Suchergebnisse

Purpose– Interfirm relationships create value, but buyers and suppliers can appropriate this value in different amounts. Using the relational-view of strategy, the purpose of this paper is to explain value creation and determine the portion of that value appropriated by each organization.Design/methodology/approach– The data source was a survey with 166 respondents covering two industries. The authors used confirmatory factor analysis to validate construct measurement and structural equation modeling to test the hypotheses. A parallel qualitative investigation composed of 31 interviews assisted in interpreting the findings.Findings– Based on the relational view of strategy, the authors found support for only two of the four hypotheses that sought to explain value creation. This result calls into question the applicability of this theory to contexts other than the automotive industry, in which it was developed. Only a joint construct combining Relational Governance and Resource Complementarity had a significant effect on relational value creation. With respect to value appropriation, although both buyers and suppliers captured part of the relational value created, the buyers tended to receive the great majority of this value.Research limitations/implications– The focussed context of this study (Brazilian companies in the personal care/cosmetics and food/beverage industries) limits its generalizability but provides deeper insight into the interpretation of its results.Practical implications– Both buyers and suppliers can benefit from collaborative relationships, but buyers appear to capture a larger share, forcing suppliers to continuously seek new sources of value.Originality/value– This paper bridges the gap between the buyer-supplier literature and the definition of competitive advantage as value creation found in the strategic management literature. This study proposes and tests an integrative definition of the relational value that is created and appropriated in a dyad.KeywordsBuyer-supplier, Relational-view of strategy, Value creation and appropriationPaper typeResearch paperResumenObjetivoObjetivo– Las relaciones entre empresas generan valor, pero los compradores y proveedores puede apropiarse de este valor en cantidades diferentes. Usando una perspectiva relacional (relational-view)de la estrategia, este articulo explica la creación de valor y determina la proporción de ese valor asignado por cada organización.Diseño/metodología/enfoque– Nuestra fuente de datos fue una encuesta con 166 respuestas abarcando dos industrias. Usamos el Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio para validar los factores construidos y modelos de ecuaciones estructurales para evaluar las hipótesis. Una investigación cualitativa paralela compuesta por 31 entrevistas ayudó a interpretar los hallazgos.Hallazgos– Basados en la perspectiva relacional de la estrategia, encontramos respaldo sólo para dos de las cuatros hipótesis que buscaban explicar la creación del valor. Este resultado invita a preguntar la aplicabilidad de esta teoría a contextos más allá de la industria automotriz, en donde se desarrolló. Solo un factor conjunto que combina la Gobernanza Relacional y Complementariedad de Recursos tuvo un efecto significativo en la Creación De Valor Relacional. En cuanto a la apropiación de valor, aunque ambos compradores y proveedores capturan parte del valor relacional creado, los vendedores tendieron a recibir la gran mayoría de este valor.Limitaciones/implicaciones del estudio– El contexto en el cual se focalizó este estudio (Empresas Brasileñas de cosméticos y cuidado personal e industrias de comidas/bebidas) limita su generalización pero provee un conocimiento más profundos a la interpretación de sus resultados.Implicaciones practices– Ambos, compradores y proveedores pueden beneficiarse de una relacion de colaboración, pero los compradores parecen capturar una mayor proporción, forzando a los proveedores a continuamente buscar nuevas fuentes de valor.Originalidad/valor– Este articulo acerca la brecha entre la literatura del comprador y proveedor y la definición de la ventaja competitiva como creación de valor hallada en la literatura de estrategia de administración. Este estudio propone y prueba una definición integradora del valor relacional que es creado y apropiado en la díada.Tipo de papelTrabajo de investigaciónResumoObjetivoObjetivo– As relações entre empresas criam valor, mas os compradores e fornecedores podem apropriar-se deste valor em quantidades diferentes. Usando a Visão Relacional da Estratégia, este artigo explica a criação de valor e determina a proporção deste valor apropriado por cada organização.Desenho/metodologia/enfoque– A base de dados foi umasurveyrespondida por 166 empresas de dois setores industriais. Foi utilizada uma Análise Fatorial Confirmatória para avaliação dos constructos e Modelagem de Equações Estruturais para teste de hipóteses. Uma pesquisa qualitativa paralela composta de 31 entrevistas ajudou a interpretar os resultados.Achados– Baseado na Visão Relacional da Estratégia, foram confirmadas apenas duas das quatro hipóteses que buscavam explicar a criação de valor. Este resultado questiona assim a aplicabilidade desta teoria a outros setores que não a indústria automobilística, no qual esta abordagem originalmente foi desenvolvida. Somente um construto resultante da combinação dos construtos de Governança Relacional e de Complementaridade de Recursos teve um efeito significativo na criação de Valor Relacional. Quanto à apropriação de valor, embora compradores e fornecedores capturam parte do valor relacional criado, os compradores tendem a ficar com maior parte deste valor.Limitações/implicações da pesquisa– O foco desta pesquisa (empresas brasileiras dos setores de alimentos, bebidas e higiene pessoal) limita a sua generalização, embora forneça um conhecimento mais profundo à interpretação dos resultados.Implicações práticas– Tanto compradores e fornecedores podem se beneficiar de uma relação de colaboração, mas os compradores parecem capturar uma maior proporção forçando os fornecedores a continuamente buscar novas fontes de valor.Originalidade/valor– Este artigo preenche uma lacuna na literatura de comprador-fornecedor e a definição da vantagem competitiva como resultado do valor. Esta pesquisa se propõe a testar uma definição integrada do valor relacional criado e apropriado dentro de uma díade.Tipo de papelTrabalhos de pesquisa

A sustainable local development model is a guide for the development of strategies, it is no longer a single recipe. This includes aspects of the analysis of the region's potential, the diagnosis of the city's problems, phases, actions and activities to be considered for the deployment of local development. They should be aimed at reviewing the values of the financial, human, physical, technical, social, cultural and environmental issues. Therefore, the main purpose of the research is to propose a model to identify the determinants of stagnation of development in the city of São João Del Rei and and can be applied to other areas with similar characteristics. There is a purpose to develop a sustainable local proposal a diagnosis of the city was made and then a quantitative and qualitative methodology was applied, in order to establish appropriate parameters for configuring the local sustainable development model. This intellectual interest awoke productive function of stagnation over the last 25 years of this important historic city of Brazil. Featured by colonial architecture, and the Federal University for being the Cultural Capital of Brazil in 2007, in contrast, it is said to be a such a disorganized city, whose political and structural goals are never planned in advance. The project is justified by their own condition to propose a practical level, developing the potential of productive activities and tourism, with the potential to provide a significant impact on the local development of the city. Since Highlighted from research, a development model that enables social integration, business and governance and its impact on poverty rates from improving the distribution of income, quality of life and city infrastructure. The research has been conducted descriptive as it aims to describe the properties of the object of study and the characteristics of the issues raised. So to make ends neatly method was applied through a set of intellectual operations in order to investigate the incidence of phenomena or levels of the variables of the population, companies and public administration. The identification of the problem from the analysis of the data collected could make a diagnosis. This situational analysis gives us the fieldwork, where questionnaires were developed and analysis that allowed the preparation of local development model for the city of São João Del Rei. Note that all this research effort towards the development model is just a guide for other models of development, we can say this because it is model that can be successfully used by other municipalities, for their own property should be developed diagnosis from a city-specific potential. ; Un modelo de desarrollo local sostenible constituye una guía para la elaboración de estrategias, nunca es una receta única. Esta recoge aspectos del análisis de las potencialidades del territorio, el diagnóstico de la problemática de la ciudad, las fases, actuaciones y actividades a considerar para el despliegue del desarrollo local. Además, se deben rever los valores de los recursos financieros, humanos, físicos, técnicos, sociales, culturales y por supuesto ambientales. Por ello, el propósito del trabajo de investigación, consiste fundamentalmente en proponer un modelo que permita identificar los factores determinantes del estancamiento y promover el desarrollo de la ciudad de São João Del Rei y que pueda ser aplicable a otros territorios de características similares. Para elaborar una propuesta de desarrollo local sostenible, se realizó el diagnóstico de la ciudad y posteriormente se aplicó una metodología cuantitativa y cualitativa de fuentes primarias y secundarias, con la finalidad de establecer los parámetros adecuados para la configuración del modelo de desarrollo local sostenible. Este interés intelectual surgió en función del estancamiento productivo a lo largo de los últimos 25 años de esta importante ciudad histórica de Brasil. Destacada por la arquitectura colonial, por la Universidad Federal y por haber sido la Capital Brasileña de la Cultural en 2007, consiguió sobrevivir a gestiones desordenadas, sin planificación, diagnóstico o cualquier herramienta de control aplicados a la gestión local. El proyecto se justifica por su propia condición de proponer a nivel práctico, el desarrollo del potencial de las actividades productivas y turísticas, con la posibilidad de proporcionar un efecto considerable en el desarrollo local de la ciudad. Se destaca a partir de la investigación, un modelo de desarrollo que posibilite la integración social, empresarial y gestión pública y de sus efectos en los índices de pobreza y la mejora de la distribución de renta, calidad de vida e infraestructura de la ciudad. La investigación llevada a cabo ha sido de carácter descriptivo ya que se pretende describir las propiedades del objeto de estudio y las características de la problemática planteada. Por tanto para llegar al fin ordenadamente se aplicó un método a través de un conjunto de operaciones intelectuales con el objetivo de indagar la incidencia de los fenómenos o niveles de las variables de la población, empresas y gestión pública. La identificación de la problemática a partir del análisis de los datos recolectados permitió elaborar un diagnóstico. Ese diagnóstico situacional nos lo proporciona el trabajo de campo realizado, en el cual se aplicaron los cuestionarios y el análisis que permitió la elaboración del modelo de desarrollo local para la ciudad de São João Del Rei. Cabe destacar que todo este esfuerzo investigativo hacia el modelo de desarrollo es tan sólo una guía para otros modelos de desarrollo, puesto que podemos afirmar que sea un modelo que pueda ser utilizado con éxito en otros municipios, habida cuenta su propia característica y que deben desarrollarse a partir de un diagnóstico específico de cada ciudad en potencial. ; Postprint (published version)

