Suchergebnisse

In cities throughout Africa, domestic water is widely used for small businesses. The amount of water used depends on the size of the business and the individuals involved in these businesses are mostly women. However, many of these businesses do not have a direct connection to the city's water network and the business owners often travel a far distance to purchase water at high prices. To explore this problem, the research titled "Analysis of Domestic Water Use for Livelihood Activities among the Poor in Alajo and Sabon Zongo Communities of Accra, Ghana" was undertaken. The main objectives of the study were two-fold: to measure the extent of domestic water use for livelihood purposes by both men and women in sub-urban communities of Accra and its contribution to their livelihoods, and enhance access of poor women to water to improve their water-dependent livelihoods and thus reduce poverty in Accra. The study also addressed issues relating to health and sanitation and explained that poor water quality in this community is as a result of damaged pipes and dirty storage tanks. The study was carried out using qualitative approach of investigation: interviewing, focus group discussions (FGDs), and direct observation. Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze data collected. The study found that income generated from water related businesses contribute either all or more than half of the household income of water-related business operators. Water prices in these communities are ten times the regulated prices charged by the water utility, which have great impact on the profit margins of these small businesses and are often the stronghold of women. The highest level of education attained by most of the water related business owners is Junior Secondary School (Grade 8), which gives a basis for the explanation of their low income and high poverty levels. The study posed some recommendations including the possibility of government's provision of water to every household in the communities. ...

Abstract The revised International Health Regulations [IHR(2005)], which requires the Member States of the World Health Organization (WHO) to develop core capacities to detect, assess, report, and respond to public health threats, is bringing new challenges for national and international surveillance systems. As more countries move toward implementation and/or strengthening of their infectious disease surveillance programs, the strengthening of clinical microbiology laboratories becomes increasingly important because they serve as the first line responders to detect new and emerging microbial threats, re-emerging infectious diseases, the spread of antibiotic resistance, and the possibility of bioterrorism. In fact, IHR(2005) Core Capacity #8, "Laboratory", requires that laboratory services be a part of every phase of alert and response. Public health laboratories in many resource-constrained countries require financial and technical assistance to build their capacity. In recognition of this, in 2006, the American Society for Microbiology (ASM) established an International Laboratory Capacity Building Program, LabCap, housed under the ASM International Board. ASM LabCap utilizes ASM's vast resources and its membership's expertise—40,000 microbiologists worldwide—to strengthen clinical and public health laboratory systems in low and low-middle income countries. ASM LabCap's program activities align with HR(2005) by building the capability of resource-constrained countries to develop quality-assured, laboratory-based information which is critical to disease surveillance and the rapid detection of disease outbreaks, whether they stem from natural, deliberate or accidental causes. ASM LabCap helps build laboratory capacity under a cooperative agreement with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and under a sub-contract with the Program for Appropriate Technology in Health (PATH) funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Successful activities of ASM LabCap have occurred throughout Africa, Asia, Central America and the Caribbean. In addition, ASM LabCap coordinates efforts with international agencies such as the WHO in order to maximize resources and ensure a unified response, with the intended goal to help build integrated disease surveillance and response capabilities worldwide in compliance with HR(2005)'s requirements.

SummaryDemographic transition theory states that fertility declines in response to development, thus wealth and fertility are negatively correlated. Evolutionary theory, however, suggests a positive relationship between wealth and fertility. Fertility transition as a result of industrialization and economic development started in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Western Europe; and it extended to some of the Asian and Latin American countries later on. However, economic crises since the 1980s have been co-incident with fertility decline in sub-Sahara Africa and other developing countries like Thailand, Nepal and Bangladesh in the last decade of the 20th century. A very low level of fertility is observed in Addis Ababa (TFR=1·9) where contraceptive prevalence rate is modest and recurrent famine as well as drought have been major causes of economic crisis in the country for more than three consecutive decades, which is surprising given the high rural fertility. Detailed socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of 2976 women of reproductive age (i.e. 15–49 years) residing in Addis Ababa were collected during the first quarter of 2003 using an event history calendar and individual women questionnaire. Controlling for the confounding effects of maternal birth cohort, education, marital status and accessible income level, the poor (those who have access to less than a dollar per day or 250 birr a month) were observed to elongate the timing of having first and second births, while relatively better-off women were found to have shorter birth intervals. Results were also the same among the ever-married women only model. More than 50% of women currently in their 20s are also predicted to fail to reproduce as most of the unmarried men and women are 'retreating from marriage' due to economic stress. Qualitative information collected through focus group discussions and in-depth interviews also supports the statistical findings that poverty is at the root of this collapse in fertility. Whilst across countries wealth and fertility have been negatively correlated, this study shows that within one uniform population the relationship is clearly positive.

