensifican los enfrentamientos entre grupos armados que afectan a la población civil con situaciones generadas por explosivos abandonados o minas anti persona.Fuente: apartes de las conclusiones Generales del Encuentro Nacional de Territorio, Productividad, Ambiente y Minería La María, Piendamó, Cauca, abril 27 de 20125. Desarrollo y sustentabilidadLa creciente complejidad de los distintos sistemas sociales y políticos contemporáneos, nos hacen reflexionar nuevamente sobre aquello que parecía claro y resuelto hace 20 años. Estuvimos en Rio 1992, debatimos ideas rectoras e imaginamos las recetas para conseguir el desarrollo sostenible. En el papel todo parecía quedar claro y de fácil consecución (4). 20 años después nos encontramos de nuevo en Rio (junio, 2012), con algunos deberes inconclusos y en muchos casos con problemas de desarrollo y sostenibilidad agravados. Entonces, la primera pregunta que se formula, es ¿qué paso en estos 20 años para no haber logrado los objetivos planteados en 1992? En estos 20 años, se ratifica que la especie humana no es una especie que actúa exclusivamente por intereses económicos; comprobamos lo anterior, porque algunas sociedades humanas conservan su componente espiritual y luchan por ello, lo cual las hace trascender para valorar otra realidad, que se desconoce al momento de trazar políticas de alcance social y político para el desarrollo sostenible. Todos los pueblos quieren alcanzar este desarrollo sostenible: el problema que sugiere esta premisa, es qué significa estos dos conceptos para ellos y como se realiza una construcción colectiva para lograrlo. Un ejemplo claro de lo anterior, es la explotación minera en América Latina. Sin entender esta relación, jamás podrá existir un proyecto minero sin conflictos sociales o políticos. O se realizará dicho proyecto sin que impliquen violaciones a derechos, si esa comunidad tiene antecedentes mineros, es decir, si históricamente tiene vínculos de ese tipo con su tierra. Al respecto, es importante trabajar y demostrar que los recursos son necesarios para el crecimiento económico de las naciones, pero que deben existir consensos sociales para el uso de estos y su relación con quienes auténticamente han cuidado de ellos. Presentamos algunas ideas que sirven para abrir un debate, que seguramente se dará y seguirá después de Rio +20. Primer asunto relevante: Confianza en el Estado. Una de las mayores razones por las cuales las comunidades locales se resisten a convivir con proyectos de mega minería, es por ausencia de confianza que existe hacia las instituciones del Estado; este es el caso de países como Bolivia o Argentina. Los indicadores de Percepción de Corrupción (Transparency International, 2011) señalan que la mayoría de países de América Latina registran una percepción media-alta de corrupción en sus instituciones (5). El país en donde los ciudadanos confían y tienen la mejor percepción es Nueva Zelanda que ocupa el primer lugar; el último lugar a nivel mundial lo tiene Somalia. Gráfico 8. Fuente: Corruption Perceptions, Index 2011. Disponible en:http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2011/results/ Existen vacios jurídicos y políticos para confiar en que las instituciones pueden controlar acciones de la mega minería y obrar con transparencia. Los Estados están en la obligación, dado sus mandatos constitucionales, de generar confianza a las comunidades y bienestar a las naciones. Esta situación se complejiza aún más, cuando en países como Colombia o Perú, sus gobiernos son llamados de manera informal por las empresas trasnacionales y el sector privado como 'gobiernos pro-mineros'. El discurso del presidente Santos en el primer congreso de Minería a Gran escala, que se realizó en Cartagena en febrero de 2012, así lo refleja: " Aquí hay todavía espacio –de sobra– para recibir a las grandes casas mineras –y a las junior, por supuesto– que estén dispuestas a trabajar en armonía con el desarrollo de Colombia". Segundo asunto relevante: la Generación y distribución de la riqueza, no de la pobreza. Los informes de la Consejo Económico para América Latina- CEPAL- 2011, señalan que los índices de pobreza en América Latina han disminuido, como lo presenta el gráfico 9. Sin embargo estos porcentajes no logran estar por debajo del diez por mil (10%), cifra que no es comparable con las obtenidas por economías de los países del báltico, la cual está por debajo del 5%. Con lo anterior, se mantiene premisa, que América Latina es el segundo subcontinente más pobre del planeta, con mayor diversidad y más conflictos sociales. Gráfico 9. Fuente: CEPAL, 2010. Recurso Disponible en:http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/37/60/48157176.pdf La actividad minera requiere de grandes inversiones; a pesar de la generación de empleo informal (mano de obra no calificada en su mayoría) y la actividad económica que esta deja, es cortoplacista: se produce riqueza en forma rápida y fugaz; sin embargo, se plantea como problema, de un lado el retiro o la falta de garantías para la reinversión en países en dónde se han generado los beneficios para las empresas mineras; y de otro, la percepción social que el boom de la minería no va más allá del mediano plazo, acentúa la inestabilidad económica de las comunidades en dónde se desarrolla la industria extractiva a gran escala. Los complejos contenidos sobre la maximización de las rentas y la consolidación de las inversiones, es un asunto de la política macroeconómica de las naciones, que excede a la minería y en algunos casos no se plantea. Sería un error tener la visión que la minería es tan solo un negocio ilimitado en el tiempo, pues se estaría desconociendo la matriz productiva de muchos pueblos tradicionalmente agrícolas, ganaderos o industriales. Si el asunto de la mega minería no se percibe como una política de estado, la confianza y la estabilidad nunca hará parte de las bondades de las naciones. Tercer asunto: Viabilidad Social y Ambiental. En la división de Desarrollo Sustentable, del Departamento de Asuntos Económicos y Sociales de Naciones Unidas, 6 países -Colombia, Argentina, Chile, Guatemala, México y Costa Rica- presentan informe 'especifico' sobre las regulaciones jurídicas y socio ambientales de la minería. Mientras que países con altos índices de inversión minera como Perú, El Salvador, Bolivia y Brasil la actividad minera 'hace parte de los informes anuales' por país que archiva la organización (6). Podría inducir lo anterior, que la necesidad de socializar a nivel regional la legislación y regulación para esta industria es apenas incipiente y que se hace necesario compartir estudios y experiencias para trabajar de manera conjunta sobre este asunto específico. Es posible afirmar que los proyectos mineros en América Latina carecen de viabilidad social y ambiental; viabilidad que no se consigue por diversos intereses de tipo económico, sociales, políticos, pero principalmente porque la minería, altera las relaciones del hombre con la tierra. Recordemos que las poblaciones rurales la valoran mucho más allá de lo meramente económico. Al respeto surge uno de los debates cruciales y controvertidos como el uso de la energía o el uso del Agua. El agua es tal vez es la cuestión más conflictiva cuando se proponen o imponen proyectos mineros de gran envergadura. Creemos que es imposible que cuando se demanda un recurso vital como este y se pone el peligro el derecho adquirido, no surjan (7) conflictos. Entonces se replantean cuestiones como, el valor en el mercado del agua, sus usos, su propiedad, etc. Pero volvemos al punto de partida, la relación del hombre con su tierra, en gran parte depende del agua, de su calidad, cantidad y de su disponibilidad en el tiempo. En este sentido, nadie está dispuesto a poner en juego esta