A sustainable local development model is a guide for the development of strategies, it is no longer a single recipe. This includes aspects of the analysis of the region's potential, the diagnosis of the city's problems, phases, actions and activities to be considered for the deployment of local development. They should be aimed at reviewing the values of the financial, human, physical, technical, social, cultural and environmental issues. Therefore, the main purpose of the research is to propose a model to identify the determinants of stagnation of development in the city of São João Del Rei and and can be applied to other areas with similar characteristics. There is a purpose to develop a sustainable local proposal a diagnosis of the city was made and then a quantitative and qualitative methodology was applied, in order to establish appropriate parameters for configuring the local sustainable development model. This intellectual interest awoke productive function of stagnation over the last 25 years of this important historic city of Brazil. Featured by colonial architecture, and the Federal University for being the Cultural Capital of Brazil in 2007, in contrast, it is said to be a such a disorganized city, whose political and structural goals are never planned in advance. The project is justified by their own condition to propose a practical level, developing the potential of productive activities and tourism, with the potential to provide a significant impact on the local development of the city. Since Highlighted from research, a development model that enables social integration, business and governance and its impact on poverty rates from improving the distribution of income, quality of life and city infrastructure. The research has been conducted descriptive as it aims to describe the properties of the object of study and the characteristics of the issues raised. So to make ends neatly method was applied through a set of intellectual operations in order to investigate the incidence of phenomena or levels of the variables of the population, companies and public administration. The identification of the problem from the analysis of the data collected could make a diagnosis. This situational analysis gives us the fieldwork, where questionnaires were developed and analysis that allowed the preparation of local development model for the city of São João Del Rei. Note that all this research effort towards the development model is just a guide for other models of development, we can say this because it is model that can be successfully used by other municipalities, for their own property should be developed diagnosis from a city-specific potential. ; Un modelo de desarrollo local sostenible constituye una guía para la elaboración de estrategias, nunca es una receta única. Esta recoge aspectos del análisis de las potencialidades del territorio, el diagnóstico de la problemática de la ciudad, las fases, actuaciones y actividades a considerar para el despliegue del desarrollo local. Además, se deben rever los valores de los recursos financieros, humanos, físicos, técnicos, sociales, culturales y por supuesto ambientales. Por ello, el propósito del trabajo de investigación, consiste fundamentalmente en proponer un modelo que permita identificar los factores determinantes del estancamiento y promover el desarrollo de la ciudad de São João Del Rei y que pueda ser aplicable a otros territorios de características similares. Para elaborar una propuesta de desarrollo local sostenible, se realizó el diagnóstico de la ciudad y posteriormente se aplicó una metodología cuantitativa y cualitativa de fuentes primarias y secundarias, con la finalidad de establecer los parámetros adecuados para la configuración del modelo de desarrollo local sostenible. Este interés intelectual surgió en función del estancamiento productivo a lo largo de los últimos 25 años de esta importante ciudad histórica de Brasil. Destacada por la arquitectura colonial, por la Universidad Federal y por haber sido la Capital Brasileña de la Cultural en 2007, consiguió sobrevivir a gestiones desordenadas, sin planificación, diagnóstico o cualquier herramienta de control aplicados a la gestión local. El proyecto se justifica por su propia condición de proponer a nivel práctico, el desarrollo del potencial de las actividades productivas y turísticas, con la posibilidad de proporcionar un efecto considerable en el desarrollo local de la ciudad. Se destaca a partir de la investigación, un modelo de desarrollo que posibilite la integración social, empresarial y gestión pública y de sus efectos en los índices de pobreza y la mejora de la distribución de renta, calidad de vida e infraestructura de la ciudad. La investigación llevada a cabo ha sido de carácter descriptivo ya que se pretende describir las propiedades del objeto de estudio y las características de la problemática planteada. Por tanto para llegar al fin ordenadamente se aplicó un método a través de un conjunto de operaciones intelectuales con el objetivo de indagar la incidencia de los fenómenos o niveles de las variables de la población, empresas y gestión pública. La identificación de la problemática a partir del análisis de los datos recolectados permitió elaborar un diagnóstico. Ese diagnóstico situacional nos lo proporciona el trabajo de campo realizado, en el cual se aplicaron los cuestionarios y el análisis que permitió la elaboración del modelo de desarrollo local para la ciudad de São João Del Rei. Cabe destacar que todo este esfuerzo investigativo hacia el modelo de desarrollo es tan sólo una guía para otros modelos de desarrollo, puesto que podemos afirmar que sea un modelo que pueda ser utilizado con éxito en otros municipios, habida cuenta su propia característica y que deben desarrollarse a partir de un diagnóstico específico de cada ciudad en potencial. ; Postprint (published version)

[spa] La presente tesis doctoral trata de valorar la huella que ha dejado hasta el momento la dimensión europea de ordenación en la planificación territorial del Estado español. Bajo este objetivo general, la investigación consta de diferentes etapas que se corresponden con distintas escalas de análisis. En primer lugar, se toma como ámbito de estudio la escala europea, especialmente la Unión Europea como entidad política, que si bien no posee competencias en ordenación territorial, ha difundido y publicado una serie de orientaciones y documentos específicos en la materia. Además, la trayectoria seguida por la política territorial de la Unión muestra que está cobrando relevancia entre sus objetivos políticos y que su influencia en las escalas administrativas inferiores es cada vez mayor. En el contexto europeo, también se analizan las orientaciones de ordenación derivadas del Consejo de Europa, cuya producción científica puede considerarse íntimamente ligada a la actividad de la Unión. Del estudio de este contexto se concluye que existen una serie de documentos europeos de referencia cuyas determinaciones han establecido un marco de ordenación territorial común para los Estados miembros y las regiones europeas, entre los cuáles destacan la Estrategia Territorial Europea, los Principios Directores para el Desarrollo Territorial Sostenible, el Convenio Europeo del Paisaje y la Agenda Territorial de la Unión Europea. En segundo lugar, el ámbito de estudio se traslada al Estado español, centrándose concretamente en las Comunidades Autónomas, puesto que son las que poseen las competencias exclusivas en ordenación del territorio. En esta fase de la investigación, se trata de evaluar el grado en que las distintas Comunidades Autónomas han integrado en sus respectivos planes territoriales las orientaciones de ordenación establecidas por los documentos europeos de referencia (teniendo en cuenta que éstos no tienen carácter regulador ni imperativo), de manera que se realiza un estudio comparado entre los planes territoriales autonómicos aprobados con posterioridad a la aparición de los mencionados documentos. Por último, la investigación trata de desarrollar una valoración argumentada en torno a la influencia de la escala europea de ordenación más allá de la retórica plasmada en los planes territoriales: por un lado, sobre el propio territorio, mediante la implementación real de las determinaciones europeas integradas en los planes autonómicos; y por otro lado, sobre el sistema administrativo de ordenación territorial, mediante la asunción de los principios relacionados con la gobernanza territorial. Para ello, se toman tres casos de estudio de Comunidades Autónomas (Navarra, Andalucía y Cantabria) que, de acuerdo con los resultados de la anterior etapa de la investigación, han integrado en sus planes las orientaciones europeas. En estos tres casos de estudio, la información se obtiene principalmente por medio de trabajo de campo y entrevistas en profundidad, de manera que se recogen las opiniones y explicaciones de diferentes expertos/as sobre la implementación de las orientaciones europeas en su Comunidad Autónoma. ; [eng] This doctoral thesis, titled "Spatial planning in Spain in light of European territorial policies. From rhetoric to practice" aims to assess the impact to date of the European dimension on spatial planning in Spain. Under this general objective, the research consists of different stages which correspond to the different levels of analysis. Firstly, the European level is studied, in particular the European Union as a political entity, which, though lacking specific competencies for spatial planning, has published a number of guidances and documents addressing this topic. Furthermore, the trajectory of spatial policy in the Union shows that this is gaining in relevance among its political objectives, and that its influence in lower administrative levels is growing. In the European context, the planning guidances of the European Council are also analyzed, as its scientific output is intimately linked to the activity of the Union. From the analysis of this context, this thesis concludes that there are a series of European reference documents whose guidances have established a framework for spatial planning common to all member states and European regions, foremost among which are: the European Spatial Development Perspective, the Guiding Principles for Sustainable Spatial Development of the European Continent, the European Landscape Convention and the Territorial Agenda of the European Union. Secondly, the focus of this study turns to Spain, examining the autonomous communities, which possess exclusive competencies in spatial planning. In this section, this thesis attempts to evaluate the degree to which the various autonomous communities have integrated into their spatial plans the planning guidances established by the European reference documents (considering that these are not of a regulatory or binding nature), by conducting a comparative study of the regional territorial plans approved after the publication of the aforementioned documents. Finally, this thesis evaluates the influence of the European planning level beyond the rhetoric of territorial plans: firstly, on the physical territory, through the actual implementation of the European guidances integrated into regional plans; and secondly, on the administrative system of spatial planning, through the incorporation of principles related to territorial governance. Three case studies of autonomous communities (Navarra, Andalucía and Cantabria) are conducted, which, according to the results of the previous research stage, have integrated into their plans the European guidances. In these case studies, evidence is collected primarily through field work and in-depth interviews, obtaining the opinion of various experts on the implementation of European guidances in their autonomous communities.