Introduction: Black Health, Church Responsiveness, and Transnational MetricsR. Drew SmithI. Systemic and Sociocultural Dimensions of Black Health1. Racializing Religious Institutions during the COVID-19 Pandemic Stephanie C. Boddie and Jerry Z. Park2. Racialized Discourses on Disease at Intersections of Canadian and the Caribbean ContextsGosnell Yorke3. Racialized Health Care Inequities Dating to SlaveryEric Kyere4. Cuban Public Health Care, Economic Scarcity, and COVID ManagementJualynne Dodson5. Black Health, Ethics, and Global EcologyErnst Conradie6. Food Insecurity, Black Churches, and Black Household Vulnerabilities during COVID-19Margaret Lombe, Von Nebbitt, Khristian Howard, Heber Brown III, Mansoo Yu7. Setswana Medicinal Practices and Tensions with Western Health Care PerspectivesItumeleng Mothoagae8. Racism and Clinical Trials of COVID-19, Tetanus, and Malaria Vaccines in KenyaElias OpongoII. Ecclesial Responses to Black Health Vulnerabilities9. The African Methodist Episcopal Church and Its Reckonings with Deadly Plagues, 1793 to 2020Dennis C. Dickerson10. Pandemics, the Rev. Francis J. Grimkeì, and Life Lessons Stephanie C. Boddie, Elise M. Edwards, Bertis D. English, and Kathryn Freeman11. Collins Chapel Hospital and the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church Responses to Health Care Disparities in Memphis, Tennessee Raymond R. Sommerville and George W. Coleman Jr.12. Black United Methodist Church Responses to COVID-19Cynthia Moore-Koikoi13. Redeemed Christian Church of God's Responses to Contemporary Health Urgencies in NigeriaBabatunde Adedibu and Adeleke Awojobi14. The Church of God in Christ, COVID-19, and Black Pentecostal Constructive EngagementDavid D. Daniels III15. Richard Allen, Black Aid Workers, and Civil Rights Lessons of the First Great Epidemic in the United States Richard Newman16. Caribbean Churches, Capacities, and Responses to the COVID-19 PandemicRonald A. Nathan17. Black Majority Church Responses to Black Health Urgencies in the United Kingdom Natasha Callender and Alton P. Bell18. COVID-19, Cultural Competency, and Church Responsiveness in NigeriaJustina Ogodo, Martha F. Atanda, A. Christson Adedoyin, Sabrina A. Carter, and Jamar ThrasherIII. Public Education and Policy Considerations19. The Black Church, Public Policy, and the Challenge of Health EquityQuardricos Driskell20. Black Mental Health Challenges and Responses by Britain's Black Majority ChurchesBabatunde Adedibu21. Cultural and Religious Influences on Genetic Interventions in Sub-Saharan AfricaMurugi Kagotho and Njeri Kagotho22. Pastoral Care, the COVID-19 Pandemic, and Oppression in Port-au-Prince, HaitiB. Denise Hawkins and Ervin Dyer23. Black Women's Reproductive Health, Justice, and COVID Complications in the United StatesBernetta D. Welch24. Film as a Pedagogical Tool for Trauma- and Resiliency-Informed Theology and LiturgyPhil Allen25. Shifting the Tide Toward Health EquityLydell LettsomeIV. Spirituality and the Wellness of Black Minds, Bodies, and Souls26. Nigerian Women, Mental and Physical Health, COVID-19, and Spirituality Samuel E. Oladipo, A. Christson Adedoyin, Jimoh W. Owoyele, and Hammed Adeoye 27. African American Palliative Care amid the COVID-19 PandemicJohn C. Welch28. Black Religion, Mental Health, and the Threat of Hopelessness during the COVID-19 Pandemic Danjuma Gibson

With the recent launch of the Global Development Lab in the Hunter and Stephanie Hunt Institute for Engineering and Humanity, fellows, faculty, and industry professionals have been working to create meaningful solutions to promote a resilient humanity, addressing the UN's Sustainable Development Goals and challenges. The Institute has taken on Dr. Ali Beskok's project, the development of a low cost, portable, Point-of-Care-Device for humanitarian and health applications. This paper provides a systematic review of current Point-of-Care-Devices using antibody antigen reactions. Additionally, it provides aspects of a market analysis and a literature review. Its overarching goal is to make recommendations regarding a disease the developing device could test for through antibody antigen reactions that would most positively affect global health. Traditionally, biomedical engineers have developed technologies in response to the needs of the developed world's medical community. These approaches often do not address the needs of the majority of the world's peoples afflicted with both communicable and non-communicable diseases as the developments are far too costly and those with most need have, at best, limited access to supporting clinical laboratory infrastructure in developing countries. A gap in care has emerged as a result of these conditions. As a result, Drs. Beskok and Koklu have developed a Lab-on-a-Chip technology that can test for a chosen disease with a turnaround time of just a few seconds and a detection limit of 1 ng of antigen per 1 mL of sample fluid. In contrast to other commonly used PoCD's, this technology can be adapted for detection of various diseases in various settings. This is a great improvement to current devices on the market in specificity, sensitivity, and ease of use, therefore making it particularly useful in high-throughput, low-skill staffing environments.18 In creating disease selection criteria for Dr. Beskok and his team's device, several factors were taken into consideration. Generally, the selection criteria consists of diseases that result in a high DALY value, are communicable, identifiable with antibody-antigen reactions, and can be tested for using urine. The diseases that were identified with this criterion were Tuberculosis and Malaria. Various antibody-antigen recommendations for diagnosis, advantages, and limitations of the proposed Point-of-Care-Device are discussed in the Proposed Disease section. In addition, current funding for each disease is overviewed. In order to make the greatest impact, deployment of the PoCD in the Sub-Saharan region, most specifically the Democratic Republic of Congo and Sierra Leone are recommended. Furthermore, children under the age of 5 who suffer from malnutrition should be given special attention. Focusing in these locations and populations will best aid in accomplishing the third Sustainable Development Goal set out by the UN: to ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages.

Qaro Qanche,1 Wondimagegn Wondimu,2 Adane Asefa,2 Tewodros Yosef,2 Gachana Midaksa,1 Tadesse Nigussie3 1Department of Public Health, School of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Science, Mizan-Tepi University, Mizan Aman, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State, Ethiopia; 2Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, College of Health Science, Mizan-Tepi University, Mizan Aman, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State, Ethiopia; 3Department of Public Health, College of Health Science, Salale University, Salale, Oromia Regional State, EthiopiaCorrespondence: Qaro Qanche Tel +251 916401623Email qaroqanche@gmail.comBackground: Despite the tremendous efforts made, HIV epidemic has been continuing to be a public health threat and one of the leading causes of death in sub-Saharan African countries. Gambella region is a high prevalence region persistently exhibiting the highest share of HIV cases in Ethiopia. Thus, the objective of this study was to explore factors contributing to high HIV prevalence in the Majang zone of Gambella region, Southwest Ethiopia.Methods: A descriptive qualitative study was conducted in the Majang zone of Gambella region, Southwest Ethiopia from March to May 2019. A heterogeneous purposive sampling technique was employed to recruit key informants and focused group discussion participants. Eighteen key informant interviews and 9 focused group discussions were conducted (N = 90) with health professionals, youth, mothers, and community elders. An interview guide developed through an extensive literature review was used to elicit information from the study participants, and data were collected by the investigators themselves with the help of local guides. Data were audio recorded, transcribed, translated, coded, and analyzed thematically, assisted by Atlas.ti 7.5.16 software. Trustworthiness of the data was ensured through data triangulation, prolonged engagement, member checking, and inquiry audit in which findings were audited and verified by qualitative research experts. