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Ann Tickner on Feminist
Philosophy of Science, Engaging the Mainstream, and (still) Remaining Critical
in/of IR







Feminist IR is still often
side-lined as a particularistic agenda or limited issue area, appearing as one
of the last chapters of introductory volumes to the field, despite the
limitless efforts of people such as Cynthia Enloe (Theory Talk #48)
and J. Ann Tickner. She has laboured to point out and provincialize the
parochialism that haunts mainstream IR, without, however, herself retreating
and disengaging from some of its core concerns. In this Talk, Tickner elaborates—amongst others—on the specifics of a
feminist approach to the philosophical underpinnings of IR; discusses how
feminism relates to the distinction between mainstream and critical theory; and
addresses the challenges of navigating such divides.







Print version of this Talk (pdf)



What is, according to
you, the central challenge or principal debate in International Relations? And
what is your position regarding this challenge/in this debate?



I think the biggest challenge for IR is
that it is relevant and helps us understand important issues in our globalized world.
I realize this is not a conventional answer, but too often we academics get
caught up in substantive and methodological debates where we end up talking only
to each other or to a very small audience. We tend to get too concerned with
the issue of scientific respectability rather than thinking about how to try to
understand and remedy the massive problems that exist in the world today. Steve
Smith's presidential address to the ISA in 2002 (read it here),
shortly after 9/11, reminded us of this. Smith chastised the profession for
having nothing to say about such a catastrophic event.





How
did you arrive at where you currently are in your thinking about IR?



I've gone through quite a few transformations
in my academic career. My original identity was as an International Political
Economy (IPE) scholar; my first academic position was at a small liberal arts
college (College of the Holy Cross) where I taught a variety of IPE courses. In
graduate school I was interested in what, in the 1970s, we called 'North-South'
issues, specifically issues of global justice, which were not the most popular
subjects in the field. So I always felt a little out of place in my choice of
subject matter. In the 1980s when I started teaching, IR was mostly populated
by men. As a woman, one felt somewhat uncomfortable at professional meetings;
and there were very few texts by women that I could assign to my students. I
also found that many of the female students in my introductory IR classes were
somewhat uncomfortable and unmotivated by the emphasis placed on strategic
issues and nuclear weapons.



It was at about the time when I first
started thinking about these issues, I happened to read Evelyn Fox Keller's book Gender and Science,
a book that offers a gendered critique of the natural sciences (read an
'update' of the argument by Keller here, pdf).
It struck me that her feminist critique of science could equally be applied to
IR theory. My first feminist publication, a feminist critique of Hans Morgenthau's
principles of political realism, expanded on this theme (read full text here,
pdf).




Teaching at a small liberal arts college
where one was judged by the quality of one's work rather than the type of
research one was doing was very helpful—because I could follow my own, rather
non-conventional, inclinations. So I think my turn to feminism, after ten years
in the field, was a combination of my own consciousness-raising and feeling
that there was something about IR that didn't speak to me. Later, I was fortunate
to be hired by the University of Southern California, a large research
institution, with an interdisciplinary School of International Relations,
separate from the political science department. When I arrived in 1995, the
School had a reputation for teaching a broad array of IR theoretical approaches.
The support of these institutional settings and of a network of feminist
scholars and students, some of whom I discovered were thinking along similar
lines in the late 1980s, were important for getting me to where I am today.





What
would a student need (dispositions, skills) to become a specialist in IR or
understand the world in a global way?



It depends on the level of the student:
at the undergraduate level, a broad array of courses in global politics including
some economics and history. Language training is very important too, and ideally,
an overseas experience. We need to encourage our students to be curious and
have an open mind about our world.



At the graduate level, this is a more complicated
question. The way you phrased the question 'to understand the world in a global
way,' can be very different from training to become an IR scholar, especially in
the United States. I would emphasize the importance of a broad theoretical and
methodological training, including some exposure to the philosophy of science,
and to non-Western IR if possible, or at least at a minimum, to try to get
beyond the dominance of American IR, which still exists even in places outside
the US.





Why should IR scholars incorporate
gender in the study of world politics? What are the epistemological and
ontological implications of adopting a feminist perspective in IR?



Feminists would argue that incorporating
feminist perspectives into IR would fundamentally transform the discipline.
Feminists claim that IR is already gendered, and gendered masculine, in the
types of questions it asks and the ways it goes about answering them. The
questions we ask in our research are never neutral - they are a choice,
depending on the researcher's identity and location. Over history, the
knowledge that we have accumulated has generally been knowledge about men's
lives. It's usually been men who do the asking and consequently, it is often
the case that women's lives and women's knowledge are absent from what is
deemed 'reliable' knowledge. This historical legacy has had, and continues to
have, an effect on the way we build knowledge. Sandra Harding,
a feminist philosopher of science, has suggested that if were to build
knowledge from women's lives as well, we would broaden the base from which we
construct knowledge, and would therefore get a richer and more complex picture
of reality.



One IR example of how we limit our research
questions and concerns is how we calculate national income, or wealth—the kind
of data states choose to collect and on which they base their public policy. We
have no way of measuring the vast of amount of non-remunerated reproductive and
caring labour, much of which is done by women. Without this labour we would not
have a functioning global capitalist economy. To me this is one example as to
why putting on our gender lenses helps us gain a more complete picture of
global politics and the workings of the global economy.



Feminists have also argued that the
epistemological foundations of Western knowledge are gendered. When we use
terms such as rationality, objectivity and public, they are paired with terms
such as emotional, subjective and private, terms that are seen as carrying less
weight. By privileging the first of these terms when we construct knowledge we
are valuing knowledge that we typically associate with masculinity and the
public sphere, historically associated with men. Rationality and objectivity
are not terms that are overtly gendered, but, when asked, women and men alike
associate them with masculinity. They are terms we value when we do our
research.





In one of the foundational texts of
Feminist IR, 'You Just Don't Understand: Troubled Engagements between Feminists
and IR Theorists' (1997, full text here, pdf),
you highlighted three particular (gendered) misunderstandings that continue to
divide Feminists and mainstream IR theorists. To what extent do these
misunderstandings continue to inform mainstream perceptions of Feminist
approaches to the study of international politics?




I think probably they still do, although
it's always hard to tell, because the mainstream has not engaged much with
feminist approaches. I've been one who's always calling for conversations with
the mainstream but, apart from the forum responding to the article you mention,
there have been very few. In a 2010 article, published in the Australian Feminist Law Journal, I looked
back to see if I could find responses to my 1997 article to which you refer. I
found that most of the responses had come from other feminists. The lack of
engagement, which other feminists have experienced also, makes it hard to know about
the misunderstandings that still exist but my guess would be that they remain. However
I do think there has been progress in accepting feminism's legitimacy in the
field. It is now included in many introductory texts.



The first misunderstanding that I
identified is the meaning of gender. I would hope that the introduction of
constructivist approaches would help with understanding that gender is social
construction - a very important point for feminists. But I think that gender is
still largely equated with women. Feminists have tried to stress that gender is
also about men and about masculinity, something that seems to be rather hard to
accept for those unfamiliar with feminist work. I think it's also hard for the
discipline to accept that both international politics as practice and IR as a
discipline are not gender neutral. Feminists claim that IR as a discipline is
gendered in its concepts, its subject matter, the questions it asks and the way
it goes about answering them. This is a radical assertion for those unfamiliar
with feminist approaches and it is not very well understood.



Now to answer the second misunderstanding
as to whether feminists are doing IR. I think there has been some progress here,
because IR has broadened its subject matter. And there has been quite a bit of
attention lately to gender issues in the 'real world' - issues such as sexual violence,
trafficking, and human rights. Of course these issues relate not only to women
but they are issues with which feminists have been concerned. Something I
continue to find curious is that the policy and activist communities are
generally ahead of the academy in taking up gender issues. Most international
organizations, and some national governments are under mandates for gender
mainstreaming. Yet, the academy has been slow to catch up and give students the
necessary training and skills to go out in the world and deal with such issues.




The third misunderstanding to which I
referred in the 1997 article is the question of epistemology. While, as I
indicated, there has been some acceptance of the subject matter, with which
feminists are concerned, it is a more fundamental and contentious question as
to whether feminists are recognized as 'doing IR' in the methodological sense. As
the field broadens its concerns, IR may see issues that feminists raise as
legitimate, but how we study them still evokes the same responses that I
brought up fifteen years ago. Many of the questions that feminists ask are not
amenable to being answered using the social scientific methodologies popular in
the field, particularly in the US. (I should add that there is a branch of IR
feminism that does use quantitative methods and it has gained much wider
acceptance by the mainstream.) The feminist assumption that Western knowledge
is gendered and based on men's lives is a challenging claim. And feminists
often prefer to start knowledge from the lives of people who are on the margins
– those who are subordinated or oppressed, and of course, this is very
different from IR which tends toward a top-down look at the international
system. One of the big problems that have become more evident to me over time
is that feminism is fundamentally sociological – it's about people and social
relations, whereas much of IR is about structures and states operating in an
anarchic, rather than a social, environment. I find that historians and
sociologists are more comfortable with gender analysis, perhaps for this reason.
I'm not sure that these misunderstanding are ever going to be solved or that
they need to be solved.





Although Feminist methodology is
often conflated with ethnographic approaches, 
in 'What Is Your Research Program? Some Feminist Answers
to International Relations Methodological Questions' (2005, pdf here),
you argued that there is no unique Feminist research methodology. Nonetheless,
Feminist IR is well known for using an autoethnographic approach. What does this approach add to
the study of gender in IR? What might account for the relative dearth of
autoethnography in other IR paradigms?



I think it is important to remember that
feminists use many different approaches coming out of very different
theoretical traditions, such as Marxism, socialism, constructivism, postpositivism,
postcolonialism and empiricism. So there are many different kinds of feminisms.
If you look specifically at what has been called 'second-generation feminist IR,'
the empirical work that followed the so-called 'first generation' that
challenged and critiqued the concepts and theoretical foundations of the field,
much of it, but not all, (discourse analysis is quite prevalent too), uses
ethnographic methods which seem well suited to researching some of the issues I
described earlier. Questions about violence against women, domestic servants,
women in the military, violent women, women in peace movements– these are the
sorts of research questions that demand fieldwork and an ethnographic approach.
Because as I stated earlier, IR asks rather different kinds of questions, it
does not generally adopt ethnographic methods. Feminists who do this type of
ethnographic research tell me that their work is often more readily received
and understood by those who do comparative politics, because they are more comfortable
with field research. And since women are not usually found in the halls of
power – as decision-makers. IR feminists are particularly concerned with issues
having to do with marginalized and disempowered peoples' lives. Ethnography is
useful for this type of research.



I see autoethnography as a different issue.
While the reflexive tradition is not unique to feminists, feminism tends to be
reflectivist. As I said earlier, feminists are sensitive to issues about who the
creators of knowledge have been and whose knowledge is claimed to be universal.
Most feminists believe that there is no such thing as universal knowledge. Consequently,
feminists believe that being explicit about one's positionality as a researcher
is very important because none of us can achieve objectivity, often called 'the
view from nowhere'. So while striving to get as accurate and as useful
knowledge as we can, we should be willing to state our own positionality. One's
privilege as a researcher must be acknowledged too; one must always be
sensitive to the unequal power relations between a researcher and their
research subject – something that anthropology recognized some time ago. Feminists
who do fieldwork often try to make their research useful to their subjects or do
participatory research so that they can give something back to the community. All
these concerns lead to autoethnographic disclosures. They demand a reflexive
attitude and a willingness to describe and reassess your research journey as
you go along. This autoethnographic style is hard for researchers in the positivist
tradition to understand. While we all strive to produce accurate and useful
knowledge, positivists' striving for objectivity requires keeping subjectivity
out of their research.





Robert W. Cox (Theory Talk #37)
famously distinguished two approaches to the study of international politics:
problem-solving theory and critical theory. How does the emancipatory project
of the latter inform your perspective of IR and its normative goals? And is
this distinction as valid today as it was when Cox first formulated it, over 3
decades ago?



Yes
I think it's still an important distinction. It's still cited very often which
suggests it's still valid, although postmodern scholars (and certain feminists)
have problems with Western liberal notions of emancipation. I see my own work
as being largely compatible with Cox's definition of critical theory. Like many
feminists, I view my work as explicitly normative; I say explicitly because I
believe all knowledge is normative although not all scholars would admit it. What
Cox calls problem-solving theory is also normative in the conservative sense of
not aiming to changing the world. A normative goal to which feminists are
generally committed is understanding the reasons for women's subordination and
seeking ways to end it. It's also important to note that the IR discipline was borne
with the intention of serving the interests of the state whereas academic feminism
was borne out of social movements for women's emancipation. The normative goals
of my work are to demonstrate how the theory and practice of IR is gendered and
what might be the implications of this, both for how we construct knowledge and
how we go about solving global problems.





Much of your work addresses the
parochial scope and neopositivist inclination of International Relations (IR) scholarship, especially in the United
States. What distinguishes other
'Western' institutional and political contexts (in the UK, Europe, Canada and Oceania) from the American
study of IR?  How and why is
critical/reflectivist IR marginalized in the American context? What is the
status of these 'debates' in non-Western
institutional contexts?



With respect to the parochial scope of US
IR, I refer you to a recent book, edited by Arlene Tickner and Ole Wæver,
International
Relations Scholarship Around the World. It contains chapters by authors from around the world, some of whom
suggest IR in their country imitates the US and some who see very different IRs.
The chapter by Thomas J. Biersteker, ('The Parochialism of Hegemony:
Challenges for 'American' International Relations', read it here in pdf)
reports on his examination of the required reading lists for IR Ph.D.
candidates in the top ten US academic institutions. His findings suggest that
constructivism accounts for only about 10% of readings and anything more
radical even less. Over 90% of assigned works are written by US scholars. The dominance
of quantitative and rational choice approaches in the US may have something to
do with IR generally being a subfield of political science. Critical approaches
often have different epistemological roots. And I stress 'science' because
while IR is also subsumed in certain politics departments in other countries,
the commitment to science, in the neopositivist sense, is something that seems
to be peculiarly American. Stanley Hoffman's famous observation, made over
thirty years ago, that Americans see problems as solvable by the scientific
method is still largely correct I believe (read article here, pdf).
I find it striking that so many formerly US based and/or educated critical
scholars have left the US and are now based elsewhere – in Canada, Australasia,
or Europe.



Biersteker
sees the hegemony of American IR extending well beyond the US. But there is
generally less commitment to quantification elsewhere. This may be due to IR's historical
legacy emerging out of different knowledge traditions or being housed in
separate departments. In France, IR emerged from sociological and legal traditions
and, in the UK, history and political theory, including the Marxist tradition,
have been influential in IR. And European IR scholars do not move as freely
between the academy and the policy world as in the US. All these factors might encourage
more openness to critical approaches. I am afraid I don't know enough about
non-Western traditions to make an informed comment. But we must recognize the
enormous power differentials that exist with respect to engaging IR's debates. Language
barriers are one problem; having access to research funds is an enormous
privilege. Scholars in many parts of the world do not have the resources or the
time to engage in esoteric academic debates, nor do they have the resources to
attend professional meetings or access certain materials. The production of
knowledge is a very unequal process, dominated by those with power and resources;
hence the hegemonic position of the US that Biersteker and others still see.





As methodological pluralism now
retains the status of a norm in the field, John M. Hobson (Theory Talk #71) recently argued that the question
facing IR scholars no longer revolves around the debate between positivist
and postpositivist approaches. Rather, the primary meta-theoretical question
relates to Eurocentrism, that is, 'To be or not to be a Eurocentric, that is the
question.' To what extent do you agree with this statement? Why or why not?



Given
my answer to the last question, I am not sure that methodological pluralism has
reached an accepted status in the US yet. However, John M. Hobson has produced
a very thoughtful and engaging book that asks very provocative questions. Unfortunately,
I doubt many IR scholars in the US have read it and would be rather puzzled by
Hobson's claim. But certainly the Eurocentrism of the discipline is something
to which we should be paying attention. I find it curious how little IR has
recognized its imperial roots or engaged in any discussion of imperialism. As
Brian Schmidt and other historical revisionists have told us, when IR was borne
at the beginning of the twentieth century, imperialism was a central preoccupation
in the discipline. Race also has been ignored almost entirely by IR scholars.  



To
Hobson's specific claim that the important question for IR now is about being
or not being Eurocentric rather than about being positivist or postpositivist, I
do have some problems with this. I am concerned with Hobson's painting
positivism and postpostivism with the same Eurocentric brush. Yes, they are
both Eurocentric; but postpositivists or critical theorists – to use Cox's term
– are at least open to being reflective about how they produce knowledge and
where it comes from. If one can be reflective about one's knowledge it does
allow space to be aware of one's own biases. Those of us on the critical side
of Cox's divide can at least be reflective about the problems of Eurocentrism,
whereas positivists don't consider reflexivity to be part of producing good
research. Nevertheless, Hobson has made an important statement. He has written
a masterful and insightful book and I recommend it all IR scholars.





Last question. Your recent work is
part of an emergent collective dialogue that aims to 'provincialize' the
Western European heritage of IR. In a recent article
entitled 'Dealing with Difference: Problems and Possibilities
for Dialogue in International Relations' you highlight the need for
non-Eurocentric approach to the study of IR. In IR,
what are the prospects for genuine dialogue across methodological and geographical borders?
Where do you see this dialogue taking place?