City Farmer: Adventures in Urban Food Growing.By LORRAINE JOHNSON. D. & M. Publishers Inc., 2010. $19.95Reviewed by Michael ClassensWhile the title of Lorraine Johnson's most recent book may seem like a disjointed juxtaposition, an ill-conceived utopian fantasy, or both, it is only fleetingly so. Despite the considerable and colliding pathologies of the contemporary food system—adequately summarized in the book— |Johnson forcefully argues that small-scale 'city farmers' are the vanguard of an emerging transformation of the contemporary food system. True, in the aggregate, city farming remains more prefigurative than productive, however Johnson's choice to see the socio-political and ecological benefits of small scale food production is itself an affirmative political maneuver. She's acutely aware of the formidability of re-inscribing the contemporary food system with more just and sustainable attributes, but also understands that starting in the here-and-now is perhaps the only rational choice in the face of such a challenge. Given that ours is an increasingly urbanized world, the 'here' is more often than not an apartment balcony, a neighbourhood park, a building rooftop, a front yard, or a back alley. These are the interstitial—and not inconsequentially, un-commodified—spaces of the urban condition. Johnson's trick is to reveal the potential in these sometimes derelict, often unassuming spaces, while she concomitantly urges us to re-imagine our own relationship to them. We are all urban farmers, she assures us, and the city is our fertile, however discontiguous, field. Part 'how to' manual, part philosophical tract, and part urban adventure travel log, City Farmer reads like a contemporary reorientation guide to our cities-as-farms. And like many good mash-up genres, the strength of this book is in its breadth. Johnson takes us on an extensive urban-ag tour and introduces us to urbanites-cum-farmers tilling everything from yards, balcony containers, and community garden plots, to the less conventional back alley parking spaces, underground bunkers, and even floating barges. Along the way, she punctuates these real-world stops with conceptual and instructional vignettes providing everything from step-by-step briefs on how to start a community garden and how to build a compost bin, to lists of plants that thrive in low-light conditions and instructions detailing how to make wine and jelly from foraged urban edibles. While not the explicit focus of the book, issues of urban policy provide an inevitable backdrop to Johnson's exploration. Of course policy in the neoliberal city cleaves toward that which best facilitates the circulation and accumulation of capital, tending to favour the spectacle of high-rise condo developments and gentrification over designations of land use for non-commercial, nano-scale farming. Through the realm of urban policy, then, local production of food is brought into conversation with the global forces of commercial real estate development and transnational circuits of capital. While Johnson only sparsely addresses this confrontation head on, the tension flows throughout the book. Her critique of neoliberal urbanism is rarely more incisive on this front than in her treatment of the contradictory posture urban policymakers tend to take in response to urban foraging, guerrilla gardening in neglected urban spaces, and back-yard chicken raising. These are the frontiers of urban food production, propelled in effect (though not necessarily in spirit) by self-reliant individuals. But if self-reliance really is what drives neoliberal policy, then why aren't governments enabling urban food production? If neoliberal efficiency is predicated on deregulation and less government, then why are city governments so heavily regulating the front and back yards of taxpayers?This is not to suggest that Johnson pursues these lines of argument to their often reactionary ends. She comes nowhere close to defending the frighteningly de rigueur sentiment of contemporary conservatism. On the contrary, she positions the ongoing regulatory resistance to forms of extra-legal urban agriculture as a way to expose the disconnect between the rhetoric and actual practice of neoliberalism. Every time a permit to grow food on a neglected parcel of land is denied, private ownership, individualism, and speculative land investment are reified as the operatics of urban governance. Here Johnson steers us toward a corollary—that urban agriculture can indeed confront the many tendencies of neoliberal capitalism. Transforming the contemporary food system and fundamentally altering the ways our cities are organized is, as Johnson readily admits, hefty weight for a radish, tomato plant, or box of home-grown lettuce to carry. Yet her careful documentation of the dozens of projects, policy initiatives, organizations, and individuals tirelessly working at the intersection of social transformation and urban food growing, somehow stunts the audacity of the symbolic weight she bestows upon the spoils of urban agriculture. If Paul Robbins is right, and manicured lawns (along with their considerable political economy) have played a crucial role in inscribing the modern (sub)urban cultural subject, Johnson reveals the possibility of something altogether different. It's not just a material transformation of the neglected, marginal, or simply ignored urban sites with the potential to act as micro-farms that Johnson is calling for. Instead she asks that we think about the kinds of social and cultural change farming cities would demand of us, and dares us to consider what kind of subjects we'd become if, those among us that are able to, got our hands a little dirty.Work CitedRobbins, Paul. Lawn People: How Grasses, Weeds, and Chemicals Make Us Who We Are. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007. Print~MICHAEL CLASSENS is a PhD Candidate in the Faculty of Environmental Studies at York University. His work deals mostly with the political ecology of food and agriculture, and figuring out why his Swiss chard keeps dying.

