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Background In the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 (GBD 2013), knowledge about health and its determinants has been integrated into a comparable framework to inform health policy. Outputs of this analysis are relevant to current policy questions in England and elsewhere, particularly on health inequalities. We use GBD 2013 data on mortality and causes of death, and disease and injury incidence and prevalence to analyse the burden of disease and injury in England as a whole, in English regions, and within each English region by deprivation quintile. We also assess disease and injury burden in England attributable to potentially preventable risk factors. England and the English regions are compared with the remaining constituent countries of the UK and with comparable countries in the European Union (EU) and beyond. Methods We extracted data from the GBD 2013 to compare mortality, causes of death, years of life lost (YLLs), years lived with a disability (YLDs), and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) in England, the UK, and 18 other countries (the first 15 EU members [apart from the UK] and Australia, Canada, Norway, and the USA [EU15+]). We extended elements of the analysis to English regions, and subregional areas defined by deprivation quintile (deprivation areas). We used data split by the nine English regions (corresponding to the European boundaries of the Nomenclature for Territorial Statistics level 1 [NUTS 1] regions), and by quintile groups within each English region according to deprivation, thereby making 45 regional deprivation areas. Deprivation quintiles were defined by area of residence ranked at national level by Index of Multiple Deprivation score, 2010. Burden due to various risk factors is described for England using new GBD methodology to estimate independent and overlapping attributable risk for five tiers of behavioural, metabolic, and environmental risk factors. We present results for 306 causes and 2337 sequelae, and 79 risks or risk clusters. Findings Between 1990 and 2013, life expectancy from birth in England increased by 5·4 years (95% uncertainty interval 5·0-5·8) from 75·9 years (75·9-76·0) to 81·3 years (80·9-81·7); gains were greater for men than for women. Rates of age-standardised YLLs reduced by 41·1% (38·3-43·6), whereas DALYs were reduced by 23·8% (20·9-27·1), and YLDs by 1·4% (0·1-2·8). For these measures, England ranked better than the UK and the EU15+ means. Between 1990 and 2013, the range in life expectancy among 45 regional deprivation areas remained 8·2 years for men and decreased from 7·2 years in 1990 to 6·9 years in 2013 for women. In 2013, the leading cause of YLLs was ischaemic heart disease, and the leading cause of DALYs was low back and neck pain. Known risk factors accounted for 39·6% (37·7-41·7) of DALYs; leading behavioural risk factors were suboptimal diet (10·8% [9·1-12·7]) and tobacco (10·7% [9·4-12·0]). Interpretation Health in England is improving although substantial opportunities exist for further reductions in the burden of preventable disease. The gap in mortality rates between men and women has reduced, but marked health inequalities between the least deprived and most deprived areas remain. Declines in mortality have not been matched by similar declines in morbidity, resulting in people living longer with diseases. Health policies must therefore address the causes of ill health as well as those of premature mortality. Systematic action locally and nationally is needed to reduce risk exposures, support healthy behaviours, alleviate the severity of chronic disabling disorders, and mitigate the effects of socioeconomic deprivation. Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Public Health England. © 2015 Newton et al. 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SENTIERI Project (Mortality study of residents in Italian polluted sites) studies mortality of residents in the sites of national interest for environmental remediation (Italian polluted sites, IPS). IPSs are located in the vicinity of industrial areas, either active or dismissed, near incinerators or dumping sites of industrial or hazardous waste. SENTIERI includes 44 out of 57 sites comprised in the "National environmental remediation programme". For each IPS contamination data were collected, both from the national and local environmental remediation programmes. Contamination data are mainly for private industrial areas; municipal and/or green and agricultural areas were poorly studied, therefore it is difficult to assess the environmental exposure of populations living inside and/or near IPSs. Each one of 44 SENTIERI IPSs includes one or more municipalities. Mortality in the period 1995-2002 was studied for 63 single or grouped causes at municipality level computing: crude rate, standardized rate, standardized mortality ratios (SMR), and SMR adjusted for an ad hoc deprivation index. Regional populations were used as reference for SMR calculation. The deprivation index was constructed using 2001 national census variables on the following socioeconomic domains: education, unemployment, dwelling ownership and overcrowding. A characterizing element of SENTIERI Project is the a priori evaluation of the epidemiological evidence of the causal association between cause of death and exposure. Exposures for which epidemiological evidence was assessed are divided into IPSs environmental exposures and other exposures. The former are defined on the basis of the decrees defining sites' boundaries; they are coded as chemicals, petrochemicals and refineries, steel plants, power plants, mines and/or quarries, harbour areas, asbestos or other mineral fibres, landfills and incinerators. The other exposures, considered for their ascertained adverse health effects are: air pollution, active and passive smoking, alcohol intake, occupational exposure and socioeconomic status. The epidemiologists in SENTIERI Working Group (WG) developed a procedure to examine the epidemiological literature published from 1998 to 2009; the WG identified a hierarchy in the literature examined to classify each combination of cause of death and exposure in terms of strength of causal inference. The selected epidemiological information included primary sources (handbooks and Monographs and Reports of international and national scientific institutions), statistical re-analyses, literature reviews, multi-centric studies and single investigations. This hierarchy relies on the epidemiological community consensus, on assessments based on the application of standardized criteria, weighting the studies design and the occurrence of biased results. Therefore, to put forward the assessment, the criteria firstly favoured primary sources and quantitative meta-analyses and, secondly, consistency among sources. The epidemiological evidence of the causal association was classified into one of these three categories: Sufficient (S), Limited (L), and Inadequate (I). The procedures and results of the evidence evaluation have been presented in a 2010 Supplement of Epidemiologia & Prevenzione devoted to SENTIERI. SENTIERI studied IPS-specific mortality and the overall mortality profile in all the IPSs combined. Some IPS-specific results are noteworthy and are herementioned. The presence of asbestos (or asbestiform fibres in Biancavilla) was the motivation for including six IPSs (Balangero, Emarese, Casale Monferrato, Broni, Bari-Fibronit, Biancavilla) in the "National environmental remediation programme". In these sites (with the only exception of Emarese) increases in malignant pleural neoplasm mortality were observed, in four of them the excess was in both genders. In six other sites (Pitelli, Massa Carrara, Aree del litorale vesuviano, Tito, Area industriale della Val Basento, Priolo), in which additional sources of environmental pollution were reported, mortality from malignant pleural neoplasm was increased in both genders in Pitelli, Massa Carrara, Priolo and Litorale vesuviano. In the twelve sites where asbestos was mentioned in the decree, a total of 416 extra cases of malignant pleural neoplasms were computed. Asbestos and pleural neoplasm represent an unique case. Unlike mesothelioma, most causes of death analyzed in SENTIERI have multifactorial etiology, furthermore in most IPSs multiple sources of different pollutants are present, sometimes concurrently with air pollution from urban areas: in these cases, drawing conclusions on the association between environmental exposures and specific health outcomes might be complicated. Notwithstanding these difficulties, in a number of cases an etiological role could be attributed to some environmental exposures. The attribution could be possible on the basis of increases observed in both genders and in different age classes, and the exclusion of a major role of occupational exposures was thus allowed. For example, a role of emissions fromrefineries and petrochemical plants was hypothesized for the observed increases in mortality from lung cancer and respiratory