relación sin tener claro y garantizado que sus derechos, no serán vulnerados. Los estados que pretendan tener proyectos mineros en sus territorios, deben sin lugar a duda tener claridad social, política y jurídica sobre este balance: abastecimiento hídrico pertinente y garantía al derecho fundamental a este. ¿Qué esperamos de Rio +20? Una reconocida periodista Colombiana Marta Ruiz- afirmó en una columna de opinión lo siguiente: "Como si fuera poco, la "buena" noticia que trajo Santos de Asia es que los chinos están interesados en nuestro oro. Y uno no sabe si reír, llorar o salir a incendiar las dragas (…) Anuncio y premonición de los conflictos que va a desatar la minería" (8). Y no es insolencia. Como sugerimos en este escrito, es indudable que las sociedades contemporáneas necesitan los recursos naturales para mantener la forma de vida que desde la modernidad se ha encausado; sin embargo se hace urgente, necesario y justificable, en el marco de la exigibilidad de los derechos universales de las comunidades que han sostenido relaciones naturales, espirituales y económicas con la tierra llena de recursos, que el uso sea racional y sostenible. Son muchas las organizaciones sociales que trabajan por la defensa a la vida y el medio ambiente según lo reporta el Observatorio de Conflictos Mineros de América Latina; en ese sentido es posible hacer algunas sugerencias, de cara a la reunión de Rio+20 durante el mes de junio de 2012 y con el ánimo de visibilizar el debate, eliminar las tasas de violaciones a derechos fundamentales por causas relacionadas a la mega minería y de cara a disminuir las tasas de pobreza e inequidad que manifiestan las comunidades afectadas. Una cumbre que reafirme y reconozca los derechos individuales y los derechos de las naciones a hacer uso de sus recursos, buscando un desarrollo sostenible en el marco de las realidades culturales, sociales, políticas y económicas propias. Un espacio en donde se reflexione y se tomen decisiones sobre la promoción de políticas que prioricen la solución de problemas locales o micro regionales, en donde cada comunidad local pueda decidir qué tipo de desarrollo sostenible quiere y le conviene, en el marco del respeto a la soberanía y los derechos fundamentales. Un lugar de apoyo y financiamiento a los acuerdos transversales entre países en vía de desarrollo. Especialmente en lo concerniente a políticas públicas que atiendan problemáticas comunes como debería ser, el impacto de proyectos de mega minería en territorios étnicos y campesinos. Un espacio que abogue por la consulta previa, libre y transparente a los pueblos que tradicionalmente han cultivado y cosechado en estas tierras. Otra cumbre para la tierra y para quienes habitan en ella.Referencias: Conclusiones al Primer Encuentro Nacional Territorio, Producción, Ambiente y Minería, La María, Cauca, Colombia, 27 de abril de 2012. Disponible En: http://www.indepaz.org.co/?p=2028Corruption Perceptions, Index 2011. Disponible En: http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2011/results/Cumbre para la tierra, programa 21, 14 de junio de 1992, Rio de Janeiro. Disponible En: http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=52&ArticleID=49&l=en Dayton-Johnson, Jeff (2011). Perspectivas económicas para América Latina, 2011. Banco Central de la Reserva del Perú, Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos –OCDE-, México D.C. Declaración de Rió sobre el Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo, del 14 de junio de 1992. Disponible En:http://www.pnuma.org/docamb/dr1992.php Escobar, Arturo (1996). La invención de tercer mundo. Construcción y deconstrucción del desarrollo, Ed. Norma, Bogotá González Posso, Camilo (2011). Renta minera, petróleo y comunidades. Ed. Indepaz, Bogotá Memorias al I Congreso de Minería a Gran escala, Cartagena de Indias, febrero de 2012. Disponible En: http://www.mineriaagranescala.org/smge/ Mingin Intelligence Series (2012). Business News Americas, En: http://www.bnamericas.com/news/mining Observatorio Latinoamericana de Conflictos Ambientales (2012). Observatorio de conflictos mineros de América Latina, En http://www.olca.cl/oca/index.htm Division for Sustainable Development, UN department of economic and social affair, En:http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_natiinfo_costarica.shtml (1) Todos los casos que registra el Observatorio sobre desplazamiento forzado están en Colombia.(2) Las organizaciones políticas, sociales, ambientales y comunitarias que hacen parte de este Observatorio, no representan la totalidad de acciones colectivas que existen y que realizan un seguimiento y denuncia a las actividades mineras en América Latina.(3) Censat Agua Viva es la única organización colombiana que hace parte del Observatorio; sin embargo existen otras muchas organizaciones que participan en este proceso, las cuales se hicieron presentes en el Primer Encuentro Nacional Territorio, productividad, ambiente y minería, La María- Piendamó, Cauca- Colombia, 27 de abril de 2012(4) Más información disponible en: http://quienessomosasamblea.blogspot.com/ (5) La Declaración de Rio/92 fue una declaración de principios a los cuales los estados firmantes se comprometían a mejorar las condiciones de vida de todos los habitantes del planeta. Por ejemplo el principio 11 "Los Estados deberán promulgar leyes eficaces sobre el medio ambiente. Las normas, los objetivos de ordenación y las prioridades ambientales deberían reflejar el contexto ambiental y de desarrollo al que se aplican. Las normas aplicadas por algunos países pueden resultar inadecuadas y representar un costo social y económico injustificado para otros países, en particular los países en desarrollo". Según varios estudios, se ha demostrado que los países latinoamericanos con gran cantidad de recuros naturales como Colombia o Perú, la legislación es inoportuna.(6) Percepciones de Corrupción de 182 países de todos los continentes, Index 2011 de Transparencia Internacional(7) Los reportes nacionales que cada país entrega a división de Desarrollo Sustentable, del departamento de asuntos económicos y sociales de Naciones Unidas (búsqueda en Internet, junio 2012) solo los 6 países mencionados presentan un informe. No son informes estandarizados pero tienen características comunes como información sobre las políticas y regulaciones internas, situación actual de la minería en cada país, mecanismos de seguimiento y monitoreo, buenas prácticas en el sector. Fuente: http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_natiinfo_costarica.shtml(8) Romeo el Agresivo, En: Revista Arcadia, 25 de mayo de 2012. *Tathiana Montaña es Colombiana, asesora académica del Instituto de Estudios para el Desarrollo y la paz (Colombia); profesora universitaria licenciada en Relaciones Internacionales, con estudios de perfeccionamiento en Desarrollo; Magister en Ciencia Política. Actualmente es candidata a Doctor en Política y Gobierno, mención en Relaciones Internacionales. Ha publicado libros y artículos en medios nacionales y latinoamericanos sobre asuntos de paz y postconflicto. José Carlos Pozzoli es Argentino, politólogo, especialista en Políticas Públicas; ha sido consultor para el BID y trabajó como asesor de la Comisión de Ambiente de la Honorable Cámara de Diputados de Mendoza; Coordinador General Tercera Conferencia ICID +19 Clima, Sostenibilidad y Desarrollo en Regiones Semi Aridas; Asesor de Gabinete, Secretaría de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de la Provincia de Mendoza.