El Ecuador siendo país productor le ha llevado a ocupar una destacada participación en el ámbito internacional, debido a la forma de gerenciar unidades y líneas de producción a nivel provincial y local, habiendo recibido menciones que hablan de la calidad de sus productos agrícolas; así como también de las condiciones climáticas, geográficas y edáficas donde se realzan estos cultivos y que no las tienen otros países, constituyéndose en ventajas comparativas y competitivas. En el centro del país, región interandina, caracterizada por sus productos propios de la zona fría, como papas, fréjol, maíz, legumbres, etc. La Provincia Bolívar posee variedad de productos rentables y nutricionales de gran demanda para con el resto de provincias, donde exporta e intercambia sus productos, recibiendo el calificativo del granero del país, por la diversidad de unidades de producción sembradas en diferentes sectores, parroquias y comunidades, que por falta de diferentes recursos como vialidad, deficiente gestión gubernamental, desinterés dirigencial, han causado el conformismo productivo en diversas comunidades, donde no cuentan con los recursos de superación productiva, ya sea por medio de instituciones públicas y privadas, ONG's. etc. Que no han hecho nada por orientar a la utilización de la agricultura, no solo como un medio de ingresos económicos, sino también como un medio para mejorar su calidad de vida en el aspecto alimenticio, nutricional. etc. En la Comunidad de Pucará se registra la falta de atención por parte de estas instituciones encargadas del asesoramiento técnico, divulgación y concienciación para un mejoramiento en las unidades de producción. Además de la despreocupación por parte de la dirigencia de la comunidad por buscar mejorar las vías de acceso que optimicen la salida de productos al mercado o zonas aledañas y perfeccionen el rendimiento de sus cosechas, poniendo en práctica el buen vivir, es decir, en armonía con el ambiente de modo equitativo con los recursos naturales. Con la investigación realizada en la Comunidad de Pucará se pretende concienciar a los habitantes sobre el manejo de sus cultivos aplicando medidas alternativas encaminadas a recuperar su productividad, mermando los cultivos tradicionales y monocultivos, con el uso de nuevas técnicas de producción, se espera realizar una zonificación planificada de cultivos y de no disponer de políticas agrícolas determinantes por parte de gobiernos seccionales y contando tan solo con el esfuerzo y empeño de los pujantes agricultores comuneros. Los resultados que se obtuvieron con la investigación, fue obtener comuneros pensantes, reflexivos, conscientes y realistas de las consecuencias que conllevan los cultivos tradicionales, mismos que se han venido llevando a cabo por años, sin llegar al deseo de superación económica y productiva. Estos resultados se lograron mediante visitas de campo, asesoramiento técnico personalizado, charlas contínuas, prácticas in-situ, reuniones y mingas alternativas de mejoramiento en unidades de producción, utilización de semilla certificada, labores agrícolas con material técnico. Por ello se crea la necesidad de gerenciar las unidades de producción agrícola en la comunidad de Pucará, como un ejemplo a seguir. ; Ecuador being the producer country has led him to take a leading role in the international arena, because of the way of managing units and production lines to provincial and local levels, having received indications that speak of the quality of agricultural products; as well as climatic, geographic and soil conditions where these crops are enhanced and that other countries have not, constituting comparative and competitive advantages. In the center of the country, inter-Andean region, characterized by its own products of the cold area such as potatoes, beans, corn, beans, etc. Bolivar Province has variety of profitable and nutritional products in great demand for the other provinces, which it exports its products and exchanges, receiving the qualification of the country's breadbasket, the diversity of production units planted in different sectors, parishes and communities which for lack of different resources such as roads, poor governance, dirigencial disinterest, they have caused the production conformism in various communities, which lack the resources productive improvement, either through public and private institutions, NGOs. etc. They have done nothing to guide the use of agriculture not only as a means of income, but also as a means to improve their quality of life in the food, nutritional aspect. etc. In the Commonwealth of Pucara inattention by these institutions responsible for technical advice, outreach and awareness to an improvement in production units is recorded. In addition to carelessness on the part of the leadership of the community to seek to improve the access roads to optimize the output of goods to market or surrounding areas and refine the performance of their crops, putting into practice the good life, that is, in harmony environmentally equitably with natural resources. With research in the Community of Pucara is to raise awareness among people about managing their crops using alternative measures to recover their productivity, eroding traditional crops and monocultures, using new production techniques, it is expected to perform a planned crops and agricultural determinants have no policies by regional governments and counting only with the effort and commitment of farmers thriving communal zoning. The results obtained with the investigation was to obtain thinking, thoughtful, realistic and aware of the consequences that involve traditional, same crops that have been taking place for years without reaching the desire to overcome economic and productive community members. These results were achieved through field visits, personalized technical advice, continuous lectures, on-site practices, meetings and alternatives mingas improvement in production units, use of certified seed, farming with technical material. Hence the need to manage agricultural production units in the community of Pucara, as a role model is created.

"Greek Historiography, Roman Society, Christian Empire: the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius of Caesarea" addresses a major shift in Roman social, political, and religious history at the pivotal turn of the fourth century AD. When Christianity was legalized in 313, the Christian church of the eastern Roman Empire, where the pagan Licinius ruled as emperor until the Christian Constantine defeated him in 324, remained in an insecure position. The Greek-speaking eastern Roman elite of this period only admitted outsiders to their circles who displayed a civilized manner of life inculcated in the elite Greek educational curriculum (paideia), the kind of life embodied by Greek philosophers. It was, I argue, to depict this newly legalized Christianity as the models of the philosophical life that Eusebius of Caesarea wrote the first history of the church in the 310s AD. Whereas Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History is usually studied for its intra-Christian discourse, this study considers the History as a Greek text aimed at Roman elites. I demonstrate that the History's reconfiguration of Greek historiographical genres constructed Christianity as a civilized and educated institution whose leaders were worthy to educate and advise the Roman ruling classes.The first three chapters present a reading of the Ecclesiastical History within the rich variety of Greek historiographical genres. The first chapter applies genre theory to show that Eusebius' History was a combination of the Greek genres of national history and philosophical biography. This combination of genres presented the church as a nation of philosophers ready to assume the standard role of philosophers in the Roman Empire, of teaching Roman elites a civilized manner of life and of advising Roman emperors. The second chapter scrutinizes the character of Eusebius' Christianity by studying eighty mini-biographies embedded into the History that echo Diogenes Laertius', Philostratus', and Porphyry's philosophical biographies. By highlighting Christians' homogeneous and universal intellectual prowess, these profiles represent the church as reliable educators and advisors. The third chapter argues that, in a riposte to the grand genre of Greek war history that valorized other nations' pasts, Eusebius transformed persecution and martyrdom from an orderly legal procedure into a violent struggle told in the manner of the great Greek historian Thucydides. As the church's enemy in the struggle martyrdom was Satan and not the Roman persecutors of Christianity, Eusebius could call martyrdoms "wars contested for peace in the soul," critiquing Greek war history with Greek philosophical discourse. His church emerges victorious by remaining steadfastly loyal to God, surpasses the warriors in Greek literature by its virtuous conduct of the wars, and, by scapegoating the demons, absolves the Roman Empire of any systemic flaw that would discourage Christians from supporting it.The next three chapters complement my analysis of the Ecclesiastical History's genres by locating Eusebius' Christianity in the social structures of the early fourth-century Roman Empire. The fourth chapter introduces Eusebius' experience of living under Rome through a thick description of the archaeological remains of his home city, Caesarea Maritima. Caesarea was unmistakably a Roman creation, as the governor of Palestine resided there and the city's topography featured numerous monuments to Roman power, including monuments to philosophers who were respected in the city. The peaceful, prosperous and well-connected life that a wealthy man such as Eusebius could live there solidified Eusebius' loyalty to the Roman Empire. The fifth chapter shows how Eusebius integrated the church into the Empire: he delineated networks of bishops and intellectuals that stretched across the Empire from Mesopotamia to Gaul and Carthage. The geographically diffused church displays a variety of mechanisms for maintaining long-distance cohesion, and the cohesive and homogeneous philosophical church bound together by these ties attracts favor from Roman leaders throughout the History. Through these encounters Eusebius patterned the church's relationship with the Empire after that of Greek philosophers: philosophers typically stayed in contact with emperors and governors while maintaining a critical distance from imperial power, so as to provide impartial advice for imperial officials. Eusebius placed Christians into the beneficial imagined relationship that philosophers had held with the Empire, from which they would strengthen imperial governance. The sixth chapter contextualizes the History in Eusebius' larger literary oeuvre. He published the History when he was writing his long magnum opus, the Gospel Preparation and Gospel Demonstration, a comprehensive exposition and defense of Christian doctrine. Eusebius' simultaneous publication of the Preparation-Demonstration with the History emulated the combination of expository works with biographical narratives in Greek philosophical curricula. Eusebius' forging of a comprehensive program for training Christians to think and act as philosophers positioned the church to displace Greek philosophical schools as the premier intellectual institution of the Empire. From this position, the church could then reinforce the Empire's mission to civilize the inhabited world.The History articulated a central role for Eusebius' church in Rome's imperial regime. Where the most prominent role of Greek philosophers was to educate imperial elites and advise Roman emperors, Eusebius' assertion of Christians' intellectual prowess claimed the church's superiority as a philosophical institution. Eusebius published his vision at a fortuitous moment, for when the Christian emperor Constantine conquered the eastern Roman Empire in 324, the History had already advertised church leaders' competence in the philosophical profession. By telling the church's history within the Greek historiographical tradition stretching back to Herodotus and Thucydides, therefore, Eusebius' History became a catalyst for the church's integration into the power structures of the Roman Empire in the fourth century.