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of Mizan Tepi University, and written signed informed consent was obtained from all the participants prior to conducting the interviews.Results: A total of 90 individuals have participated in this study. Several factors appear to underlie the sustained high prevalence of HIV in the study area and were organized into five major themes: 1) government-related factors, 2) community perception towards HIV, 3) substance use, 4) socio-cultural factors, and 5) movement of people.Conclusion: Low government attention towards HIV prevention and control activities, low perceived severity of HIV, substance use, socio-cultural factors, and high movement of people appear to inform the understanding of factors contributing to HIV risk in Majang zone. The sociocultural factors include the use of "Tifo Bet†and social support for polygamy. These findings loudly call for the governmental, non-governmental, and private sectors to reconsider and strengthen strategies for the prevention and control of HIV in the study area.Keywords: contributing factors, high HIV prevalence, focus group discussion, HIV prevention, Majang zone, Southwest Ethiopia

The concept of health insurance (HI) is relatively new in the developing world. Meanwhile among countries experimenting HI, there is a dearth of empirical studies regarding the impact of the HI scheme on healthcare expenditure, particularly in Sub Saharan African (SSA). This study provides an insight into how Ghana is using her health insurance scheme; the country's major social protection programme, to impact out-of-pocket (OOP) healthcare expenditure and facility utilisation. The policy impact is estimated by using difference-in-difference (DID) estimation strategy. The analysis also takes into account self selection into the HI programme by using propensity score matching to create a comparable control group. The use of DID estimation means that the impact estimated here relates to the effect of the HI only on those covered by the scheme (average treatment effect on the treated). Generally the results in the full set model show that the HI scheme is serving as a cushion against the burden of OOP healthcare expenditure in Ghana. Meanwhile, the outcome by gender indicates that the magnitude of the benefits derived from the scheme is only marginally higher in the female sample. Finally, the insured are found to be more likely to seek healthcare from appropriate heath facilities than their uninsured counterparts. Given that the HI scheme is criticised for its piece-meal implementation, to achieve improvements in the health of all, the findings in this chapter is an indication for policy makers to introduce some form of incentives to encourage those in the informal sector to enrol. Keywords: health insurance, healthcare expenditure, utilisation, Ghana JEL: I13 ; Aside from being ranked among the most unequal countries in the world, there is evidence of health disparities and comparatively poor health indicators in Nigeria. Commonly-cited evidence suggest inequality in socio-economic status (SES) harms health but this hypothesis remains inconclusive. Meanwhile, most studies in the developing world have focused on ma- ternal and child health creating a research gap in other aspects of health. In addition, many exiting studies have relied on methods that fail to account for unobserved heterogeneity be- tween individuals. Using data from Nigeria, this paper estimates the effect of SES inequality on inequality in health status and health expenditure using concentration indices and fixed effect (FE) models. The relationship between SES and health inequality shrinks in models that account for other covariates. In the FE models, the SES remains statistically significant in explaining inequality in health status and this finding holds for two indicators of SES: consumption and wealth. However, the relationship between SES and inequality in health expenditure disappears in the FE model for all three SES indicators (consumption, income and wealth). Meanwhile, a decomposition analysis shows that reducing health inequalities is not a simple case of redistributive policies but age, marital status, household size and residing in rural areas also have appreciable contributions to health inequalities. Keywords: socio-economic status, concentration index, health inequality JEL: I14 D63

This PhD research analyzes the social dimension of Malian students' mobility in French and Moroccan higher education. Confronted with a higher education system with limited capacity, many Malian students perceive mobility as a loophole. These students going abroad perpetuate a tradition of mobility consubstantial with the training of Malian elites in the twentieth century. This mobility is encouraged by the state through cooperation exchanges, as well as private educational institutions particularly in Morocco, that adapt their educational options and services to the demands of sub-Saharan countries. We interrogate how geographical mobility is part of a social mobility strategy and then demonstrate how inequalities in the Malian school system, based on disparities in economic, cultural and social capital, shape inequalities in access to mobility. However, these inequalities are overcome by the mobilization of "weak ties", including extended kinship, by socially disadvantaged students. Social capital plays a crucial role in achieving success through mobility, where students from disadvantaged families succeed as much as those from elite families with politico-economic and religious clout. The career paths of Malian graduates from France and Morocco finally highlight the key role of international mobility for higher education, in addition to schooling in Mali: a guarantee of access to elite status in Mali, for the greater number. Consequently, international mobility appears as a factor in the transformation of social hierarchies. ; Cette recherche analyse la dimension sociale de la mobilité pour études des Maliens en France et au Maroc. Face à un système d'enseignement supérieur à l'offre pédagogique et aux capacités d'accueil limitées, nombre d'étudiants maliens voient en la mobilité une échappatoire. En outre, ceux qui partent perpétuent une pratique de formation à l'étranger consubstantielle à la formation des élites maliennes au XXe siècle. Des acteurs institutionnels facilitent la mobilité étudiante. L'État, d'une part, à travers les bourses de mérite qu'il met en place, et par les nouveaux établissements privés, au Maroc notamment, qui adaptent leur offre de formation à la demande provenant des pays d'Afrique subsaharienne. Nous questionnons la manière dont la mobilité géographique participe d'une stratégie de mobilité sociale, puis démontrons comment les inégalités du champ scolaire malien, fondées sur les disparités de capitaux économique, culturel et social, façonnent les inégalités d'accès à la mobilité. Toutefois, ces dernières sont contournées par la mobilisation des « liens faibles », dont la parenté élargie, par les étudiants socialement défavorisés. Le rôle de ces réseaux apparaît crucial dans la mobilité pour études, comme l'attestent les parcours des étudiants défavorisés dont la réussite professionnelle et sociale est souvent comparable à celle des étudiants issus des élites politiques, économiques et religieuses. Les trajectoires d'insertion professionnelle des diplômés maliens de France et du Maroc mettent enfin en évidence le rôle clé de la mobilité internationale pour études supérieures, en complément de la scolarité au Mali : gage d'un accès au statut d'élite, au Mali, pour le plus grand nombre, une telle mobilité internationale apparaît comme un facteur de transformation des hiérarchies sociales.