This is a very tough issue. There are
scholars like Hobson who talk about a non-Eurocentric approach, but given what
I said about resources, about language barriers, and about inequalities in the
ability to produce knowledge, this is difficult. As I've said at many times and
in many places, the power difference is an inhibitor to any genuine dialogue.
So, where is dialogue taking place? Among those, such as Hobson, who advocate a
hybrid approach that takes other knowledge traditions seriously and sees them
as equally valid as one's own. And mostly on the margins of what we call 'IR', where
some very exciting work is being produced. Feminism is one such site. Feminist
approaches are dedicated to dialogic knowledge production, or what they call
knowledge that emerges through conversation. Feminists believe that theory can
emerge from practice, listening to ordinary people and how they make sense of
their lives. I also think that projects like the one undertaken by Wæver and
Tickner (which is still ongoing) that is publishing contributions from scholars
from very different parts of the world is crucial.





J. Ann Tickner is
Distinguished Scholar in Residence at the American University. She is also a
Professor Emerita at the University of Southern California where she taught for
fifteen years before coming to American University. Her principle areas of
teaching and research include international theory, peace and security, and
feminist approaches to international relations. She served as President of the
International Studies Association from 2006-2007. Her books include Gendering
World Politics: Issues and Approaches in the Post-Cold War Era (Columbia
University Press, 2001), Gender in International Relations: Feminist
Perspectives on Achieving International Security (Columbia University
Press, 1992), and Self-Reliance Versus
Power Politics: American and Indian Experiences in Building Nation-States
(Columbia University Press, 1987).







Related links





Faculty Profile at American University
Read
Tickner's Hans Morgenthau's Principles of
Political Realism: A Feminist Reformulation (Millennium, 1988) here (pdf)
Read Tickner's You Just Don't Understand: Troubled Engagements between Feminists and
IR Theorists (1997 International Studies Quarterly) here (pdf) 
Read Tickner's What Is Your
Research Program? Some Feminist Answers to International Relations
Methodological Questions (2005, International Studies Quarterly) here (pdf) 


Print version of this Talk (pdf)

The International Finance Corporation (IFC) introduced the Global Trade Finance Program (GTFP) in 2005 is to 'support the extension of trade finance to underserved clients globally.' The program has since expanded rapidly, and its authorized exposure ceiling was increased in three stages from $500 million in 2005 to $5 billion in 2012. In FY12, the GTFP accounted for 39 percent of total IFC commitments, 53 percent of its commitments in Sub Saharan Africa, and 48 percent of its commitments in Latin America and the Caribbean. The Independent Evaluation Group (IEG) recommends that IFC (i) continue to strengthen the GTFP's focus in areas where additionally is high and increase the share of the program in high-risk markets and where the supply of trade finance and alternate risk-mitigation instruments are less available; (ii) adopt additional methods of reporting volume that can reflect the distinct nature of trade finance guarantees; (iii) refine the means by which GTFP profitability is monitored and reported; (iv) review the costs and benefits of the current monitoring and evaluation framework; (v) ensure that a transparent process is in place to govern cases of covenant breach; and (vi) enhance the program's ability to meet the demand for coverage of longer-term trade finance tenors.

This study reviews: (1) how levels of donor financing of the health sector in Somalia varied over the decade 2000-09, (2) which health interventions were prioritized by donors, and (3) how evenly health sector aid was distributed to the different zones of Somalia. The overall aim of the study was to create evidence for donors, implementers, and health specialists involved in allocation of financial resources to the Somalia health sector. The results of the study are based on quantitative data collected from 38 Development Assistance Committee (DAC) donors and implementing agencies active in Somalia. Quantitative data were collected between March and May 2007 and in March 2010, with response rates of 96 and 95 percent, respectively. The report is organized in five chapters. Chapter one provides the background to the study, along with its aims and objectives, and contextualizes the study area, Somalia. Chapter two provides the conceptual framework for the research by looking at aid financing trends in developing countries, in the health sector, in fragile states, and in Somalia. Chapter three describes the methodology, the data collection process, types of data collected, and methodological limitations. Chapter four presents the quantitative findings in terms of total health sector aid financing, and expenditure by disease and by zone. Chapter five offers conclusions linked to the four primary study objectives and provides recommendations for future funding.

This paper includes three parts: external economic environment, part one includes: global environment, regional environment, and risks. Vietnam's recent economic development, part two includes: a relatively stable macroeconomic situation, growth at record low, booming exports despite a slowing economy, sharp turnaround in external accounts, inflation dynamics, monetary policy, fiscal policy, and near-term outlook. Structural reforms and medium-term outlook, part three includes: context, restructuring of state-owned enterprises, banking Sector development, and poverty reduction.

Innovation is the main driver of long-term economic growth. The accumulation of capital, whether in the form of physical assets such as plants and equipment, or through better human capital, cannot indefinitely sustain growth unless new products, services, processes, and/or business models are developed and implemented. This paper describes the actors involved and the types of funding available at different stages of the innovation process, the rationales for public intervention, and the advantages and disadvantages of some of the most commonly used policy instruments. Innovation activities are more difficult to finance than other types of investment for several reasons. Innovation produces an intangible asset that does not typically constitute accepted collateral to obtain external funding. Also, the technological and market uncertainty of innovation activities makes the returns to investment highly uncertain, creating significant problems for the standard risk adjustment methods used by providers of funds. This paper uses a streamlined version of an innovation process with three stages to categorize the different sources of finance available; in reality, considerable crossover takes places among instruments because innovation processes are not discrete.

The sales of goods and services are exposed to a significant number of risks, many of which are not within the control of the supplier. The highest of these risks and one that can have a catastrophic impact on the viability of a supplier, is the failure of a buyer to pay for the goods or services it has purchased. In today's challenged domestic and global economic climate, recognizing and managing future risks has become a priority for businesses. Losses attributed to non-payment of a trade debt or bankruptcy can and do occur regularly. Default rates vary by industry and country from year-to-year, and no industry or company is immune from trade credit risk. The essential value of trade credit insurance is that it provides not only peace of mind to the supplier, who can be assured that their trade is protected, but also valuable market intelligence on the financial viability of the supplier's customers, and, in the case of buyers in foreign countries, on any trading risks peculiar to those countries. As well as providing an insurance policy that matches the client's patterns of business, trade credit insurers will establish the level of cover that can reasonably be provided to the supplier for trade with each individual buyer, by analyzing the buyer's financial status, profitability, liquidity, size, sector, payment behavior and location.

El objeto de esta tesis doctoral LO CONSTITUYE PRINCIPALMENTE, desde el punto de vista metodológico, el estudio de la legislación española y la diversa legislación de Derecho Comparado relacionada con la participación ciudadana. Para ello se han utilizado multitud de fuentes bibliográficas, legislativas y jurisprudenciales sobre la materia tratada, lo que unido a distintas entrevistas a personas y funcionarios públicos relacionados con la participación, han llevado a que este trabajo se haya enriquecido notablemente. La participación ciudadana se ha pretendido ubicar en un contexto adecuado, dotándola de una visión global para posteriormente acercarla al derecho español, y muy particularmente al régimen local, donde principalmente se desarrolla la participación. El trabajo de investigación se ha estructurado en ocho capítulos diferenciados, debido al alcance y contenido del estudio. -La participación ciudadana debemos definirla como "modelo de actuación de la ciudadanía en asuntos públicos, ya sea a título personal o colectivo, con la finalidad de que influya y se vea reflejada en las políticas o decisiones que se adopten por las instituciones públicas ". Este concepto de participación deja patente el hecho que se pueda participar tanto de forma individual como colectiva, lo que enriquece a la misma y la dota de un carácter abierto y no restrictivo. Tanto los sujetos intervinientes en la participación, como el modelo que se adopte para llevarse a cabo, son claves para su consecución. Es necesario indicar que la participación ciudadana no es un fenómeno reciente, sino que ya en la Antigüedad y Edad Media se producía. Como señala Loewenstein: los sujetos de las comunidades tomaban las decisiones en relación con aquello que los rodeaba, y se sentían como miembros inseparables del grupo. Lo mismo sucede por ejemplo con los maoríes en Nueva Zelanda. Será a partir de la Revolución Francesa cuando la participación ciudadana directa pase a ser una participación representativa, en la que la ciudadanía participará únicamente como titular de la soberanía eligiendo a sus representantes en las asambleas periódicamente. Otro término inseparable con la participación ciudadana es el de gobernanza. La Real Academia Española de la Lengua es la que mejor dota de significado al mismo, definiéndola como el: "arte o manera de gobernar que se propone como objetivo el logro de un desarrollo económico, social e institucional duradero, promoviendo un sano equilibrio entre el Estado, la sociedad civil y el mercado de la economía". Significa gobernar de forma cooperativa, bajo los principios básicos de responsabilidad, eficacia y coherencia, suponiendo un nuevo modelo. Junto con gobernanza aparece el concepto "buena gobernanza ". Este término, dada su importancia, ha sido estudiado y desarrollado tanto por Naciones Unidas como por la Unión Europea. La "buena gobernanza "pretende integrar a la ciudadanía, ya sea de forma colectiva o individual en la esfera pública, con la finalidad de acabar con los abusos y la corrupción que existe en multitud de Estados. Para ello, se han fijado una serie de principios con los que se cree que se puede desarrollar de forma real y efectiva una buena gobernanza, como son, entre otros: -participación, consenso, equidad, transparencia, etc. CRITICAS A LA GOBERNANZA: La gobernanza no está alejada de reproches por algunos sectores críticos, que consideran que permitir que sea llevada por organismos internacionales conlleva a: -debilitar el poder del Estado y -aumentar el proceso globalizador en detrimento de la población. -Este trabajo de investigación ha recogido una visión del derecho comparado, llevando un amplio análisis de la relación entre democracia y participación ciudadana. -Así, instituciones como Naciones Unidas, dedicaron sus Informes de Desarrollo Humano de 1993 y 2002 a este tema. Analizan la forma en que debe llevarse la participación para el que el sujeto sea el centro de desarrollo desde el que se alcance una democratización del sistema y de las instituciones. Para llegar a la participación, señala Naciones Unidas, deben participar en igualdad de condiciones toda las personas, incluso grupos que están condenados en muchos países al ostracismo como son minorías étnicas, mujeres, habitantes de zonas rurales, etc. Lo más destacable de estos informes es que llegan a una misma conclusión: la descentralización es clave en la participación ciudadana, lo que conlleva al fortalecimiento de las instituciones democráticas. -La participación ciudadana también es un fenómeno que la UNIÓN EUROPEA considera necesario para su funcionamiento y así aumentar la involucración de la ciudadanía europea en las políticas e instituciones que la afectan. El Tratado de Lisboa, de 13 de diciembre de 2007, que modifica el Tratado de Constitución de la Unión Europea, introduciéndose la iniciativa popular. Con esta medida se pretende incrementar los derechos de la ciudadanía, intensificar los debates de las políticas públicas europeas, aumenta así la participación de ciudadanos y sociedad civil. El derecho al ejercicio de la iniciativa ciudadana, precisando de un millón de firmas, con una serie de requisitos, entró en vigor el 1 de abril de 2012. -La experiencia participativa se ha llevado a cabo en multitud de países de países de todo el mundo, por lo que en este trabajo se ha pretendido recoger un amplio elenco de estas experiencias para dotarlo de una visión general. Destaca que se haya citado países tales como India o Nueva Zelanda, cuyas experiencias son casi desconocidas en nuestro país. Estas experiencias se llevan a cabo de forma efectiva dentro del ámbito local, lo que no hace más que confirmar la idea de Naciones Unidas ya comentada, de que es la descentralización la clave en la participación ciudadana. -Como no podía ser de otra forma, he dedicado un apartado especial a Perú. Tal y como he dicho al principio de mi intervención, mi estancia en este país me sirvió para documentarme y conocer mejor la realidad participativa. En este país se ha llevado a cabo una notable implantación de la participación ciudadana en todos los niveles de gobierno, dotando especialmente a la sociedad civil de la importancia que merece en los procesos participativos. A partir del año 2002 se produce en Perú la consolidación de la participación ciudadana de forma que se encuadra dentro de las políticas públicas del proceso de descentralización, lo que tiene su reflejo en: -La Ley 26300 de Derechos de Participación y Control Ciudadanos; -La Ley de Bases de Descentralización: que considera como objetivo de la descentralización "la participación y fiscalización de la ciudadanía en la gestión de los asuntos públicos de cada región y localidad ". -La Ley Orgánica de Gobierno Regionales; -Ley Orgánica de Municipalidades, y por supuesto, -La Constitución peruana de 1993 (en los artículos 2.17 y 31) -La Ley 27444 de Procedimiento Administrativo General, recoge en su articulado el principio de participación. Consideramos que es clave que se produzca la participación ciudadana en la Administración Pública, ya que se trata de las instituciones más cercanas a la ciudadanía. -Queremos destacar la Ley 27806 de Transparencia y Acceso a la Información Pública. Esta ley busca la consecución de la transparencia de los actos del Estado y la participación ciudadana. Aunque adolece de algunos vicios, como el hecho de no ser publicada en las lenguas nativas para que tenga una correcta difusión, fue aprobada en el año 2002, algo que es especialmente llamativo, como ya comentaremos más adelante, siendo aprobada en España la Ley de Transparencia el año pasado, 11 años más tarde que en Perú. Como aspectos controvertidos destacables en la abundante normativa peruana relacionada con la participación ciudadana, nos encontramos ante una legislación demasiado procesalista, en la que los procedimientos imperan frente a la calidad en la representación ciudadana y la ausencia de obligaciones para que las autoridades, por mandato legal, para cumplir con la participación de la ciudadanía en los procesos. -En España la participación ciudadana se ha ido abriendo paso poco a poco. Tal y como recogemos en el Capítulo V, Constitución de 1978 la plasma en diversos artículos. El artículo 23 se dedica al derecho fundamental a participar en los asuntos públicos, aunque no debe ser interpretado de forma extensiva, dado que correríamos el riesgo, como indica LOPEZ GUERRA, de aplicarle una desmesurada extensión de las cautelas y garantías propias de los derechos fundamentales. Este capítulo además se ha enriquecido con numerosos referencias jurisprudenciales así como legislativas de distintas ciudades, donde se plasman estas formas de participación ciudadana. Como consecuencia de las numerosas formas de participación existentes en el sistema español, hemos considerado necesario delimitarlas y establecer una clasificación para facilitar el estudio. Estas dos formas de clasificación son: -la orgánica (en la que la ciudadanía se integra en un órgano colegiado de carácter público); -y la funcional (aquellas formas de participación, no incluidas en la orgánica). Existen multitud de órganos de participación en nuestra legislación, tales como los Consejos Sectoriales (dentro del municipio), los Consejos Territoriales de Participación (en el ámbito del distrito), con un funcionamiento similar aunque con diferente ámbito de actuación. Dentro de estos órganos, y como novedad de la Ley 57/2003, que modificó la LBRL, se estableció la creación de un órgano nuevo de participación ciudadana en los municipios de gran población como es el Consejo Social (art.131). Algunas ciudades ya establecieron su creación como Barcelona en el año 1998, al igual que algunas diputaciones provinciales, los habían creado bajo la denominación de "Consejos Económicos y Sociales ". Su composición y funcionamiento es muy similar aunque con pequeñas variaciones dependiendo de las ciudades y su principal objeto es el debate, informe, consulta y propuesta de temas estratégicos para la ciudad, que la afecten de forma directa. Existen otros órganos orientados a mejorar la gestión municipal y la participación ciudadana como son los Órganos Territoriales de Gestión Desconcentrada. Expresamente la LBRL en su artículo 24.1 reconoce su creación para facilitar la participación ciudadana en la gestión de los asuntos locales. La instauración, cuando sea facultativa, de unos u otros órganos, dependerá de los propios municipios. La participación funcional la lleva a cabo la ciudadanía de forma individual. Especialmente hemos tenido en cuenta la que se desarrolla en la Administración Local, esfera donde puede llevarse a cabo la participación ciudadana directamente. Si hablamos de participación funcional lo primero que debemos hacer es señalar la importancia de la información pública, considerada como "el principal exponente de la participación directa procedimental de los ciudadanos ". El derecho de información pública tiene una gran tradición legalista en nuestro ordenamiento jurídico. Ya se recogía por: -la Ley Municipal de 1870, -La Ley Municipal de 1877; -y el Estatuto de Calvo Sotelo de 1924, más reciente que favoreció la participación ciudadana con las "exposiciones públicas ". La información pública se recoge en el artículos 20 de la Constitución. Pese a que no figura expresamente el derecho de información administrativa, debemos ponerlo en referencia con el artículo 105 del mismo texto legal, que establece una reserva de ley en tres ámbitos diferenciados, y aunque no se cite la palabra "derecho ", no cabe duda que son tres derechos públicos subjetivos, como indica PARADA VAZQUEZ. El hecho de introducir el legislador el artículo 105 CE fuera del título dedicado para los derechos fundamentales, no otorgándole su especial protección, pese a estar ocasionalmente conectado con diversos derechos fundamentales, dotándole de este carácter es una incongruencia del legislador a la hora de la redacción de la Constitución. La Ley 30/92, de 26 de noviembre de Régimen Jurídico de las Administraciones Públicas y Procedimiento Administrativo Común, en su artículo 3.5 recoge en una serie de principios de transparencia y participación que van unidos al derecho información y por ende, la participación ciudadana. La cuestión es que estos principios enumerados por la Ley 30/92 son innecesario puesto que no hace más que reproducir lo que la Constitución ya recoge y que es de obligado cumplimiento. En este mismo sentido, en 1999 se aprobó la Carta de Derechos del Ciudadano de Castilla- La Mancha, que pese a ser fruto de la participación y consenso de numerosos colectivos, no hizo más que reproducir lo que la Ley 30/92 ya había establecido y que venía recogido por la Constitución. La información pública también se recoge en la Ley 7/1985, de 2 de abril reguladora de las Bases de Régimen Local. Pese a que el Título V recoge la Información y Participación Ciudadana, hay un artículo de notable importancia fuera de este Título, donde la participación ciudadana es clave, como es el artículo 49, que recoge la obligación de someter a información pública la aprobación de ordenanzas locales. En caso de producirse su omisión conlleva la invalidez del acto legislativo. Sin embargo, este trámite también debía haberse extendido a reglamentos municipales, dado que importancia, como las ordenanzas. Estrechamente relacionado con la información pública está el papel que juegan las nuevas tecnologías, que facilite la participación ciudadana. El artículo 70 bis 3, introducido por la Ley 57,2003, de 16 de diciembre, de Modernización del Gobierno Local, introducido en la LBRL, instaba a los municipios y entidades locales a favorecer e impulsar las nuevas tecnologías. Esta modificación atendió a la Recomendación del Comité de Ministros del Consejo de Europa de 2001, sobre la participación de los ciudadanos en la vida pública local. En Castilla-La Mancha debemos destacar el Decreto 12/2010, de 16 de marzo, por el que se regula la utilización de los medios electrónicos en la actividad de la Administración autonómica, y aprobado en atención de sus competencias de autoorganización, que buscaba el reforzamiento de la participación ciudadana y la transparencia de la administración y que surge a raíz de la aprobación de la normativa estatal, de la Ley 11/2007, de 22 de junio, de acceso electrónico de los ciudadanos a los Servicios Públicos. Otro derecho de participación funcional es el derecho de petición, que recoge dentro de su doble vertiente, además de una manifestación del derecho de libertad de expresión, un cauce participativo, cuando se refiere a intereses generales o colectivos. Destaca como la ley que lo regula, la L.O. 4/2001, de 12 de noviembre, no lo define pese a que su anterior regulación, la Ley 92/1960, de 22 de noviembre, en su artículo 1, si lo hacía. Estamos ante un derecho participativo con notable arraigo en nuestra historia, y que ya en la España Musulmana se recogía, exponiéndole al Visir de Reclamaciones las quejas frente a agravios o excesos de los funcionarios. Otras formas de participación ciudadana destacables, son el derecho de iniciativa ciudadano o el de consulta popular local. -La iniciativa ciudadana viene recogida por el artículo 70 BIS 2 de la LBRL. Pese a que se pueda ejercer la iniciativa de forma extensiva, presentado propuestas o proyectos sobre casi todas las materias de competencia municipal, a excepción de lo relacionado con hacienda local, adolece de un grave defecto, dado que no tiene carácter vinculante para el pleno. Así, puede conllevar a que la iniciativa, pese a cumplir con todos los requisitos no sea tomada en consideración, y la participación ciudadana no tenga sentido, volviendo a la actividad discrecional del Pleno la toma de decisiones. -Sobre la consulta popular local, el derecho de ultramar de 1897, reconocía para Cuba y Puerto Rico, la consulta popular local. Las leyes locales de 1907 de Maura, la de 1912 de Canalejas o de 1924 de Calvo Sotelo también lo introdujo para determinadas materias. La primera ley autonómica que reconoció la consulta popular local fue la de Cataluña en 1935. La Constitución de 1978 no contempla expresamente la consulta popular local, por influencia de la Constitución de 1812. Por ello, tenemos que acudir a distintos artículos (art. 9.2.; 23.1; 92.3 PAG. 245. para que implícitamente podamos decir que sí cabe en nuestro ordenamiento jurídico. La LBRL, recoge en su artículo 18, apartado f), entre los derechos de los vecinos, el de "pedir consulta popular en los términos previstos en la ley ". Pese a ello, en la práctica, la consulta popular ha sido inoperante dada la interpretación rígida de las causas de inadmisibilidad por el Consejo de Ministros (cuya autorización se precisa). Hasta junio de 2004, sólo se habían autorizado 94. Esta autorización debería ser transferida a las Comunidades Autónomas en virtud del artículo 150. 2 CE, lo que dotaría de más significado a la consulta popular local, puesto que son las CC.AA. las que más afectadas pueden verse por el activismo municipal. Otro aspecto discutido es el ejercicio de la consulta popular, es decir, "quien puede llevarla a cabo? Atendiendo a la L.O. 4/2000, de Derechos y Libertades de Extranjeros en España: -los españoles residentes, -que se encuentren empadronados en España, que tienen los mismos derechos que los reconocidos para los españoles en la LBRL. Así pese a que no puedan ejercer el derecho de sufragio , sí que podrán participar en una consulta popular local. Consideramos que era oportuno analizar, a través del derecho comparado, la consulta popular local en países de nuestro entorno así como EE.UU. Ha sido necesario plasmar en este trabajo de investigación las últimas novedades legislativas relacionadas con la participación ciudadana y especialmente en el ámbito local. -La Ley 19/2013, de 9 de diciembre, de transparencia, acceso a la información pública y buen gobierno es novedosa en nuestro sistema. Busca incrementar y reforzar la transparencia en la actividad pública, reconocer y garantizar el acceso a la información y establecer las obligaciones de buen gobierno que deben cumplir los responsables públicos. Aunque no es perfecto es un primer paso para el ejercicio pleno del derecho de participación ciudadana. Es motivo de su aprobación no es otro que la ciudadanía que se niega a ser tratada como simples electores cada 4 años y quieren interactuar con su Administración Pública y su democracia. En su elaboración a través de un portal web, se recibieron más de 3.600 aportaciones. La democracia representativa debe además de ser participativa y con pasos así puede llegar a serlo. Al encontrarnos ante una ley prácticamente recién aprobada y también debido a su vacatio legis, tendremos que esperar para conocer como se desarrolla su aplicación y su efectivo cumplimiento. Elemento clave es el desarrollo de la participación ciudadana son los presupuestos participativos, que conlleva a la participación ciudadana en su redacción y en la decisión de donde van destinadas las partidas presupuestarias. Como indicaba Naciones Unidas "pocas decisiones del gobierno significan tanto para la gente común como las que se adoptan con la redacción de los presupuestos públicos ". Los presupuestos participativos no se han desarrollado de la misma manera en todos los países en los que se lleva a cabo. Nació en 1989 en Brasil, en particular, en la localidad de Porto Alegre, donde ha tenido una gran implantación. El modelo de presupuestos participativos implantado en países europeos no es uniforme. En Alemania utilizan el modelo llevado a cabo en Christchurch (Nueva Zelanda); en Portugal, dado sus lazos con Brasil, se sigue el modelo brasileño; en el caso de España se toma un modelo híbrido, donde se combina la participación directa ciudadana y a través de colectivos. Con la finalidad de dotar de una amplia visión general a los presupuestos participativos, hemos comentado multitud de localidad de España para conocer sus particularidades, y muy especialmente la ciudad de Albacete. Aquí ha sido un proyecto asentado en la política municipal, refiriendo incluso la denominación de "el Porto Alegre Manchego ". Este modelo se asentó sobre el asociacionismo y fue perfilado para mejorar sus deficiencias hasta que en el año 2007 alcanzará su pleno auge. En la actualidad, debido a la crisis financiera que acarreó la disminución de los fondos públicos, ha perdido fuerza y tendremos que esperar a que la situación económica mejore para conocer como se van desarrollando nuevamente los presupuestos participativos. La democracia participativa debería mantenerse, independientemente de la situación de las arcas municipales. Las nuevas tecnologías de la información y comunicación tienen un papel clave en la participación ciudadana y contribuye a incrementarla, favoreciendo así la transparencia y accesibilidad. La aparición de las NTIC conlleva al surgimiento de nuevos términos relacionados con la participación ciudadana, como son: "e-democracia " (NTIC son utilizadas por partidos políticos, lobbys, asociaciones y ciudadanía en particular con fines políticos y jurídicos "; "e-governmet o gobierno electrónico ", que supone un espacio participativo digital, donde la ciudadanía conoce las administraciones públicas de los distintos niveles, puede llevar a cabo los trámites que precisa de ellas, y presentar quejas o participar mediante iniciativas en la misma. En España, la Constitución de 1978, en su artículo 18.4, recoge el uso de la informática, aunque de forma negativa. Pese a ello es algo progresista, y más si atendemos al año de su aprobación, cuando su uso no estaba implementado. Será en el año 2007 cuando se apruebe la Ley 11/2007, de 22 de junio, de acceso electrónico de los ciudadanos a los Servicios Públicos y la Ley 37/2007, de 16 de noviembre, sobre reutilización de la información del sector público. Estas leyes no tienen la consideración de L.O. para así no reconocer al derecho de información categoría de derecho fundamental. El uso de medios informáticos y telemáticos con la Administración y la cantidad de posibilidad que otorga, a llevado al surgimiento por algunos autores del término "e-administración ". Pese a que las NTIC son un medio con el que se puede llevar a cabo la participación ciudadana de forma más rápida, aún siguen siendo en multitud de webs, sobre todo de los ayuntamientos de las localidades, confusas y complejas, algo que deberá perfilarse. -Por último, hemos finalizado la tesis con un capítulo dedicado íntegramente al medio ambiente como paradigma de la participación ciudadana. La concienciación por la defensa del medio ambiente es un objetivo que se ha ido abriendo paso en el marco de las distintas políticas y actuaciones impulsadas por la Unión Europea, y donde la participación ciudadana ha tenido un papel clave. La aprobación por Naciones Unidas del Convenio de Aarhus sobre acceso a información ambiental, participación del público en la toma de decisiones y el acceso a la justicia en materia de medio ambiente, en 1998, supuso el comienzo de lo que se conoce por "democracia ambiental ". Este convenio dota de notable importancia a la información medioambiental como medio para poder llevar a cabo de forma efectiva la participación ciudadana. Europa ya había mostrado su sensibilidad hacia la participación de la ciudadana en decisiones medioambientales, como dejó patente la Directiva 90/313/CE, que regulaba el acceso a la información medioambiental, previa solicitud. Este interés en la Unión Europea por medio ambiente y participación ciudadana, siguió con la Directiva 2003/4/CE, que derogó la anterior Directiva y adoptó la normativa comunitaria al Convenio de Aarhus. Asimismo, en este mismo año se aprobó por el Parlamento y el Consejo, la Directiva 2003/35/CE, que establecía medidas para la participación del público en la elaboración de determinados planes y programas relacionados con el medio ambiente. -En España, la Constitución reconoce en su artículo 45 el derecho al medio ambiente, pero será la Ley 27/2006, de 18 de julio, por la que se regulan los derechos de acceso a la información, de participación pública y de acceso a la justicia en materia de medio ambiente, la que transponga las Directivas 4 y 35/2003. Esta Ley regula el derecho que ostenta la ciudadanía a los poderes públicos para que adopten las medidas encaminadas a garantizar la adecuada protección del medio ambiente. 2.- CONCLUSIÓNES: -Podemos decir que la participación ciudadana en la Administración local es útil en la vida del municipio y en la esfera que afecta a la ciudadanía. -Permite reducir la exclusión social si se toman medidas encaminadas a mejorar la situación de estos grupos, a propuesta en muchos casos de la ciudadanía que expone sus peticiones, y en algunos casos son tomadas en cuenta en los propuestos. -La racionalización en el gasto público no puede suponer un limite a la participación ciudadana y servir de justificación por las Administraciones para que no se tenga en cuenta, ni se lleve a cabo la participación. -Será en el ámbito local, donde se puede llevar a cabo de forma más efectiva la participación ciudadana, por lo que habrá que dotarla de medios para que su consecución en todos los municipios y localidades sea un objetivo, y haya una participación plena. -Si la participación ciudadana se produce, continúa y es tenida en cuenta, podrá servir para legitimar las instituciones y sus proyectos, más aún si tenemos en cuenta el descredito actual en el que están sumidas.