A propósito de interés de las humanidades por el estudio del pasado, sin aparente finalidad práctica, reflexionaba Erwin Panofsky ¿Qué por qué habríamos de interesarnos por el pasado? La respuesta es… porque nos interesamos por la realidad. Nada existe menos real que el presente. Para poder captar la realidad tenemos que distanciarnos del presente. En este sentido, creemos en la vigencia y utilidad de la investigación de carácter historiográfico en nuestro ámbito docente, y en consecuencia nos sentimos identificados con el profesor Montes Serrano cuando afirma que "La praxis docente necesariamente ha de enmarcarse en una labor investigadora de doble dirección: el progreso de la propia disciplina y el retorno a los orígenes, para asentar las bases conceptuales y culturales que soporten el desarrollo futuro. Este retorno a los orígenes siempre ha supuesto la búsqueda -más o menos consciente- de una garantía de renovación, de una posible guía hacia el futuro; implica repensar lo que se hace habitualmente, en un intento de renovar la validez de las acciones o principios especulativos de uso cotidiano". Al igual que se ha hecho en otras materias, también constituye una línea de investigación propia del Área de Conocimiento al que pertenezco el trazar la visión historiográfica de nuestras disciplinas, en concreto, de la representación del terreno. Como afirma el profesor San Antonio Gómez "La investigación para la representación gráfica del territorio no sólo debe encaminarse hacia su progreso futuro con el desarrollo de los GIS, sino también hacia sus orígenes históricos". Efectivamente, la implantación de las llamadas nuevas tecnologías en las disciplinas relacionadas con la representación de la superficie terrestre ha acaparado la mayor parte de los esfuerzos en el ámbito investigador, quedando relegados a un segundo plano los estudios sobre la historia de la representación territorial, sus orígenes y evolución, así como los métodos e instrumentos utilizados en el pasado. Consciente de las limitaciones de una tesis y de las mías propias, entiendo que para centrar este trabajo se hace necesario acotar el tema tanto geográfica como cronológicamente. No se trata de hacer este estudio desde un punto de vista cartográfico genérico, en donde lógicamente habría que remontarse a la larga tradición en el Mediterráneo, en lo referente a las cartas que realizaron los cosmógrafos en Sevilla; o a las imágenes que las culturas prehispánicas plasmaron en sus códices, para las representaciones de factura indígena. Decidimos por tanto centrar nuestro estudio en Mesoamérica (espacio) y durante el siglo XVI (tiempo). Las razones de esta acotación se basan, por un lado, en la forma en que se llevo a cabo la Conquista, desde el Caribe como cabeza de puente hacia Centroamérica, y desde allí hacia el norte y el sur del continente. Esto supuso que durante el siglo XVI la producción de mapas y planos que conllevo el proceso de colonización procediera mayoritariamente de estos territorios, coincidentes con lo que posteriormente se denomino Mesoamérica, que comprende los actuales México, Guatemala, parte de Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica y el sur de los Estados Unidos. Sin embargo, la acotación espacial en ningún momento deberá impedir que se deje de estudiar algún documento de interés para la investigación. Así por ejemplo, si hay un mapa en donde se representa una región del Amazonas o un plano de una fortaleza en el norte de La Florida o en La Habana, cuyo análisis se considere relevante para nuestros fines, esos documentos sin duda seran incluidos en el corpus a estudiar. La acotación temporal, además de necesaria en cualquier trabajo de este tipo, aquí está justificada al ser precisamente durante el primer siglo de la Colonia cuando se realiza la producción de mapas y planos en los que podemos rastrear los métodos empíricos utilizados para su medición, levantamiento y representación. Anteriormente apenas transcurren ocho años desde el Descubrimiento hasta el fin de siglo, y después –a partir del siglo XVII- las representaciones planimetrías en Hispanoamérica poseen ya, prácticamente, todas las características de las que se realizan en Europa, desapareciendo las influencias autóctonas que se mezclaron, en distinto grado, con las occidentales durante todo el siglo XVI. Ciñéndonos a los inicios de la época colonial española, son tres los estamentos que están realizando levantamientos planimétricos en este tiempo, los cosmógrafos de la Casa de la Contratación, los funcionarios locales de la administración indiana y los ingenieros reales: 1. Los primeros, cuyo título oficial era "cosmógrafo de hacer cartas de navegar y fabricar instrumentos", no se encontraban en ultramar, sino en Sevilla. Se encargaban principalmente de las cartas de navegación, acopiando la información geográfica e hidrográfica obtenida por los pilotos, que los cartógrafos vertían en el padrón real, modelo del que se sacaban las copias para el uso de descubridores y navegantes. Para poder realizar su labor, utilizaban cartas, planos, bocetos y apuntes trazados por los pilotos en sus viajes y que entregaban a su regreso en la Casa de la Contratación. Por tanto iban elaborando la imagen del Nuevo Mundo en cuanto a la definición de su contorno costero. La representación de la "tierra adentro" será precisamente la empresa encargada a los segundos intervinientes. 2. La necesidad de conocer y representar con precisión los nuevos territorios bajo el imperativo de su control y delimitación, así como lograr un mayor conocimiento de la disponibilidad de los recursos que ofrecían, llevo a que, el 25 de mayo del año 1577, Felipe II dictase una real cedula para que se enviase a América una "Instrucción y Memoria" para ser contestada por los oficiales de la Corona, principalmente los corregidores y alcaldes mayores. El objetivo de este cuestionario de 50 preguntas era conocer más sobre los territorios de ultramar. Las respuestas, mejor conocidas como Relaciones Geográficas de Indias, constituyen el mayor cuerpo de fuentes originales de la América española para el siglo XVI. Este conocimiento pormenorizado de los nuevos territorios también implicaba una descripción física de los mismos. Así, en varias preguntas del cuestionario se pedía, según los casos, la realización de mapas geográficos, planos de las poblaciones, delineación de las costas e islas, etc. Aunque los encargados de responder a la Instrucción eran los oficiales de la Corona, la elaboración de mapas y planos –pinturas como se conocían entones- tuvo que encomendarse también a dibujantes indígenas, dada la escasez de mano de obra cualificada para estas tareas durante el primer siglo de la Colonia. 3. Los ingenieros reales estaban designados por el rey para atender a las fortificaciones y edificios administrativos en todo el imperio. Algunos eran traídos de otros países, particularmente de Italia, pero otros eran producto de la rica tradición en la elaboración de mapas surgida en la España del siglo XVI. "Estas imágenes del Nuevo Mundo fueron suficientemente exactas para permitir a los monarcas españoles tomar decisiones sobre los sitios y la protección de las grandes bases militares, particularmente aquellas necesarias para proteger anualmente a las flotas. Cartógrafos como Cristóbal de Rojas y Juan Bautista Antonelli permitieron a la Corona hacer el máximo uso de sus escasos recursos". Los mapas y planos de los ingenieros Reales, dibujados de acuerdo con los principios desarrollados en la Italia del siglo XVI, no tenían nada que ver con las representaciones realizadas en las pinturas que acompañaban a las Relaciones Geográficas, en las que, debido a la mezcla de técnicas indígenas prehispánicas y europeas, se produjo una cartografía sincrética diferente a todo lo que se había realizado hasta ese momento. En muchos de los documentos gráficos que estos ingenieros elaboraron para la construcción de obras públicas civiles y militares también encontramos ejemplos de cómo representaron el terreno donde