diseases in Gela and Porto Torres; a role of emissions frommetal industries was suggested to explain increased mortality from respiratory diseases in Taranto and in Sulcis-Iglesiente-Guspinese. An etiological role of air pollution in the raise in congenital anomalies and perinatal disorders was suggested in Falconara Marittima, Massa-Carrara,Milazzo and Porto Torres. A causal role of heavy metals, PAH's and halogenated compounds was suspected for mortality from renal failure in Massa Carrara, Piombino, Orbetello, Basso Bacino del fiume Chienti and Sulcis-Iglesiente- Guspinese. In Trento-Nord, Grado and Marano, and Basso bacino del fiume Chienti increases in neurological diseases, for which an etiological role of lead, mercury and organohalogenated solvents is possible, were reported. The increase for non- Hodgkin lymphomas in Brescia was associated with the widespread PCB pollution. SENTIERI Project assessed also the overall mortality profile in all the IPSs combined. The mortality for causes of death with a priori Sufficient or Limited evidence of causal association with the environmental exposure showed 3 508 excess deaths for all causes, corresponding to 439 per year; the number of excess deaths was 1 321 for respiratory diseases, 898 for lung cancer and 588 for pleural neoplasms. When considering excess mortality with no restriction to causes of death with a priori Sufficient or Limited evidence of causal association with the environmental exposure, the number of excess deaths for all causes was 9 969 (SMR 102.5, about 1 200 excess deaths per year; the excess was 4 309 for all neoplasms (SMR 103.8, about 538 excess deaths per year), 1 887 for circulatory systemdiseases, and 600 for respiratory systemdiseases. Most of these excesses were observed in IPSs located in Southern and Central Italy. The distribution of the causes of deaths showed that the excesses are not evenly distributed: cancer mortality accounts for 30% of all deaths, but it is 43.2% of the excess deaths (4 309 cases out of 9 969). Conversely, the percentage of excesses in noncancer causes is 19%, while their share of total mortality is 42%. SENTIERI is affected by some limitations, such as the ecological study design and a time window of observation possibly inappropriate to account for induction-latency time; the analyzed outcome (mortality instead than incidence) might be unsuitable as well. Despite its limitations, SENTIERI documented increased mortality for single IPSs and an overall burden of disease in residents in Italian polluted sites. These excesses could be attributed to multiple risk factors, that include also the environmental exposures. The study results will be shared with the Ministries of Health and Environment, Regional governments, Regional environmental protection agencies, Local health authorities and municipalities. A collaborative approach between institutions in charge of environmental protection and health promotion will foster, among else, a scientifically sound and transparent communication process with concerned populations. ; Il Progetto SENTIERI (Studio Epidemiologico Nazionale dei Territori e degli Insediamenti Esposti a Rischio da Inquinamento) riguarda l'analisi della mortalit? delle popolazioni residenti in prossimit? di una serie di grandi centri industriali attivi o dismessi, o di aree oggetto di smaltimento di rifiuti industriali e/o pericolosi, che presentano un quadro di contaminazione ambientale e di rischio sanitario tale da avere determinato il riconoscimento di "siti di interesse nazionale per le bonifiche" (SIN). Lo studio ha preso in considerazione 44 dei 57 siti oggi compresi nel "Programma nazionale di bonifica", che coincidono con i maggiori agglomerati industriali nazionali; per ciascuno di essi si ? proceduto a una raccolta di dati di caratterizzazione, e successivamente a una loro sintesi. La maggior parte dei dati raccolti proviene dai progetti di bonifica ipotizzati per i diversi siti, da cui si evince che oggetto di caratterizzazione e di valutazione del rischio sono state prevalentemente le aree private industriali, quelle, cio?, ritenute causa delle diverse tipologie di inquinamento (definite in SENTIERI esposizioni ambientali). Le aree pubbliche cittadine e/o a verde pubblico e le aree agricole comprese all'interno dei SIN sono state poco investigate. I SIN studiati sono costituiti da uno o pi? Comuni. La mortalit? ? stata studiata per ogni sito, nel periodo 1995-2002, attraverso i seguenti indicatori: tasso grezzo, tasso standardizzato, rapporto standardizzato di mortalit? (SMR) e SMR corretto per un indice di deprivazione socioeconomica messo a punto ad hoc. Nella standardizzazione indiretta sono state utilizzate come riferimento le popolazioni regionali. L'indice di deprivazione ? stato calcolato sulla base di variabili censuarie appartenenti ai seguenti domini: istruzione, disoccupazione, propriet? dell'abitazione, densit? abitativa. Gli indicatori di mortalit? sono stati calcolati per 63 cause singole o gruppi di cause. La presenza di amianto (o di fibre asbestiformi a Biancavilla) ? stata la motivazione esclusiva per il riconoscimento di sei SIN (Balangero, Emarese, Casale Monferrato, Broni, Bari-Fibronit e Biancavilla). In tutti i siti (con l'esclusione di Emarese) si sono osservati incrementi della mortalit? per tumore maligno della pleura e in quattro siti i dati sono coerenti in entrambi i generi. In sei siti con presenza di altre sorgenti di inquinamento oltre all'amianto, la mortalit? per tumore maligno della pleura ? in eccesso in entrambi i generi a Pitelli, Massa Carrara, Priolo e nell'Area del litorale vesuviano. Nel periodo 1995-2002 nell'insieme dei dodici siti contaminati da amianto sono stati osservati un totale di 416 casi di tumore maligno della pleura in eccesso rispetto alle attese. Quando gli incrementi di mortalit? riguardano patologie con eziologia multifattoriale, e si ? in presenza di siti industriali con molteplici ed eterogenee sorgenti emissive, talvolta anche adiacenti ad aree urbane a forte antropizzazione, rapportare il profilo di mortalit? a fattori di rischio ambientali pu? risultare complesso. Tuttavia, in alcuni casi ? stato possibile attribuire un ruolo eziologico all'esposizione ambientale associata alle emissioni di impianti specifici (raffinerie, poli petrolchimici e industrie metallurgiche). Tale attribuzione viene rafforzata dalla presenza di eccessi di rischio in entrambi i generi, e in diverse classi di et?, elementi che consentono di escludere ragionevolmente un ruolo prevalente delle esposizioni professionali. Per esempio, per gli incrementi di mortalit? per tumore polmonare e malattie respiratorie non tumorali, a Gela e Porto Torres ? stato suggerito un ruolo delle emissioni di raffinerie e poli petrolchimici, a Taranto e nel Sulcis-Iglesiente-Guspinese un ruolo delle emissioni degli stabilimenti metallurgici. Negli eccessi di mortalit? per malformazioni congenite e condizioni morbose perinatali ? stato valutato possibile un ruolo eziologico dell'inquinamento ambientale a Massa Carrara, Falconara, Milazzo e Porto Torres. Per le patologie del sistema urinario, in particolare per le insufficienze renali, un ruolo causale di metalli pesanti, IPA e composti alogenati ? stato ipotizzato a Massa Carrara, Piombino, Orbetello, nel Basso bacino del fiume Chienti e nel Sulcis-Iglesiente-Guspinese. Incrementi di malattie neurologiche per i quali ? stato sospettato un ruolo eziologico di piombo, mercurio e solventi organo alogenati sono stati osservati rispettivamente a Trento Nord, Grado e Marano e nel Basso bacino del fiume Chienti. L'incremento dei linfomi non-Hodgkin a Brescia ? stato messo in relazione con la contaminazione diffusa da PCB. Ulteriori elementi di interesse sono stati forniti dalle stime globali della mortalit? nell'insieme dei siti oggetto del Progetto SENTIERI. In particolare, ? emerso che la mortalit? in tutti i SIN, per le cause di morte con evidenza a priori Sufficiente o Limitata per le esposizioni ambientali presenti supera l'atteso, con un SMR di 115.8 per gli uomini (IC 904.4-117.2, 2 439 decessi in eccesso) e 114.4 per le donne (IC 902.4-116.5; 1 069 decessi in eccesso). Tale sovramortalit? si riscontra anche estendendo l'analisi a tutte le cause di morte, cio? non solo per quelle con evidenza a priori Sufficiente o Limitata: il totale dei decessi, per uomini e donne, ? di 403 692, in eccesso rispetto all'atteso di 9 969 casi (SMR 102.5%; IC 902.3-102.8), con una media di oltre 1 200 casi annui. Si ritiene opportuno ricordare che il Progetto SENTIERI, per obiettivi, disegno e metodi, rappresenta uno strumento descrittivo che verifica, in prima istanza, se e quanto il profilo di mortalit? delle popolazioni che vivono nei territori inclusi in aree di interesse nazionale per le bonifiche si discosti da quello cause delle popolazioni di riferimento. Ai fini dell'interpretazione dei risultati, si ricorda che la presenza di eccessi di mortalit? pu? indicare un ruolo di esposizioni ambientali con un grado di persuasivit? scientifica che dipende dai diversi specifici contesti; invece, un quadro di mortalit? che non si discosti da quello di riferimento potrebbe riflettere l'assenza di esposizioni rilevanti, ma anche l'inadeguatezza dell'indicatore sanitario utilizzato (mortalit? invece di incidenza) rispetto al tipo di esposizioni presenti, o della finestra temporale nella quale si analizza la mortalit? rispetto a quella rilevante da un punto di vista dell'esposizione. La condivisione dei risultati con i ministeri della salute e dell'ambiente, le Regioni, le ASL, le ARPA e i Comuni interessati consentir? l'attivazione di sinergie fra le strutture pubbliche con competenze in materia di protezione dell'ambiente e di tutela della salute, e su questa base l'avvio di un processo di comunicazione con la popolazione scientificamente fondato e trasparente. Parole chiave: siti di interesse nazionale per le bonifiche (SIN), mortalit? geografica, impatto sanitario ambientale, Italia