Ekonomik performans ile kurumsal yapının gelişmişlik düzeyi arasındaki ilişkinin teorik olarak ele alınmasını amaçlayan bu çalışmada; ekonomik performansı temsilen temel makro ekonomik göstergeler olan büyüme, enflasyon ve işsizlik rakamları değerlendirmeye alınırken, kurumsal yapıyı temsilen kurumsal kalite göstergeleri olarak kabul dilen 'Ekonomik Özgürlükler Endeksi' alt endeksleri ile birlikte değerlendirmeye alınmıştır. Bu kapsamda çalışmada, sürdürülebilir büyüme sürecinde en etkin konumda yer alan 'BRICS' ülke grubu olarak seçilmiştir. Son zamanların yükselen gücü olarak kabul edilen Çin ise BRICS ülke grubu içerisindeki diğer ülkelerle karşılaştırmalı olarak değerlendirmeye alınmıştır. Küresel krizden günümüze kadar olan (2008-2020) dönemi kapsayan verilerin ele alındığı bu çalışmada Ekonomik Özgürlük Endeksi'nin alt endekslerini oluşturan göstergeler, BRIS (Brezilya, Rusya, Hindistan, Güney Afrika) ülkelerine ait verilerin ortalaması üzerinden Çin verileri ile karşılaştırmalı olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Değerlendirmeler kapsamında, Çin'in hangi göstergeler bakımından ülke grubunda yer alan diğer dört ülkeden ayrıştığı üzerinde durulmuştur. Bu değerlendirmeler ile sürdürülebilir büyüme sürecinde etkili olan göstergeler belirlenerek, ülkeler için kurumsal yapıya ilişkin çözüm ve öneriler sunulmaya çalışılmıştır. Ülkeler arasında farklılık gösteren ekonomik performans ve kurumsal yapının gelişmişlik düzeyi, ülkelerin ekonomik performans düzeylerindeki farklılıkların kurumsal yapıya dayalı olup olmadığı sorusunu akıllara getirmektedir. Bu çalışmanın ortaya çıkmasındaki motivasyonu oluşturan bu temel soru aynı zamanda çalışmanın önemini ve literatüre katkısını vurgulamaktadır. Ekonomik performans ile kurumsal yapının gelişmişlik düzeyi arasındaki ilişkinin teorik olarak incelendiği bu çalışma sonucunda, Çin'in BRICS ülke grubu içerisinde en iyi ekonomik büyüme düzeyi sergileyen ve aynı zamanda en düşük işsizlik ve enflasyon oranlarına sahip olan ülke konumunda olduğu görülmektedir. BRICS ülke grubu içerisinde Çin özelinde yapılan değerlendirme kapsamında; kurumsal iktisadi yapının göstergeleri olarak ele alınan ekonomik özgürlük alt endekslerine ilişkin veriler ile ekonomik büyüme, işsizlik ve enflasyon verileri arasında bir ilişki kurulabileceği söylenebilir. Bu teorik ilişki literatürde yer alan ampirik çalışmalarla da desteklenmektedir. ; In this study, which aims to theoretically examine the relationship between economic performance and the level of development of the institutional structure; While the growth, inflation and unemployment figures, which are the main macroeconomic indicators representing economic performance, they are evaluated together with the "Economic Freedoms Index" sub-indices, which are accepted as institutional quality indicators representing the institutional structure. In this context, in the study, the 'BRICS' country group, which is in the most active position in the sustainable growth process, has been selected. China, which is considered to be the rising power of recent times, has been evaluated in comparison with other countries in the BRICS country group. In this study, which covers the data covering the period from the global crisis to the present (2008-2020), the indicators that make up the sub-indices of the Economic Freedom Index were evaluated in comparison with the Chinese data on the average of the data of the BRIS (Brazil, Russia, India, South Africa) countries. Within the scope of the evaluations, it is emphasized in which indicators China differs from the other four countries in the country group. With these evaluations, the indicators that are effective in the sustainable growth process were determined, solutions and suggestions regarding the institutional structure were tried to be presented for the countries. The economic performance that differs between countries and the level of development of the institutional structure brings to mind the question of whether the differences in the economic performance levels of the countries are based on the institutional structure. This fundamental question, which constitutes the motivation for the emergence of this study, also emphasizes the importance of the study and its contribution to the literature. As a result of this study, in which the relationship between economic performance and the level of development of the institutional structure is examined theoretically, it is seen that China is the country with the best economic growth level and the lowest unemployment and inflation rates in the BRICS country group. Within the scope of the evaluation made specifically for China within the BRICS country group; It can be said that a relationship can be established between the data on the economic freedom sub-indices, which are considered as the indicators of the institutional economic structure, and the data on economic growth, unemployment and inflation. This theoretical relationship is also supported by empirical studies in the literature.

State fragility, which describes how different components of a state do (or do not) function, is a central concept for understanding how development activities and policies in complex political, humanitarian and conflict-affected contexts will (or will not) work in practice. Using fragility as a lens, we use feminist development policy and forced displacement as examples to demonstrate how different empirical conceptualisations of fragility can be used to uncover potential challenges and identify opportunities for more comprehensive policy and programming. These examples are only two ways one can apply the concepts of fragility of the OECD and the German Institute of Development and Sustainability (IDOS). Indeed, these and other empirical concepts of state fragility have many applications and can be used to measure and understand state–society, conflict and humanitarian dynamics in myriad ways. The longest-running among these kinds of models is the Fund for Peace's Fragile States Index (Fund for Peace, 2023). Other models focus on state fragility as a function of different aspects of "stateness". This includes IDOS's Constellations of State Fragility typology, which clusters types of fragility based on strengths/weaknesses in key dimensions of statehood (Grävingholt et al., 2019). Some organisations have moved beyond an exclusive focus on the functioning of the state, with the OECD currently defining fragility contexts as the combination of risks and insufficient coping capacities of multiple levels of governance systems and/or communities to manage, absorb or mitigate those risks (OECD, 2016). The IDOS and OECD concepts do not rank countries, and the methods used in both models allow them to be applied to different levels of analysis. Essentially, these empirical conceptualisations of state fragility can serve as useful heuristics for the policy-makers responsible for setting policy agendas in fragile contexts. The key challenge for policy-makers that we address in this policy brief is the step from empirically categorising states' fragility, to using that empirical data to inform often fast-moving, idiosyncratic policy-making and implementation in fragile contexts. As noted previously, these concepts are heuristics; country-specific policy planning and implementation require more fine-grained monitoring of country contexts. To achieve this, we recommend: Donors should be aware that the suitability of a particular tool/ fragility lens depends on the specific problem at hand, and they should choose the tool following a rigorous problem analysis. Use Germany's leadership on feminist foreign and development policy to capture and highlight the full range of links between gender and fragility, and to continue strengthening feminist foreign and development policy in fragile contexts. In many cases, state fragility is a neighbourhood challenge that requires regional coordination in order to be managed. In the case of migration and displacement, donors can support the freedom of movement protocols in regional agreements such as ECOWAS and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD). Policy-makers and donor organisations should deepen investment in new avenues for collecting and standardising the data that is used to generate different empirical concepts of state fragility. This includes funding on-the-ground monitoring activities such as IGAD's Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism in East Africa. Recognise that otherwise functional states can indeed have sub-national pockets of severe fragility, and that these variations in sub-national fragility can over time erode the capacity, legitimacy and authority of the state if left unchecked.