estas se emplazaban. La Corona española empleo un número importante de arquitectos militares e ingenieros en la construcción y mantenimiento de fortificaciones en todo el imperio, pero sobre todo en América. Estos hombres realizaban reconocimientos sobre el terreno, elaboraban informes y proponían proyectos de nuevas obras o reforma de las ya existentes, como consecuencia de lo cual, trazaban planos que eran enviados a España para su conocimiento y aprobación, de los que sobreviven un número considerable. Se ha articulado la tesis en dos partes, cada una dividida en tres capítulos, acompañada de la presente Introducción, las Conclusiones y las Fuentes Documentales. A continuación se expone someramente el contenido de cada capítulo, la relación de archivos y bibliotecas en las que se encuentran los documentos que constituyen el corpus sometido a estudio, así como los fondos bibliográficos consultados. Lógicamente, en un trabajo de estas características, las figuras (bocetos, mapas, planos,… dibujos en definitiva) que acompañan al texto escrito en absoluto tienen un carácter ornamental, ni siquiera una misión ilustrativa; más bien al contrario en su mayoría, constituyen el propio objeto de estudio. - En la primera parte del trabajo, como cuestión previa introductoria antes de abordar la representación territorial en Hispanoamérica en el siglo XVI, nos ha parecido procedente dirigir una mirada hacia los orígenes históricos de la representación del territorio, desde sus inicios hasta la época en la que centramos el objetivo principal de nuestro trabajo, que abarca todo el siglo XVI. Se ha tratado de seguir, a través del tiempo, el proceso de la representación del territorio y su relieve en las distintas civilizaciones, sobre todo del ámbito occidental, y por tanto antecedentes directos de la europea en general y la española en particular; incidiendo en aquellos conceptos eminentemente gráficos, que influyen en la representación del entorno natural. En esta revisión se ha verificado como el proceso para representar el terreno y su relieve ha seguido una evolución desde unos convencionalismos gráficos empíricos. "…mostrando cómo los mecanismos que intervienen en la representación gráfica están fundamentalmente basados, de hecho, en toda una serie de convenciones prácticas y de fórmulas o recetas de oficio paulatinamente perfeccionadas y codificadas por la experiencia" Esta primera parte se ha dividido en tres capítulos. ▪ En el Capítulo I, "Desde los orígenes hasta el descubrimiento de América" se repasa la representación del territorio desde los orígenes, con la aparición de los primeros mapas, hasta el descubrimiento de América. Revisaremos la forma en que "veían" la tierra, o sus territorios, los pueblos primitivos, las civilizaciones antiguas, el mundo clásico (civilizaciones griega y romana), la Edad Media (mapas T en O, mundo árabe y portulanos), para concluir con la representación en el Renacimiento, antes del descubrimiento del Nuevo Mundo. ▪ En el Capítulo II, "La representación del territorio en la era de los descubrimientos", se continua la revisión iniciada en el primero desde donde este termina hasta principios del siglo XVII. Veremos la revolución cartográfica que suponen los grandes descubrimientos, los más importantes centros de producción de mapas: la Casa de la Contratación de Sevilla, la de Indias de Lisboa, la escuela francesa en Dieppe y la de los Países Bajos. Por último, se realiza un recorrido por la cartografía nacional y regional de los principales reinos europeos. ▪ Finaliza esta primera parte con el Capítulo III, "Técnicas de levantamiento y representación del territorio en Europa", donde, tras exponer los principales sistemas y métodos de levantamiento, aun vigentes, se ofrece una panorámica del estado de la ciencia de la "mensura" en la Europa renacentista, como antecedente directo de los métodos que pudieron ser importados al Nuevo Mundo. Se ha realizado un análisis de los sistemas y métodos de medición y levantamiento de mapas y planos a través de los principales tratados sobre la materia, tanto de la rica tradición renacentista europea como de la española, en la que hemos tenido la satisfacción de encontrar magníficos ejemplos de tratados cuyo rigor científico en unos casos y vertiente practica en otros, nada tienen que envidiar a los de los más afamados eruditos alemanes, flamencos o italianos. - La segunda parte, "Representación gráfica en Hispanoamérica en el siglo XVI", afronta el objetivo principal de la tesis, la representación del territorio circunscrita a Hispanoamérica durante el siglo XVI. Se analizan los diferentes tipos de representaciones que se realizaron a raíz del descubrimiento y colonización del Nuevo Mundo, según los distintos agentes que intervinieron en su realización. A su vez se divide en tres capítulos. ▪ En el Capítulo IV, "Representación del territorio", tras una introducción sobre el proyecto cartográfico de Felipe II, se realiza un recorrido por los diferentes modos de representación del territorio en Mesoamérica durante el primer siglo de la Colonia, desde los antecedentes de tradición indígena prehispánica, hasta los mapas y planos que realizaron los pintores autóctonos o tlacuilos para la Corona española, así como un grupo funcionarios de la administración indiana, en el magno proyecto que significaron las Relaciones Geográficas de Indias; pasando por los mapas del Nuevo Mundo que realizaron los cosmógrafos de la Casa de la Contratación en Sevilla. En estas formas de representar el territorio subyacen en su concepción, toma de datos y elaboración, una dualidad entre empirismo y ciencia, siendo este uno de los criterios de clasificación que se han utilizado. Siguiendo la metodología propuesta, se realiza un estudio individualizado de cada mapa o plano de la muestra, con criterios objetivos. En primer lugar, se parte de una contextualización histórica de cada uno, a continuación, se realiza un examen grafico del plano como tal y, por último, un análisis geométrico tendente a su transcripción y obtención de conclusiones en cuanto los métodos utilizados para la representación del territorio, sobre todo las características graficas, los mecanismos y los recursos empleados en la realización de estos documentos. Siempre que este lo ha permitido, se ha tratado de abordar la conceptualización del lenguaje grafico y el contenido simbolizador del mismo. ▪ El Capítulo V, "La representación del territorio en los proyectos de ingeniería", completa el estudio realizado en el capitulo anterior, estudiando los mapas y planos que se hicieron a raíz de las obras de ingeniería y arquitectura militar en América, que necesitaban de la expresión de superficies extensas para su intervención. Estos documentos estaban dibujados de acuerdo con los principios desarrollados en la Italia del siglo XVI, y por tanto fuera de la cualquier influencia de la tradición pictórica prehispánica. Estas imágenes del Nuevo Mundo fueron suficientemente exactas para permitir a los monarcas españoles tomar decisiones sobre los sitios y la protección de las grandes bases, particularmente aquellas necesarias para dar cobijo anualmente a las "flotas" de Indias. Sin embargo, no se ha realizado un estudio sobre las obras de ingeniería, ni siquiera desde el punto de vista historiográfico, pues sería apartarnos del motivo principal de este trabajo. Se han tratado una serie de obras y sus artífices, pero desde la óptica de su representación grafica en general y de la que del territorio se hace en ellas, en particular. ▪ En el Capítulo VI, "Técnicas de levantamiento y representación del territorio en América", se han tratado de descifrar los métodos, técnicas e instrumentos que se emplearon en la realización de las representaciones del territorio que fueron