Dottorato di ricerca in Scienze e tecnologie per la gestione forestale e ambientale ; La definizione di biodiversità può avere diverse interpretazioni, ma generalmente con questo termine si indica l'insieme delle specie presenti in un ecosistema: ad una maggior numero di esse, corrisponde una maggiore stabilità del sistema. A livello di specie, la biodiversità è principalmente correlata alle differenze genetiche tra individui; un ricco patrimonio genetico intra-specifico garantisce un ampio spettro di risposte alle pressioni ambientali. D'altro canto, popolazioni con scarsa biodiversità genetica tendono a rispondere in maniera univoca a condizioni di stress, dunque presentandosi più vulnerabili ad essi. Questo fenomeno è particolarmente enfatizzato in contesti di pressione antropica e climate change, specialmente a scala regionale o locale. Individui, popolazioni ed ecosistemi sono strettamente collegati tra loro, ed interagiscono nel mantenimento degli equilibri dei macro sistemi, sia paesaggistici, che socio-economici. Di conseguenza, il mantenimento della biodiversità deve essere garantita attraverso misure attive di conservazione implementate dalle più recenti ed innovative tecniche e politiche di settore. Per molte specie forestali, questo significa sollecitare la sensibilità sullo sviluppo di nuovi ed efficienti strumenti operativi da integrare con le tradizionali strategie di gestione, ad esempio la conservazione in situ ed ex situ del patrimonio forestale. Considerando queste premesse, un tale strumento potrebbe certamente essere identificato nella definizione e delimitazione delle Regioni di Provenienza, promosse dall'Unione Europea attraverso la Direttiva 105/99. I principali metodi finora utilizzati si riferiscono all'utilizzo di parametri ecologici (pedologici, fitoclimatici, ecc.), come descrittori di contesti ecologici omogenei a livello spaziali, quindi identificanti eco provenienze per ogni specie forestale come conseguenza della differenziazione evolutiva secondo i principi della selezione naturale. Tali eco regioni forniscono un quadro di sintesi relativo ad un territorio che, suddiviso in aree ecologicamente omogenee, garantisce l'identificazione dei soprassuoli idonei dai quali prelevare il materiale di propagazione di base, ossia coni, frutti e sementi, parti di piante ottenute da propagazione agamica, embrioni, ecc. Tra i soprassuoli vengono anche contemplati i cosiddetti boschi da seme, le piantagioni, il materiale parentale derivante da incroci, nonché i cloni. Ad oggi molti Paesi dell'Unione Europea hanno promosso dei metodi per determinare le Regioni di Provenienza, basandosi principalmente sulla suddivisione del territorio secondo criteri chimico-fisici; questa scelta è intrinsecamente motivata dal fatto che di tali parametri si ha un ricco database informativo derivante dai molti anni di studio del territorio. Come risultato, ogni Paese ha delimitato con rigidi confini le proprie zone ecologicamente omogenee. Tale approccio rappresenta sicuramente un primo passo fondamentale nel soddisfare appieno i requisiti presenti nella Direttiva 105/99, per quanto uno studio più approfondito viene incoraggiato per identificare le Regioni di Provenienza per ogni specie forestale. Alcuni Paesi come la Francia, la Spagna o la Germania stanno lavorando in questa direzione da circa 15 anni, mentre l'Italia è ancora qualche passo indietro. In particolare, la posizione italiana è anche condizionata dal regime giuridico che demanda le competenze in tema di ambiente dal governo centrale alle Regioni. Il risultato è che la suddivisione del territorio italiano in Regioni di Provenienza per le specie forestali è ancora incompleto o fermo allo stadio preliminare. Lo scopo principale di questo lavoro è stato, quindi, l'applicazione del metodo ampiamente utilizzato in Europa, adeguatamente arricchito con nuovi parametri chimico-fisici e fitoclimatici, per definire le Regioni di Provenienza valide per le specie forestali della Regione Lazio. Un primo passaggio ha interessato la raccolta e l'analisi dei dati presenti circa la caratterizzazione territoriale, in modo da poter selezionare le variabili ecologiche ed ambientali maggiormente rappresentative nel definire delle eco provenienze. Successivamente, in accordo con l'Allegato I della L.R. 39/2002, 28 specie di interesse forestale sono state scelte e mappate sul territorio. Tra queste, 10 specie sono state descritte con una puntuale carta della distribuzione, mentre per le rimanenti 18 specie un areale quantitativo è stato ricostruito dalle informazioni raccolte secondo un criterio di presenza/assenza applicato ad una scala 1:10000. A causa della necessità di identificare dei boschi da seme per queste specie, tali per cui vi fossero già delle condizioni di tutela a livello legislativo, solo la superficie forestale regionale che insiste all'interno delle aree protette è stata presa in considerazione. Un dossier cartografico di 432 mappe è stato realizzato a partire dalle informazioni precedentemente illustrate e correlato con delle informazioni di carattere statistico circa l'estensione ed il numero di siti per ogni specie, per ogni area protetta del Lazio. Allo stesso tempo, uno studio pilota è stato condotto sul pino domestico (Pinus pinea L.) in modo da completare il processo richiesto dalla Direttiva Europea e giungere dall'individuazione delle Regioni di Provenienza fino alla selezione dei soprassuoli candidati ad essere inseriti nel Registro regionale dei Boschi da Seme. Lo sviluppo di questa parte del lavoro ha richiesto un monitoraggio di tutte le principali pinete litoranee laziali, con la raccolta delle informazioni di carattere strutturale e dendrometrico. I risultati hanno composto un ulteriore dossier cartografico, questa volta dedicato al pino domestico, con informazioni relative alle singole pinete studiate. La sovrapposizione della distribuzione puntuale del pino domestico con la carta precedentemente realizzata delle Regioni di Provenienza, o più precisamente "Regioni di Raccolta", unitamente alle considerazioni derivanti dalle indagini in campo, ha permesso di identificare due zone (denominate "Litorale" e "Lauretum caldo") dalle quali sono stati scelti rispettivamente i boschi di Castelporziano e della Foresta Demaniale del Circeo come migliori candidati a boschi da seme. Di questi soprassuoli sono state altresì redatte delle proposte di gestione, da indirizzare all'Assessorato all'Ambiente della regione Lazio, in modo da completare le linee guida per la conservazione, amministrazione e certificazione del materiale di base da utilizzare nei piani di restauro ambientale o di rimboschimento. Infine, la multidisciplinarietà del presente lavoro ha offerto degli spunti di indagine paralleli ma strettamente inerenti le problematiche descritte in precedenza, che hanno condotto a delle ulteriori sperimentazioni confluite in altrettante pubblicazioni di carattere internazionale. In particolare, prendendo spunto dalle metodologie impiegate per la definizione delle Regioni di Provenienza secondo parametri chimico-fisici, è stata testata la possibilità di giungere ad un simile risultato partendo però dall'analisi di alcune risposte biologiche. In tal senso, uno studio ha interessato l'utilizzo combinato della dendroecologia e dell'attività fenologica delle foreste laziali per arrivare alla delimitazione di quattro Regioni di Provenienza, attraverso le analisi PCA e di cluster, basate solo sulle risposte bioclimatiche. Per la caratterizzazione dendroecologica dei soprassuoli forestali si è fatto riferimento ad una network che ha il faggio come specie pilota, mentre i modelli fenologici sono stati quantificati utilizzando il segnale espresso dall'attività fotosintetica attraverso l'NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index). Attraverso uno studio da remoto con sistemi GIS si è ottenuto una corrispondenza tra risposte dendroecologiche e fenologiche tale per cui è stato possibile delimitare delle Regioni di Provenienza basate sulla risposta delle piante al clima. Un secondo approfondimento ha interessato la possibilità di includere in un innovativo strumento operativo per il rimboschimento ed il restauro ambientale, i