本文主要考察社会主义中国的文化政策经历了怎样的发展变化,并试图回答自1949年以来中国共产党是如何介入与领导当代中国的文化,其文化治理的理论与实践又是如何发展与转变,对文化领域又产生了怎样的影响。 ; 与只对政策文件进行解读的传统政策研究不同,本研究采用文化的政治经济学和文化社会学取经,结合宏观与微观、观念与实践两个层面,对上述问题进行考察与分析,从而梳理出中国文化政策发展变化的历史脉络。除了对中共制订的政策文件及主要思想理论进行梳理与分析外,本文选取了代表中国社会主义国家特色的上海市工人文化宮及其话剧生产为个案研究对象,通过文献研究、实地考察、深度访谈、历史比较分析等方法,具体深入地考察文化主体与文化政策之间的关系,尤其是在后毛泽东时代的发展变化,以此勾勒出社会主义中国文化政策从思维到实践的运动轨迹。 ; 本文希望通过这一研究可以在以下三个方面有所贡献:(1)梳理出一种社会主义中国的文化政策的历史脉络;(2)试图通过个体深访和个体口述史,来考察社会主义中国文化政策与个体的关系,从而在微观上提供关于社会主义中国文化政策的重要实证数据。并且,(3)在中观和宏观的层面上建议一种关于社会主义中国文化政策研究的理论框架,作为今后这一研究课题发展的一个基础;(4)通过比较中国与西方发达资本主义国家之间文化政策发展与运动趋势的异同,反思中国文化政策的转型,从而为推进中国文化政策的发展与进步建言。最后,希望本论文可以对社会主义国家或发展中国家的文化政策研究提供中国经验的参考与启发。需要强调的是,本文并非急于给社会主义中国文化政策的历史变迁下定论,限于历史资料收集的有限性和文化政策历时研究的复杂性,本文主要是通过现有的史料和相关数据,来做一项关于社会主义中国文化政策领域的开拓性的基础研究,也是为日后中国文化政策研究的发展做一种铺垫。 ; The thesis project attempts to answer the questions about how the Chinese Communist Party governs the cultural domain in Contemporary China, and how the cultural governance develops and influences cultural production in China since 1949. ; This research tries systematically explores the development of the cultural policy of Socialist China by focusing on Shanghai Municipal Workers Palace of Culture and its cultural production, which is an understudied topic in Chinese Studies. Through investigating the CCP's theories, thoughts and policies in cultural sphere, the ways and rules of producing literature and art, it will systematically analyze the relationship of the Chinese party-state and culture in different historical periods, and illustrate the development of the CCP's cultural policy from theory to practice. ; The study mainly adopts Cultural Political Economy and Sociology of Culture approaches. Different from traditional cultural policy studies, it is a historical and comparative empirical inquiry with an integrated macro and micro perspective. The study introduces qualitative methods including archive analysis, field study, in-depth interview, oral history, participant observation, and historical comparative analysis and etc, to answer the ...

本研究运用地方政治经济特征来解释商业协会与威权国家关系的分化,以及商业协会之间的系统差异,主张在地方政治经济结构中理解商业协会的角色及其之于威权政体的意义。本研究说明了在转型中国商业协会政治角色的新经验进展,探讨了社会利益能够成功地以制度化的方式输入威权政体的条件。 ; 在国家一面,本项研究说明了支撑地方威权国家维持支配的制度基础。激励地方政府开拓财源的财政制度和刺激官僚追求政绩的晋升制度,促使地方政府及其组成部门利用商业协会来提供必要的财政补给、提供公共品和帮助政府执行治理职能。在社会一面,中国的地方政治经济发展模式并非消弭而是加深了私营企业主之间的利益分化,破坏了商业协会的同质性基础。大型私企、中小型私企、个体与地方政府的互动模式具有本质差别,形成了分化的利益诉求。但是当前的商业协会体系并不能处理这种分化了的社会利益诉求,试图将它们都聚集到同一个结社中,既破坏了结社的内部凝聚力,也阻碍了制度化利益传输的可能。 ; 商业协会与威权国家的关系取决于政府渗透与结社凝聚力两大条件的交互作用。本研究将当下商业协会与威权国家的关系概括为四种类型:"合作型,"对抗型,"支配型和"庇护型。不同类型协会表达利益诉求的能力不同,"合作型与"对抗型都可以曲折的方式实现利益中介,但它们都还不是制度化的利益中介过程。通过"去政治化的政治整合过程,当前中国的商业协会对威权政体的政治稳定起到了正面作用。基于上述分析,合理的推论是:若地方政治经济特征存在系统差异,则商业协会的整体状况也应存在系统差异。本研究所建立的关于商业协会政治影响力的Logistic回归模型说明,商业协会的层级越高,组织凝聚力越高,与政府的"合作型关系越强,其被政府咨询以及实际影响政策的可能性也越高。在中国,在更高的政府层级上商业协会具有更可见的政治影响力。 ; This research reveals how the differentiated relation between business associations and authoritarian state and the systematic organizational variations are configurated by local political economy, and argues the political significance of business associations in authoritarian state should be located in the specific political economic structure. This research displays recent development of business associations' political role in transitional China, and identify the conditions that facilitate organizational social interest pursuits to be successfully inputted into authoritarian state. ; On the one hand, this research discusses the institutional bases which motivate the local authoritarian state to maintain continuing domination over society. Both the fiscal institution driving local state to expand revenue incomes and the bureaucratic promotion institution driving officials to accumulate political achievements motivate the local government to achieve following benefits from penetrating and dominating business associations: extract money from society, provide public goods, and facilitate the governance functions. On the other hand, the specific developmental pattern of local market economy actually has deepened the fragmentations among emerging private ...

Since 1960s,international donors and then NGOs began to take partin the promotion and realisation of judicial reforms in developing countries. Initially reluctantto work in such aregalianfield as justice, international development actors justified their intervention by economic development needs and then through the concepts of good governance, universal human rights and the rule of law as an essential pre-condition for democratization and the functioning of the free market.Despite increasing efforts, sector as wide as the judicial sector remains difficult to reform because of the multitude and complexity of areas, but also the lack of legitimacy of donors in the countries of operation. To address this last point, but also in the broader context of the reorientation of development aid in the service of the fight against poverty, donors have encouraged local civil society to participate inthe justice sector reform.Kyrgyzstan, former Republic of the Soviet Union whichaccessed unintentionally to independence in 1991 did not avoidthis process. Legacy of the communist era, the Kyrgyz judicial system has been little reformed since independence and represents a significant number of failures. Strongly dependent on the executive power, corrupted and in chronic lack of budget, the Kyrgyz judicial system has failed to play the role ofanimpartial arbiter which he has been appointed. Thus, it contributed to the strengthening of the excessive power of two presidents, the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few and the impoverishment of everyone else. The failure of the judicial system, combined with other factorshas led to two revolutions (2005 and 2010) in Kyrgyzstan and has created a volatile security situation. At the end of the second revolution, the government decided to take seriously the demands of people for justice and after the adoption of the new constitution,heinitiated judicial reforms. This opens an opportunity for international and local development actors to impose their vision of the judiciary. So Secours Catholique, French association of 1901 law, with its local long-time partner Citizens against Corruption takes this opportunity and intends to propose its view in at least two of the judicial reform process: the legislation humanization through penitentiary reform (especially concerning persons sentenced to life) and the development of juvenile justice.Citizens against Corruption through adouble action: project onthe field and advocacy, intends to impose themself as an important actor of the justice system. This important place which representatives of Kyrgyz civil society are occupying comes from the mode of formation of the civil society which was created in Kyrgyzstan after its independence in an environment that was veryopen to international development intervention. ; Depuis les années 60, les bailleurs de fonds et ensuite les ONG ont commencé à participer à la promotion et à l'implantation des réformes judiciaires dans les pays en voie de développement. D'abord réticentes à intervenir dans un domaine de l'Etat aussi régalien que la justice, les acteurs internationaux du développement justifient leur intervention par le besoin d'un développement économique et ensuite à travers les concepts de bonne gouvernance, des droits de l'homme universels et de l'État de droit comme une condition préalable nécessaire à la démocratisation et au bon fonctionnement du libre marché. Malgré des efforts croissants, un secteur aussi large que le secteur judiciaire demeure difficile à réformer à cause de la multitude et de la complexité des domaines d'intervention, mais aussi du manque de légitimité des bailleurs dans les pays d'intervention. Pour remédier à ce dernier point, mais aussi dans le cadre plus général de la réorientation de l'aide au développement à la lutte contre la pauvreté, les bailleurs ont encouragé la société civile locale à participer à la réforme du secteur judiciaire. Ce processus n'a pas échappé au Kirghizstan, l'ancienne République de l'Union Soviétique qui a accédé, sans le vouloir, à l'indépendance en 1991. Héritage de l'époque communiste, le système judiciaire kirghize n'a été que peu réformé depuis l'indépendance et représente un nombre important de défaillances. Fortement dépendant de l'exécutif, corrompu et en manque chronique de budget, le système judiciaire kirghize n'est pas parvenu à jouer le rôle d'arbitre impartial qui lui a été désigné. Ainsi, il a contribué au renforcement démesuré du pouvoir des deux présidents consécutifs, à la concentration des richesses dans les mains de quelques-uns et à l'appauvrissement de tous les autres. L'échec du système judiciaire, combiné avec d'autres facteurs, a donc conduit à deux révolutions au Kirghizstan (2005 et 2010) et a créé une situation de sécurité instable. A l'issue de la deuxième révolution, le gouvernement décide de prendre au sérieux les demandes du peuple pour plus de justice et après avoir adopté une nouvelle constitution, initie les réformes judiciaires. Cela ouvre une possibilité aux acteurs du développement internationaux et locaux d'imposer leur vision du système judiciaire. Ainsi, le Secours Catholique, association française de loi 1901, avec l'aide de son partenaire local de long date Citoyens contre la Corruption s'est invité dans ce processus et entend proposer sa vision dans au moins deux étapes de la réforme judiciaire: l'humanisation de la législation passant par la réforme pénitentiaire (concernant tout particulièrement les personnes condamnées à vie) et le développement de la justice adaptée aux mineurs. A travers sa double action de projet sur le terrain et de plaidoyer, Citoyens contre la Corruption compte s'imposer en tant qu'acteur important dans un domaine de l'État comme la justice, généralement très régalien. Cette place importante qu'occupent alors les représentants de la société civile kirghize provient du mode de formation de cette dernière qui s'est créée au Kirghizstan après son indépendance dans un environnement alors très ouvert à l'intervention internationale au nom du développement.