estudiadas en los capítulos IV y V. Desde el punto de vista de su manufactura, este extenso corpus es de origen diverso: cartas náuticas, mapamundis y planisferios realizados por los cosmógrafos de la Casa de la Contratación, mapas y planos regionales y locales realizados, unos por autores españoles y otros por dibujantes indígenas y, finalmente, los mapas y planos que hicieron los ingenieros y arquitectos militares al servicio de la Corona. Por tanto se rastrean y estudian los métodos utilizados para su realización en cada uno de estos grupos, partiéndose de una primera división en científicos y empíricos. No obstante, dentro de cada uno de estos grupos ha sido necesario distinguir otras categorías al objeto de poder llevar a cabo su correcto análisis. Respecto a las fuentes documentales consultadas, gran parte de ellas son dibujos, mapas, planos y tratados de gran valor bibliográfico e histórico. En esta fase de la investigación nos hemos encontrado con dificultades inherentes a la localización de los fondos y del acceso a los mismos. Es evidente que la lectura de un mapa de gran formato, no resulta fácil si no se consulta directamente el original debido a las limitaciones que impone el manejo de copias reducidas o la escasa resolución cuando se trata de formatos digitales. Aunque desde hace anos se vienen realizando importantes esfuerzos por parte de las administraciones para digitalizar los fondos cartográficos y documentales de los principales archivos, tanto españoles como extranjeros, la tarea es ardua y supone afrontar multitud de problemas derivados de la variedad de formatos, de técnicas y del estado de conservación de los documentos cartográficos, que se suman a los propios de su localización, ya que es frecuente que los planos y mapas estén incluidos en legajos o carpetas y que su existencia en muchos casos se desconozca. El corpus cartográfico documental recopilado para la elaboración de la tesis se encuentra disperso, en su mayoría, por los siguientes archivos y bibliotecas españoles: Archivo General de Indias. Sevilla. AGI. Real Academia de la Historia. Madrid. RAH. Archivo General de Simancas. Valladolid. AGS. Biblioteca Nacional. Madrid. BNE. Archivo de la Casa de Alba. Palacio de Liria. Madrid. Museo Naval. Madrid. Museo Maritimo. Barcelona. Observatorio de la Marina. San Fernando (Cádiz). Servicio Histórico Militar. Madrid. Real Biblioteca de El Escorial. Madrid. Biblioteca Central de la Universidad de Sevilla. Fondo Antiguo y Archivo Histórico. Biblioteca de la Universidad de Valencia. Asimismo, en el extranjero se han consultado numerosos fondos que, cuando ha sido posible, se han examinado presencialmente y en otros se ha tenido que realizar a través de los procedimientos que establecen las distintas instituciones para la consulta bibliográfica o archivística a distancia (fotocopia, microfilm, diapositiva, fotografía o escaneado): Benson Latín América Collection, Universidad de Texas. Austin (USA). BLAC. Archivo General de la Nación. Ciudad de México (México). AGN. Biblioteca Nacional de Francia. Paris (Francia). BNF. Biblioteca Nacional de Viena. Viena (Austria). Biblioteca Laurenciana. Florencia (Italia). Biblioteca Apostólica Vaticana. Roma (Italia). Biblioteca Oliveriana. Pesaro (Italia). Biblioteca del Congreso. Washington (USA). Biblioteca Herzog August. Wolfenbuttel (Alemania). Biblioteca Palafoxiana. Puebla (México). Biblioteca Real de Copenhague. Copenhague (Dinamarca). Biblioteca Digital de Múnich. Múnich (Alemania). Real Biblioteca de Turin. Turin (Italia). Biblioteca Nacional Marciana. Venecia (Italia). Archivo de los marqueses de Castiglione. Mantua (Italia). Archivos Históricos de Guadalajara y Jalisco. (México). Galería Uffizi, Florencia (Italia). The John Carter Brown Library. Providence (USA). The Hispanic Society of America. Nueva York (USA). The Royal Library at Windsor. Londres (Reino Unido). Bodleian Library. Oxford (Reino Unido). The British Library Borrad. Londres (Reino Unido). The Newberry Library. Chicago (USA). Liverpool Museum. Liverpool (Reino Unido). Museo Histórico de la Baja Sajonia. Hannover (Alemania). Instituto y Museo de Historia de la Ciencia. Florencia (Italia). En cuanto a la amplia bibliografía utilizada a lo largo de la investigación, esta se ha ordenado según tres grupos que comprenden las fases en las que se ha ido desarrollando el trabajo, desde los conceptos generales hasta aquellos temas concretos o particulares, finalizando con una relación de los tratados consultados y utilizados como fuente: a. General: se agrupan en esta categoría las obras que aportan una visión genérica al problema de la expresión y representación grafica, y que han servido para fundamentar conceptualmente el discurso; así como aquellas que tratan de la Historia en general, de la historia del Arte y de la historia de la Cartografía. También se incluyen textos que tratan específicamente sobre los métodos y procedimientos históricos de levantamiento y representación del terreno, fuera del ámbito americano. b. Especifica: contiene aquellos textos que abordan la Historia en general, y la de la Cartografía en particular; relacionadas con el descubrimiento y colonización de América. También encontramos textos que inciden en los distintos métodos y técnicas de levantamiento y representación del territorio hispanoamericano durante el siglo XVI. Asimismo incluimos en esta categoría obras que tratan sobre el arte, la arquitectura y el urbanismo en América durante el periodo estudiado. c. Obras monográficas: que están mas directamente relacionadas con el estudio de un documento cartográfico concreto o bien un conjunto de ellos afines y que forman un corpus más o menos homogéneo. Salvo algunas excepciones, por lo general estas obras están enfocadas desde una óptica historiográfica, siendo uno de los objetivos de la tesis realizar el estudio de los documentos cartográficos atendiendo a los mecanismos gráficos de su representación, con especial hincapié en aquellos relativos a la expresión del relieve del terreno. d. Tratados: Ha sido necesario consultar una cantidad importante de tratados, tanto de la época en la que se centra el estudio (siglo XVI), como de fechas anteriores. Aunque en su mayoría tratan de los procedimientos de medición y levantamiento territorial que se desarrollaron y difundieron por Europa en el Renacimiento, también se han consultado obras dedicadas a otras disciplinas como geografía, astronomía, náutica, fortificaciones, etc. Aunque a veces puede resultar incomodo para la lectura, se ha procurado, en todo momento, fundamentar el hilo argumental con referencias bibliográficas, a pie de página, de los autores de los que nos sentimos más deudores en cuanto a las ideas que fluyen a lo largo de las páginas de este trabajo. Hemos intentado dejar patente la concepción de una tesis eminentemente grafica, pero no solo la cantidad de información grafica ha sido el objetivo principal, lo es, por el contrario, la selección y calidad de la misma, así como su sistematización y clasificación. Por último, señalar que un trabajo de investigación de estas características, se sabe que tiene un comienzo y ha de tener un final, pero en sus conclusiones la tesis no es concluyente, el ámbito en el que nace y está inmersa continúa abierto. No se trata por tanto de un producto acabado, cada ejemplo de los estudiados expone ante nosotros un universo propio, rico y complejo donde transcurren tantas sugerencias como son posibles. En ese sentido, esta investigación es en el fondo una provocación para que otras continúen.