False Bay is the largest (circa 1000km²) natural, coastal embayment on the South African coastline and is located between latitudes 34°04'S and 34°23'S and longitudes 18°26'E and 18°52'E at the southern tip of Africa, near Cape Town, South Africa. The semi-enclosed nature of the bay makes it unsuitable as a 'sink' for all the contaminated urban stormwater run-off and the greatly increased pollution loads entering the bay. All pollution point sources entering False Bay were identified and described, and some of these selected for detailed study, the emphasis being on the impact of some individual discharges on the subtidal macrofauna. The similar biotic characteristics of three subtidal study sites in the region of the Steenbras Water Treatment Plant discharge indicate that the general turbidity and lower salinity characteristics of eastern False Bay are more likely to be responsible for the impoverished diversity near the outfall rather than the aluminium content of the discharge. Toxicity experiments on the bivalves Choromytilus meridionalis, Mytilus galloprovincialis and Perna perna using alum and ferric sludge indicate that there are no significant short-term sub-lethal toxic effects on the rocky shore bivalves and that decreased salinities in the immediate region of the outfall (as a result of the freshwater stream input) may have a more deleterious effect. A study of eighteen subtidal sites in False Bay indicated that overall densities of subtidal macro plastic debris were low, but that there are some 'hot spots' where densities are relatively high viz., Kalk Bay, Strandfontein, Mnandi, Monwabisi and Gordon's Bay. Colonising of debris by benthic organisms does occur, mostly on white plastic. Most of the debris consisted of plastic packaging from local land-based sources, indicating that it originates from wind-blown litter left by beachgoers. The highest density at the Sunnycove Control Site occurred in January during the peak holiday season. A longer term (three years) study of the subtidal environment in the vicinity of the Marine Oil Refiners outfall pipe indicated that the lack of subtidal macro fauna is more likely due to the harsh environmental conditions (abrasion and smothering) rather than the pollution impact of the outfall. This is confirmed by the abundant, healthy and diverse community on the nearby wreck of the Clan Stuart (1917) which indicates a stable ecosystem. The complexity of False Bay - its unique topography, bathymetry, meteorology make it difficult to attain a true climatic or average circulation. This lack of a consistent conceptual overview of the False Bay physical circulation is a short-coming that needs to be urgently addressed if the dangers of pollution inputs are to be accurately assessed. An overall management policy for False Bay should be urgently formulated and an officially constituted body with legislative power is needed if holistic management of the bay is to be achieved and such a prime recreational asset preserved for future generations. Bibliography: pages 195-225.

Arendt, Hannah. 1951. The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Bahlcke, Joachim. 1996. Schlesien und die Schlesier (Ser.: Studienbuchreihe der Stiftung Ostdeutscher Kulturrat, Vol 7). Munich: Langen Müller.
Barcz, Jan. 1996. Klauzule dotyczące ochrony mniejszości narodowych w nowych dwustronnych traktatach Polski z państwami sąsiedzkimi. Przegląd Zachodni. No 2.
Bauer, Otto. 1924 [1906]. Die Nationälfrage und die Sozialdemokratie. Vienna: Volksbuchhandlung.
Bělina, Pavel et al. 1993. Dějiny zemí Koruny české (2 vols). Prague: Paseka.
Berdychowska, Bogumiła. 1994. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce w 1993 roku. Warsaw: Biuro do Spraw Mniejszości Narodowych przy Ministerstwie Kultury i Sztuki.
Berdychowska, Bogumiła et al., eds. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce. Informator 1994. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Sejmowe.
Bielak, F. 1990. Niemiecka grupa narodowa w Polsce. Warsaw: PWN.
Blumenwitz, Dieter. 1989. What is Germany? Exploring Germany's Status After World War II. Bonn: Kulturstiftung der deutschen Vertriebenen.
Breytenbach, Willie. 1997 [1996]. Democratisation in Sub-Saharan Africa: Transitions, Elections and Prospects for Consolidation. Pretoria: African Institute of South Africa.
Brubaker, Rogers. 1992. Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Byczkowski, Józef. 1976. Mniejszości narodowe w Europie. Wybrane zagadnienia. Opole: Instytut Śląski.
Cała, Alina. 1998. Mniejszość żydowska (pp. 245-289). In: Piotr Madajczyk, ed. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce. Warsaw: PAN ISP.
Chałupczak, Henryk and Tomasz Browarek. 1998. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce 1918-1995. Lublin: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej.
Dallinger, Gernot, ed. 1997. Datenreport 1997. Zahlen und Fakten über die Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung.
Datner, Helena and Małgorzata Melchior. 1997. Żydzi we współczesnej Polsce – nieobecność i powroty (pp. 63-82). In: Zbigniew Kurcz, ed. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego.
Davies, Norman. 1991 [1981]. God's Playground: A History of Poland. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Derrida, Jacques. 1995. Moscou aller-retour. Paris: Éd. de l'Aube.
Dixon, Simon. 1990. The Russians: The Dominant Nationality (pp. 21-38). In: Graham Smith, ed. The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union. London: Longman.
Dzhyuba, Ivan. 1998. Internatsionalizm chi rusifikatsya. Kiev: KM Academia.
Dziennik Ustaw RP. 1921. No 44, item 267 and no 52, item 334.
Dziennik Ustaw RP. 1935. No 30, item 267.
European Union Enlargement: A Historic Opportunity. 2000. Brussels: European Commission.
Finkielkraut, Alain. 1999 [1996]. Zagubione człowieczeństwo [Polish translation of l'Humanité perdue. Essai sur le XXe siècle]. Warsaw: PIW.
Franck, Thomas M.. 2001. Are Human Rights Universal? (pp. 191-204). Foreign Affairs. No 1.
Gellner, Ernest. 1983. Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell.
Gellner, Ernest. 1997. Nationalism. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Gregorovius, Ferdynand. 1991 [1848]. Idea polskości. Dwie księgi martyrologii polskiej [Polish translation of Die Idee des Polentum's. Zwei Bücher Polnischer Leidensgeschichte]. Olsztyn: Borussia.
Herzig, Edmund M. 1990. Armenians (pp. 146-162). In: Graham Smith, ed. The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union. London: Longman.