The Better Work Program has its roots in the Better Factories Cambodia (BFC) program, established in 2001 as a follow-on from the 1999 U.S.-Cambodia Bilateral Trade Agreement. The free trade agreement (FTA) was the first to link improved labor conditions with greater market access. The BFC program benefitted all the key stakeholders by improving work conditions, supporting the growth of the apparel sector in Cambodia (benefitting all local stakeholders), and boosting developed world buyers' reputation by sourcing from ethical workplaces. BFC has also helped to cushion the negative effects of external changes to the trading environment in the apparel sector (the end of the Multi-Fibre Arrangement quota system in 2005 and the global financial crisis in 2008–09). The program has grown substantially; as of December 2014, BW has reached over a million workers in more than 1,000 factories across eight countries (Bangladesh, Cambodia, Haiti, Indonesia, Jordan, Lesotho, Nicaragua, and Vietnam).

After a century of political centralization in Colombia, the first public election of city mayors in 19861 began a decentralization trend, which was later reinforced by a constitutional reform in 1991. Subnational governments (departments and municipalities) were made responsible for the planning and management of social and economic development in their jurisdictions. Administrative and political reforms were accompanied by fiscal decentralization, including the transfer of central government revenues. Since 1991 the growth of fiscal transfers has accelerated. Departments and municipalities are now responsible for public health, education, water supply, and sanitation expenditures through earmarked transfers. Out of the total amount of central government expenditures (21.8 percent of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) in 2008) almost one-quarter represent regional transfers (5 percent of GDP), which finance half of all regional expenditures (10.2 percent of GDP). The purpose of this paper is to describe the budget process reform implemented in Medellin, and to analyze its actual performance and evaluate its success. The reform is changing the way public resources are allocated and executed, while gradually institutionalizing supply and demand-side practices beyond the government's political cycles. This paper describes and analyzes how the Results-oriented budgeting (RoB) was designed and implemented, and the achievements of the system to date, in terms of resource allocation and the policy-making process.