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Argentina accounts for 15% of total tobacco consumption in Latin America and has made the epidemiological transition to an advanced stage in the tobacco epidemic. The Southern Cone region of the Americas leads the hemisphere in tobacco attributable mortality. Argentina is a developing country with economic interests in tobacco growing and rapidly increasing tobacco use in urban areas. In 2000, smoking prevalence was 40.4% among adults- 46.8% of men and 34% of women- and Buenos Aires urban youth (13 to 15 years old) had a 30.2% 30-day smoking prevalence (27.8% male; 31.8% female) compared to 17.7% (17.8% male; 17.7% female) in the United States. Argentina also has a high smoking prevalence among health professionals (30.3% of physicians, and 36.3% of nurses currently smoke). Given the limited smoking restrictions in indoor environments the general population is highly exposed to secondhand smoke both in public and private places. In 2000, the percentage of young people aged 13 to 15 years exposed to secondhand smoke in Buenos Aires was 69.6% at home, 87.6%, in public places, and 27.6% from their friends. A multi-country study carried out in seven Latin American cities in 2004 showed that the city of Buenos Aires had the highest airborne nicotine levels inside hospitals, schools, government buildings, airports, and restaurants observed. According to the National Program on Tobacco Control of the Ministry of Health and Environment of Argentina, tobacco use causes 40,000 deaths per year, including 6,000 due to secondhand smoke. The cost of the treatment of tobacco-related diseases is more than 4,330 million pesos per year, which represents 15.5 % of the total public expenditure on health care. Meanwhile, the tobacco excise taxes collected by the government are only 3,500 million pesos per year. The transnational tobacco companies working through their local affiliates dominate production and marketing of cigarettes in Argentina. Philip Morris International and British American Tobacco, as well as other transnational tobacco companies such as Liggett, Reemtsma, Lorillard, and RJ Reynolds International- through their local subsidiaries Massalín-Particulares and Nobleza-Piccardo- have been actively influencing public health policy-making in Argentina since the early 1970s. These transnational tobacco companies have used the same strategies in Argentina as in the United States to block meaningful tobacco control. Methods This report uses three main sources to describe the interference of the tobacco industry in tobacco control efforts in Argentina. First, we examined the tobacco industry documents in the University of California San Francisco Legacy Tobacco Documents Library (http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu) and British American Tobacco Documents Archive (http://bat.library.ucsf.edu) and in Tobacco Documents Online (www.tobaccodocuments.org). We also used internet resources, major Argentinean newspapers (Clarín, La Nación, Página 12, La Prensa), local magazines (Muy Interesante, Revista 23, Somos, Humor, VEA), and the Argentinean National Congress Library for complete texts of the laws, bills and other tobacco control measures. Finally, we conducted face-to-face interviews with congressmen, public health officials, and tobacco control advocates in Buenos Aires during December 2003. Results • In 1966, the first bill on tobacco regulation was introduced in the Argentinean Congress to adopt a mandatory warning label on cigarette packs, but did not pass. In 1970 the government promulgated Law 18.604 that ended cigarette advertising on radio, television, and in movie theaters, and established fines for violators. This law was in effect only for one year. • In 1973 and 1974, two bills were introduced that would have placed a health warning label on tobacco products and advertisements, but these bills were not approved due to the intervention of the Cámara de la Industria del Tabaco (Chamber of Tobacco Industry), the tobacco industry's national manufacturers' association. • In 1977, as in the USA and other countries, the Chamber of Tobacco Industry created a weak and ineffective voluntary self-regulating code to avoid strong legislated restrictions on cigarette advertising. • In 1976 and 1979, the Ministry of Social Welfare drafted two bills to regulate the content of tobacco and alcohol advertisements and to require a warning label on cigarette packages. Tobacco Industry representatives lobbied government officials claiming that the established voluntary industry code was adequate and both bills died. • In the early 1980s, the Chamber of Tobacco Industry created the "Smoking Controversy Department" to counteract and undermine potential legislation. This department organized "Information Seminars" intended for selective community groups to promote the industry's position that the causal links between smoking and disease had not been proven. Seminars were aimed at the managers of tobacco production associations, agricultural technicians, physicians, scientists, journalists, tobacco advertising agencies, tobacco products distributors, elected officials, and Ministers of Health. The Smoking Controversy Department also produced and promoted literature arguing the industry's position. • During the 1980s, efforts to pass comprehensive tobacco control legislation intensified. These attempts were neutralized by a much better-organized tobacco industry that implemented a public campaign to lobby health authorities and convince journalists and the public that there was a "controversy" about the links between smoking and disease. • In 1986, the National Congress passed Law 23.344 that essentially codified the tobacco industry's ineffective voluntary advertising code and placed the weak health warning label "Fumar es perjudicial para la Salud" (Smoking is harmful to health) print on cigarette packs. Industry representatives had meetings with selected influential federal and provincial ministers, governors, and federal senators to water down the original proposal introduced by Representative Lorenzo Pepe in 1984. • In 1992, the 8th World Conference on Tobacco or Health was held in Buenos Aires. Local tobacco control advocates tried to push for the approval of a new comprehensive tobacco control bill in the Congress introduced by Representative Aldo Neri in 1990. At the same time, Philip Morris International and British American Tobacco worked together to divert the attention of the conference by organizing briefings with friendly journalists to create controversy about secondhand smoke. • In September 1992, the Neri Bill was approved in the Congress. The tobacco industry rapidly organized and orchestrated a major lobbying and public relations campaign to defeat it with the help of front groups (e.g., the International Advertising Association, the Inter-American Press Association, the Inter-American Society for Freedom of Commercial Speech, and the Argentine Association of Advertising Agencies), "scientific" consultants secretly hired and managed by industry lawyers based in the US, and Congressmen from the tobacco growing provinces. Ten days later, on October 10, President Carlos Menem vetoed the law. • Between 1992 and 2000, the tobacco industry supported alternative legislation to write the industry's ineffective voluntary marketing code into law. Even though they were not approved, these bills distracted political and public attention so that all efforts at meaningful tobacco control legislation were neutralized. • Since the mid-1990s, the tobacco industry has been promoting its "accommodation" program "La Cortesía de Elegir" (The Courtesy of Choice), to avoid legislation to end secondhand smoke exposure in restaurants and bars and to maintain the social acceptability of smoking. • Since 1997, the tobacco industry has been promoting ineffective "youth smoking prevention" programs (such as "Yo Tengo P.O.D.E.R." [I Have