principi teoretici alla base delle Regioni di Provenienza. Tale tecnica di rimboschimento è stata identificata nel metodo Miyawaki, la quale, mai testata in Europa, è stata oggetto di indagine per verificarne la reale efficacia nel contesto Mediterraneo. L'esperimento è stato condotto in Sardegna ed i risultati incoraggiano l'uso di tale metodo nel nostro contesto ambientale, in particolare perché risponde appieno alle raccomandazioni circa il reperimento del materiale di base della Direttiva Europea, inoltre, è stato verificato come il suo utilizzo possa essere efficace anche in zone dove le tradizionali tecniche di rimboschimento hanno fallito in precedenza. I principali vantaggi interessano il mantenimento di un alto tasso di biodiversità rispetto ai tradizionali metodi e la capacità delle cenosi vegetali che vengono a costituirsi di evolversi senza l'intervento assistito dell'uomo. Questo si traduce in un'interessante riduzione del costo di gestione dei siti rimboschiti, oltre ad una possibilità operativa aggiuntiva per tutti gli esperti di settore che operano nell'ambiente Mediterraneo. ; The definition of biodiversity can have many interpretations, but generally refers to the amount of species occurring in an ecosystem: more species, greater stability. At species' level, biodiversity is mainly related to the genetic differences between individuals; a rich intra-specific gene pool means a wide range of responses to environmental strains. On the other hand, populations with low genetic diversity tend to respond evenly to stress conditions, thus having more difficulties to face currently growing disturbances driven by anthropic pressure and climate change, especially on local and regional scales. Individuals, populations and ecosystems are tightly linked and interact to maintain landscape stability, large socio-economic systems and man's health. As consequence, biodiversity maintenance should be carried out with active conservation measures implemented with the most recent progress in techniques and policies. For forest species, this implies awareness of the availability of new and efficient tools to comply with traditional strategies, such as tree populations management at their natural sites within the environment to which they are adapted (in situ) and artificial, but dynamically evolving populations, elsewhere (ex situ). Under these circumstances an operative tool could certainly be the definition and delimitation of Regions of Provenance, promoted by the European Directive 105/99. The main methods involved the use of ecological parameters (e.g. pedological, phytoclimatic), presumed to be homogeneous within each area, thus identifying ecoprovenances for a species as a consequence of evolutionary differentiation according to the effects of natural selection. They provide a framework for specifying sources of forest reproductive material, i.e. cones, fruits and seeds, all parts of plants obtained by vegetative propagation, including embryos and plants produced from any of these. The plant material from which the forest reproductive material is derived includes seed stands, seed orchards, parent material held by tree breeders in archives, individual and mixtures of clones. Nowadays, many European countries are promoting methods to detect Regions of Provenance, mainly based on chemiophysical parameters, because of the data availability across years of land monitoring. As result, each country has been divided in several ecologically homogeneous sub-zones, with fixed boundaries. This could be represent a preliminary approach to full-fill the Directive's requirements, but a deeper study is encouraged to focus on each forest species for which Regions of Provenance are required. Some countries, as France, Spain or Germany are working since 15 years to provide these results, while Italy is still many steps backward. In particular, the Italian position is partially due to its jurisdiction that devolve power in terms of environmental policy from the central Government to the Regional departments. As consequence, the definition of Regions of Provenance in our country is still incomplete and in many cases at preliminary stages. In the present work, the main goal was to assess a method based on ecological parameters, like in other European scenarios, to define and delineate Regions of Provenance for Latium in order to establish seed stands for selected forest species. A first step regarded data collection and analysis to create the set of most representative chemiophysical variables to point out ecoprovenances; than, distribution ranges of 28 forest species listed as natural and/or autochthonous for Latium have been obtained from remote analysis of cartographic dataset or from previous studies. During this process, 10 species were fully mapped, and for the remaining 18 species quantitative ranges were performed at 1:10000 scale level, with information on presence/absence. Because of the need to identify seed stands of these species that could also benefit from legislative pre-existing conditions, only forest surface within protected areas was taken into account. Totally, a cartographic dossier of 432 maps was produced with information about the number of sites and hectares for study species in each protected areas of Latium. At the same time, a case study was afforded to complete the process from the definition of Regions of Provenance up to seed stands identification. Domestic pine (Pinus pinea L.) stands across Latium coasts were monitored. Forest stands were mapped, dendrometric and structural characteristics were recorded during field surveys and detailed information about each stand were summarized in a specific map set. Overlapping distribution range of domestic pine to the Regions of Provenance previously performed, two zones were identified as containing all the stands and another one was added because of the occurrence of one population on the buffer zone. Finally, two pine forests were chosen as candidate to become seed stands, in order to get one stand for each Region (Castelporziano for Region 12 "Litorale", and Foresta del Circeo for Region 9 "Lauretum caldo"). Forest management proposals were also carried out for these forests, to accomplish guide lines for the Envirnomental Directorate of Latium in order to perform the best practices to protect and maintain seed stands and provide certified base material for reforestation programs. Moreover, mutual points of interest risen up during this work gave the chance to delve into the present methodologies and theoretical ideas in order to approach innovative and practical tools, that could be considered as advanced experiments. In particular, a first investigation point out the use of combined dendroecological and phenological analysis to define Regions of Provenance by biological parameters. Previous dendroclimatic research demonstrated the relationship between plant growth and climatic parameters; in Latium, similar bioclimatic responses from different forest stands growing at similar elevations were statistically grouped into three homogeneous altitudinal belts using principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis. Phenological patterns of forest species were quantified using the photosynthetic activity signals expressed in the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). Through a beech tree-ring network, NDVI was compared with dendroecological results using Geographical Information System analysis, obtaining high correspondence in overlapping, and underlying the relevance of altitude as a main factor defining homogeneous spatial vegetation dynamics, thus delimiting ecological Regions of Provenance based on tree responses to climate. At the same time, a tentative study was assessed to find a reforestation approach that include in its theoretical principles the concept of Region of Provenance as an ecologically homogeneous well-delimited zone. The effectiveness of the Miyawaki method, never tested in Mediterranean environments was experimented in Sardinia, and point out the possibility to adopt sustainable techniques in principle with the declarations of the European Directive 105/99, in sites where traditional reforestation approach failed. The Miyawaki method has been applied in the Far East, Malaysia, and South America; results have been very impressive, allowing quick environmental restorations of strongly degraded areas. However, these applications have always been made on sites characterized by high precipitation, but never in context with summer aridity and risk of desertification. Results obtained 2 and 11 years after planting are positive: having compared the traditional reforestation techniques, plant biodiversity using the Miyawaki method appears very high, and the new coenosis (plant community) was able to evolve without further operative support after planting. Therefore, the implementation of supplementary technique along with cost reduction might provide a new and innovative tool to foresters and ecological engineering experts for Mediterranean environmental reforestation program.