Hild, Helmut. 1994. Jakie było oddziaływanie Memoriału Niemieckiego Kościoła Ewangelickiego (EKD)? (pp. 106-117). In: Friedbert Pflüger and Winfried Lipscher, eds. Od nienawiści do przyjaźni. O problemach polsko-niemieckiego sąsiedztwa. Warsaw: PAN ISP.
Hroch, Miroslav. 1985. Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe: A Comparative Analysis of the Social Composition of Patriotic Groups Among the Smaller European Nations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Huntington, Samuel P. 1991. The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
Huntington, Samuel P. 1996. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Jakimczyk, Jarek and Dariusz Kos. 1998. Ślązak to nie narodowość (pp. 1 and 3). Życie. No 66.
Jastrzębski, Włodzimierz. 1995. Ludność niemiecka i rzekomo niemiecka na ziemiach polskich włączonych do Rzeszy Niemieckiej (1939-1945) (pp. 11-26). In: Włodzimierz Jastrzębski, ed. Ludność niemiecka na ziemiach polskich w latach 1939-1945 i jej powojenne losy. Bydgoszcz: WSP.
Kamusella, Tomasz. 1999. 'Musisz być albo Niemcem, albo Polakiem'. Polityka ennacjonalizacji a retoryka wielokulturowości na Górnym Śląsku po 1989 roku (pp. 113-124). Sprawy Narodowościowe. No 14-15.
Kamusella, Tomasz. [Forthcoming]. Language as an Instrument of Nationalism in Central Europe. Nations and Nationalism. No 2.
Kapuściński, Ryszard. 1999 [1982]. Szachinszach. Warsaw: Czytelnik.
Kersten, Krystyna. 1992. Polacy, Żydzi, komunizm. Anatomia półprawd 1939-1968. Warsaw: PWN.
Kinsky, Ferdinand. 1995 [1986]. Föderalismus: ein gesamteuropäisches Modell. Bonn: Europa Union Verlag.
Kohn, Hans. 1946 [1944]. The Idea of Nationalism. New York: Macmillan.
Kohn, Hans. 1962. The Age of Nationalism: The First Era of Global History. New York: Harper & Row.
Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. 1997. Warsaw: Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej.
Kowalski, Janusz. 1997. Głos z Kaszub (p. 37). Dziennik Zachodni. No 148.
Kulak, Teresa. 1996. Jan Ludwik Popławski – twórca i popularyzator myśli zachodniej przełomu XIX i XX wieku. Ze studiów nad genezą 'idei piastowskiej' Narodowej Demokracji (pp. 43-53). In: Wojciech Wrzesiński, ed. Twórcy polskiej myśli zachodniej (Ser.: Rozprawy i Materiały, Vol 153). Olsztyn: Ośrodek Badań Naukowych im. W. Kętrzyńskiego.
Kymylicka, William. 1989. Liberalism, Community and Culture. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Kymylicka, William. 1995. Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Lemberg, Hans. 1996. Unvollendete Versuche nationaler Identitätsbildungen im 20. Jahrhundert im östlichen Europa: die 'Tschechoslowaken', die 'Jugoslawen', das 'Sowjetvolk' (pp. 581-605). In: Helmut Berding, ed. Nationales Bewußtsein und kollektive Indentität. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.
Lieven, Anatol. 2000/2001. Against Russophobia. World Policy Journal. Winter (cf. www.east-west-research.ac.uk).
Lipski, Jan Józef. 1996. Powiedzieć sobie wszysto... Eseje o sąsiedztwie polsko-niemieckim/Wir müssen uns alles sagen... Essays zur deutsch-polnischen Nachbarschaft. Gliwice: Wokół nas and Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Polsko-Niemieckie.
Łodziński, Sławomir. 1998. Przekroczyć własny cień. Prawne, instytucjonalne oraz społeczne aspekty polityki państwa polskiego wobec mniejszości narodowych w latach 1989-1997 (pp. 11-82). In: Bogumiła Berdychowska, ed. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce. Praktyka po 1989 roku. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Sejmowe.
Łodziński, Sławomir. 1999. Problem ochrony Romów (Cyganów) jako mniejszości narodowej (etnicznej) w Europie w latach dziewięćdziesiątych. Perspektywa międzynarodowa i krajowa (pp. 103-134). In: Ewa Nowicka, ed. Sytuacja Romów w Polsce. U nas dole i niedole. Cracow: Nomos.
Łodziński, Sławomir. 1999a. 'Obcy krajowcy'. Perspektywy polityki wobec imigrantów w Polsce (pp. 173-212). In: Sławomir Łodziński and Jan. J. Milewski, eds. Do stołu dla zamożnych. Ruchy migracyjne w Afryce oraz ich znaczenie dla Polski. Warsaw: Instytut Krajów Rozwijających się, Wydział Geografii i Studiów Regionalnych, Uniwersytet Warszawski.
Łodziński, Sławomir. 2000. Kwestia ochrony mniejszości narodowych w dyskursie publicznym w Polsce w latach dziewięćdziesiątych. Wstępne rozważania (pp. 351-375). In: Bernard Linek and Kai Struve, eds. Nacjonalizm a tożsamość narodowa w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej w XIX i XXw./Nationalismus und national Identität in Ostmitteleuropa im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Opole: Instytut Śląski and Marburg: Herder-Institut.
Louis, Jean-Victor. 1995. The Community Legal Order. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Mac, Jerzy Sławomir and Dorota Macieja. 1997. Kiełbasa śląska (pp. 26-27). Wprost. Jul 13.
Madajczyk, Piotr. 1994. Na drodze do pojednania. Wokół orędzia biskupów polskich do biskupów niemieckich z 1965 roku. Warsaw: PWN.
Madajczyk, Piotr. 1998. Niemcy (pp. 66-109). In: Piotr Madajczyk, ed. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce. Warsaw: PAN ISP.
Magocsi, Paul Robert. 1995 [1993]. Historical Atlas of East Central Europe. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
Martín Estébanez, María Amor. 1995. The Protection of National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (pp. 133-164). In: Nanette A. Newuwahl and Allan Rosas, eds. The European Union and Human Rights (Ser.: International Studies in Human Rights, Vol 42). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Matelski, Dariusz. 1996. Koncepcja narodowościowa niemieckiej Europy w 1943 roku (pp. 153-192). Sprawy Narodowościowe. No 1 (8).