Issue 15.6 of the Review for Religious, 1956. ; Review for Religious ~OVEMBER 15, 1956 Cloister of Congregations . Joseph F. Gallen Zeal for Souls ¯ " c.A. Herbst Sisters' RefreafsIVI . Thomas Dubay The Religious Life . Roman Congregations Book Reviews New Business Address index for 1956 VOLUME XV " No. (5 Ri::VI.I::W FOR RI::::LIGIOUS VOLUME XV NOVEMBER, 19 5 6 NUMBER 6 CONTENTS NEW BUSINESS ADDRESS . 281 CLOISTER OF CONGREGATIONS-~Joseph F. Gallen, 'S.,J 2.8.2. ZEAL FOR SOULS--C. A. Herbst, S.J . 295 SISTERS' RETREATS---VI --- Thomas Dubay, S.M: .3.0.1. GUIDANCE FOR RELIGIOUS . 308 ROMAN CONGREGATIONS AND THE RELIGIOUS LIFE"0 ". 3.09 B(~OK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS-- Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.3. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . 3~8 INDEX FOR VOLUME XV . 334 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, November, 1956. Vol. XV, No. 6. Published bi-monthly: ,January, March, May, ,July, September, and November, at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter, ,January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under ~he act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.'j., Gerald Kelly, S.J., Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Edwin F. Falteisek, S.J. Publishing rights reserved by REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed it. U. S. A. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: Review For Religious, 3115 South Grand Boulevard, St. Louis 18, Missouri Our New Business , clress When we were preparing to publish the REVIEW, we arranged to have the College Press, in Topeka, do the printing and distribut-ing. For fifteen years the editors and the College Press have worked together in the closest harmony. We have literally shared both heart-aches and joys. The heartaches were mostly brought about by the difficulties of the war years: for example, as we published each num-be~ we wondered how we would get enough paper for printing the next. The joys consisted, among other things, in getting the REVIEW out regularly and on time, despite the difficulties, and in the realiza-tion that this new apostolate for religious seemed to be appreciated. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 3115 South Grand Boulevard St. Louis 18, Missouri This is our new business address During all these fifteen years, Mr. J. W. Orr, owner of the Col-lege Press, and his assistants, have given the REVIEW the best they had; and that was very good, indeed. But the time has come when we must make new publishing arrangements. The reason for this is purely an "act of God," as far as both the editors and the College Press are concerned. There has been no break in the harmony that has always characterized our collaboration. Fortunately for us, the publishing department of the Queen's Work has agreed to take over the publication of the REVIEW. Be-ginning with the next volume, the RE~rIEW will be printed and dis-tributed by the Queen's Work. Obviously, the new publishers can-~ not wait till the last deadline to begin making addresses and keeping records. For this reason, please note the announcement in the center of this page and follow it exactly. The editors are deeply grateful to the College Press for past col-laboration and to the Queen's Work for taking over the burden. 281 Cloist:er ot: Congrega!:ions ,Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. I. Introduction. All the canons on common cloister apply to all congregations, i. e., institutes of simple vows, whether of men or women, clerical or lay, pontifical or'' diocesan, with the exception of c. 607, which treats of religious women going out of the convent alone. To lessen the complications in this highly detailed matter and to avoid the constant repetition of awkward phrases such as, "those of the opposite sex," the article explains and applies common cloister with reference to congregations of religious women. II. r~tpes of cloister. Papal cloister exists in all orders of men and women. Formerly it existed in the case of women only in mon-asteries of nuns that actually had solemn vows, but this was changed by the apostolic constitution Sponsa Christi.1 Cloister of this type is called papal because it is prescribed by papal ,(canon) law and its violation is punished by papal penalties, i. e., penalties enacted in the Code of Canon Law. Common or episcopal cloister is that imposed by canon law on all religious congregations (institutes of simple vows) of men and women. The name common is due to the fact that this cloister is less strict than papal, especially the papal cloister of nuns. This type of cloister was termed episcopal before .the Code of Canon Law. The same expression is still used, aIthough less frequently, because in the law of the code the local ordinary ex-ercises supervision over the exact observance of common cloister and may enforce its observance with canonical penalties (c. 604, § 3). Statutor~t or disciplinary is cloister insofar as it is prescribed by ¯ the particular Rule and constitutions; active, insofar as it forbids leaving the house; passive, insofar as it forbids the entrance of ex-terns into the cloistered parts; material, the cloistered parts of the house; formal, the laws of the code by which the going out of the religious or the entrance of externs is forbidden and regulated. III. Definition, purpose, obligation. The meaning, of common cloister is that the religious do not leave the house without the per~ mission of the superior according to the constitutions nor regularly receive any person of the other sex in the part of the house reserved for the community. The primary purpose of cloister is the preser-vation of the virtue of chastity. Under this aspect cloister frees the 1. Bouscaren, Canon Law Digest, III, 221-52. 282 CLOISTER OF CONGREGATIONS' religious from many temptations, protects the good name of the institute and of the religious state, and prevents scandals, suspicion, and harmful gossip even among the inquisitorial and hostile. Cloister is also an element of the external or canonical contemplative life. Its purpose under this heading is to develop and intensify a truly prayerful, interior, and spiritual 1ire'by withdrawing the religious from an atmosphere of worldliness and distraction and surround-ing her with one of tranquillity, peace and recollection. Cloister is likewise a habitual exercise of mortification and penance, an aid to the preservation of religious discipline in general, and of conspicuous practical utility for persevering study and labor. The mere statement of these aims reveals the value of a cloister that is intelligently en-acted and faithfully observed both in external action and interior purpose. It must be admitted, however, that the modern apostolate demands that at least very many sisters go out of the cloister more frequently and remain out of it for much longer periods daily than in the past. This age, therefore, requires a rigorously cloistered heart rather than a mere cloistered convent, a soul immutably turned to God in love rather than a mere veiled face, sincere detachment rather than mere walls and locked doors, a true interior life rather than mere external protection, and the double barrier of habitual prayer and mortification rather than the double grille. It is an aged canonical maxim that as the fish is lifeless without water so the monk with-out his monastery. I am of the opinion that we must modernize this venerable figure and demand of the religious an amphibious spiritual life. Common cloister is obligatory from c. 604, § 1, on all congre-gations. The constitutions of some institutes of simple vows give the impression either of error or inaccuracy in stating that cloister is not of obligation. It is true that papal cloister is not of obligation for congregations and that it is stricter than common cloister, but the latter is obligatory on all congregations. Both papal and com-mon cloister exist only in canonically erected formal and non-formal religious houses.2 Cloister does not demand that the institute be the proprietor of the house. Neither papal nor common cloister exists in canonically filial houses, summer villas and vacation houses, houses that are not completely erected materially, a house in which the community is not yet residing, nor in a temporary residence, e. g., a house rented and used while the religious house is being renovated. 2. Cf. cc. 597, § 1; 604, § 1; Berutti, De Religiosis, 268; Vromant, De Personis, n. 429. 283 JOSEPH F. ~ALLEN Review for Religious Cloister begins as soon as the community has taken up residence in a canonically erected house, but the precise moment is determined by the higher superior when such residence is begun, gradually. From custom or the enactments of the general chapter or higher superiors, the regulations of common cloister will and should be observed also in filial houses, temporary residences, and even more strictly in vaca-tion houses. IV. Cloistered parts of the house. The parts of the house des-tined for the exclusive use of the religious are those that are to be placed within common cloister. In constitutions approved by the Holy See, these ordinarily are the cells or dormitories, the infirmary, and the refectory. The community room, kitchen, and pantry are sometimes placed within cloister. The cloistered parts of the house are usually determined in the constitutions of sisters. Added deter-minations, the settlement of doubtful cases, the determination of the parts to be cloistered when these are not designated in the con-stitutions, from analogy with c. 597, § 3, appertain to. higher su-periors and the general chapter. The same authorities have the right of changing the boundaries of cloister permanently, except those determined in the constitutions, and may change also these tempor-arily. A proportionate reason is required for either change. V. Doors and locks of cloister. The constitutions of some con-gregations of sisters contain the enactment that the convent doors are to be locked at night and the keys given to the superior. This en-actment undoubtedly has its origin in the norm for the papal cloister of nuns: "The keys of the cloister shall be in the hands of the su-perioress night and day; and she shall give them to certain desig-nated nuns when there is need.''3 Frequently enough the constitu-tions of nuns add to this norm by prescribing that the cloister doors are to have two distinct locks, and these may also be supplemented by bolts and bars. Some orders also command that at night the keys of the two distinct locks are to be put into a box, which it-self is secured by two distinct locks. The keys of the" latter are to be given to two nuns, so that the presence of both is required to open the box. The minimum requisite of such enactments is exit doors that can be opened from the inside only by a key. I believe that a com-petent and conscientious American fire inspector would be apt to object to such exit doors. Building and fire prevention codes and practices in the United States appertain especially to local civil or- 3. Bouscaren, Canon Law Digest, I, 319. 284 November, 1956 CLOISTER OF CONGREGATIONS dinance and authority, and it would be prudent to consult these in the present question. The National Fire Protection Ass6ciation states that its standards ". are widely used by law enforcing authOrities in addition to their general use as gu!des to fire safety.TM In its pamphl~t, Building Exits Code, this association states: "All doors used in connection with exits shall be so arranged as to be always readily opened from the side from which egress is made. Locks, if provided, shall not require a key to operate from the inside~ Latches or other releasing device~ to 6pen doors shall .be of simple types, the method of operation of which is obvious even in darkness.''6 This standard is not specifically hplSlied to such residences as convents or religious houses in general, but it is extended to very similar resi-dences, e. g., apartment houses, which are defined as ". residence buildings providin~ sleeping accommodations for 20 or more per-sons, such as cbnventiorial apartments, tenement houses, lodging houses, dormitories, multi-family, houses, etc.''6 VI. Admission only of the male sex forbidden (c. 604, § 1). By the code, only the entrance of those of the'opposite sex into the cloistered parts is forbidden. Insofar as the entrance of the same sex-is prohibited in any congregation, the obligation is merely of the constitutions. Both the purpose of cloister and ordinary charity demand that even the same sex should not be admitted in a way that would unreasonably disturb the work, recollection, and. espe-cially the privacy of the religious. VII. Exemptions from the prohibition of entrance (cc. 604, § 1; 600; 598, § 2). Can. 604, § 1, extends to common cloister the exemptions given for papal cloister in cc. 600 and 598, § 2, Since these exemptions were enacted for papal cloister, they are not. inl~er~ preted entirely in the same sense when applied to common cloister. Those exempted by cc. 600 and 598, § 2 are: 1. The local ordinary or his delegate for the canonical oisitation. It is sufficient for his examination of the cloister that he be accom-panied by sisters, either two or one, preferably the superior. 2. Priests to administer the sacraments or to assist the dying. For a just and reasonable cause, any man or.boy may be admitted into common.~ loister. The administration of any sacrament and the assistance of .the .dying are evidently just causes, and therefore any priest, may be. admitted into common .cloister for these reasons. "4. Building Exits ~6~ (Boston: National Fire'Protection Association, 12th ed., 1952, reprinted 1955), back of front cover. ." "- ¯ ~ 5. Ibid., n~ 50'3 .r.," ~.:", " : . . ; ~'~ ~, ~ '~ , 6. Ibid., nn. 2800, 2812. 28.5 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious 3. Those who hold the supreme power in the state, with their wines and retinue, and cardinalL with their retinue. This exemption isnot too prattical, and. for that reas6n is omitted in many constitu-tionsi While actually in power, even if not Catholics, kings, em-perors, presidents.of republics, the governors of our states with their wives and retinue, and cardinals with their retinu~ may enter the cloister in ahy country, even outside their own country or state. This exerription does not apply to those Who have been elected to but have not a~ yet entered on the office of supreme power, nor to persons who held supreme power in the past but do not hold it now, nor to cabinet members, senators, and congressmen. The dignity of all of these, however, would be a sufficient reason for their admission into" Common"cloister. A wife in the sense of this canon is one who is commonly held as such,' even though the marriage is invalid, e. g., because of a previous marriage. She and her. retinue may be ad-mi_ tted into the common cloister of men (c. 598, § 2). The same is true of a woman who holds,the supreme power in the state, with her .retinue. The code does .not forbid the entrance of a woman into the common cloister of religious women. 4. The superior may, with proper precautions, admit doctors, surgeons,, and others whose services are neCessar~j. There is evidently a just and teasonable cause fbr the admission of all of these. 5. Others mdy be admitted for a just and reasonable cause in the judgment of the superior, the proper'l~recautions always being ob-served (c. 604, § 1). This legislation is directly on common cloister and gives the general norm for the admission of men and boys iiato the common cloister of women. It is a sufficient norm in itself; and it is very difficult'to.see the .utility of the code's extension of cc. 600 and" 598, § 2, as enumerated above, to common cloister. There is obviously a just and reasonable cause for the admission of all of those listed above from these two canons. The proper precautions may be determined in ~the constitutions. If not,- it "is sufficient thata sister, preferably the local superior or an official, accompany any man admitted to the cloister. This is also true of a priest hdmitted for the confessions of'the sick. It is sometimes specified that the door of 'the room is to be left open while the confession is being heard. This is not always possible because of the smallness bf the room and of the adjoining corridor. No one of the. opposite sex should be .permitted to remain in the cloister longer than is necessary. Men or boys may be admitted into the common clbister of wo- 286 November, CLOISTER Ol~ CONGRI~GATIbNS the house. sister m. ay Permission ticular, or the code. men for a just and reasonable cause, which is less than a serious or grave cause. Therefore, a father, brother, or close male relative may be permitted to enter the infirmary to see a sister who is ill. Greater rea-sons, such as the.preceding and the administration of the sacraments, should be required for admission into a section devoted to the dor-mitories or cells of the sisters than into other parts of the cloister. Lesser reasons are sufficient for the admission of women and girls into the cloister when their entrance is forbidden by~ the constitutions. Particular constitutions may licitly demand more serious reasons than those required by the code for the admission of men and those commonly demanded for the admission of women. All superiors are competent to permit entrance into the cloister. 6. Male professors. According to the modern practice of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, neither the constitutions nor the custom of the instit.ute is to permit the admission of lay male pro-fessors into the cloister for the instruction of the sisters in letters or arts. When judged really necessary and not opposed b~; the local ordinary, such instructors are to teach in places outside the cloister. The mother general is to determine the precautions .necessary to avoid all danger and suspicion.7 ¯ VIII. Going out of the conoent (c. 606, § 1). Canon law does not forbid sisters to leave the house withotit the permission of su-periors but presupposes that this prohibition is contained in the con-stitutions; and in c. 606, § 1 obliges superiors to take care that the constitutions are exactly, observed with regard to subjects leaving By the law of the constitutions and universal usage, no leave the convent without the permission of the superior. may be explicit, implicit, tacit, reasonably presumed,, par-general. A violation is only of the constitutions, nQt of In the law of common cloister as understood in the code and generally practiced, sisters are permitted to leave the convent for any reasonable cause, e. g., for anything that is necessary, useful, or con-ducive to the special purpose and works of the cgngregation, for medical and dental care, spiritual reasons such as going to con~fession, for shopping, for reasonable recreation such as a walk, for works of charity such as attendance at funerals and the visiting of bereaved families, of sick, sisters, women, and children, and for reasons de-manded .by ordinaiy courtesy and politeness. They should not be permitted to go.out for reasons that are idle, u.nbscomin~,, harmful to the religious spirit, or illicit . 7. Cf. Norraae of 190l, n. 173. JOSEPH F~ GA.iLEN Regigto ttor Religious Law is .a reasonable norm of conduct; and therefore the request to go out, even for such a spiritual purpose as confession, should be reasonable. Furthermore, in granting the right "of approaching an occasional confessor, canon law gives no exemption whatever from religious discipline. It is unreasonable to expect permission to leave ~he convent,, especially if this is frequent or habitual, to go to a con-fessor who lives at a notable distance, when appreciable exigense would be necessary, or when the sister would to any degree have to be ex-cused from her assigned work. ~. There is no doubt that a congregation, may have a stricter com-mon cloister than that demanded by the code and that cloister con-tributes to freedom from temptation, dangers of the world, and'dis-tractions, and tends to foster a real interior life. Cloister, however, should not be obstructive of the special purpose of the institute nor such as to induce an artificial, inconsistent, or formalistic observance. Everything in an institute should be in agreement with and subordin-ated to its purpose. Some congregations were founded in an age that could not conceive a religious woman without papal cloister. Others took papal cloister as a fairly close model for the norms of their own constitutions. In congregations cloister should be capable of:.!unstrained observance within the framework of the purpose, works, and ordinary daily lives of the rellgiou's. The local superior gives permission to leave' the 'conven(, except for the cases that in some institutes are reserved'to higher Superiors by the constitutions or custom. The constitutions frequently forbid Sisters to visit private homes, and especially to eat or drink in them Without special permission. In a few institutes, this permission is r~served to higher superiors. Some constitutions specify that the permission of the local superior is sufficient to visit hoUses of the congregation in the vicinity, but a few demand tpheerm ~ "s s"ton of the fi~'gher superior. Constitutions quite often prescribe that a sister must 15~iVe another sister as companion when going to a do~t0ro~ dentist fo~'treatment.'There is also a frequent piohibition aga.in~t visiting house~ of priests without necessity, permission, and a sister com-p'~ inion~ '-'," ' . ~" It'i~ould be advisable to consider the temper, ing. of" the prohi-l~ itiona~ainst eating and drinking in private homes With"~egard to the occasions when a light lunch or hot or cold dri~{I~ could not b'e ~efused without' appearing discourteous and impolitel There can be 'n(~

Developing a diagnostic and action framework for donor-assisted governance reform in conflict-affected countries and fragile states was the objective of a program implemented by the World Bank's Social Development Department (SDV) and funded by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The first phase of the program developed lessons and outcomes based upon a review of international experience of governance reform in fragile and conflict-affected states. A major objective was to identify specific approaches and activities that will be most effective in strengthening institutions, promoting transparency and accountability, and enhancing capacity at local and national levels. This phase also derived lessons on the utility and shortcomings of governance-related diagnostic tools in designing and evaluating country strategies and programs in fragile states. A key issue concerns methodology. What type of analytical method provides a more useful assessment: country-specific analyses of the political economy, indicators designed for purposes of cross-country comparison, indices that rank state fragility, or some combination of diagnostic tools? The second phase of the program also was in two parts. Cote d'Ivoire's poverty reduction strategy process was used as an entry point for an initiative that facilitated process and method-oriented exercises for local stakeholders on the how rather than the what of policy development in an effort to build governance capacity. One result is a model that may serve for future engagement in other fragile and conflict-affected countries. The second part of this phase is an ongoing effort to work with local partners in the Central African Republic and Chad to identify strategies that could strengthen access to justice at the local level. Activities include assessing the strengths and weaknesses of formal and informal justice systems and mapping community-based practices and informal justice systems, including some under the aegis of NGOs, as well as identifying possible linkages to state justice systems. The paper will first examine the concepts of state fragility and governance in terms of donor engagement. Part two will discuss the lessons (opportunities and constraints), diagnostic tools and entry points for governance reform. Part three will offer conclusions.