Background. The article discusses approaches to reforming the Health Care System of Ukraine, the key objectives of which are: strengthening preventive services, the increasing of an accessibility and quality of health care, the enhancement of a primary health care, improving of a personnel maintenance, upgrading of an infrastructure and ensuring a fairness in health care, and also some legislative outcomes of the Institute of Family Medicine. The purpose of the study is to analyze the current regulatory framework for the functioning of the Health Care System, the state of health of the population, as well as the prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors, which is a priority public health problem. Results. The UN Millennium Declaration, adopted in 2000 by 189 countries at the UN Millennium Summit, set the Millennium Development Goals. At the beginning of the Millennium, Ukraine demonstrated relatively strong economic growth, which contributed to the improvement of the social situation in the country and had a positive impact on the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. At the same time, the effects of the armed conflict in the East, the uncertainty of development trends and adverse foreign economic conditions have been the main reasons of the economic downturn and declining production volumes. At present, it is necessary of an arrangement the problems back off economic growth in Ukraine and to create a system of "drivers" of accelerating economic development and ensuring changes in its quality. The outcome document of the Summit on "Transforming Our World: A 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" approved 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 Tasks. Today, in Ukraine, as in most European countries, the high prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors is an urgent problem. This is a priority public health problem that has a negative impact on the medical and demographic situation and causes high rates of morbidity, disability, mortality and short life expectancy. One of the Sustainable Development Goals is "Strong Health and Wellbeing" (Goal 3), which is undergoing significant progress in the development of medicine globally. In accordance with resolution WHA62.12, (Strategy 3) The reorientation of the healthcare model means creating the conditions in which effective and efficient health care services are developed, funded and delivered in accordance with innovative health care models, which prioritize primary and community health care services and joint actions to strengthen health. In this regard, a Strategic Approach to the Development of Ukraine's Health Care System should be developed and priorities identified throughout the life cycle of health care services. This approach means assessing the full range of health services offered at different levels of the Health Care System, based on the best available data and expected over the entire life cycle. Formation and implementation of an integrated cross-sectoral approach is an important prerequisite for successful implementation of modern strategic goals in the field of health care, including, carrying out preventive measures to eliminate the negative impact of social determinants of health, creating conditions for saving and promoting the health of the population, approval healthy lifestyle, formation of responsible attitude of each person to personal health. In 2017, the Institute of Family Medicine drafted the Law of Ukraine "On Primary Health Care on the Basis of Family Medicine". The main purpose of family medicine - based a primary health care as a basis for health care is to ensure that affordable, timely, high-quality and effective primary health care is provided to the patient, to improve public health, to save, restore and promote public health. Conclusions. Any action to modernize the Health Care System should be accompanied by a concerted effort by all parties (patients, the medical community, the legislature and the executive, as well as local authorities) to ensure that healthcare professionals and the public are interested in an effective Health Care System. ; Актуальность. В статье обсуждаются подходы к реформированию системы здравоохранения Украины, ключевыми задачами которой являются: укрепление профилактических служб, повышение доступности и качества медицинского обслуживания, совершенствование первичной медицинской помощи, улучшение кадрового обеспечения, модернизация инфраструктуры и обеспечения справедливости в здравоохранении, а также некоторые результаты деятельности Института семейной медицины на законодательном уровне. Целью исследования является анализ современного нормативно-правового обеспечения функционирования системы здравоохранения, состояния здоровья населения, а также распространенности хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска, что является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья. Результаты. «Декларация тысячелетия» ООН, которая была принята в 2000 году 189-ю странами на Саммите тысячелетия ООН, определила Цели Развития Тысячелетия. В начале тысячелетия Украина демонстрировала относительно устойчивый экономический рост, что способствовало улучшению социальной ситуации в стране и, как следствие, положительно влияло на достижение Целей Развития Тысячелетия. В то же время, последствия вооруженного конфликта на Востоке страны, неопределенность направлений развития и неблагоприятная внешнеэкономическая конъюнктура стали основными факторами экономического спада и уменьшения объемов производства. Сейчас необходимо решение проблем, тормозящих экономический рост в Украине, и создание системы «драйверов» ускорения экономического развития и обеспечения изменений в его качестве. Итоговым документом саммита «Превращение нашего мира: повестка дня в области устойчивого развития до 2030 года» было утверждено 17 Целей Устойчивого Развития и 169 задач. Сегодня в Украине, как и в большинстве европейских стран, актуальной проблемой является значительная распространенность хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска. Это является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья, которая негативно сказывается на медико-демографической ситуации и обусловливает высокие уровни заболеваемости, инвалидности, смертности и короткую продолжительность жизни. Одной из целей устойчивого развития является «Крепкое здоровье и благополучие» (3 Цель), которая осуществляется в условиях существенного прогресса в развитии медицины на глобальном уровне. В соответствии с резолюцией WHA62.12, (Стратегия 3) Переориентация модели здравоохранения означает создание таких условий, в которых эффективные и результативные медико-санитарные услуги разрабатываются, финансируются и предоставляются в соответствии с новаторскими моделями здравоохранения, в которых приоритет отдается первичным и общинным медико-санитарным услугам и общим мерам по укреплению здоровья. В связи с этим, необходимо разработать стратегический подход к развитию системы здравоохранения Украины и определить приоритеты в области медицинских услуг на основе потребностей в течение всего жизненного цикла. Этот подход означает оценку всего комплекса медико-санитарных услуг, которые предлагаются на различных уровнях системы здравоохранения, и основанные на наилучших имеющихся данных и рассчитаны на весь жизненный цикл. Формирование и внедрение комплексного межсекторального подхода является важной предпосылкой успешной реализации современных стратегических задач в сфере здравоохранения, в том числе, проведение профилактических мероприятий по устранению негативного влияния социальных детерминант здоровья, создание условий для сохранения и укрепления здоровья населения, утверждения здорового образа жизни, формирование ответственного отношения каждого человека к личному здоровью. В 2017 г. Институтом семейной медицины был разработан проект Закона Украины «О первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины». Главной целью первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины, как основы здравоохранения, является обеспечение предоставления гарантированного объема доступной, своевременной, качественной и эффективной первичной медицинской помощи пациенту, улучшение состояния общественного здоровья, сохранение, восстановление и укрепление здоровья населения. Выводы. Любые меры, направленные на модернизацию системы здравоохранения, должны сопровождаться совместными усилиями всех сторон (пациентов, медицинского сообщества, органов законодательной и исполнительной власти, а также органов местного самоуправления) в обеспечении заинтересованности медицинских работников и населения в эффективной системе здравоохранения. ; Актуальність. У статті обговорюються підходи до реформування системи охорони здоров'я України, ключовими завданнями якої є: зміцнення профілактичних служб, підвищення доступності та якості медичного обслуговування, вдосконалення первинної медичної допомоги, поліпшення кадрового забезпечення, модернізація інфраструктури та забезпечення справедливості в охороні здоров'я, а також деякі результати діяльності Інституту сімейної медицини на законодавчому рівні. Метою дослідження є аналіз сучасного нормативно-правового забезпечення функціонування системи охорони здоров'я, стану здоров'я населення, а також поширеності хронічних неінфекційних захворювань та факторів їх ризику, що є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я. Результати. «Декларація тисячоліття» ООН, яка була прийнята у 2000 р. 189-ма країнами на Саміті тисячоліття ООН, визначила Цілі Розвитку Тисячоліття. На початку тисячоліття Україна демонструвала відносно стійке економічне зростання, що сприяло покращанню соціальної ситуації в країні та справило позитивний вплив на досягнення Цілей Розвитку Тисячоліття. У той же час, наслідки збройного конфлікту на Сході країни, невизначеність напрямів розвитку та несприятлива зовнішньоекономічна кон'юнктура стали основними чинниками економічного спаду та зменшення обсягів виробництва. Наразі необхідним є розв'язання проблем, що гальмують економічне зростання в Україні, та створення системи «драйверів» прискорення економічного розвитку й забезпечення змін його якості. Підсумковим документом Саміту «Перетворення нашого світу: порядок денний у сфері сталого розвитку до 2030 року» було затверджено 17 Цілей Сталого Розвитку та 169 завдань. Сьогодні в Україні, як і в більшості європейських країн, актуальною проблемою є значна поширеність хронічних неінфекційних захворювань і факторів їх ризику. Це є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я, яка негативно позначається на медико-демографічній ситуації та обумовлює високі рівні захворюваності, інвалідності, смертності і коротку тривалість життя. Однією з Цілей Сталого Розвитку є «Міцне здоров'я і благополуччя» (3 Ціль), яка здійснюється в умовах істотного прогресу щодо розвитку медицини на глобальному рівні. Відповідно до резолюції WHA62.12, (Стратегія 3) Переорієнтація моделі охорони здоров'я означає створення таких умов, в яких ефективні і результативні медико-санітарні послуги розробляються, фінансуються та надаються відповідно до новаторських моделей охорони здоров'я, в яких пріоритет надається первинним медико-санітарним послугам і спільним заходам щодо зміцнення здоров'я. У зв'язку з цим, необхідно розробити стратегічний підхід щодо розвитку системи охорони здоров'я України та визначити пріоритети в області медичних послуг на основі потреб протягом усього життєвого циклу. Цей підхід означає оцінку всього комплексу медико-санітарних послуг, які пропонуються на різних рівнях системи охорони здоров'я, і засновані на найкращих наявних даних і розраховані на весь життєвий цикл. Формування та впровадження комплексного міжсекторального підходу є важливою передумовою успішної реалізації сучасних стратегічних завдань у сфері охорони здоров'я, у тому числі, проведення профілактичних заходів щодо усунення негативного впливу соціальних детермінант здоров'я, створення умов для збереження і зміцнення здоров'я населення, утвердження здорового способу життя, формування відповідального ставлення кожної людини до особистого здоров'я. У 2017 р. Інститутом сімейної медицини НМАПО імені П. Л. Шупика було розроблено проект Закону України «Про первинну медичну допомогу на засадах сімейної медицини». Головною метою первинної медичної допомоги на засадах сімейної медицини, як основи охорони здоров'я, є забезпечення надання гарантованого обсягу доступної, своєчасної, якісної та ефективної первинної медичної допомоги пацієнту, покращання стану громадського здоров'я, збереження, відновлення та зміцнення здоров'я населення. Висновки. Будь-які заходи, спрямовані на модернізацію системи охорони здоров'я, повинні супроводжуватись спільними зусиллями всіх сторін (пацієнтів, медичної спільноти, органів законодавчої та виконавчої влади, а також органів місцевого самоврядування) у забезпеченні зацікавленості медичних працівників та населення в ефективній системі охорони здоров'я.