Power] and "Yo NO Vendo Cigarrillos a Menores de 18 Años" [I DO NOT Sell Cigarettes to Minors under 18]) to preempt meaningful anti-tobacco education by the government and to shift the focus away from the industry's responsibility for increasing youth smoking through its advertising and marketing. • In 2003, the Lower House Public Health Committee drafted a version that consolidated 18 tobacco control bills (including one from Representative Neri) but again, the tobacco industry succeeded in burying the bills. • In September 2003, President Néstor Kirchner signed the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, the first international public health treaty negotiated by the 192 countries under the auspices of the World Health Organization. The ratification process in the Argentinean Senate remained bogged down as of September 2005, with limited efforts to ratify it. It appears that the industry is effectively lobbying Argentinean legislators not to ratify the treaty. • In August 2005, the Ministry of Health and Environment introduced in the Senate a new comprehensive tobacco control bill that follows the minimum standards required by the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, including the creation of smokefree public places (including bars and restaurants) and workplaces, the end of all types of tobacco advertising (except point-of-sale) and sponsorship, and the placement of rotating health warning labels and images in cigarette packages. It also bans misleading descriptors (such as "light") and requires the placement of maximum levels of nicotine and tar print on packages. Recommendations 1. The journalists from print and electronic media, public health advocates, politicians and institutional leaders need to become more aware of how the transnational tobacco industry has manipulated and influenced policy making in Argentina, which affects the health of the public, and report this information to the public. 2. The national government, through the Ministry of Health and Environment, should implement a comprehensive educational campaign to enhance awareness about the health dangers of secondhand smoke and to promote the enactment of city-wide, provincial and national ordinances that prohibit indoor exposure to secondhand smoke. 3. Argentina should implement the principal provisions of the Framework Convention such as increased taxes, a complete advertising ban, and graphic pictorial warning labels on cigarette packages. 4. The federal government and health care industry need to support effective smoking cessation services, such as quit-lines, at minimal cost to all smokers. RESUMEN Argentina representa el 15% del consumo total de tabaco en América Latina y se encuentra en una fase avanzada de la transición epidemiológica en la epidemia del tabaquismo. La región del Cono Sur de las Américas lidera el hemisferio en mortalidad atribuible por tabaco. Argentina es un país en desarrollo con intereses económicos en el cultivo de tabaco y un alto consumo de tabaco en áreas urbanas. En 2000, la prevalencia del consumo de tabaco en adultos fue del 40.4% (46.8% en varones; 34% en mujeres). El mismo año, la prevalencia del consumo de tabaco en los últimos 30 días, en jóvenes de 13 a 15 años de la ciudad de Buenos Aires, fue del 30.2% (27.8 % en varones; 31.8% en mujeres) comparada con 17.7% (17.8% en varones; 17.7% en mujeres) en los Estados Unidos. Argentina posee también una alta prevalencia de consumo de tabaco entre los profesionales de la salud (30% de los médicos y 36.6% de los enfermeros actualmente fuman). Debido a las escasas restricciones al consumo de tabaco en ambientes cerrados, la población general está altamente expuesta al huno de tabaco ajeno, tanto en lugares públicos como en privados. En 2000, el porcentaje de jóvenes de 13 a 15 años expuestos al humo de tabaco ajeno en Buenos Aires, fue del 69,6% en sus casas, 87,6% en lugares públicos y 27,6% de sus amigos. Un estudio multicéntrico llevado a cabo en siete ciudades latinoamericanas en 2004, mostró que la ciudad de Buenos Aires tenía la mayor concentración de nicotina ambiental en hospitales, escuelas, edificios gubernamentales, aeropuertos y restaurantes observados. De acuerdo al Programa Nacional de Control del Tabaco del Ministerio de Salud y Ambiente de la Argentina, el uso de tabaco causa 40.000 muertes anuales, incluyendo 6.000 debido a la exposición al humo de tabaco ajeno. El costo del tratamiento de la enfermedades relacionadas al tabaco es de más de 4.330 millones de pesos por año, el cual representa el 15,5% del gasto público total en salud. Mientras tanto, los impuestos al tabaco recaudados por el gobierno son sólo 3.500 millones de pesos al año. Las compañías transnacionales de tabaco, trabajando a través de sus filiales locales, dominan la producción y la comercialización de los cigarrillos en la Argentina. Philip Morris International y British American Tobacco, así como otras compañías transnacionales de tabaco tales como Liggett, Reemtsma, Lorillard y RJ Reynolds International, a través de sus subsidiarias locales Massalín-Particulares y Nobleza-Piccardo, han influenciando activamente las políticas de salud pública en Argentina desde comienzo de los años 1970s. Estas compañías transnacionales de tabaco han utilizado las mismas estrategias en Argentina que en Estados Unidos para bloquear políticas de control del tabaco significativas. Métodos El siguiente reporte utiliza tres fuentes principales para describir la interferencia de la industria del tabaco en los esfuerzos por controlar el tabaco en Argentina. Primero, examinamos los documentos de la industria del tabaco que se encuentran disponibles en la internet en las bibliotecas Legacy Tobacco Documents Library (http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu) y British American Tobacco Documents Archive (http://bat.library.ucsf.edu) de la Universidad de California en San Francisco, y en Tobacco Documents Online (www.tobaccodocuments.org). También utilizamos otras fuentes de información de la internet, los principales periódicos argentinos (Clarín, La Nación, Página 12, La Prensa), revistas locales (Muy Interesante, Revista 23, Somos, Humor, VEA), y la Biblioteca del Congreso de la Nación de la Argentina para ubicar y analizar los textos completos de leyes, proyectos de ley, y otras medidas de control del tabaco. Finalmente, en diciembre de 2003, realizamos entrevistas cara a cara en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, con legisladores, funcionarios de salud pública y activistas para el control del tabaco. Resultados • En 1966 fue introducido en el Congreso Nacional argentino el primer proyecto de ley para la regulación del tabaco. El proyecto, que no fue aprobado, requería la colocación obligatoria de una etiqueta de advertencia sanitaria en todos los paquetes de cigarrillos. En 1970, el gobierno promulgó la Ley 18.604 que ponía fin a la publicidad de los cigarrillos en la radio, la televisión y los cines, y establecía multas para los infractores. Sin embargo, esta ley estuvo en vigencia sólo durante un año. • En 1973 y 1974 dos proyectos de ley ingresados en el Congreso Nacional requerían la colocación de una etiqueta de advertencia sanitaria en los envases de los productos de tabaco y en su publicidad. Sin embargo, estos proyectos no fueron aprobados debido a la intervención de la Cámara de la Industria del Tabaco, la asociación nacional de productores de la industria del tabaco. • En 1977, de la misma manera que en los Estados Unidos y otros países del mundo, la Cámara de la Industria del Tabaco creó voluntariamente un Código de Autorregulación Publicitaria débil e inefectivo para evitar la aprobación de legislación que contemplara fuertes restricciones a la publicidad del tabaco. • En 