The College Metcufy. VOL. IV. GETTYSBURG, PA., JANUARY, 1897. No. 9, THE COLLEGE MERCURY, Published each month during the college year by the Students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. STAFF. Editor: ROBBIN B. WOLF, '97. Associate Editors : LEWIS C. MANGES, '97. ED, W. MEISEN H ELDER, SAMUEL J. MILLER '97. CHARLES T. LARK '98. JOHN W. OTT, '97. CHARLES H. TILP, '98. E. L. KOLLER, '98. Alumni Association Editor: REV. D. FRANK GARLAND, A. M., Baltimore, Md. Business Manager: HARRY R, SMITH, '97. Assistant Business Manager: JOHN E. MEISENHELDER, '97. mi™™./One volume (tenmonths). . . . $1.00 ILKMS. jslngleCOpies 15 Fayatle is advance All Students are requested to hand us matter tor publication. The Alumni and ex-members or the college will favor us by-sending Information concerning their whereabouts or any Items they may think would be interesting for publication. All subscriptions and business matters should be addressed to the business manager. Matter intended for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address, THE COLLEGE MEKCUKY, Gettysburg, Pa. CONTENTS. EtllTORIAL, 13° CODBX SlNAITCUS, I31 THE COLLEGE LITERARY SOCIETY, - - - - - 132 BOOK REVIEWS, 135 NEW YEAR RESOLUTIONS, --- 135 COLLEGE LOCALS, 135 ALUMNI NOTES, --- 137 TOWN AND SEMINARY NOTES, --- 139 ATHLETIC NOTES, --- 139 Y. M. C. A. NOTES, 140 FRATERNITY NOTES, --- 140 LITERARY SOCIETIES, 141 EXCHANGES, -- 141 EDITORIAL THIS issue of the MERCURY appears some-what later than the usual time on account of the date of opening. . * ., COLLEGE reopened oir the morning of the fifth with the majority of the boys back on time, but the usual number of stragglers keep up the reputation of id genus omne. All re-port a pleasant vacation and many New Year's resolutions. The loss of several has been more than compensated by the arrival of new ones. Very few of the boys accomplished the work mapped out by themselves for the vacation, such as essays, Specttum and MERCURY work. Who can blame them ? The Christmas vaca-tion should be a real vacation, and the appear-ance of the boys after the examinations showed their need of rest. Now comes the hard work which the middle term always brings. How-ever, if the work is more arduous, it is to be remembered that this season is most propitious for close application. * * EVER since the MERCURY was given to the present Staff, extraordinary efforts have been made to increase the number of Alumni per-sonals. Our efforts have not been altogether unrewarded. But as this publication is main-tained chiefly in the interest of the Alumni, it is fitting that a yet greater portion of its space should be devoted to them. The present plan has been found inadequate. It is unreasonable to expect that two under graduates can keep themselves informed concerning the great body of Alumni scattered all over the habitable globe. The following plan commends itself as more likely to meet the end aimed at; That in lV THE COLLEGE MERCURY. every city or section of the country which has enough Alumni residents to justify it, some Alumnus regularly furnish such personal notes, one in such places respectively as New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, York Altoona, New England and at two or three points in the South and West. This plan proposed only as tentative, at least deserves a trial, and personal letters will be written to those who are thought most willing to attend to the work and the names of those who accept will ap-pear in the MERCURY, so that all the Alumni in that section may send their personals to them. Any further suggestions which may improve this plan will be gratefully received. * *' * WE take pleasure in calling the attention of our readers to the article, in this issue, of Dr. J. W. Richard, and to the letter of Dr. J. H. W. Stuckenberg. We extend our hearty thanks to the gentlemen and commend their example to others. * * * THE Philadelphia Press of Jan. 4th, contains a striking editorial on the subject, Small Col-leges and degrees, the substance of which fol-lows. "At a meeting last week of representatives from the leading colleges of Iowa a resolution was offered asking the Legislature to change the law of that State concerning the conferring of college degrees. As the law now stands any three men can organize a college by in-corporating it under the laws of the State, and any college so incorporated can confer de-grees. Under the law there has sprung up a large number of so-called colleges in Iowa, and as all of them are handing out degrees lib-erally, much discredit is brought upon the honor. The struggle among them to attract students is fierce and many inducements are offered, one college agreeing to pay the mile-age of students in proportion to the length of time they remain in college. The question of college degrees was brought prominently before the public last winter by State Senator Garfield, of Ohio, a son of the late President Garfield. He introduced a bill in the Legislature of that State the object of which was to examine into and pass upon the fitness of colleges to confer honorary degrees. The bill provided for the creation of a univer-sity council consisting of ten members ap-pointed by the Governor. * * * When in the opinion of this council an institution did not have the requisite standing its right to confer honorary degrees should be taken away. New York has ahead}' conferred this power on the regents of the State University and this State should confer it on the University Council." * * * * * We are surprised that so eminent a journal does not know that this State has already taken a similar step, of which we are heartily glad, and that it has done away with the evil of a college like Gettysburg and others of a like high standard having the value of their degrees decreased by the host of small, so-called, colleges which are scarcely better than a good high school. Some estimable men of culture have refused the offer of a degree be-cause a degree has largely lost its significance. It is to be hoped that the Iowa Legislature will pass the bill and that all the other States will join in the movement to prevent charter-ing new institutions and withdrawing the charter from those whose standard does not justify their existence. CODEX SINAITICUS. THE CODEX SINAITICUS is the name given to a celebrated manuscript of the Bible, dis-covered by Prof. Dr. Constantine Tischendorf, February 4th, 1859, nl the Convent of St. Catharine, at the foot of Mount Sinai. The manuscript consists of 346^ leaves. Each leaf is 13^ inches wide and 14^6 high, and contains four columns of writing; and each col-umn contains forty-eight lines. It is supposed to have been prepared in Egypt, or at Con-j stantinople, about the middle of the fourth century of our era. It is written in what is known as uncial or capital letters. Each letter is separated from the others, and all are of the same size, except that frequentty a letter is re- ' duced in size in order to make it fit into the line. Tischendorf calls it "omnium codicum i unclalium sohis integei omniumque a?itiqtiissi- THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 132 mus." His designation solus integer is cer-tainly correct as applied to the New Testament portion, for it is the 011I5' known uncial manu-script that contains the entire text of the New Testament, without any omission, together with the Epistle of Barnabas and a part of the Shepherd of Hennas in Greek (147^2 leaves in all). The designation "antiguissimus." has been questioned, for it is thought by many scholars that the Codex Vaticanus at Rome, is at least as old, if not a little older. But it deserves to be called one of the two oldest, and one of the most valuable biblical manuscripts in the world. Tischeudorf having obtained possession of it as a loan, carried it to Cairo, where in two months, assisted by a German physician, and a druggist, he made a complete copy of it. Then having secured the permanent possession of it for the Russian government, he trans-ferred it to Leipzig, where a quasi-facsimile edition of three hundred copies was printed from types cast specially for the purpose. The original was then taken to St. Petersburg, where it is sacredly kept. The printed copies were distributed among the crowned heads and large libraries, mostly of Europe, except one third of the number which were placed at the disposal of Dr. Tis-cheudorf. Copies of this rare and valuable edition, which for the purposes of textual crit-icism are almost as good as the original, are in the libraries of the Theological Seminaries re-spectively at Gettysburg, Princeton, Union (New York), Andover, Rochester, Auburn, and in the Astor and Lenox Libraries and the library of the American Bible Society in New York, and in the University libraries of Har-vard and Yale. J. W. R. IT has been my privilege to address many students in Colleges, Universities, and Semi-naries; but I do not think I ever addressed any who were more attentive, more earnest, more appreciative, and more eager to learn, than those I recently met at Gettysburg. Compared with what I found there in the past it looks as if a new spirit had come with a quickening influence. The young men are evidently intent on understanding the age in which they live, through which must come all the influences which can affect them, and which is the only age which they can work on directly. They were anxious to know how they can use most effectively all that the school gives them of knowledge and wisdom. There were many evidences that the stu-dents want to make the most of their oppor-tunities in order to make the most of them-selves. With this object in view many ques-tions were asked respecting the best methods of study. It was gratifying to find that many are not content with being mere learners; they want also to become scholars and thinkers. For this purpose they strive to enter upon original research and seek to become indepen-dent investigators. The friends of higher edu-cation ought to see to it that the best means for this purpose are put within the reach of these young men. I saw evidence at Gettysburg that excellent teaching has been done in the College and Seminary. The church has reason to cherish the brightest hopes respecting these institu-tions if the aspiring and energetic spirit is pro-moted and developed. Connected with the earnest intellectual trend I found also a living faith and sincere devotion to the church. J. H. W. STUCKENBERG. Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 21, 1896. THE COLLEGE LITERARY SOCIETY. From no other source during his college course does a man receive so much training as he does from the literary society. He may be a good student and lead his class in scholarship, but if he does not make use of the advantages offered by the literary society he feels when he leaves college that he neg-lected that which would be of more practical good to him than much he learned in the class-room. The important feature of the literary society 133 THE COLLEGE MERCURY -is the training it gives a man for public speak-ing, so, that when he is called upon to make an address he has the ability to use the knowl-edge he has acquired and impart it to others in a manner easily understood. Another important feature is the knowledge of parliamentary rules' and the ability to pre-side at meetings which one receives from the literary society. After a man leaves college his influence is to a great extent measured by his knowledge of the qualifications just mentioned. We have attended meetings over which incompetent men have presided and we have noticed how uninteresting the proceedings have become and the inability of the chairman to decide questions of dispute. In some cases, perhaps, it was possible to overlook this incompetency, as in the case ot a man who has had no ad-vantages to gain any knowledge in such mat-ters ; but there is no excuse for a college man to be placed in such a position. If he should be, he can blame no person but himself, be-cause most of the institutions provide oppor-tunities for the acquirement of such qualifica-tions. . We thus see the college days are, above all others, the time, and the literary societies the place, to acquire those abilities which a stu-dent may be called upon at any time of his life to exercise. A society in order to be of any influence in the institutions in which it may exist must have members who are devoted to its welfare and who take an active part in its exercises. It is not the society which has the largest number on its roll which is the most prosper-ous, but the one in which the members work for their own good and the best interests of their society. Those who participate in the exercises because they are compelled so to do by the rules of the society do not receive nearly so much benefit as they who do so for the instruction and training derived from the participation in the exercises. The literary sotiety is the same as all other organizations in that it needs earnest, active and devoted members in order to make it a success. There has never yet been anything at-tempted for good which has not been sub-jected to influences which proved harmful to it. In many institutions the literary society is practically dead or rapidly declining. From one who is interested in the welfare of the lit-erary societies the following information was received concerning the condition of the so-cieties in about thirty-five representative in-stitutions: Eight institutions report the so-cieties flourishing. In sixteen they are rap-idly declining, some among this number are yet active and doing good work, but yet are no longer what they once were, while others have practically died as far as usefulness is concerned. In eleven of the thirty-five insti-tutions the literary society no longer exists. The societies are dying from New England southward. All institutions reporting their societies as dead are north of Pennsylvania. Those speaking of a decline are in the Middle States, while the flourishing ones are south and west of Pennsylvania. Some of the societies report the cause of their decay is the literary work done by the Greek Letter Fraternity and additional liter-ary work in the college curriculum. Other causes, such as over-prominence of athletics and the tendency of students to specialize in-stead of getting a general culture prove very detrimental to the welfare of the literary so-cieties. In the institutions in which the literary so-ciety has ceased to exist the Greek Letter Fraternities have been most full}' developed, and their influence is reported as the main cause of the society's decay. It is a question if the fraternities will ever take the place of the literary society, and if so, will they prove a satisfactory substitute. Personally, I do not believe the fraternity will supplant the society, notwithstanding the reports to the contrary. [ My opinion is the same as that of the college > president who writes: "I can conceive of no substitute for the literary societ}'." When there is anything to be neglected be-cause of press of class-room work or the meet-ings of any of the college' organizations the THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 134 duties of the literary society are invariably the first neglected. Instead of considering the weekly meetings of the society as the place to which "our duty calls us" and from which we should have a very good excuse to absent our-selves, we often think it is only the place to | pass the evening when we do not have an en-gagement for another place. The great attention given to athletics by the colleges of to-day detracts seriously from the interest in the literary society. The intense interest of the student body in one sphere is very likely to produce relaxation in others, especially in those in which the work is volun-tary. As said before, the literar)' society is the first to suffer from athletics. For some reason it has become the opinion of many peo-ple that there is more glory in the feats of brawn than those of brain. The contests to-day between the different institutions are more in athletics than in literary contests. Because of the great interest taken in athletics, Yale to-day enjoys the honor of holding the suprem-acy in athletics in the college world. In order to attain this position her literary work has suffered, and she, for this reason, meets defeat at the hands of Harvard each year in the lit-erary contests. Athletics are a good thing and cannot be denied the student, but a little less interest in them and more in the work of the literary society would prove of much advan-tage in many institutions. What is most needed by the students of to-day is a broad, liberal culture. But there are many who think this is not necessary, hence they begin early in their course to specialize. Consequently in those institutions which en-courage specializing we find less interest in the literary society. This seems contrary to what ought to be the case. If a student is unable to take a regular college course before he be-gins to specialize, he should take an active part in the literary society which would do something to aid him in securing the general culture needed to exercise the proper influ- • ence in society. The college man of to-day has much expected from him by the world be-cause of the advantages he has enjoyed. It has been said: "No one in England has any-thing to say but the scientific men, and they do not know how to say it.'' For these reasons we are led to believe the literary society has not outlived its day of use-fulness. The present time demands of men the qualifications which the work of the literary society gives. The first qualification is the art of public speaking. We notice to-day that the-number of able speakers is not increasing in the same proportion as the number of well-educated men. Public speaking is beginning to be spoken of as a lost art. The tongue is not the moving power it once was. Depew says: "In one respect the graduates of 1895 are far behind those of 1855. Few of the boys who leave college this year will be good speak-ers. They may be as good thinkers as those who were graduated four decades ago, but they will not be nearly so capable of telling what they know, or what they think, because of the decline of the debate as a means of training." In speaking about the decline of the debating society, he says: "I regard it as a national calamity." The man who desires to exert any influence in these days, when every question receives the attention of the people in public gatherings, should be able to express himself clearly and forcibly. Depew says again: "If the young college man only knew how to speak he wrould be invincible." The greatest difficulty college graduates ex-perience is that they are unable to think on their feet before an audience. As students they neglected this training and now they are at a great disadvantage in public meetings. H. R. S., '97. Where are our literary men ? Both the Spectrum and MERCURY editors would like to hear from them. Let some of our new men be heard from. There must be material in so large a class. Remember these two publica-tions depend upon the efforts you put forth in their behalf. Let us receive aid from every one. Try your hand. •35 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. BOOK REVIEWS. Abraham Lincoln—A poem by Lyma?i Whitney Allen ("Sangamon"),.pp. 112, 12 Mo. G. P. Putnam's So7ispublishers. This is the bc5und copy of the New York j Herald's $1,000 prize poem. The fact that this poem alone of all its competitors was se-lected by the set of competent judges, is the highest commendation. The poem gives a just portrait of one of America's greatest presi-dents and men. "A Princelonian," by James Ba?nes, pp. 4.31. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. This story of the college life of a Prince-tonian is particularly welcome just at this time, coming, as it does, not so long after this old and revered institution has celebrated its ses-quicentennial. It is written in a good and pleasing style and is sure to hold the interest of any reader from start to finish. But to the collage man, no matter where his Alma Mater may be, it strikes chords which find an an-swering vibration in his own breast ; and of his leisure hours he will regret none spent in reading it ; but once having begun he will look forward with pleasure to every succeed-ing hour's reading, and will close the book with a sigh because he has finished it. Besides furnishing a very vivid and delight-ful picture of college life, it is praiseworthy, as a piece of literature, for its character sketches, the character of the heroine being especially well delineated. The hero, Newton Wilber-force Hart, cannot but inspire in many a young man the ambition for a college life. The story, as a whole, reflects much credit on Princeton University and will surely bind the hearts of her sons more firmly to their Alma Afa/et and attract to her classic walls many whose ears had otherwise never heard her voice. Are you attending your literary society as regularly as you should ? If not, there must be a reason. Is it a good one? Men, be loyal! NEW YEAR RESOLUTIONS. Our resolutions good we plan, To take effect the first of Jan. Generally they're on the ebb As slowly creeps the first of Feb., And often sadly broken are As quicker dawns the first of Mar. They are nowhere unless on paper When Fool's Day comes, the first of Apr. Our minds now free, we're light and gay When flowers bloom, the first of May. The skies are fair, the earth in tune We have t/uod times the first of June. Days still more bright, why should we sigh? Speed quick the hours, first of July. Our memory, conscience in a fog. # The Summer glides, 'tis first of Aug. A good resolve we mijht have kept Come.1- stealing o'er us first of Sept. Our better selves by it are shocked As it grows clearer, first of Oct. "Bad habits old with which I strove Have mastered me." The first of Nov. "To give my troubled conscience peace, 'I now resolve' "—. The last of Dec. P. S.—The new resolution is, "I now resolve not to forget my resolutions." W. H. B. C, '99. COLLEGE LOCALS. EDMUND W. MEISENHELDER and E. I*. KOLLER, Editors. Mr. B., 1900 recently told an interesting story about the "Giant's Causeway" in the northern part of Africa. H., 1900, (speaking of Fred. I. in History)— "Every one in his time smoked beer and drank tobacco.'' Dr. M.—"I guess you don't know much about that, Mr. H.," "Do you?" Mr. F., '98, would like to know if "isolated means discovered.'' Mr. L,., '99, (in looking through a book) asked, "L,et me see the picture on the frontis-piece." A young lady of town recently asked our charming and bashful Mr. B., 1900, for one of his curls. We hear that "Brigy" is right in it. Recently Mr. L,., '99, listened to a young lady singing "Tell me do you love me?" After she had finished, George stood a short while in amazement. When he at last recov-ered himself he said: "Well, you do your share, I'll do mine." THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 136 Mr. E., '99, who has quite a reputation as a student of the Bible, told some boys that they should not tease old people, lest they would be devoured by the wolves, as were the children in the Bible. Dr M. (in French)—"What does ses mean ?'' Mr. F., 1900, (after thinking awhile)—"I don't think I can guess." Mr. H., '97, recently rendered effective service at a slight conflagration in a private house up town. "Hutty" cannot tell a lie, he did it with his big feet. Prof. H.—"Mr. T. What is a bias?" Mr. T., '99—"A part of a dress." hiforniation desired.