Background. The article discusses approaches to reforming the Health Care System of Ukraine, the key objectives of which are: strengthening preventive services, the increasing of an accessibility and quality of health care, the enhancement of a primary health care, improving of a personnel maintenance, upgrading of an infrastructure and ensuring a fairness in health care, and also some legislative outcomes of the Institute of Family Medicine. The purpose of the study is to analyze the current regulatory framework for the functioning of the Health Care System, the state of health of the population, as well as the prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors, which is a priority public health problem. Results. The UN Millennium Declaration, adopted in 2000 by 189 countries at the UN Millennium Summit, set the Millennium Development Goals. At the beginning of the Millennium, Ukraine demonstrated relatively strong economic growth, which contributed to the improvement of the social situation in the country and had a positive impact on the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. At the same time, the effects of the armed conflict in the East, the uncertainty of development trends and adverse foreign economic conditions have been the main reasons of the economic downturn and declining production volumes. At present, it is necessary of an arrangement the problems back off economic growth in Ukraine and to create a system of "drivers" of accelerating economic development and ensuring changes in its quality. The outcome document of the Summit on "Transforming Our World: A 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" approved 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 Tasks. Today, in Ukraine, as in most European countries, the high prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors is an urgent problem. This is a priority public health problem that has a negative impact on the medical and demographic situation and causes high rates of morbidity, disability, mortality and short life expectancy. One of the Sustainable Development Goals is "Strong Health and Wellbeing" (Goal 3), which is undergoing significant progress in the development of medicine globally. In accordance with resolution WHA62.12, (Strategy 3) The reorientation of the healthcare model means creating the conditions in which effective and efficient health care services are developed, funded and delivered in accordance with innovative health care models, which prioritize primary and community health care services and joint actions to strengthen health. In this regard, a Strategic Approach to the Development of Ukraine's Health Care System should be developed and priorities identified throughout the life cycle of health care services. This approach means assessing the full range of health services offered at different levels of the Health Care System, based on the best available data and expected over the entire life cycle. Formation and implementation of an integrated cross-sectoral approach is an important prerequisite for successful implementation of modern strategic goals in the field of health care, including, carrying out preventive measures to eliminate the negative impact of social determinants of health, creating conditions for saving and promoting the health of the population, approval healthy lifestyle, formation of responsible attitude of each person to personal health. In 2017, the Institute of Family Medicine drafted the Law of Ukraine "On Primary Health Care on the Basis of Family Medicine". The main purpose of family medicine - based a primary health care as a basis for health care is to ensure that affordable, timely, high-quality and effective primary health care is provided to the patient, to improve public health, to save, restore and promote public health. Conclusions. Any action to modernize the Health Care System should be accompanied by a concerted effort by all parties (patients, the medical community, the legislature and the executive, as well as local authorities) to ensure that healthcare professionals and the public are interested in an effective Health Care System. ; Актуальность. В статье обсуждаются подходы к реформированию системы здравоохранения Украины, ключевыми задачами которой являются: укрепление профилактических служб, повышение доступности и качества медицинского обслуживания, совершенствование первичной медицинской помощи, улучшение кадрового обеспечения, модернизация инфраструктуры и обеспечения справедливости в здравоохранении, а также некоторые результаты деятельности Института семейной медицины на законодательном уровне. Целью исследования является анализ современного нормативно-правового обеспечения функционирования системы здравоохранения, состояния здоровья населения, а также распространенности хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска, что является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья. Результаты. «Декларация тысячелетия» ООН, которая была принята в 2000 году 189-ю странами на Саммите тысячелетия ООН, определила Цели Развития Тысячелетия. В начале тысячелетия Украина демонстрировала относительно устойчивый экономический рост, что способствовало улучшению социальной ситуации в стране и, как следствие, положительно влияло на достижение Целей Развития Тысячелетия. В то же время, последствия вооруженного конфликта на Востоке страны, неопределенность направлений развития и неблагоприятная внешнеэкономическая конъюнктура стали основными факторами экономического спада и уменьшения объемов производства. Сейчас необходимо решение проблем, тормозящих экономический рост в Украине, и создание системы «драйверов» ускорения экономического развития и обеспечения изменений в его качестве. Итоговым документом саммита «Превращение нашего мира: повестка дня в области устойчивого развития до 2030 года» было утверждено 17 Целей Устойчивого Развития и 169 задач. Сегодня в Украине, как и в большинстве европейских стран, актуальной проблемой является значительная распространенность хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска. Это является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья, которая негативно сказывается на медико-демографической ситуации и обусловливает высокие уровни заболеваемости, инвалидности, смертности и короткую продолжительность жизни. Одной из целей устойчивого развития является «Крепкое здоровье и благополучие» (3 Цель), которая осуществляется в условиях существенного прогресса в развитии медицины на глобальном уровне. В соответствии с резолюцией WHA62.12, (Стратегия 3) Переориентация модели здравоохранения означает создание таких условий, в которых эффективные и результативные медико-санитарные услуги разрабатываются, финансируются и предоставляются в соответствии с новаторскими моделями здравоохранения, в которых приоритет отдается первичным и общинным медико-санитарным услугам и общим мерам по укреплению здоровья. В связи с этим, необходимо разработать стратегический подход к развитию системы здравоохранения Украины и определить приоритеты в области медицинских услуг на основе потребностей в течение всего жизненного цикла. Этот подход означает оценку всего комплекса медико-санитарных услуг, которые предлагаются на различных уровнях системы здравоохранения, и основанные на наилучших имеющихся данных и рассчитаны на весь жизненный цикл. Формирование и внедрение комплексного межсекторального подхода является важной предпосылкой успешной реализации современных стратегических задач в сфере здравоохранения, в том числе, проведение профилактических мероприятий по устранению негативного влияния социальных детерминант здоровья, создание условий для сохранения и укрепления здоровья населения, утверждения здорового образа жизни, формирование ответственного отношения каждого человека к личному здоровью. В 2017 г. Институтом семейной медицины был разработан проект Закона Украины «О первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины». Главной целью первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины, как основы здравоохранения, является обеспечение предоставления гарантированного объема доступной, своевременной, качественной и эффективной первичной медицинской помощи пациенту, улучшение состояния общественного здоровья, сохранение, восстановление и укрепление здоровья населения. Выводы. Любые меры, направленные на модернизацию системы здравоохранения, должны сопровождаться совместными усилиями всех сторон (пациентов, медицинского сообщества, органов законодательной и исполнительной власти, а также органов местного самоуправления) в обеспечении заинтересованности медицинских работников и населения в эффективной системе здравоохранения. ; Актуальність. У статті обговорюються підходи до реформування системи охорони здоров'я України, ключовими завданнями якої є: зміцнення профілактичних служб, підвищення доступності та якості медичного обслуговування, вдосконалення первинної медичної допомоги, поліпшення кадрового забезпечення, модернізація інфраструктури та забезпечення справедливості в охороні здоров'я, а також деякі результати діяльності Інституту сімейної медицини на законодавчому рівні. Метою дослідження є аналіз сучасного нормативно-правового забезпечення функціонування системи охорони здоров'я, стану здоров'я населення, а також поширеності хронічних неінфекційних захворювань та факторів їх ризику, що є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я. Результати. «Декларація тисячоліття» ООН, яка була прийнята у 2000 р. 189-ма країнами на Саміті тисячоліття ООН, визначила Цілі Розвитку Тисячоліття. На початку тисячоліття Україна демонструвала відносно стійке економічне зростання, що сприяло покращанню соціальної ситуації в країні та справило позитивний вплив на досягнення Цілей Розвитку Тисячоліття. У той же час, наслідки збройного конфлікту на Сході країни, невизначеність напрямів розвитку та несприятлива зовнішньоекономічна кон'юнктура стали основними чинниками економічного спаду та зменшення обсягів виробництва. Наразі необхідним є розв'язання проблем, що гальмують економічне зростання в Україні, та створення системи «драйверів» прискорення економічного розвитку й забезпечення змін його якості. Підсумковим документом Саміту «Перетворення нашого світу: порядок денний у сфері сталого розвитку до 2030 року» було затверджено 17 Цілей Сталого Розвитку та 169 завдань. Сьогодні в Україні, як і в більшості європейських країн, актуальною проблемою є значна поширеність хронічних неінфекційних захворювань і факторів їх ризику. Це є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я, яка негативно позначається на медико-демографічній ситуації та обумовлює високі рівні захворюваності, інвалідності, смертності і коротку тривалість життя. Однією з Цілей Сталого Розвитку є «Міцне здоров'я і благополуччя» (3 Ціль), яка здійснюється в умовах істотного прогресу щодо розвитку медицини на глобальному рівні. Відповідно до резолюції WHA62.12, (Стратегія 3) Переорієнтація моделі охорони здоров'я означає створення таких умов, в яких ефективні і результативні медико-санітарні послуги розробляються, фінансуються та надаються відповідно до новаторських моделей охорони здоров'я, в яких пріоритет надається первинним медико-санітарним послугам і спільним заходам щодо зміцнення здоров'я. У зв'язку з цим, необхідно розробити стратегічний підхід щодо розвитку системи охорони здоров'я України та визначити пріоритети в області медичних послуг на основі потреб протягом усього життєвого циклу. Цей підхід означає оцінку всього комплексу медико-санітарних послуг, які пропонуються на різних рівнях системи охорони здоров'я, і засновані на найкращих наявних даних і розраховані на весь життєвий цикл. Формування та впровадження комплексного міжсекторального підходу є важливою передумовою успішної реалізації сучасних стратегічних завдань у сфері охорони здоров'я, у тому числі, проведення профілактичних заходів щодо усунення негативного впливу соціальних детермінант здоров'я, створення умов для збереження і зміцнення здоров'я населення, утвердження здорового способу життя, формування відповідального ставлення кожної людини до особистого здоров'я. У 2017 р. Інститутом сімейної медицини НМАПО імені П. Л. Шупика було розроблено проект Закону України «Про первинну медичну допомогу на засадах сімейної медицини». Головною метою первинної медичної допомоги на засадах сімейної медицини, як основи охорони здоров'я, є забезпечення надання гарантованого обсягу доступної, своєчасної, якісної та ефективної первинної медичної допомоги пацієнту, покращання стану громадського здоров'я, збереження, відновлення та зміцнення здоров'я населення. Висновки. Будь-які заходи, спрямовані на модернізацію системи охорони здоров'я, повинні супроводжуватись спільними зусиллями всіх сторін (пацієнтів, медичної спільноти, органів законодавчої та виконавчої влади, а також органів місцевого самоврядування) у забезпеченні зацікавленості медичних працівників та населення в ефективній системі охорони здоров'я.