[full article and abstract in Lithuanian; abstract in English] This article examines the concept of environmental security and assesses its role in international, regional and national security studies. The study is aimed at providing conceptual "mental map" of this field, thereby giving analytical background and gui­dance for comprehensive environmental security studies, which are known for the diversity of conceptual approaches, methods and levels of analysis.The fundamental question of environmental security – how various environmen­tal factors (climate, resources, etc.) and processes can affect the security of states and societies. It examines the relationships between different environmental issues, their effects and various security problems. Environment is considered as integrated part of a security concept together with the dimensions of economic, social, energy or information security. In order to identify the main academic schools of the environmental security, this article uses four key questions, theoretically defining the core of environmental secu­rity concept: (i) what makes an impact (source of threat); (ii) to whom/what an impact is made ("victim"); (iii) what kind of impact is made (threat); (iv) how an impact is made (mechanisms and "channels"). On the basis of these theoretical dimensions, five main academic schools of environmental security are identified and examined by focusing on their features and findings, methodology and critical assessment:1. Resource scarcity school examines the nexus between scarcity of renewable resources (e.g. freshwater) and various internal and international conflicts (their incidence, intensity and dynamics).2. Resource abundance school explores the relations between non-renewa­ble resources (e.g. diamonds, oil, etc.) and internal conflicts, especially civil wars.3. Climate change school focuses on nature (and human) induced environ­mental change and its implications for international security, socioeconomic development and social disruptions in various regions.4. Human security school focuses on environmental impacts on individual and "people-centered" security, which is closely related with sustainable develo­pment (food security, health and education, welfare, gender issues, etc.).5. Natural disasters school examines the socioeconomic impacts of various disasters (earthquakes, floods, etc.) with specific focus on the vulnerability and adaptive capacity of various social systems (states, communities, etc.).Analysis shows that environmental dimension becomes increasingly impor­tant element of international relations and security studies. Comprehensive security assessment, especially in developing countries, is not possible without taking into account the social and economic impacts made by resources, climate change and natural disasters.Research by 1 and 2 schools, despite various methodological problems, demons­trates the impact resources have to various internal conflicts and social disorder. Scar­city of renewable resources generates certain social effects (for example, decreased productivity of agriculture, migration, weakening of state institutions etc.), which, in turn, can fuel different types of conflicts (ethnic conflicts, coup d'état, poverty conflicts, etc.). Abundance of non-renewable resources can have various direct (for example, direct financial source for rebel groups), as well as indirect (affecting eco­nomy, political regime, separatism, etc.) impact to conflicts.Specific conditions in the developing countries play a significant role in terms of explaining the nexus between resources and security. Developing countries are often dependent on climate-sensitive agriculture and suffer from poverty. As a re­sult, various climate change effects (3 school) often amplify mechanisms, which lead to insecurity and violence, such as political instability, weak governance structures, poor economic performance, etc. This is especially relevant for those regions where several "conflict constellations" (water and food shortage, regular natural disasters, rapid demographic change, etc.) are overlapping. Environmental change also has a certain impact to international security in terms of possible increase in the number of weak and fragile states, risks for global economic development, intensification of migration, territorial disputes, etc.Generally, environmental security research (apart from the 1 and 2 schools) is based on a broad approach to security, which is not limited to military conflicts and include various elements of sustainable development and economic welfare. On the one hand, it is understandable, as interdisciplinary character of environmental securi­ty requires complex approach to security.On the other hand, research based on the concept of human security (4 school) often equates security with economic and social well-being, thus blurring the line between security and development studies. It also undermines the assessment of the impact environmental issues can have to traditional security problems (conflicts, regi­me change, political instability, etc.). Finally, securization of various social problems (AIDS, migration, poverty, gender inequality, etc.) might be used for political purpo­ses by legitimizing the use of military force or restricting human rights.Various natural disasters (5 school) have a substantial destructive power, which not only causes substantial damage (humanitarian crises, destroyed infrastructure, etc.), but also has complex socioeconomic and political effects, which affect politi­cal regimes, critical economic sectors, social stability, etc. From this perspective, a key role is played by physical and socioeconomic characteristics of vulnerability and adaptive capacity, which can absorb negative effects of natural disasters and mitigate the risk. ; [straipsnis ir santrauka lietuvių kalba; santrauka anglų kalba] Straipsnyje analizuojami svarbiausi ekosaugumo koncepcijos bruožai ir jos reikšmė tarptautinių santykių studijose. Ekosaugumas traktuojamas kaip sudedamoji saugumo sampratos dalis šalia akademiniame diskurse jau įsitvirtinusių ekonominio, socialinio, energetinio ar informacinio saugumo komponentų. Ekosaugumo studijų objektas – kompleksiniai ryšiai tarp gamtos (aplinkos, klimato, resursų) veiksnių, jų daromo poveikio ir įvairių saugumo problemų. Straipsnyje identifikuojamos ir nagrinėjamos penkios svarbiausios ekosaugumo studijų "stovyklos": 1. Resursų trūkumo. 2. Resursų gausos. 3. Klimato pokyčių. 4. Žmogiškojo saugumo. 5. Gamtos stichijų.

Trend of events over the last ten years have shown that the world has witnessed widespread business failures and even collapses.1 These failures and collapses have been devastating and tragic to the global economy.2 Within this period, corporations have claimed to promote Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and be committed to sustainable development, while at the same time perpetrating harmful business practices in the communities in which they operate.3 Unethical behaviour and illegal practices (such as cheating, greed and deceit) on the part of the executives of the corporations are the major causes of these crashes.4 The primary motivating factor to cheat in the business world is financial gain. However, cheating in any sense, be it greed, deceit, unethical conduct, acts of illegality or illegal practices, though detrimental to the sustainable development of the communities in which corporations operate their businesses, eventually in some occasions end up causing the executives of these multi-national corporations (MNCs) problems.5 The issue is topical, because CSR continues to be one of the most important and controversial aspects of global business - receiving much attention from all circles – business managers, lawyers, government leaders and academics in different fields. While continuing to increase in prominence, there are many aspects and many approaches evolving surrounding this global phenomenon. CSR of business is actually impacting on the people at this point-in-time, locally, nationally, regionally and globally. The financial crisis has provided a number of examples of firms that have engaged in practices that create systemic risk to the economy, but the issue is not confined to the financial sector. Virtually all firms are deemed to be sufficiently strategic in their undertakings in the local, national, regional and global community. Actions desired by the society may differ from those undertaken by the firm in order to make reasonable profits in their business. Thus, firms may adopt different (positive or/and negative) strategies to maximise impact on society for their benefit. However, business strategy also affects the likelihood of harm to the society as a whole (though, with the level of impact differing on developed and developing societies).6 It is argued that CSR initiatives of MNCs are all about cover-up and pretence.7 Most of the legal authoritative works on CSR, which analyse company CSR, primarily focus on developed areas, and therefore overlook or discuss only briefly the CSR situations in developing countries that more clearly demonstrate the box-ticking mentality of companies.8 The few works that focus on developing areas reveal that in developing countries almost all the corporations are involved in box-ticking; as this paper will demonstrate. In light of the harm caused by firms globally, the hypothesis of this paper is that the undertakings or business activities of most large global firms (i.e. MNCs) must have impacted heavily on the sustainable development of the society, particularly the communities where they operate their businesses and, especially in the developing countries. It is therefore important for this paper to consider the ethical and legal aspects of CSR of MNCs and their business impact on sustainable development of the wider community. This paper primarily examines the contribution of CSR of MNCs to the sustainable development of the communities in which the corporations operate their businesses; this is approached from the context of practice argued through the three chosen empirical cases,9 and supported with theoretical analysis. This paper provides a separate sub-section for the consideration of various definitions or/and meaning of CSR.10 However, the working definition for the purpose of this paper is that CSR is about the sensitivity of an organisation to ethical and legal practices, and beneficial responsiveness that promote sustainable development in the community. Thus, while this paper recognises the importance of the success of business activities regarding what goes inside the corporations (i.e. internality-the inner circle), it is more concerned on the impacts of the activities of corporations on the communities or environments in which they operate their businesses (i.e. externality-the outer circle). This focus is on how CSR of an organisation contributes to the sustainable development of the wider community. Section 2 primarily looks at the various definitions or/and meaning attached to the term CSR, and briefly explains the central concepts helpful in the understanding of CSR as used in this paper, such as sustainable development, social responsibility, corporate governance, corporate citizenship, corporate accountability, triple-bottom-line, and box-ticking mentality; as well as looks at the difference between ethics and legality. Section 3 presents the three empirical case studies identified; these are Enron, North America (USA); MacDonald's, UK (Europe); and Shell, Nigeria (Africa); it also made comparative remarks of CSR in UK (Europe), North America (USA), and Nigeria (Africa). The empirical cases form the basis of analysis in the other sections of this paper within the framework of the contribution of CSR of MNCs in the sustainable development of the communities in which they operate their businesses. This includes: consideration of the ongoing heated debate within the academic circles whether CSR is voluntary or mandatory (section 4); the issue of box-ticking and its implementation on a practical level (section 5); it concludes in section 6 that the neglect of the ethical and legal aspects of CSR, though detrimental to the sustainable development of the communities in which corporations operate their businesses, eventually in some occasions end up in causing the executives of these multinationals or/and the corporations problem.