—A Prep, would like to know what building that is with a balloon on top of it. Will some one please inform him ? Now is the time to hand in your applica-tions for the base ball team. Let every one who can play ball apply early. Don't wait to be coaxed ! There is material enough in college and prep, to make two first-class teams. Mr. E., '99, (in German declining "sich") "ich, er, sich." Well done, Luther ! Let the literary matter for the Spectrum be handed in as soon as possible. Let every one be represented. "Josey" K, '99, startled Dr. H. recently by affirming that "David was related to his grandmother, Ruth." The new men take well to "gym." work and we hope that the "good work may go on." The MERCURY extends its sympathy. Luther, '99, tells us that "the hills of Judea are west of the Mediterranean." A Freshman says that Sapho was the great-est poet of the 19th century. A Seminarian says the Mercury is going down. He meant that in the thermometer. Are we going to have field sports next term ? Some of the men in other colleges are at work indoors. Don't let us be behind time. Although guying seems to be one of the necessary evils of Gettysburg College, yet it certainly is out of place in Chapel and in the halls of the literary societies. Spayd, '99, has returned after his recent illness. F. & M. may not have a base-ball team this spring and will devote their time to the relay team, etc. As yet we have taken no definite steps in this direction. It is time. > The class in philosophy has been organized and has held some meetings. Prof. Klinger is the leader of the class. New members can join at any time. If you think you can be bene-fited, join. Nick got a "hair-cut." A Freshmrn lately asked one of the biolog-ical students when they were ' 'going to bisect that cat." K., '98, gives a new version of Oedipus' so-lution of the Sphinx's riddle. He says: "When a man is a baby he goes on four legs ; in middle age he goes on two, and when he is an old man he goes on one.'' H., '98, says that a certain old Greek was taunted with being a fondling \ F., '98, has discovered a new art—the "art of distance," and he says it is based upon Astronomy. Ask Johnnie M., '99, what kind of ham sandwiches they have at the Union Depot, Baltimore. Every student should be sure to attend the course of lectures given in Brua Chapel, under the auspices of the Y. M. C. A. The course this season is especially fine. The Juniors in their first recitation in Greek this term were not exactly conversant with the Oedipus mythus. Their intellects must have been dazzled by the new tables. K., '98, has coined a new word ; it is "rip-erable," and he uses it to describe the condi-tion of silk after having been acted on by nitric acid. Kitzmeyer and Wendt of '98, and Eberly, Koppenhaver and Wendt, of 1900, have not returned to college. It is gratifying to see the large number of new men who are connecting themselves with the literary societies of the college. It is a step in the right direction ; let the good work go on. Quite a number of 1900 men who thoughjt that the first term of Freshman was a "snap," were disagreeably surprised to find the "D's" and "E's" quite prominent on their reports. '37 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. ALUMNI. I,. C. MANGES and CHARLES H. TILP, Editors. '34. Jacob B. Bacon, after having spent a very eventful life as a professor and a contri-- butor to New York papers for more than a half century, died recently in New York. He was the first matriculate of the College and by his death his class becomes extinct. '42. The Lutheran Almanac and Year Book for 1897, is out in its familiar dress. Rev. M. Sheeleigh, D. D., has been editor of this val-uable pamphlet since 1871. '43. John Gneff made a very interesting Christmas address in St. Matthews church, Philadelphia Christmas evening. '44. Rev. P. Anstadt, D. D., of York, is translating Luther's "Commentary on the Gospel," which will soon appear in book form. '•57. Rev. Dr. Earnest closed his pastorate at Mifflinburg, Pa., with the close of the year and will rest awhile from public speaking, in hope of overcoming bronchial difficulty. '57. H. Louis Baugher, D. D., presided at thegreat Lutheran Home Mission Rally held in York,. Jan. 5th. '63. Volume IX of the Lutheran Commen-tary, prepared by Prof. E. J. Wolf, D. D., is in press. It contains the Annotations on the Pastoral Epistles and Hebrews. '64. Rev. J. G. Griffith, of Lawrence, Kan., has tendered his resignation to take effect the first of May. He expects to return B)ast in the early summer, and will work there if a field is opened to him. '67. Wm. E. Parson, D. D., of the Home Mission Board, delivered a very interesting ad-dress before that board on the subject, "Does Our Work Pay?" '67. Rev. C. S. Albert, D. D., editor of "Lutheran Lesson Helps," teaches the Bible lesson once a mouth at the Y. M. C. A. in Germantown. '67. J. Hay Brown, Esq., of Lancaster, was united in marriage with Miss Margaret J. Reilly on Wednesday, December 30th. It has been reported that Mr. Brown would be offered the Attorney Generalship in Mr. McKinley's cabinet. No other lawyer in Pennsylvania would be likely to fill the office with greater credit. '68. Rev. Geo. F. Behrniger, of Nyack, N. Y., delivered the discourse to the students of Cornell University on Sunday, Dec. 6th, in the regular order of the University, which en-gages clergymen of different denominations to officiate in turn. '69. Rev. E. T. Horn, of Charleston, S. C, has been delivering a course of lectures to the students of the Theological Seminary at New-berry, S. C. '69. In addition to his duties as president of Midland College Rev. Jacob A. Clutz, D. D., preaches every two weeks for the congrega-tion at Moray, Kansas. '72. Rev. Samuel A. Weikert presided at the anniversary meeting of the Y. M. C. A. held in Poughkeepsie. The Poughkeepsie Journal pronounces his address a masterpiece. '72. Rev. B. B. Collins and family, of Meyersdale, were somewhat surprised on Fri-day evening, Dec. 18, 1896, when a wagon well laden with provisions stopped at the par-sonage and began to unload its store. The mystery was cleared up later when a large number of the members of Zion church called to extend their greetings. The Luther League presented him with a purse. '75. Rev. M. L. Young, Ph. D., Meyers-dale, Pa., is contemplating a trip through the South in the interest of the "Young Luth-eran." '76. Rev. J. C. Jacoby, of Webster City, de-livered an address on the subject, "The Sab-bath in Relation to Our Civil Government," at the State Convention of the Sabbath Rescue Society, recently held in Des Moines. '77. Rev. F. P. Manhart, of Philadelphia, has been elected pastor of our Deaconess Motherhouse in Baltimore. '77. Wm. M. Baum, Jr., delivered a pleas-ing address during the Christmas exercises of his father's church, St. Matthew's, Philadel-phia, Pa. '78. Rev. Adam Stump, of York, Pa., has received notice from the Board of Publication that the second premium of the $300 offered last spring for two new Sunday school books, has been awarded to him. '78. Rev. C. L. McConnell, of Belleville, Pa., has been elected pastor of the Mifflinburg charge (Pa.) from which Rev. J. A. Earnest is about to retire. THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 138 '78. Rev. H. Max Lentz will complete the seventh year of his pastorate at Florence, Ky., in March, 1897. '80. Rev. C. W. Heisler, of Denver, Col., is President of the Colorado State Sunday School Association. '83. Longmans, Green & Co. have issued Macaulay's Life of Samuel Johnson with notes and an introduction by Prof. Huber Gray Buehler, of the Hotchkiss School. '83. The address of Rev. W. W. Anstadt is changed from Bedford to Hollidaysburg, Pa. '84. Rev. L. M. Zimmerman, of Baltimore, has lately issued a new book entitled "Sun-shine." '87. Rev. H. C. Alleman preached his in-troductory sermon as pastor of Christ church on Sunday, Dec. 13. He was greeted by a large congregation. '88. Rev. John E. Weidley, pastor of Beth-any Lutheran church, of Pittsburg, was kindly remembered by his congregation on Christ-mas with a purse of $70 and a set of Johnson's Cyclopaedias. '89. Morris W. Croll spent the Christmas holidays in Gettysburg with his mother. '90. On Thursday, Dec. 17th, Rev. U. S. G. Rupp, pastor of the Church of the Refor-mation, Baltimore, Md., was united in mar-riage to Miss Mary O. Sheeleigh, daughter of Rev. Dr. and Mrs. M. Sheeleigh, of Fort Washington, Pa. '90. Sanford B. Martin, Esq., of Hartford, Conn., spent the holidays with his parents, Dr. and Mrs. Martin. '91. Schmucker Duncan, of Yale College, spent the Christmas holidays in Gettysburg. '91. Rev. August Pohlman, M. D., has reached his field of labor in Africa and speaks very encouragingly of the prospects for the future. '92. Rev. H. E. Berkey, of Red Lion, Pa., is actively engaged in establishing and push-ing forward a new parish paper to be called The. Yotk County Luthetan. '92. Rev. Jesse W. Ball sent a very inter-esting paper to the Luthetan World last month, showing the prosperous condition of Southern California. '93. W. C. Heffner has received a call from the Fayetteville charge in the West Pennsyl-vania Synod. '92. Rev. E. E. Parsons, who is pastor at St. Clairesville, Bedford, county, Pa., is meet-ing with great success in his work. '93. Dr. Wm. H. Deardorff, of Philadel-phia, was hurt recently in a street car accident, but is on a fair road to recovery. '93. Rev. Ervin Dieterly filled the pulpit of the Fort Washington Mission at Fort Wash-ington, Pa., Dec. 18, 1896. '93. The beautiful Lutheran church at Silver Run, Md., Rev. W. H. Ehrhart, pas-tor, was dedicated on the 21st of December. Dr. Richard, of the Seminary, preached the dedicatory sermon. '93. Mr. J. F. Kempfer, who is one of the managers of the Alpha Publishing Co., was recently married to Dr. Darietta E. Newcomb, of Worcester, Ohio. Chas. Kloss, '94, was best man. '93. At the opening of the fortieth annual session of the Somerset County Teachers' In-stitute, on Dec. 7, Mr. Virgil R. Saylor, prin-cipal of the Salisbury schools, responded to the address of welcome in an eloquent and schol-arly manner, showing that he had carefully considered the diverse questions concerning the public schools, and was thoroughly equp-ped for the profession of teaching. '94. Rev. Paul W. Kohler, of the Semin-ary, filled his father's pulpit on Dec. 13. '94. Prof. Herbert A. Allison, of Susque-hanna University, spent the Christmas holi-days with his parents, near Gettysburg, Pa. '94. Fred. H. Bloomhardt and David W. VanCamp are doing creditable work in the Medical Department of U. P. '94. James W. Gladhill has entered the Philadelphia School of Pharmacy. '95. C. H. Hollinger and Edw. Wert are reading law with prominent lawyers in Har-risburg. '95. Herbert F. Richards is studying in Mt. Air}'. Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa. '95. M. G. L. Rietz and Roscoe C. Wright are pursuing their Theological studies at Hart-wick Seminary. '95. Fred. A. Crilly has entered his broth-er's store in Chicago as clerk. '96. Prof. D. E. Rice, of the Harrisburg High School, was in Gettysburg, Tuesday, ' Dec. 22, '96, visiting friends. 139 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. '96. Wm. Menges is at present engaged in his father's mill at Menges' Mills. "Bill's" flonr is the very best. TOW|\I /\|\ID SEWIINARY NOTES. S. J. MILLER, Editor. TOWN. It has been announced that an electric rail-way, recently surveyed, will be constructed from Washington to Gettysburg by way of Frederick next spring, or probably this winter if the weather be favorable. The company s corporating under a charter known as the Baltimore and Washington Transit Company, and under that charter it enjoys the privilege of operating throughout the State of Maryland. The capital stock is $1,000,000. A grand reception was given the newly elected pastor, Rev. D. W. Woods, Jr., of the Presbyterian church, on Friday, Dec. 4th. An attractive musical program was rendered and tea was served by the ladies of the congrega-tion. It was a most successful and enjoyable affair. At the exhibition of "Dolls," recently given by the ladies of the Reformed church, the neat little sum of $80 was realized for the benefit of the parsonage fund. Mr Frank Blocher, of this place, has been awarded the contract for furniture for the Meade High School, recently erected. He represents the U. S. School Furniture Com-pany, of Bloomsburg, Pa. Misses Ethel Wolf and Emily Horner spent their holidays at home. The former is attend-ing school at Lakeville, and the latter is at the Teachers' College, New York. The various churches observed the week of prayer and the services were conducted on the line of thought suggested by the Evangelical Alliance. The ninth annual reunion of Company C, Cole's Cavalry, was held a few miles from this place, on the 17th ult. Nineteen of the sur-vivors of the company, with members of their famjlies, comrades and others, assembled and had a very enjoyable time. After the banquet a business meeting and a camp-fire were held. At the business meeting the following persons from Gettysburg were elected officers for the ensuing year : President, W. H. Dot; Treas., J. E. Wible; Sec, Lieut. O. D. McMillan. Rev. H. C. Alleman spent Christmas with his parents at Lancaster. A jury of seven was recently appointed by Judge Dallas, in the U. S. Circuit Court, in the condemnation instituted by District At-torney Beck for aji additional strip of land wanted by the United States to preserve the battlefield. SEMINARY. Rev. J. Henry Harmes, of the Senior class, was unanimously elected pastor of Trinity church, Chambersburg, Pa. The call has baen accepted but he will not take permanent charge until his graduation the coming sum-mer. Rev. J. W. Richard, D. D., filled the pulpit of the Presbyterian church, this place, Sun-day, Dec. 26th. Rev. L. B. Hafer preached in the First Lutheran church, Chambersburg, Dec. 13th; at St. Thomas on Dec. 27th, and at Chambers-burg on Jan. 3d. Rev. J. C. Nicholas preached at New Free-dom during vacation. Rev. W. O. Ibach filled the pulpit of the St. Matthews Lutheran church, of Philadelphia, on Dec. 20th. Rev. R. W. Mottern preached at Dallis-towu on Dec. 13th; at the Memorial Luth-eran church, Harrisburg, on the 20th, and at Bethany Lutheran, Philadelphia, on the 27th. G. Z. Stup preached at Conshohocken, dur-ing vacation, Rev. J. F. Shearer, pastor. Among the others who preached during va-cation were: Messrs. Clare, Yule, Apple, Shinier, Yoder and Fulper. Rev. W. M. Cross preached in the Second Lutheran church, of Baltimore, on Jan. 3d, and in the Messiah Lutheran, of Harrisburg, on the 10th. Rev. Paul W. Koller assisted his father in the administering of the Hoi}' Communion on Jan. 10th. ATHLETICS. CHARLES T. LARK, Editor. Considerable interest has been manifested of late in the formation of a Basket Ball team. This game, as it requires considerable skill and activity, is fast winning its way, and de servedly so, into popularity amongst college THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 140 men. It is played somewhat on the order of foot-ball with perhaps the danger element eliminated. Basket ball would be a new departure in the athletics of our college and there seems to be no reason why we should not put a strong team in the field as we have abundant material from which to select. Our gymnasium affords excellent advantages for the game and it is just the thing for livening up the winter term. Let us, by all means, "get into the game." At a recent meeting of the Athletic Associa-tion, Charles J. Fite, '98, was elected as man-ager of next seasons eleven. Mr. Fite is, as a manager should be, a young man with honest business principles, and with plenty of push, in fact he is just the man for the place. Dale, '00, has been elected to the captaincy of the team for the season of '97. He is a brilliant, energetic player, and under his lead-ership "our kickers" will doubless make many additions to the list of victories. Y. M. 0. A. NOTES. The Association will observe the usual da}7 of Prayer for Colleges on Sunday afternoon, Jan. 31, It is hoped that Mr. Wile, of Car-lisle, will consent to come and address the stu-dents. The services will be made as interest-ing as possible, and the students of all three institutions are invited to attend From July 18-21. the twenty-ninth annual state convention of the Pennsylvania Young Men's Christian Association will be held at Reading. The Association will endeavor to have as many go as possible. Reading is not far from here, and we ought to send at least six and possibly more. We are glad to see the students take an in-terest in the coming course of entertainments. These alone vary the routine of the term. It is no easy task to arrange this course, and the committee deserve our approval and support. FRATERNITY NOTES. PHI KAPPA PSI. The Chapter was saddened by the news of the very sudden death of Frank K. Cessna, Pa. Eta, who captained the F. and M. eleven during the season which is just past. Rev. M. C. Horine, '62, was elected Presi- I dent of the East Pa. Conference of the Luth-eran Ministerium. Ed. C. Hecht, '91, for some years General Manager of the Real Estate Department of the Southern Railway Union, is now connected with the management of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. of New York City. White, '97, spent a portion of the holidays with Lark, '98. Weaver, '99, has been elected manager of the annual Tennis Tournament. Albert F. Smith, '00, and Frank P. Shoup, '00, were initiated Dec. 7th. PHI GAMMA DELTA. Bro. Sanford Martin, '90, spent the holidays with his parents in Gettysburg. Bro. Fichthorn, '94, is employed as draughts-man at Shiffler Bridge Works, Pittsburg, Pa. Bro. D. A. Buehler, '90, spent the holidays with his mother in Gettysburg. We were pleased to have with us during the past month Bros. Stahler, '82, and DeYoe, '86. The sympathy of the Chapter is extended to Bro. J. S. Kausler, '84, whose father died re-cently. Bro. H. L. Hoffman, '95, won the prize at the tumbling contest at Yale last term. SIGMA CHI. Henry Wolf Bikle, '97, Gettysburg, Pa., was initiated Jan. 5th, 1897. Frank Hersh, '92, was home for a few days at X'mas. Heindle, ex-'97, made us a visit several weeks ago. John Wendt, '98, who left college at the end of last term, intends to take a course in the Columbia Law School. Dale, '00, visited the Chapter at State Col-lege when home at X'mas. Norman and Will McPherson were home over X'mas. Leisenring, '97, visited the Chapter at the University of Pennsylvania a few weeks ago. Charles Wendt, '00, expects to enter a busi-ness college in New York City. PHI DELTA THETA. St. John McClean, of Gettysburg, was ini- i4i THE COLLEGE MERCURY. tiated into the fraternity at the end of last term. Ben. F. Carver, Hanover, Pa., was initiated Saturday, January 9th. Rev. Harry Lee Yarger, '83, Atchison, Kansas, field secretary of the Lutheran Board of Church Extension, attended a meeting of that body in York, Jan. 1. Singmaster attended the hop given last month by the Lehigh Chapter. Dave J. Forney recently returned from a visit to Carlisle. ALPHA TAU OMEGO. White Hutton, '97, represented the Chapter at the fifteenth biennal Congress of the Fra-ternity held at Cleveland, O. It was conceded by members of other Greek Societies to have been one of the greatest gatherings of its kind ever held. H. B. Cessna, 1900, of Bedford, Pa., was initiated into the Fraternity Jan. 5, 1897. We are glad to have Charles H. Spayd. '99, with us again, who was compelled to leave college on account of sickness. W. H. Menges, '96, will enter the Semi-nary at the opening of the next collegiate year. Maurice Zullinger, '98, who left college last year, is still confined to his bed. H. H. Jones, '92, is practicing medicine at Codorus, York county, Pa. LITEFJARY SOCIETIES. JOHN W. Orr, Editor. PHILO. Philo's business meetings have taken on a new interest lately owing to several heated ar-guments on different points of parliamentary law. This is a step in the right direction as many of our members will no doubt have use for a practical knowledge of the rules of pro-cedure after leaving college. Our last special program rendered on the evening of Dec. 11, was one of the best ever given. Instead of taking up an author as usual, Christmas furnished the special theme. Dr. Stuckenberg, an honorary member of Philo, who had been giving his course of lect-ures on Sociology here, gave us a very inter-esting talk on "Christmas in Germany." The doctor was especially pleased with the solo, "Stille Nacht." The only thing to detract from the pleasure of the evening was a bit of "guying" which took place before the exer-cises had begun. Philo takes this means of disavowing the action of those who forgot themselves, and promises its visitors that it will not happen again. It was attended by fully 300 persons who greatly enjoyed the following program: Music. Announcement to the Shepherds (Bible), - - ROLLER Announcement to the Shepherds (Ben Hur), - ENGLAR Hvmn 011 the "Morning of Christ's Nativity." - Miss SiEBER Music. Christmas: Historical Sketch, SMITH Christmas in Germany. Dr. STUCKENBERG Hymn—"Stille Nacht," Miss SIEBER Christmas in England, - HERMAN "Christmas," Irving, CLUTE Our Christmas, -.- ERB " 'Twas the Night Before Christinas," - - Miss MYERS Music. The new men initiated since the last issue of the MERCURY are: H. B. Cessna, W. B. Claney, R. Z. Imler, F. E. Kolb, W. G. Lawyer, F. P. Shoup, G. D. Weaver, of the the class of 1900; Evans and Mehring, of the class of 1901. The following officers were elected at the last meeting for the ensuing term: Pres., Clute; Vice Pres., Lutz; Cor. Sec, Tilp; Rec. Sec, Weaver, Sr., Treas., R. L. Smith; Asst. Libr., Hess; Critic, H. R. Smith. EXCHANGES. Said a biker to a farmer, * "Did a lady wheel this way ? " Said the farmer to the biker, "I'll be hanged if I can say," From the outfits they are wearing From the mountains to the sea, Whether the biker is a she or whether "Tis a he." WTe are glad to see that quite a number of our exchanges contain good, short stories. We think this more tasty than so many essays, yet a few good essays are not out of place. It is policy to endeavor to please the literary tastes of all. "Politeness," says Dr. Prather, "is like a pneumatic tire, there isn't much in it, but it eases many a jolt in the journey of life. An adveitisement in a Western paper read thus : Run away, a hired man named John, his nose turned up five feet eight inches with corduroy pants much worn. ADVERTISEMENTS. BASE- i/isitors to JO A I _J i_J Gettysburg College, $ . . SURRUES, . . Pipaldi i-)cr LeatjUQ Ball, jL J^litB, >'\a.sl-,.s, Qto. Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for TENNIS, GOLF, CRICKET, TRACK AND FIEID. GYMNASIUM EQUIPMENTS AND OUTFITS, COMPLETE CATALOGUE SPRING AND SUMMER SPORTS FREE. fi'~Ths Name the Guarantee." A. G. Spalding & Bros., NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA, CHICAGO. 1108 CHESTNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA fy/right's Qngraving ^jfouse *? /?AS become the recognized leader in unique styles of «^f COLLEGE and FRATERNITY EN-GRAVINGS and STATIONERY, College and Class-pay Invitations, engraved and printed from steel plates; Programmes, Menus, Wedding and Reception Invitations, Announcements, etc., etc. Examine prices and styles-before ordering elsewhere. 50 Visiting Cards frcm New Engraved Plate for $1.00. ERNEST A. WRIGHT, UOS Chestnut Street, PHILADELPHIA Hon. W. J. Bryan's Book All who are interested in furthering the sale of Hun. W.J. Bryan's new book should correspond immediately with the publishers. The work will contain . . AN ACCOUNT OP HIS CAMPAIGN TOUR, HIS BIOGRAPHY, WRITTEN Bi HIS WIFB HIS MOST IMPORTANT SPEECHES. THE RESULTS OP THE CAMPAIGN OF 1896. A REVIEW OF THE POLITICAL SITUATION. •••ACENTS WANTED••• Mi. Bryan DUB an-nounced his intention of devoting one-half of all royalties to furthering the cause of bimetallism. There are already indications of an enormous sale. Address W. B. CONKEY COMPANY, Publishers 341-351 Dearborn St.CHICAGO Settysburg, !Penn*a, WILL FIND THE-Cumberland Valley R. R. running in a South-Westerly direction froniHarrisbnrg, Pa., through Carlisle. Chambersburg, Hagerstown an 1 Martinsburg to Winchester, Va., a direct and available ^ route from the North, East and West to Gettysburg, Pa" via. Harrisburg and Carlisle. Through tickets via. this route on sale at all P. R. K. offices, and baggage checked through to destination. Also, a popular route to the South via. Carlisle. AS for your tickets via. Cnmberlauil Valley Railroad anil Carlisle, Pa, I. F. BOYD, Superintendent. H. A. RIDDLE, Gen. Passenger Agent. FPH. H. MlNNlCrl, Manufacturer, Wholesale and Retail Dealer in onfeetionepNj I OYSTERS AND G>dt fe=t fe=di&%f==/j) • CLOTHIER, * FASHIONABLE TAILOR, II GENTS FURNISHER. No. 11 Balto. St. - GETTYSBURG. J. E. BOYLE, OF LEECH, STILES & CO. EYE SPECIALISTS, 1413 Chestnut Street, Phila. Will be in Gettysburg, Pa., at W. H. TIPTON'S, THURSDAY, MX 10, From 9 a. m. to 3.SI) p. m. 'No charge for consulta-tion and examination and every pair of glasses or-dered guaranteed to be *■ satisfactory by LEECH, STILES, & Co. GOTO, ♦•HOTEL GETTYSBURG -XfiAilBER SHOPX- ^Photographer, No. 2g Baltimore St., GETTYSBURG SPECIAL ATTENTION PAID TO a-cnege (p.ins Collection of. BATTLEFIELD VIEWS _®ffixOa%s on hand. Centre Square. B. M. SEFTON. 2/ou ivili find a full lino of {Pure 'Drugs dc ^ine Stationery {People 'a Drug Store. ^Proscriptions a Specialty. MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT ATTENTION. Latest Styles \% ipssfeg^ Sl|X5«^, Elliott ffyg^T