Matelski, Dariusz and Andrzej Sakson. 1995. Od II do III Rzeczypospolitej. Niemcy i mniejszość niemiecka w Wielkopolsce (1939-1995) (pp. 93-132). In: Włodzimierz Jastrzębski, ed. Ludność niemiecka na ziemiach polskich w latach 1939-1945 i jej powojenne losy. Bydgoszcz: WSP.
Michna, Ewa. 1995. Łemkowie. Grupa etniczna czy naród. Cracow: Nomos.
Mielczarek, Dariusz, ed. 1996. Subsydiarność. Warsaw: Centrum Europejskie Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego.
Mirga, Andrzej and Nicolae Gheorghe. 1997. The Roma in the 21st c. Princeton, NJ: Project on Ethnic Relations.
Mironowicz, Eugeniusz. 1998. Białorusini (pp. 11-65). In: Piotr Madajczyk, ed. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce. Warsaw: PAN ISP.
Misztal, Jan. 1990. Weryfikacja narodowościowa na Ziemiach Odzyskanych. Warsaw: PWN.
Naumann, Friedrich. 1917 [1915]. Central Europe [English translation of Mitteleuropa]. London: P. S. King & Son.
Nodia, Ghia. 1998. The Conflict in Abkhazia: National Projects and Political Circumstances (pp. 14-48). In: Bruno Coppieters et al., eds. Georgians and Abkhazians: The Search for a Peace Settlement. Cologne: Bundesinstitut für ostwissenschaftliche und international Studien.
Obracht-Prondzyński, Cezary. 2001. 'Pomerania' – kaszubsko-pomorskie zwierciadło (pp. 151-162). Przegląd Zachodni. No. 1.
Ociepka, Beata. 1994. Niemcy na Dolnym Śląsku w latach 1945-1970 (Ser.: Niemcoznawstwo, Vol 1). Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego.
Offe, Claus. 1994. Der Tunnel am Ende des Lichts. Erkundungen der politischen Transformation in Neuen Osten. Frankfurt am Main.
Offe, Claus. 1996. Designing Institutions in East European Transitions (pp. 199-226). In: R. E. Goodin, ed. The Theory of Institutional Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Olejnik, Leszek. 1997. Polityka państwa polskiego wobec Rosjan po II wojnie światowej (pp. 75-92). Sprawy Narodowościowe. No. 2 (11).
Osękowski, Czesław. 1994. Społeczeństwo Polski Zachodniej i Północnej w latach 1945-1956. Zielona Góra: WSP.
Osmańczyk, Edmund. 1946. Sprawy Polaków. Katowice.
Polonsky, Antony. 1975. The Little Dictators: The History of Eastern Europe Since 1918. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Porter, Brian. 2000. When Nationalism Began to Hate: Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth-Century Poland. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Przeworski, Adam. 1991. Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Pudło, Kazimierz. 1997. Uchodźcy polityczni z Grecji w Polsce (1948-1995) (pp. 149-152). In: Zbigniew Kurcz, ed. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego.
Reichling, Gerhard. 1986. Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen (Vol I: Umsiedler, Verschleppte, Vertriebene, Aussiedler 1940-1985). Bonn: Kulturstiftung der deutschen Vertriebenen.
Sakson, Andrzej. 1991. Mniejszość niemiecka na tle innych mniejszości narodowych we współczesnej Polsce (pp. 1-24). Przegląd Zachodni. No 2.
Sakson, Andrzej. 1998. Stosunki narodowościowe na Warmii i Mazurach 1945-1997. Poznań: Instytut Zachodni.
Smith, Graham. 1990. Nationalities Policy from Lenin to Gorbachev (pp. 1-20). In: Graham Smith, ed. The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union. London: Longman.
Stalin, Joseph. 1973. Marxism and the National Question. In: Bruce Franklin, ed. The Essential Stalin: Major Theoretical Writings 1905-1952. London: Croom Helm.
Synak, Brunon. 1998. Kaszubska tożsamość. Ciągłość i zmiana. Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego.
Thornberry, Patrick and Maria Amor Martin Estebanez. 1994. The Council of Europe and Minorities. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Tismaneau, Vladimir, ed. The Revolutions of 1989: Rewriting Histories. London: Routledge.
Tomaszewski, Jerzy. 1985. Ojczyzna nie tylko Polaków. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce w latach 1918-1939. Warsaw: MAW.
Törnquist-Plewa, Barbara. 2000. Contrasting Ethnic Nationalisms: Eastern Central Europe (pp. 183-220). In: Stephen Barbour and Cathie Carmichael, eds. Language and Nationalism in Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Traktaty polsko-niemieckie/Die deutsch-polnischen Verträge. 1991. Bonn: Auswärtiges Amt.
Urban, Thomas. 1994. Deutsche in Polen. Geschichte und Gegenwart einer Minderheit. Munich: C H Beck.
Vallely, Paul, ed. 1998. The New Politics: Catholic Social Teaching for the Twenty-First Century. London: SCM Press.
Wapiński, Roman. 1994. Polska i małe ojczyzny Polaków. Z dziejów kształtowania się świadomości narodowej w XIX i XX wieku po wybuch II wojny światowej. Wrocław: Ossolineum.
Watzal, Ludwig, ed. 1995. Menschenrechte. Dokumente und Deklarationen. Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung.
Wilson, Kevin and Jan van der Dussen, eds. 1995 [1993]. The History of the Idea of Europe. London: Routledge.
Zaremba, Marcin. 2001. Symbol obrotowy (pp. 68-70). Polityka. No 5.
Zientara, Benedykt. 1996. Świt narodów europejskich. Powstawanie świadomości narodowej na obszarze Europy pokarolińskiej. Warsaw: PIW.
Żołędowski, Cezary. 1997. Polacy za granicą. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce (pp. 25-38). In: Antoni Rajkiewicz, ed. Społeczeństwo Polskie w latach 1989-1996/96. Zagadnienia polityki społecznej. Warsaw: Fundacja im. Friedricha Eberta.
Żukowski, Włodzimierz. 1999. Ideologia i polityka wielokulturowości w epoce dojrzewania nacjonalizmu australijskiego u schyłku XX wieku (pp. 169-182). Sprawy Narodowościowe. No 14-15.
Żurko, Jerzy. 1997. Łemkowie – między grupą etniczną a narodem (pp. 51-62). In: Zbigniew Kurcz, ed. Mniejszości narodowe w Polsce. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego.