Background. The article discusses approaches to reforming the Health Care System of Ukraine, the key objectives of which are: strengthening preventive services, the increasing of an accessibility and quality of health care, the enhancement of a primary health care, improving of a personnel maintenance, upgrading of an infrastructure and ensuring a fairness in health care, and also some legislative outcomes of the Institute of Family Medicine. The purpose of the study is to analyze the current regulatory framework for the functioning of the Health Care System, the state of health of the population, as well as the prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors, which is a priority public health problem. Results. The UN Millennium Declaration, adopted in 2000 by 189 countries at the UN Millennium Summit, set the Millennium Development Goals. At the beginning of the Millennium, Ukraine demonstrated relatively strong economic growth, which contributed to the improvement of the social situation in the country and had a positive impact on the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. At the same time, the effects of the armed conflict in the East, the uncertainty of development trends and adverse foreign economic conditions have been the main reasons of the economic downturn and declining production volumes. At present, it is necessary of an arrangement the problems back off economic growth in Ukraine and to create a system of "drivers" of accelerating economic development and ensuring changes in its quality. The outcome document of the Summit on "Transforming Our World: A 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" approved 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 Tasks. Today, in Ukraine, as in most European countries, the high prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors is an urgent problem. This is a priority public health problem that has a negative impact on the medical and demographic situation and causes high rates of morbidity, disability, mortality and short life expectancy. One of the Sustainable Development Goals is "Strong Health and Wellbeing" (Goal 3), which is undergoing significant progress in the development of medicine globally. In accordance with resolution WHA62.12, (Strategy 3) The reorientation of the healthcare model means creating the conditions in which effective and efficient health care services are developed, funded and delivered in accordance with innovative health care models, which prioritize primary and community health care services and joint actions to strengthen health. In this regard, a Strategic Approach to the Development of Ukraine's Health Care System should be developed and priorities identified throughout the life cycle of health care services. This approach means assessing the full range of health services offered at different levels of the Health Care System, based on the best available data and expected over the entire life cycle. Formation and implementation of an integrated cross-sectoral approach is an important prerequisite for successful implementation of modern strategic goals in the field of health care, including, carrying out preventive measures to eliminate the negative impact of social determinants of health, creating conditions for saving and promoting the health of the population, approval healthy lifestyle, formation of responsible attitude of each person to personal health. In 2017, the Institute of Family Medicine drafted the Law of Ukraine "On Primary Health Care on the Basis of Family Medicine". The main purpose of family medicine - based a primary health care as a basis for health care is to ensure that affordable, timely, high-quality and effective primary health care is provided to the patient, to improve public health, to save, restore and promote public health. Conclusions. Any action to modernize the Health Care System should be accompanied by a concerted effort by all parties (patients, the medical community, the legislature and the executive, as well as local authorities) to ensure that healthcare professionals and the public are interested in an effective Health Care System. ; Актуальность. В статье обсуждаются подходы к реформированию системы здравоохранения Украины, ключевыми задачами которой являются: укрепление профилактических служб, повышение доступности и качества медицинского обслуживания, совершенствование первичной медицинской помощи, улучшение кадрового обеспечения, модернизация инфраструктуры и обеспечения справедливости в здравоохранении, а также некоторые результаты деятельности Института семейной медицины на законодательном уровне. Целью исследования является анализ современного нормативно-правового обеспечения функционирования системы здравоохранения, состояния здоровья населения, а также распространенности хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска, что является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья. Результаты. «Декларация тысячелетия» ООН, которая была принята в 2000 году 189-ю странами на Саммите тысячелетия ООН, определила Цели Развития Тысячелетия. В начале тысячелетия Украина демонстрировала относительно устойчивый экономический рост, что способствовало улучшению социальной ситуации в стране и, как следствие, положительно влияло на достижение Целей Развития Тысячелетия. В то же время, последствия вооруженного конфликта на Востоке страны, неопределенность направлений развития и неблагоприятная внешнеэкономическая конъюнктура стали основными факторами экономического спада и уменьшения объемов производства. Сейчас необходимо решение проблем, тормозящих экономический рост в Украине, и создание системы «драйверов» ускорения экономического развития и обеспечения изменений в его качестве. Итоговым документом саммита «Превращение нашего мира: повестка дня в области устойчивого развития до 2030 года» было утверждено 17 Целей Устойчивого Развития и 169 задач. Сегодня в Украине, как и в большинстве европейских стран, актуальной проблемой является значительная распространенность хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска. Это является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья, которая негативно сказывается на медико-демографической ситуации и обусловливает высокие уровни заболеваемости, инвалидности, смертности и короткую продолжительность жизни. Одной из целей устойчивого развития является «Крепкое здоровье и благополучие» (3 Цель), которая осуществляется в условиях существенного прогресса в развитии медицины на глобальном уровне. В соответствии с резолюцией WHA62.12, (Стратегия 3) Переориентация модели здравоохранения означает создание таких условий, в которых эффективные и результативные медико-санитарные услуги разрабатываются, финансируются и предоставляются в соответствии с новаторскими моделями здравоохранения, в которых приоритет отдается первичным и общинным медико-санитарным услугам и общим мерам по укреплению здоровья. В связи с этим, необходимо разработать стратегический подход к развитию системы здравоохранения Украины и определить приоритеты в области медицинских услуг на основе потребностей в течение всего жизненного цикла. Этот подход означает оценку всего комплекса медико-санитарных услуг, которые предлагаются на различных уровнях системы здравоохранения, и основанные на наилучших имеющихся данных и рассчитаны на весь жизненный цикл. Формирование и внедрение комплексного межсекторального подхода является важной предпосылкой успешной реализации современных стратегических задач в сфере здравоохранения, в том числе, проведение профилактических мероприятий по устранению негативного влияния социальных детерминант здоровья, создание условий для сохранения и укрепления здоровья населения, утверждения здорового образа жизни, формирование ответственного отношения каждого человека к личному здоровью. В 2017 г. Институтом семейной медицины был разработан проект Закона Украины «О первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины». Главной целью первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины, как основы здравоохранения, является обеспечение предоставления гарантированного объема доступной, своевременной, качественной и эффективной первичной медицинской помощи пациенту, улучшение состояния общественного здоровья, сохранение, восстановление и укрепление здоровья населения. Выводы. Любые меры, направленные на модернизацию системы здравоохранения, должны сопровождаться совместными усилиями всех сторон (пациентов, медицинского сообщества, органов законодательной и исполнительной власти, а также органов местного самоуправления) в обеспечении заинтересованности медицинских работников и населения в эффективной системе здравоохранения. ; Актуальність. У статті обговорюються підходи до реформування системи охорони здоров'я України, ключовими завданнями якої є: зміцнення профілактичних служб, підвищення доступності та якості медичного обслуговування, вдосконалення первинної медичної допомоги, поліпшення кадрового забезпечення, модернізація інфраструктури та забезпечення справедливості в охороні здоров'я, а також деякі результати діяльності Інституту сімейної медицини на законодавчому рівні. Метою дослідження є аналіз сучасного нормативно-правового забезпечення функціонування системи охорони здоров'я, стану здоров'я населення, а також поширеності