1976 y 1979 el Ministerio de Bienestar Social de la Nación preparó dos proyectos de ley para regular el contenido de la publicidad del tabaco y el alcohol y para requerir una etiqueta de advertencia sanitaria en los paquetes de cigarrillos. Representantes de la industria del tabaco ejercieron presión política sobre funcionarios del gobierno reclamando que el ya voluntariamente establecido Código de Autorregulación Publicitaria de la industria era suficiente. Finalmente, ambos proyectos fueron archivados. • A principios de los años 1980s la Cámara de la Industria del Tabaco creó el "Departamento sobre la Controversia del Tabaco" como una herramienta para contrarrestar y menoscabar una posible futura legislación anti-tabaco. Este departmento organizó "Seminarios de Información" dirigidos a grupos específicos de la comunidad para promocionar la posición de la industria por la cual la relación causal entre tabaco y enfermedad no estaba comprobada. Los seminarios estuvieron dirigidos a gerentes de asociaciones de productores de tabaco, técnicos agricultures, médicos, científicos, periodistas, agencias de publicidad del tabaco, distribuidores de productos del tabaco, Ministros de Salud y otros funcionarios gubernamentales. El "Departamento sobre la Controversia del Tabaco" también editó y promocionó publicaciones exponiendo la posición de la industria del tabaco. • Durante los años 1980s se intensificaron los esfuerzos para aprobar una legislación amplia para el control del tabaco. Estos intentos fueron neutralizados por una industria del tabaco mucho mejor organizada que orquestó una campaña pública para ejercer presión sobre las autoridades de salud, y convencer a periodistas y al público en general sobre lo que la industria llamó la "controversia" sobre tabaco y salud. • En 1986 el Congreso Nacional aprobó la Ley 23.344 que esencialmente codificó el inefectivo y voluntario Código de Autorregulación Publicitaria de la industria del tabaco y requirió la colocación de la débil etiqueta de advertencia sanitaria "Fumar es perjudicial para la Salud" en los paquetes de cigarrillos. Representantes de la industria del tabaco tuvieron reuniones con influyentes ministros nacionales y provinciales, gobernadores y senadores nacionales para "suavizar" el proyecto de ley original introducido en 1984 por el Diputado Nacional Lorenzo Pepe. • En 1992 la 8va Conferencia Mundial sobre Tabaco o Salud se llevó a cabo en la ciudad de Buenos Aires. Activistas locales para el control del tabaco intentaron presionar para la aprobación en el Congreso de una ley amplia la cual había sido introducida en 1990 por el Diputado Nacional Aldo Neri. Al mismo tiempo, Philip Morris International y British American Tobacco trabajaron juntas para desviar la atención de la conferencia, organizando sesiones informativas con periodistas "amigos" para crear controversia sobre los efectos de la exposición pasiva al humo de tabaco. • El 30 de septiembre de 1992, la Ley Neri fue aprobada en el Congreso Nacional. Sin embargo, la industria del tabaco rápidamente organizó y orquestó un exitoso plan para derrotarla con la ayuda de grupos de fachada (por ej. la Asociación Internacional de Publicidad, la Asociación de Prensa InterAmericana, la Sociedad InterAmericana para la Libertad de Expresión Comercial, y la Asociación Argentina de Agencias de Publicidad), consultores "científicos" contratados y orientados por la industria y legisladores de las provincias tabacaleras, y montó una gran campaña de relaciones públicas y de presión política. Diez días más tarde, el 10 de octubre, la ley fue vetada por el Presidente Carlos Menem. • Entre 1992 y 2000, la industria del tabaco apoyó proyectos de ley "alternativos" que estaban en consonancia con su Código de Autorregulación Publicitaria. A pesar de no haber sido aprobados, estos proyectos sirvieron para distraer la atención política y pública y de esa manera, todos los esfuerzos para el control del tabaco fueron neutralizados. • Desde mediados de los años 1990s la industria del tabaco ha estado promoviendo su programa de "acomodación" conocido como "La Cortesía de Elegir" o "Convivencia en Armonía", para evitar legislación que ponga fin a la exposición pasiva al humo de tabaco ajeno en restaurantes y bares, y para mantener la aceptación social del consumo de tabaco. • Desde 1997 la industria del tabaco ha estado promoviendo programas de "prevención del uso de tabaco en jóvenes" inefectivos (tales como "Yo Tengo P.O.D.E.R." y "Yo NO Vendo Cigarrillos a Menores de 18 Años") para evitar campañas educativas anti-tabaco por parte del gobierno y para desplazar el foco de atanción por la responsabilidad que la industria tiene, a través de la publicidad y comercialización de sus productos, en el incremento del uso de tabaco entre los jóvenes. • En 2003, la Comisión de Acción Social y Salud Pública de la Cámara de Diputados de la Nación escribió un Dictamen Final que consolidaba 18 proyectos de ley para el control del tabaco (uno de ellos del Diputado Aldo Neri) pero una vez más, la industria del tabaco tuvo éxito en cajonear los mismos. • En septiembre de 2003, el Presidente Néstor Kirchner firmó el Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco, el primer tratado internacional sobre salud pública negociado por 192 países bajo los auspicios de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Al mes de septiembre de 2005, el proceso de ratificación en el Senado argentino permanece estancado con pocos esfuerzos para ratificarlo. En vista de los acontecimientos pasados parecería que la industria ha estado ejerciendo presión exitosamente sobre los lesgisladores argentinos para que no ratifiquen el convenio. • En agosto de 2005, el Ministerio de Salud y Medio Ambiente introdujo en el Senado de la Nación un nuevo proyecto de ley amplio para el control del tabaco que está en sintonía con los estándares mínimos requeridos por el Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco. El proyecto contempla la creación de ambientes públicos y lugares de trabajo libres de humo de tabaco (incluyendo bares y restaurantes), la prohibición de la publicidad (excepto en los lugares de venta) y el patrocinio y la colocación de etiquetas de advertencias sanitarias rotatorias con imágenes, en los paquetes de cigarrillos. También prohibe la colocación de descriptores engañosos (tales como "suaves") y requiere los niveles máximos de nicotina y alquitrán impresos en los en los envases de tabaco. Recomendaciones 1. Periodistas tanto de los medios gráficos como electrónicos, activistas de la salud pública y líderes institucionales, deberían tomar conocimiento sobre como las compañías transnacionales del tabaco han manipulado e influenciado las políticas de control del tabaco en la Argentina lo cual afecta la salud de la población, y comunicar esta infomación a la población general. 2. El gobierno nacional, a través del Ministerio de Salud y Ambiente, debería implementar una amplia campaña educativa para aumentar la conciencia sobre los daños a la salud provocados por la exposicion pasiva al humo de tabaco ajeno, y promover la aprobación de legislación local, provincial y nacional que impida la exposicion pasiva al humo de tabaco ajeno en lugares cerrados. 3. Argentina debería implementar los estándares principales del Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco, tales como el aumento de los impuestos al tabaco, la prohibición total de la publicidad, y la colocación de etiquetas de advertencia sanitarias con imágenes en los paquetes de cigarrillos. 4. El gobierno nacional y el sector privado de la atención de la salud deben apoyar servicios de cesación tabáquica efectivos, tales como las líneas telefónicas de ayuda para dejar de fumar, a un bajo costo para todos los fumadores.