The energy crisis characterized by the oil products price rising and the imperatives of sustainable development do that renewable energies are an alternative today witch attract the interest of several research teams. Senegal, sub-Saharan country, not oil producer is not spared by this crisis. The consequence of this is a low coverage of the country (especially rural areas) by the national grid. For solving this, the new orientation of the energy policy focuses on the use of renewable energy particularly solar and wind.The main objective of this thesis is to identify a methodology of design of an isolated site of electrical energy production from alternative energies It is consists on, from site characteristics (energy resources, energy requirements):- to develop an approach that allows the choice of network architecture and sizing optimally all components of the network (machines, sources and storage devices) taking into account all the constraints- to design a device for controlling components and managing the energy flowsThis thesis contains three chapters:- Chapter 1 - poses the problem of energy in Senegal. The institutional organization of the electricity sub-sector and the ongoing projects are presented. Also, a study of micro- architectures networks is made.- Chapter 2 deals with tools and software. A comparative study of the main software of analysis, design and simulation of micro- network is realized. The components of our system have been modeled. Optimization methods and tools for graphical representation (Bond Graph, GIC and EMR) systems were presented. A survey and a literature review allowed us to evaluate the energy potential of the site and the needs of populations.- Chapter 3: This is the application of our tool on an isolated site identified in Senegal (MBoro / Mer). Optimization through the Annualized Cost of the System (ACS) objective function has allowed us to scale our system optimally. As the control system with Energetic Macroscopic Representation (EMR) has been designed.For further work should be considered a treatment of problems of availability of the system through monitoring and supervision of the system. The socio- economic component is also integrated in the future to meet the changing needs and habits of the population. ; La crise énergétique marquée par une flambée des prix du pétrole et les impératifs d'un développement durable font des énergies renouvelables une alternative qui suscitent aujourd'hui l'intérêt de plusieurs équipes de recherches. Le Sénégal, pays subsaharien, non producteur de pétrole n'est pas épargné par cette crise. Celle-ci se traduit par, une faible couverture du pays (en particulier les zones rurales) par le réseau électrique national. Pour faire face à cela, la nouvelle orientation en matière de politique énergétique met l'accent sur l'utilisation des énergies renouvelables notamment, le solaire et l'éolienne. L'objectif principal de cette thèse est de dégager une méthodologie de conception d'un site isolé de production d'énergie électrique à partir des énergies alternatives. Il s'agit à partir des caractéristiques d'un site (ressources d'énergie disponibles, besoins énergétiques) de :- mettre en place une démarche qui permette le choix d'une architecture du réseau et de dimensionner de façon optimale l'ensemble des constituants du réseau (machines, sources et dispositifs de stockage) en tenant compte de toutes les contraintes- concevoir un dispositif de commande des composantes et de gestion des flux d'énergie Cette thèse comprend trois chapitres :- Chapitre 1 : pose la problématique de l'énergie au Sénégal. L'organisation institutionnelle du sous-secteur de l'électricité, les réalisations et les projets en cours sont présentés. Aussi, une étude sur les architectures de micro-réseaux est faite. - Chapitre 2 : traite des outils et logiciels. Une étude comparative des principaux logiciels d'analyse, de conception et simulation des micro-réseaux est réalisée. L'ensemble des composants de notre système ont été modélisées. Les méthodes d'optimisation et des outils de représentation graphique (Bond Graph, GIC et REM) des systèmes ont été présentés. Une enquête menée et une recherche bibliographique nous ont permis d'évaluer le potentiel énergétique du site et les besoins des populations.- Chapitre 3 : il s'agit de l'application de notre outil sur un site isolé identifié au Sénégal (MBoro/Mer). L'optimisation à travers la fonction objectif coût annualisée du système (ACS) nous a permis de dimensionner de façon optimale notre système. Aussi la commande du système avec la Représentation Energétique Macroscopique (REM) a été conçue.Pour la suite du travail, il faudrait envisager une prise en charge des problèmes de disponibilité du système à travers une surveillance et une supervision du dispositif. Le volet socio-économique aussi est à intégrer dans le futur afin de satisfaire l'évolution des besoins et des habitudes des populations.

Les théories des mouvements sociaux sont de plus en plus utilisées pour étudier les groupesterroristes. Elles comportent différents niveaux d'analyse: les niveaux macro-analytique,méso-analytique et micro-analytique. Le présent article tente d'adapter ce corpusthéorique à l'étude du groupe jihadiste Al-Qaïda au Maghreb islamique (AQMI). En effet,au cours des dernières années, AQMI ne s'est pas développé au Maghreb alors que sesactivités ont augmenté exponentiellement dans la région sahélienne, au point d'ydévelopper un sanctuaire pour le groupe au nord du Mali. Le développement d'AQMI auSahel est-il alors le résultat de choix stratégiques ou celui de dynamiques internes ? Pourexpliquer le développement d'AQMI dans la région sahélo-saharienne, l'auteur proposeune grille de lecture basée sur les niveaux macro et méso-analytiques et sur leur mise endialectique. Le niveau macro-analytique met en lumière la structure des opportunitéspolitiques induisant les choix stratégiques d'AQMI et le niveau méso-analytique lesdynamiques internes du groupe. La littérature existante sur AQMI étant principalementconstituée de monographies et de notes de recherches, l'ambition de cet article est alorsde concilier théorie et recherche empirique. Ainsi le cadre d'analyse proposé est inspirédes approches de l'action collective et de la mobilisation des ressources et cherche àaméliorer la compréhension des évolutions du groupe. L'étude menée est une analysequalitative centrée sur les États algérien et malien.The theories of social movements are increasingly used to study terrorist groups and theyare characterized by three different levels of analysis: macro, meso, and micro. This article attempts to adapt this theoretical framework to the study of the jihadist group al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). Indeed, in recent years, AQIM failed to develop in North Africa while its activities have increased exponentially in the Sahel region, to the point ofdeveloping a sanctuary for the group in northern Mali. Is the development of AQIM in the Sahel the result of strategic choices or internal dynamics? To explain the development of AQIM in the Sahel-Saharan region, the author proposes a reading grid based on the macroand meso levels of analysis and their dialectical implementation. The macro-level analysis highlights the political opportunities structure inducing AQIM strategic choices and the meso-level analysis focuses on internal dynamics of the group. Seeing as existing literatureon AQIM is mainly constituted of monographs and research notes, the intent of this paperis then to reconcile theory and empirical research. Thus, the proposed framework is inspired from collective action and resource mobilization approaches and seeks to improve the understanding of the evolution of the group. The study is a qualitative analysis focusingon the Algerian and Malian States.