Since 1960s,international donors and then NGOs began to take partin the promotion and realisation of judicial reforms in developing countries. Initially reluctantto work in such aregalianfield as justice, international development actors justified their intervention by economic development needs and then through the concepts of good governance, universal human rights and the rule of law as an essential pre-condition for democratization and the functioning of the free market.Despite increasing efforts, sector as wide as the judicial sector remains difficult to reform because of the multitude and complexity of areas, but also the lack of legitimacy of donors in the countries of operation. To address this last point, but also in the broader context of the reorientation of development aid in the service of the fight against poverty, donors have encouraged local civil society to participate inthe justice sector reform.Kyrgyzstan, former Republic of the Soviet Union whichaccessed unintentionally to independence in 1991 did not avoidthis process. Legacy of the communist era, the Kyrgyz judicial system has been little reformed since independence and represents a significant number of failures. Strongly dependent on the executive power, corrupted and in chronic lack of budget, the Kyrgyz judicial system has failed to play the role ofanimpartial arbiter which he has been appointed. Thus, it contributed to the strengthening of the excessive power of two presidents, the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few and the impoverishment of everyone else. The failure of the judicial system, combined with other factorshas led to two revolutions (2005 and 2010) in Kyrgyzstan and has created a volatile security situation. At the end of the second revolution, the government decided to take seriously the demands of people for justice and after the adoption of the new constitution,heinitiated judicial reforms. This opens an opportunity for international and local development actors to impose their vision of the judiciary. So Secours Catholique, French association of 1901 law, with its local long-time partner Citizens against Corruption takes this opportunity and intends to propose its view in at least two of the judicial reform process: the legislation humanization through penitentiary reform (especially concerning persons sentenced to life) and the development of juvenile justice.Citizens against Corruption through adouble action: project onthe field and advocacy, intends to impose themself as an important actor of the justice system. This important place which representatives of Kyrgyz civil society are occupying comes from the mode of formation of the civil society which was created in Kyrgyzstan after its independence in an environment that was veryopen to international development intervention. ; Depuis les années 60, les bailleurs de fonds et ensuite les ONG ont commencé à participer à la promotion et à l'implantation des réformes judiciaires dans les pays en voie de développement. D'abord réticentes à intervenir dans un domaine de l'Etat aussi régalien que la justice, les acteurs internationaux du développement justifient leur intervention par le besoin d'un développement économique et ensuite à travers les concepts de bonne gouvernance, des droits de l'homme universels et de l'État de droit comme une condition préalable nécessaire à la démocratisation et au bon fonctionnement du libre marché. Malgré des efforts croissants, un secteur aussi large que le secteur judiciaire demeure difficile à réformer à cause de la multitude et de la complexité des domaines d'intervention, mais aussi du manque de légitimité des bailleurs dans les pays d'intervention. Pour remédier à ce dernier point, mais aussi dans le cadre plus général de la réorientation de l'aide au développement à la lutte contre la pauvreté, les bailleurs ont encouragé la société civile locale à participer à la réforme du secteur judiciaire. Ce processus n'a pas échappé au Kirghizstan, l'ancienne République de l'Union Soviétique qui a accédé, sans le vouloir, à l'indépendance en 1991. Héritage de l'époque communiste, le système judiciaire kirghize n'a été que peu réformé depuis l'indépendance et représente un nombre important de défaillances. Fortement dépendant de l'exécutif, corrompu et en manque chronique de budget, le système judiciaire kirghize n'est pas parvenu à jouer le rôle d'arbitre impartial qui lui a été désigné. Ainsi, il a contribué au renforcement démesuré du pouvoir des deux présidents consécutifs, à la concentration des richesses dans les mains de quelques-uns et à l'appauvrissement de tous les autres. L'échec du système judiciaire, combiné avec d'autres facteurs, a donc conduit à deux révolutions au Kirghizstan (2005 et 2010) et a créé une situation de sécurité instable. A l'issue de la deuxième révolution, le gouvernement décide de prendre au sérieux les demandes du peuple pour plus de justice et après avoir adopté une nouvelle constitution, initie les réformes judiciaires. Cela ouvre une possibilité aux acteurs du développement internationaux et locaux d'imposer leur vision du système judiciaire. Ainsi, le Secours Catholique, association française de loi 1901, avec l'aide de son partenaire local de long date Citoyens contre la Corruption s'est invité dans ce processus et entend proposer sa vision dans au moins deux étapes de la réforme judiciaire: l'humanisation de la législation passant par la réforme pénitentiaire (concernant tout particulièrement les personnes condamnées à vie) et le développement de la justice adaptée aux mineurs. A travers sa double action de projet sur le terrain et de plaidoyer, Citoyens contre la Corruption compte s'imposer en tant qu'acteur important dans un domaine de l'État comme la justice, généralement très régalien. Cette place importante qu'occupent alors les représentants de la société civile kirghize provient du mode de formation de cette dernière qui s'est créée au Kirghizstan après son indépendance dans un environnement alors très ouvert à l'intervention internationale au nom du développement.