Anhand der Daten der Bundeswaldinventur (BWI, Stichjahre 2002 und 2012) wurde das Aufkommen an Laubholz mit niedriger Umtriebszeit (ALn) in Niedersachsen analysiert. Es wurden eigene Berechnungen durchgeführt, um in Erweiterung zu den Standardergebnissen der BWI eine Einzelbetrachtung der unter ALn zusammengefassten Arten zu ermöglichen. Es lässt sich festhalten, dass sowohl beim Vorrat als auch bei der Fläche Birke und Erle mit 80 % den überwiegenden Anteil des ALn in Niedersachsen ausmachen. Daneben besitzen die Pappeln gewisse Bedeutung, die übrigen Arten zusammengenommen (Weide, Eberesche, Wildobst, Kastanie, Traubenkirsche, Hasel) weisen ca. 10 % des Vorrats- bzw. Flächenanteils auf. Mit 10 Mio. m³ stockt knapp ein Drittel des ALn-Vorrates in besonders geschützten Biotopen (§ 30 BNatSchG), wobei die Erle mit ca. 8 Mio. m³ den höchsten Beitrag leistet. Etwa 5 Mio. m³, d.h. 12 % des Gesamtvorrates, unterliegt rechtlichen und/oder geländebedingten Nutzungseinschränkungen. In der Verjüngung weisen Birke und Eberesche mit jeweils 30-40 % die höchsten Anteile auf. Daneben ist noch die Traubenkirsche (15 %) von Bedeutung. Die Alterklassenverteilung des Hauptbestandes zeigt eindeutige Schwerpunkte in der zweiten und dritten Altersklasse (Birke, Pappel) bzw. in der dritten Altersklasse (Erle). Das übrige ALn ist vor allem in der ersten Altersklasse vertreten. Aufgrund des Altersklassenaufbaus ist davon auszugehen, dass die Vorräte bei Birke und Erle zumindest in der nächsten Inventurperiode weiter zunehmen, mittelfristig ist aber mit einem Rückgang zu rechnen. Momentan ergeben sich bei beiden Baumarten zumindest theoretisch (d.h. ohne Berücksichtigung ökonomischer Restriktionen) relativ hohe Nutzungspotenziale, zumal gezeigt werden konnte, dass beachtliche Anteile des ausgeschiedenen Vorrates derzeit ungenutzt bleiben. Bei der Pappel mit dem dritthöchsten Anteil am ALn-Vorrat hat durch die Umwandlung der Nachkriegsaufforstungen bereits ein Vorratsabbau eingesetzt, der sich weiter fortsetzen wird, da der Pappel in der waldbaulichen Planung keine Rolle mehr beigemessen wird. Bezogen auf die Fläche ist davon auszugehen, dass das ALn insgesamt vor allem im Tiefland weiterhin bedeutende Anteile einnehmen wird. Allerdings muss künftig vermutlich mit einem leichten Rückgang der Fläche gerechnet werden. Bei der Erle sind aufgrund der spezifischen Standortansprüche keine gerichteten Flächenveränderungen zu erwarten. Die übrigen Baumarten (Birke, Eberesche, Weide, Aspe) dürften zwar einerseits von bestimmten Elementen des waldbaulichen Strategiewechsels profitieren. Dazu zählen z.B. das Einbeziehen von Naturverjüngung bei der Bestandesbegründung, die Erhöhung des Laubbaumanteils sowie die gezielte Förderung von Neben- bzw. Mischbaumarten. Auf der anderen Seite stehen aber der verstärkte Anbau von schattentoleranten Baumarten (z.B. Ablösung der Kiefer durch Buche und Douglasie im Tiefland) und die Wiedervernässung degradierter Moore, wodurch sich das Flächenpotenzial für das ALn konkurrenz- bzw. standortbedingt reduzieren dürfte. Zudem wurde für die Inventurperiode 2002-2012 ein Rückgang der sukzessionsbedingten Neuwaldbildung auf Grenzertragsböden im Tiefland festgestellt, der noch in der Vorperiode (1987-2002) ausschlaggebend für den deutlichen Anstieg beim ALn (v.a. Birke) war. Weiteres Ziel war es, für die ALn-Arten Einzelbaummodelle zu konstruieren und diese in eine forstliche Simulationssoftware zu integrierten, wobei ein Einzelbaummodell jeweils aus mehreren Komponenten (Regressionsmodellen) besteht. Der Fokus lag auf der Abbildung von Durchmesser- und Höhenzuwachs, Kronenbreite, Kronenansatz, Einzelbaumvolumen und -biomasse, Site Index sowie dichte- und altersbedingter Mortalität. Soweit möglich wurden die Funktionen an den Daten der Bundeswaldinventur in Niedersachsen und der Betriebsstichprobe der Niedersächsischen Landesforsten parametrisiert. Bei nicht ausreichender Datenlage wurden Modelle in der Fachliteratur recherchiert und nach Überprüfung ausgewählt. Der Durchmesserzuwachs auf Einzelbaumebene wurde über ein lineares Modell mit linksseitiger Variablentransformation formuliert. Die Box-Cox Transformation erwies sich dabei der üblicherweise verwendeten logarithmischen Transformation als überlegen. Als Prädiktoren wurden Durchmesser, Alter und Konkurrenzstatus des betrachteten Einzelbaumes verwendet. Der Höhenzuwachs wurde nichtlinear über den algebraischen Differenzenansatz in Abhängigkeit sowohl der Höhe als auch des Baumalters zum Ausgangszustand modelliert. Es wurden verschiedene Modelle getestet und entsprechend der Güte der Anpassungsstatistiken ausgewählt. Nach dem gleichen Verfahren wurden Funktionen zur Abbildung des Site Index ermittelt. In beiden Fällen konnten für alle betrachteten Baumarten stabile Parameterschätzungen erreicht werden. Über die Methode der Quantilsregression wurde aus den Einzelbaumdaten ein baumarten- und alterspezifischer maximaler Höhenzuwachs ermittelt und somit eine Begrenzungsfunktion für den Höhenzuwachs erstellt. Die Kronenbreite wurde als lineare Funktion des Baumdurchmessers beschrieben. Aufgrund der Datenlage musste hier auf Angaben aus der Literatur zurückgegriffen werden. Gleiches gilt für die Volumenschätzung auf Einzelbaumebene. Der Kronenansatz wurde nichtlinear über die Eingangsgrößen Baumhöhe, Baumdurchmesser, Verhältnis von Höhe zu Durchmesser sowie Bestandesoberhöhe beschrieben. Erwies sich die Schätzung eines oder mehrerer Parameter als instabil, wurden reduzierte Modelle verwendet. Die Einzelbaumbiomasse wurde über eine dreiparametrige Exponentialfunktion hergeleitet. Bei Birke und Erle konnte dabei auf eigene Daten zurückgegriffen werden, für die übrigen Arten wurden aus den Angaben zur Einzelbaumbiomasse in den Daten der Bundeswaldinventur Pseudobeobachten generiert und anschließend das Modell angepasst. Die maximale Bestandesdichte zur Berücksichtigung der dichtebedingten Mortalität im Modell wurde über die Bestandesgrundfläche als Funktion der Oberhöhe hergeleitet. Der Schwellenwert, ab dem die altersbedingte Mortalität mit einer vorgegebenen Wahrscheinlichkeit einsetzt, wurde baumartenweise aus dem 95%-Quantil der Altersverteilung bestimmt. Die aufgestellten Einzelbaummodelle bildeten die Basis für eine waldbauliche Szenariensimulation für die Baumarten Birke und Erle. Aktuelle waldbauliche Behandlungsempfehlungen, die zusammenfassend eine früh einsetzende und gezielte Bestandespflege zur Stammholzerzeugung vorsehen (NLF-Konzept), wurden mit vier alternativen Behandlungsvarianten verglichen (Nullvariante, Ertragstafel, Extensiv, Z-Baum-Auslese). Dies erfolgte anhand ertragskundlicher Kenngrößen, ökonomische Restriktionen blieben unberücksichtigt. Die Modellbestände wurden mit Oberhöhenbonitäten von 27 m (Birke) bzw. 32 m (Erle) initialisiert, das Anfangsalter wurde auf 15 Jahre (Birke) bzw. 10 Jahre (Erle) gesetzt, die Simulation erfolgte bis zum Alter 70. Im Variantenvergleich zeigte sich, dass das NLF-Konzept bei beiden Baumarten einen guten Kompromiss zwischen gesamter flächenbezogener Volumenleistung (VL, = verbleibender Vorrat + Nutzungsmenge) und Durchmesserentwicklung der Z-Bäume darstellt. Die höchste Gesamtwuchsleistung (GWL, = Volumenleistung + Mortalität) zeigte bei beiden Baumarten die Nullvariante, allerdings waren hier die Durchmesser (dg und dg der Z-Bäume) deutlich geringer als in den übrigen Varianten. Es wurde weiterhin bestätigt, dass bereits wenige, frühzeitige Eingriffe zu einer erkennbaren Steigerung des Durchmesserzuwachses führen können (Extensiv-Variante). Im Vergleich dazu führte eine permanente Auskesselung der Z-Bume über den gesamten Betrachtungszeitraum zwar zu den höchsten Durchmesserzuwächsen, allerdings wurde vor allem bei Erle die Volumenleistung in den Zwischenfeldern dadurch stark herabgesetzt und die GWL dieser Variante war entsprechend gering. Die Ertragstafelvariante zeigt bei beiden Baumarten sowohl bei Volumenleistungen und erreichten Durchmessern mittlere bis gute Ergebnisse. Im Unterschied zum extensiveren NLF-Konzept finden die Eingriffe jedoch über den gesamten Simulationszeitraum statt und es wird zusätzlich zur Z-Baum Freistellung eine Hochdurchforstung in den Zwischenfeldern bis zum Erreichen der Soll-Grundfläche durchgeführt, wodurch der Pflegeaufwand höher ist. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass die dichtebedingte Mortalität bei beiden Baumarten einen hohen Anteil an der GWL ausmachen kann, wenn eine Bestandesbehandlung ausbleibt. Das zu wählende Behandlungskonzept hängt entscheidend von den individuellen Zielen in Bezug auf die angestrebte Sortimentsstruktur ab. Hierfür konnten die aufzeigten Varianten Hinweise geben. Eine Nichtbehandlung (Nullvariante) kann sich bei teuren Erntekosten und dem Ziel der Energieholzproduktion als geeignet erweisen. Andererseits lässt sich aber bereits durch wenige Eingriffe, vor allem in der frühen Altersphase, die Durchmesserentwicklung fördern und damit die Zusammensetzung der Sortimentstruktur verbessern. Eine permanente Auskesselung der Z-Bäume über den gesamten Produktionszeitraum scheint nicht ratsam, da hierdurch die Volumenleistung auf der Fläche zu stark vernachlässigt wird. ; The supply of short-lived deciduous trees (ALn) in Lower Saxony was analysed using data from the German national forest inventory (NFI, 2002 and 2012). The standard results of the NFI were augmented by own calculations, which allowed ALn species to be looked at individually. In terms of both standing volume and area covered, birch and alder, with 80 %, make up the major share of the ALn in Lower Saxony. Apart from these species, poplars are of some importance, while the remaining ALn species (willow, Mountain ash, wild fruit trees, chestnut, Red cherry, hazel) combined make up only around 10 % of the volume / ground cover. Almost one third (10 Mio. m³) of the ALn stock is growing in specially protected biotope areas (§ 30 BNatSchG – the nature protection legislation in Germany), with the alder, at ca. 8 Mio. m³, making up the greatest share. Around 5 million m³, or 12 % of the total standing volume, are subject to limitations on usage, either legal restraints or restrictions caused by difficult terrain. Birch and Mountain ash, with 30-40 % respectively, make up the highest proportion of the regeneration, with Red cherry (15 %) also having a considerable share. Trees in the second and third age-class (birch, poplar), or the third age-class (alder), make up the bulk of the main crop. The remaining ALn consists mainly of trees in the first age-class. The age-class structure means that, while the standing volume of birch and alder will probably further increase in the next inventory period, this volume will, however, decrease in the medium term. Both species have, at least theoretically (i.e. without taking economic restrictions into account), a relatively high usage potential, particularly as it could be shown, that a considerable proportion of the harvested wood-volume is currently not used. The transformation of poplar stands planted in the 1950s has already resulted in a reduction of the timber volume of poplar, the species with the third highest share of the ALn timber volume. As poplar is no-longer of importance for silvicultural planning, this trend will continue in the future. It can be assumed that ALn will continue to make up a significant share of the forest area, above all in the lowlands, although a slight decrease in the area covered is anticipated. Due to the very specific site requirements of alder, no intentional changes in the area covered for this species are expected. The remaining ALn species (e.g. birch, Mountain ash, willow, aspen) may benefit from some aspects of a silvicultural strategy change, for instance the inclusion of natural regeneration in stand establishment, the increased proportion of deciduous trees, or the targeted increase in secondary and admixed tree species. On the other hand, the increased planning of shade-tolerant species (for instance the replacement of pine with beech or Douglas fir in lowland areas) and the re-wetting of degraded moors will, through increased competition or denial of habitat, mean a reduction in the potential area available for ALn species. Furthermore, in the inventory period 2002-2012 a decrease in natural afforestation through succession on marginal ground in lowland areas has been recorded. This process was the main reason for the clear increase in ALn (above all birch) in the previous inventory period (1987-2002). The aim was to construct single-tree models for each ALn species and subsequently to integrate these models in a forestry simulation software. Each single-tree model consists of several components (regression models). The focus lay on the depiction of diameter and height growth, crown width, height to crown base, single tree volume and biomass, site index, as well as density and age related mortality. As far as possible the functions were parameterised using the national forest inventory (NFI) data for Lower Saxony and the Lower Saxony state forestry service inventory. Where insufficient data was available, models were researched in the relevant literature, checked and selected on merit. The diameter growth at the level of the single tree was formulated using a model with left-sided variable transformation. For this the Box-Cox transformation proved to be superior than the logarithmic transformations usually used. The diameter, age and the competitiveness of the observed single tree were used as predictors. The height growth was modelled non-linearly using the algebraic difference approach as a function of the initial tree height and tree age. Different models were tested, the goodness of fit statistic being the selection criteria. Functions for determining the site index were developed using the same method. In both cases robust parameter estimates were achieved for all observed tree species. Using quantile regression, an age and species specific maximal height-growth was determined from the single tree data. A limiting function for height-growth was thus created. The crown width was described as a linear function of tree diameter. Because of insufficient available data, data from the literature had to be used in this case. The same was true for the volume estimate at the level of the single-tree. The crown basal height was described non-linearly using tree height, diameter, height/diameter ratio and stand top height as input variables. If the estimation of one or more parameters proved to be unstable then reduced models were used. The single-tree biomass was derived using a three parameter exponential function. For birch and alder own data was used. For the remaining ALn species pseudo-observations were generated from the NFI data on single-tree biomass and fitted to the model. The maximum stand density (for factoring density-related mortality into the model) was derived from the stand basal area as a function of stand top height. The threshold value, above which the age-related mortality is applied with a pre-defined probability, was determined per species from the 95 % quantile of the underlying age distributions. The single-tree models introduced here form the basis of a silviculture scenario simulation for the species birch and alder. Current recommendations for silvicultural treatments, which envisage a stand treatment, that begins early and is aimed at the production of logs (NLF concept), were compared with four alternative treatment variants (no-action alternative, yield-table, extensive, elite-tree selection). This comparison was carried using yield performance indicators. Economic restrictions were not taken into account. The model stands were initialised with top-height site quality classes of 27 m for birch and 32 m for alder, while the initial age was set to 15 years for birch or 10 years for alder. The simulation ran to age 70. The comparison showed that the NLF concept is a good compromise between volume productivity (VP, = remaining volume + harvested volume) and the diameter growth development of the elite trees. The maximum total productivity (TP = VP + mortality) exhibits, for both species, the no-action treatment, although here the diameter (dg and dg of the crop trees) were considerably smaller than in the other variants. It was confirmed, that even few, early thinnings can lead to a recognisable increase in the incremental diameter growth (extensive variant). In comparison, although permanent release of crop trees over the entire simulation period led to the highest incremental diameter growth, the volume growth in the remaining trees was greatly reduced, in particular for alder, and the TP for this variant was lower. The yield table variant showed medium to good performance for both volume growth and in achieved diameter for both species. In contrast to the extensive NLF concept, the thinnings are performed over the entire simulation period and, in addition to the release of crop-trees, a thinning form above is carried out on the remaining stock until the targeted stand basal area is achieved. The maintenance costs are thus higher. It could also be shown that, for both species, the density-related mortality can make up a high proportion of the TP, if no stand treatment is undertaken. Which treatment concept is most appropriate depends entirely on the objectives, with regard to the desired assortment structure. The treatment variants listed here can provide some guidelines. No treatment, the no-action alternative, can be adequate if the harvesting costs are high and the goal is to produce fuel wood. On the other hand, even a few interventions, especially in the early phase, can improve the diameter growth, and thus improve the assortment structure. Keeping crop trees free over the entire production period does not seem advisable, as this leads to a reduction of volume productivity in the stand as a whole.