Diplôme : Dr. d'Université ; The 1989 Berlin Wall fall opened the way to capitalism and market economy to many countries from East and Central Europe. The enthusiasm is followed by the questioning of the neoclassical approach to reform. The results of privatization are indeed much less satisfactory than expected; privatized enterprises in the East do not behave like private enterprises. Our thesis focuses on the economic agents' behaviour, and more especially on the ways and determinants of their behavioural change, to adapt to a so-called market economy, with the case study of the Romanian wine units. We propose a model of post-socialist behavioural restructuring, which includes:(1) an approach in terms of "behavioural restructuring," which goes beyond the "private property" as sole determinant of microeconomic transformations ; (2) the evolutionary theory that sees the behaviour as a dynamics ; (3) the "structure-conduct-performance" framework which proposes a classification of behavioural determinants and their interrelations ; (4) factors inherited from the past. The resulting qualitative model shows a variety of coexisting pathways, including those of self consumption oriented minifundia, often ignored by sector studies although they deal with 70% of the vineyard area. Our model provides an explanation of the post-1990 expansion of hybrids, as a result of development of the minifundia trajectory. Its coexistence with the "minifundia Vitis vinifera" path is determined by factors inherited from the past. According to literature, the governance structures and capital are confirmed as sound determinants of the commercial units' trajectories, with an emphasis on the origin of capital. Besides the interest of the model for an understanding of behavioral changes in post-socialist economy, but also more generally in the context of systemic transformations, our work calls for taking into account the subsistence units, along with commercial ones in the formulation and implementation of sector policies. ; La chute du mur de Berlin, fin 1989, marque l'ouverture au capitalisme et à l'économie de marché pour de nombreux pays d'Europe centrale et orientale. A l'enthousiasme succède la remise en cause de l'approche néoclassique des réformes. Le bilan de la privatisation est beaucoup moins satisfaisant que prévu ; les entreprises privatisées à l'Est ne se comportent pas comme des entreprises privées. Notre thèse s'intéresse aux comportements des acteurs économiques et plus particulièrement aux modalités et aux déterminants du changement comportemental, en vue de leur adaptation à une économie dite de marché, avec pour cas d'étude, les unités vinicoles roumaines. Nous proposons un modèle de la restructuration comportementale postsocialiste, qui intègre : (1) l'approche en termes de "restructuration comportementale", qui permet de dépasser la variable "propriété privée" comme seul déterminant des transformations microéconomiques ; (2) la théorie évolutionniste qui appréhende les comportements selon une approche dynamique ; (3) la grille "structures-comportements-performances" qui propose une classification des déterminants comportementaux et de leur interrelations et (4) les facteurs hérités du passé. Le modèle qualitatif résultant met en évidence une grande variété de trajectoires coexistantes, y compris celles des minifundia orientées vers l'autoconsommation, souvent négligées par les études sectorielles bien qu'occupant 70 % des surfaces viticoles. Notre modèle offre une explication de l'expansion post-1990 des hybrides, comme conséquence du développement de la trajectoire des minifundistes. Sa coexistence avec la trajectoire "minifundia Vitis vinifera" est déterminée par les facteurs hérités du passé. Conformément à la littérature, les modalités de gouvernance et le capital sont confirmés comme des déterminants discriminants de la nature des trajectoires des unités commerciales, avec un accent sur l'origine du capital. Outre l'intérêt du modèle pour une lecture des changements comportementaux en économie postsocialiste, mais aussi plus généralement en contexte de transformation systémique, notre travail invite à la prise en compte des logiques d'autoconsommation, aux côtés des logiques commerciales, lors de l'élaboration et de la mise en œuvre des politiques sectorielles. ; Căderea Zidului Berlinului la sfârşitul anului 1989, marchează deschiderea spre capitalism şi spre economia de piaţă pentru multe ţări din Europa Centrală şi de Est. Acest entuziasm a fost urmat de noi semne de întrebare privind abordarea neoclasica a reformelor. Bilanţul privatizării este mult mai puţin satisfăcător decât s-a aşteptat; întreprinderile privatizate în Est nu se comporta ca adevarate întreprinderi private. Teza studiază comportamentul agenţilor economici, si în special modalitatile şi factorii determinanţi ai schimbărilor de comportament, pentru a se adapta la o asa zisa economie de piaţă, având drept studiu de caz unităţile vinicole romanesti. Propunem un model de restructurare comportamentala post-socialista, care include: (1) abordarea în termeni de "restructurare comportamentala", care merge dincolo de variabila "proprietate privată" ca unic factor determinant al transformărilor microeconomice, (2) teoria evolutionista care surprinde comportamentele ca un proces dinamic, (3) grila "structuricomportamente- performanţe", care propune o clasificare a factorilor determinanţi ai comportamentelor şi interdependenţele lor şi (4) factorii mosteniti din sistemul trecut. Modelul calitativ rezultat pune in evidenta o larga varietate de traiectorii coexistente, incluzând acelea de minifundii orientate spre autoconsum, adesea trecute cu vederea de studiile sectoriale, desi ele ocupă 70% din suprafetele podgoriilor. Modelul nostru oferă o explicaţie a expansiunii post-1990 a hibrizilor, ca rezultat al dezvoltării traiectoriei minifundiilor. Coexistenţa cu traiectoria "minifundia Vitis vinifera", este determinată de factori moşteniti din trecut. Potrivit literaturii de specialitate, tipul de guvernanţă şi de capital au fost dovediţi ca fiind determinanţi discriminanţi pentru traiectoriile unităţilor comerciale, cu accent pe originea capitalului. Pe lângă interesul modelului de analiza propus il are pentru o intelegere a modificărilor comportamentale în economia post-socialista, precum si intr-un mod mai general pentru orice context al transformării sistemice, lucrarea noastră invita la luarea in considerare a mecanismului de autoconsum , in plus de mecanismele comerciale, pentru dezvoltarea şi punerea în aplicare a politicilor sectoriale.

This paper work is concentrated over the issues that defines and characterizes the EU. It explains and make a deep analyzes of EU as an international actor. In the information below it is listed the main principles and values of EU's foreign policy: the EU should actively help to promote international peace and human security, to ensure that soft power effectively yields real power, promoting effective multilateralism and global governance, EU is a coherent foreign policy actor; to adopt a comprehensive foreign policy, protection of member states interests; give a multilateral sense to the Neighborhood policy; the Democracy protection and promotion. Also, in this work will be presented the relation established by EU with its neighborhoods that plays a substantial role in EU's foreign policy activity and on which EU actions direct or indirect therefore falls such as: Russia Federation looks at European Union as a model to rebuilding and reintegration and an important support in maintaining the peace in the Europe and worldwide. The Balkan region is assessed as a glass which is half full and half empty, depending on one viewpoint and the region at issue and viewed as a potential for territory enlargements. EU has to pay a special attention to Mediterranean region using a variety of bilateral and multilateral mechanisms In the relation with countries which a determined by crises and wars, The European Union needs to differentiate the dual-track approach and adopt a much more long-term strategy for Iran. In Afghanistan and Pakistan the EU should keep the civilian actor image and to participate to restoration of the balance between military and civil dimension, and to invest a constant effort to resolve Israeli-Arab conflict. The EU should focus on three priorities, in addition to pursuing its efforts to support the African states to prevent, manage and resolve wars and crises. The combined efforts of the United States and Europe are no longer sufficient to shape international relations. The EU needs to add a multilateral dimension to its relations with China. The EU has two important strategic partners which represents for EU a support in the maintaining end restoring the stability and prosperity on worldwide arena, besides of complicate and divergent relation with USA, the relation with China is presented as a favorable one for both countries. The main keywords used to underline the intensity and importance of the goal of this project and to highlight the specificity of the process of answering on the questions listed above and to make the idea of the paperwork more concentrated are: The international relations, Foreign Policy, International actor, Crisis; RESUMO: Este trabalho de papel é concentrada sobre as questões que define e caracteriza a UE. Ele explica e fazer uma profunda análise da UE como ator internacional. As informações abaixo é listado os principais princípios e valores da política externa da UE: a UE deve contribuir activamente para promover a paz internacional ea segurança humana, para garantir que o poder brando efetivamente produz o poder real, promoção do multilateralismo eficaz e governança global, a UE é um ator política externa coerente, a adotar uma política externa global, protecção dos interesses dos Estados membros; dar um sentido multilateral para a política de vizinhança, de protecção e promoção da democracia. Além disso, neste trabalho será apresentado a relação estabelecida pela UE com os seus bairros que desempenha um papel importante na actividade da UE em matéria de política externa e em que acções da UE direta ou indireta, portanto, cai, tais como: Federação da Rússia olha União Europeia como um modelo para a reconstrução e reintegração e uma ajuda importante na manutenção da paz na Europa e no mundo. A região dos Balcãs é avaliada como um copo que está meio cheio e meio vazio, dependendo de um ponto de vista e da região em questão e visto como um potencial para ampliações território. UE tem de pagar uma atenção especial à região do Mediterrâneo usando uma variedade de mecanismos bilaterais e multilaterais Na relação com os países que uma determinada pelas crises e guerras, A União Europeia precisa de diferenciar a abordagem dual-track e adoptar uma estratégia muito mais longo prazo para o Irã. No Afeganistão e Paquistão, a UE deve manter a imagem actor civil e de participar para a restauração do equilíbrio entre a dimensão militar e civil, e investir um esforço constante para resolver o conflito árabe-israelense. A UE deve se concentrar em três prioridades, além de prosseguir os seus esforços para apoiar os estados Africano para prevenir, gerir e resolver as guerras e crises. Os esforços combinados dos Estados Unidos e na Europa não são mais suficientes para moldar as relações internacionais. A UE precisa de adicionar uma dimensão multilateral às suas relações com a China. A UE tem dois importantes parceiros estratégicos da UE, que representa um suporte no final manter restaurar a estabilidade e prosperidade na arena mundial, além de complicar e divergentes relação com os EUA, a relação com a China é apresentada como um cenário favorável para ambos os países. Os principais palavras-chave usadas para sublinhar a intensidade ea importância do objetivo deste projeto e para destacar a especificidade do processo de responder sobre as perguntas acima e fazer a idéia de a papelada mais concentrados são: relações internacionais, política externa, internacionais ator, Crisis.