La piena assimilazione del lavoratore migrante con il lavoratore nazionale rappresentò una novità nel quadro delle forme storiche di regolamentazione del fenomeno migratorio, sicuramente per l' intensità con cui risultava affermato il principio di integrazione del migrante nel paese ospitante . Logicamente conseguente al diritto di libera circolazione dei lavoratori all'interno dell'Unione risulta essere il principio di stabilimento, disciplinato all'art. La seconda fattispecie all'interno della quale può rientrare la libera circolazione dei lavoratori autonomi è quello della libera prestazione di servizi, disciplinata all'art.56 TFUE. 50 del Trattato CE sono considerate come servizi le prestazioni fornite normalmente dietro retribuzione, in quanto non siano regolate dalle disposizioni relative alla libera circolazione delle merci, dei capitali e delle persone. Relativamente alla transnazionalità della prestazione, l'attrazione nell'ambito applicativo della disciplina ex art. 56 TFUE deriva dal luogo di stabilimento del prestatore, che deve essere necessariamente collocato in uno Stato membro diverso da quello del fruitore del servizio. Nei rapporti di lavoro in genere coincide con la sede legale e/o operativa del datore di lavoro. Esistono però situazioni tali da giustificare una variazione del luogo di esecuzione della prestazione. Un altro elemento caratterizzante è dato dal fatto che sia eseguita su disposizione unilaterale del datore, il quale continua ad essere titolare del rapporto di lavoro. Si tratta di una disposizione garantistica della posizione del lavoratore diretta ad evitare il disagio derivante dal mutamento del luogo di adempimento della prestazione di lavoro . Inoltre, a ulteriore tutela del lavoratore l'ultimo comma dell'art. Questo costituisce una novità rispetto alla formulazione originaria della norma, così come modificato dall' art. 13 dello statuto dei lavoratori che ha introdotto l' indisponibilità della posizione professionale del prestatore di lavoro. Diversamente da quanto accade nel trasferimento, elemento caratterizzante della trasferta risiederebbe nella temporaneità dello spostamento; nel trasferimento si tratta, al contrario, di uno spostamento definitivo del lavoratore presso un'altra sede operativa del datore di lavoro. Il distacco si distingue dalla trasferta perché pur realizzando un temporaneo mutamento del luogo della prestazione lavorativa determina, sulla base di una specifica previsione normativa, una delega strutturata ad altro datore di lavoro dell'esercizio del potere direttivo nei confronti del lavoratore. In tali casi il datore di lavoro resta titolare e responsabile del trattamento economico e normativo a favore del prestatore di lavoro. Vige all'interno dell'Unione Europea il principio di libera circolazione delle persone che è comprensivo del diritto di cercare lavoro in un altro paese dell'Unione e il diritto di parità di trattamento nei confronti dei lavoratori del luogo. Unico presupposto è quello del possesso della cittadinanza italiana ovvero il possesso della cittadinanza di uno Stato membro dell'Unione. L'ispettorato del lavoro francese aveva avviato dei controlli, con cui aveva ravvisato una violazione del code dutravail francese in materia di documenti che i lavoratori avrebbero dovuto possedere. Veniva così aperta la procedura prevista per casi del genere, finalizzata al pagamento di una multa in capo ai datori di lavoro portoghesi non rispettosi della normativa francese. La direttiva 96/71 : ipotesi di distacco Al fine di sopperire alle incertezze giuridiche derivanti dalle carenze della Convenzione di Roma del 1980 sulla legge applicabile alle obbligazioni contrattuali nel disciplinare il rapporto di lavoro caratterizzato da elementi di transnazionalità, in data 28 giugno 1991 la Commissione della CE ha presentato una proposta di direttiva riguardante il distacco dei lavoratori nel quadro di una prestazione di servizi . Al secondo comma dell'art.3 della direttiva è previsto che l'impresa che distacca i lavoratori non debba adeguarsi alle norme del paese ospite, limitatamente alle tariffe minime salariali e alla durata minima delle ferie retribuite, qualora si tratti di lavori di assemblaggio iniziale ed eseguiti da lavoratori specializzati e quando la durata non sia superiore a otto giorni. La direttiva 2014/67 UE: un'integrazione della direttiva 96/71 CE In ultima analisi, al fine di una più completa esposizione della tematica trattata, occorre soggiungere un cenno alla direttiva 2014/67 UE del Parlamento Europeo e del Consiglio concernente l'applicazione della direttiva 96/71 CE relativa al distacco dei lavoratori nell'ambito di una prestazione di servizi e modificativa del regolamento n. 1024/2012 UE relativo alla cooperazione amministrativa attraverso il sistema di informazione del mercato interno. d), che riprende quanto previsto nell'art.36 del Regolamento ai sensi del quale "il lavoro eseguito in un altro paese dovrebbe essere considerato temporaneo se il lavoratore deve riprendere il suo lavoro nel paese d'origine dopo l'esecuzione del suo compito all'estero". 4, par. 5 della direttiva 2014/67 UE invita appunto gli Stati ad accertare la natura del rapporto di lavoro tenendo conto delle circostanze concernenti l'esecuzione del lavoro, la subordinazione e la retribuzione del lavoratore, indipendentemente dal modo in cui il rapporto è caratterizzato in qualsiasi accordo, contrattuale o meno, eventualmente concordato tra le parti. Un'altra importante parte della direttiva è dedicata alla descrizione della vigilanza, della cooperazione e assistenza tra le amministrazioni dei vari Stati, argomento già trattato, ma solo sommariamente, nella direttiva 96/71CE. Al successivo art. 7 si prevede che i controlli siano effettuatie che spettino alle autorità dello stato membro ospitante, "se del caso in collaborazione con lo stato di stabilimento". Si partirà quindi dall'analisi a livello internazionale dei principi regolatori, secondariamente si proseguirà con l'analisi della direttiva europea, tema del capitolo primo, per poi entrare nel merito della disciplina italiana, oggetto della trattazione del secondo capitolo. Nel corso del tempo, però, la sua presenza ha infranto il "dogma" dell'unicità del soggetto titolare del rapporto e del beneficiario della prestazione, così configurando una situazione di temporanea dissociazione tra datore di lavoro e fruitore della prestazione. 34 del D.P.R. 1077/70, attraverso cui il diritto del lavoro pubblico faceva riferimento al distacco, si definiva "comando" la particolare posizione del dipendente statale destinato a prestare servizio presso un'amministrazione diversa da quella di appartenenza. Perché si abbia un'estensione della figura del distacco dal pubblico impiego al diritto del lavoro in campo privato è necessario attendere innanzitutto l'opera della giurisprudenza che negli anni si è resa protagonista nel delinearela morfologia dell'istituto, tramite le sue molteplici pronunce in materia. Tra le tante, una delle più significative stabilisce che il distacco di un lavoratore disposto dal datore di lavoropresso un altro soggettoèconfigurabile quando sussistono due requisiti: l'interesse del distaccante, affinché il primo presti la propria opera presso il distaccatario, e la temporaneità dello stesso, inteso come non definitività, con la permanenza in capo al distaccante sia del potere direttivo, eventualmente delegabile al distaccatario, sia del potere di determinazione della cessazione del distacco . 72/2000 ha recepito nell'ordinamento nazionale la direttiva 96/71 CE in materia di distacco dei lavoratori nell'ambito di una prestazione di servizi dandovi un'applicazione "rigida", cioè disponendo l'applicabilità per tutto il periodo del distacco delle medesime condizioni di lavoro applicate ai lavoratori nazionali . Dunque, non possono chiaramente essere considerate tali tutte le norme italiane applicabili al diritto del lavoro. del Trattato e con la direttiva 96/71 CE in materia di distacco dei lavoratori nell' ambito di una prestazione di servizi''. 276/2003 è stata data attuazione alla riforma del mercato del lavoro secondo i principi contenuti nella legge 30/2003 (c.d. legge Biagi), con la quale il Parlamento aveva delegato il Governo a emanare nuove disposizioni in materia di occupazione e di mercato del lavoro. 30 del d.lgs. In caso di distacco il datore di lavoro rimane responsabile del trattamento economico e normativo a favore del lavoratore». Nel caso della somministrazione, infatti, l'interesse è quelloal lucro proprio dell'impresa; nel caso del distacco, invece, l'interesse del distaccante non è direttamente connesso al perseguimento dello scopo dell'impresa, ed è rappresentato dall'interesse del datore , aspetto su cui tra poco sarà rivolta l'attenzione. La norma in esame, infatti, subordina la legittimità del distacco alla sussistenza di due requisiti, i quali devono sussistere cumulativamente: l'interesse del distaccante e la temporaneità. Venendo all'analisi delle situazioni tipizzate in presenza delle quali si presumeva l'interesse del datore di lavoro distaccatario, in primis, si rileva che si verificava un'ipotesi di distacco allorchè, al fine di far acquisire una specifica professionalità al lavoratore, lo si distaccava in un'altra impresa allo scopo di migliorare, una volta rientrato, la sua posizione lavorativa; l'interesse del datore di lavoro sarebbe stato soddisfatto al momento del rientro del lavoratore . Riguardo al rapporto intercorrente tra i due requisiti ex art. 30 del d.lgs. Questa tesi trascura di considerare che, così facendo, si rimetterebbe alla discrezionalità delle parti l'individuazione della durata del distacco. Dunque, il distacco potrà durare finché durerà l'interesse del datore di lavoro allo svolgimento del lavoro da parte del prestatore presso il terzo. Prima dell'entrata in vigore del d.lgs. n. 276/2003, invece, il consenso del lavoratore al suo distacco presso il distaccatario era ritenuto totalmente irrilevante. Infatti, se il distacco si configura come legittimo esercizio, da parte del datore di lavoro, del proprio potere organizzativo, il consenso del lavoratore non è richiesto, stante il dovere di obbedienza ex articolo 2104 c.c. . Inevitabilmente l'inserimento in un'altra organizzazione lavorativa comporta, infatti, un mutamento sostanziale delle modalità di esecuzione della prestazione di lavoro sia con riferimento alle mansioni esplicate sia con riferimento al luogo di esecuzione della prestazione. Sembra pertanto particolarmente opportuna la disposizione di cui al comma 3 dell'articolo 30 che prevede la disciplina del mutamento di mansioni nell'ipotesi del distacco. Questa ricostruzione del ruolo del consenso del lavoratore nella fattispecie del distacco è coerente con l'interpretazione consolidata dell'articolo 2103 c.c. Con riferimento alla nozione di equivalenza, è stato, riconosciuto che essa non può essere identificata per se stessa, ma costituisce lo strumento affinché si raggiunga lo scopo di tutela perseguito dalla norma: evitare una lesione alla professionalità del lavoratore . A fronte di tali considerazioni, e valutata la peculiarità della fattispecie del distacco, la previsione che attribuisce rilevanza al consenso del lavoratore appresta una speciale tutela consentendo al lavoratore di valutare in concreto il mutamento di mansioni rispetto al contenuto del suo patrimonio professionale. Problematica appare l'applicazione al distacco della conseguenza che deriva dalla mancanza della comunicazione del cambio di mansioni, l'esclusiva responsabilità dell'utilizzatore per le differenze retributive spettanti al lavoratore occupato in mansioni superiori e per l'eventuale risarcimento del danno derivante dall'assegnazione a mansioni inferiori. Anche con riferimento al profilo concernente il mutamento del luogo di esecuzione della prestazione, la normativa de quaintroduce così un elemento di chiarezza. Mediante l'inserimento di tale ed ulteriore requisito il legislatore del 2000 ha predisposto una tutela ulteriore nei confronti del lavoratore nei casi in cui l'esercizio del potere del datore di lavoro possa essere particolarmente gravoso. Quando il distacco sia disposto in assenza dell'interesse del datore distaccante e della temporaneità , il lavoratore può chiedere, mediante ricorso giudiziale, la costituzione di un rapporto di lavoro alle dipendenze del soggetto che ne ha utilizzato la prestazione oppure potrà ricorrere al giudice del lavoro ex art. 414 c.p.c. per chiedere la nullità del distacco. È quindi escluso il litisconsorzio necessario nei confronti del (finto) datore di lavoro. L'onere della prova è a carico del lavoratore, che deve dimostrare il difetto dei requisiti che intende far valere. 18 del d.lgs. La giurisprudenza aveva statuito che il datore di lavoro fosse l'unico soggetto responsabile del pagamento della retribuzione al lavoratore e dell'assolvimento dei relativi obblighi contributivi. A riguardo, si rammenta, peraltro, che la Suprema corte ha chiarito che il rimborso al distaccante della spesa del trattamento economico non ha alcuna rilevanza ai fini della qualificazione del distacco genuino. In altre parole, la prassi del rimborso di per sé non esclude la liceità del distacco se in presenza dei requisiti caratterizzanti della fattispecie. In questo senso l'importo del rimborso non può superare quanto effettivamente corrisposto al lavoratore dal datore di lavoro distaccante. 2 del TUIR, continuano ad essere considerati residenti fiscalmente in Italia – concorrono alla formazione del reddito complessivo in Italia. Ferme restando le condizioni di legittimità per delineare correttamente l'istituto del distacco (temporaneità del distaccoe interesse del distaccante), esaminiamo quali siano gli elementi di maggior peculiarità dal punto di vista fiscale. In conclusione di questo paragrafo sugli aspetti fiscali del distacco, abbiamo esaminato un'interessante pronuncia della giurisprudenza italiana, la sentenza n.52 del 9 aprile 2013 della Commissione Tributaria Regionale di Milano.