хронічних неінфекційних захворювань та факторів їх ризику, що є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я. Результати. «Декларація тисячоліття» ООН, яка була прийнята у 2000 р. 189-ма країнами на Саміті тисячоліття ООН, визначила Цілі Розвитку Тисячоліття. На початку тисячоліття Україна демонструвала відносно стійке економічне зростання, що сприяло покращанню соціальної ситуації в країні та справило позитивний вплив на досягнення Цілей Розвитку Тисячоліття. У той же час, наслідки збройного конфлікту на Сході країни, невизначеність напрямів розвитку та несприятлива зовнішньоекономічна кон'юнктура стали основними чинниками економічного спаду та зменшення обсягів виробництва. Наразі необхідним є розв'язання проблем, що гальмують економічне зростання в Україні, та створення системи «драйверів» прискорення економічного розвитку й забезпечення змін його якості. Підсумковим документом Саміту «Перетворення нашого світу: порядок денний у сфері сталого розвитку до 2030 року» було затверджено 17 Цілей Сталого Розвитку та 169 завдань. Сьогодні в Україні, як і в більшості європейських країн, актуальною проблемою є значна поширеність хронічних неінфекційних захворювань і факторів їх ризику. Це є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я, яка негативно позначається на медико-демографічній ситуації та обумовлює високі рівні захворюваності, інвалідності, смертності і коротку тривалість життя. Однією з Цілей Сталого Розвитку є «Міцне здоров'я і благополуччя» (3 Ціль), яка здійснюється в умовах істотного прогресу щодо розвитку медицини на глобальному рівні. Відповідно до резолюції WHA62.12, (Стратегія 3) Переорієнтація моделі охорони здоров'я означає створення таких умов, в яких ефективні і результативні медико-санітарні послуги розробляються, фінансуються та надаються відповідно до новаторських моделей охорони здоров'я, в яких пріоритет надається первинним медико-санітарним послугам і спільним заходам щодо зміцнення здоров'я. У зв'язку з цим, необхідно розробити стратегічний підхід щодо розвитку системи охорони здоров'я України та визначити пріоритети в області медичних послуг на основі потреб протягом усього життєвого циклу. Цей підхід означає оцінку всього комплексу медико-санітарних послуг, які пропонуються на різних рівнях системи охорони здоров'я, і засновані на найкращих наявних даних і розраховані на весь життєвий цикл. Формування та впровадження комплексного міжсекторального підходу є важливою передумовою успішної реалізації сучасних стратегічних завдань у сфері охорони здоров'я, у тому числі, проведення профілактичних заходів щодо усунення негативного впливу соціальних детермінант здоров'я, створення умов для збереження і зміцнення здоров'я населення, утвердження здорового способу життя, формування відповідального ставлення кожної людини до особистого здоров'я. У 2017 р. Інститутом сімейної медицини НМАПО імені П. Л. Шупика було розроблено проект Закону України «Про первинну медичну допомогу на засадах сімейної медицини». Головною метою первинної медичної допомоги на засадах сімейної медицини, як основи охорони здоров'я, є забезпечення надання гарантованого обсягу доступної, своєчасної, якісної та ефективної первинної медичної допомоги пацієнту, покращання стану громадського здоров'я, збереження, відновлення та зміцнення здоров'я населення. Висновки. Будь-які заходи, спрямовані на модернізацію системи охорони здоров'я, повинні супроводжуватись спільними зусиллями всіх сторін (пацієнтів, медичної спільноти, органів законодавчої та виконавчої влади, а також органів місцевого самоврядування) у забезпеченні зацікавленості медичних працівників та населення в ефективній системі охорони здоров'я.

The present report provides an overview of the main developments and debates in relation to migration and asylum in Luxembourg in 2017. The number of people applying for international protection remained high in 2017 (2.322 applications) compared to the levels registered pre- 'migration crisis' (1.091 in 2014). However, the number of registrations remained relatively stable if compared to the two preceding years (2.447 in 2015 and 2.035 in 2016). This relative stability in numbers also reflected on the general public and policy debate in the field of migration and asylum. Since 2016, its focus has continuously shifted from an 'emergency' discourse axed on the implementation of reception measures and conditions towards discussions on longer-term integration measures and policies. In this regard, the newly introduced Guided Integration Trail (parcours d'intégration accompagné - PIA) can be considered a flagship project of OLAI, the national agency responsible for the reception and integration of foreigners. This multidisciplinary package of measures aims to empower applicants and beneficiaries of international protection and to support them in developing their life project. The trail, compulsory for all adult applicants for international protection, consists of a linguistic component and a civic component and is split into three phases. Although increasing housing capacities for the reception of applicants for international protection was high on national authorities' agenda, housing remained a challenging aspect of the asylum system and triggered debate on a national scale. Alongside access to training, problems related to housing were among the issues most frequently raised by applicants for international protection in 2017. The lack of affordable housing on the private market, an increasing number of family reunifications as well as the increasing number of beneficiaries and persons who have been issued a return decision who remain housed in structures of OLAI were all identified as interplaying barriers for finding available accommodation for applicants for international protection. The difficulties with the construction of modular housing structures also persisted in 2017. A certain reticence of the population towards the construction of these so-called 'container villages, planned in response to the increasing influx that started in August 2015, was visible in the appeals introduced into Luxembourg's First Instance Administrative Courts to annul the land-use plans related to the projects. Living conditions in the various reception facilities were also one of the subjects of discussion in 2017. This included a debate on the (lack of) kitchen infrastructure in reception facilities and the varying systems for provision of food, the types of food available, as well as the availability of internet. As an answer to the resurgence of an increased influx of applicants of international protection from the Western Balkans in early 2017, a new 'ultra-accelerated procedure' was put in place for applicants of international protection stemming from the Western Balkans. According to the state authorities, the ultra-accelerated procedure was set up to take pressure off the reception facilities, but also as a deterrent to avoid creating false hopes for long-term stay. In April 2017, a 'semi-open return structure' (Structure d'hébergement d'urgence au Kirchberg – SHUK) was put in place, from which people are transferred to states applying the Dublin regulation. Due to home custody (assignation à résidence), the SHUK is considered to be an alternative to detention by national authorities. The newly created structure as well as the related conditions for assignment, were nevertheless criticised by civil society. The outcry among civil society was equally high during and after the adoption the Law of 8 March 2017, which endorses the extension of the permitted period of detention of adults or families with children from 72 hours to 7 days, in order to improve the organisation of the return and ensures that it is carried out successfully. A commission in charge of determining the best interests of unaccompanied minors applying for international protection was decided at the end of 2017. The commission is in charge of carrying out individual assessments regarding the best interest of the child with the aim of delivering an authorisation of stay or a return decision. Among the elements taken into consideration when the best interest of the child is evaluated in the context of a potential return decision is information provided by the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The latter made an agreement with the Directorate of Immigration in 2017 to search for the parents of UAMs in the country of origin. With the focus of debates having slowly shifted towards long-term integration issues, the Council of Government also approved the elaboration of a new multiannual national action plan on integration. The plan will be based on two axes: (1) the reception and follow-up of applicants for international protection and (2) the integration of Luxembourg's non-Luxembourgish residents. Luxembourg's National Employment Agency (ADEM) set up a "cellule BPI" (beneficiaries of international protection cell) in its Employer Service in early 2017. This cell provides employers with information regarding job applications and evaluations of the competences of beneficiaries of international protection. A new law on the Luxembourgish nationality entered into force on 1 April 2017. Given the particular demographic situation of Luxembourg characterised by a significant increase in the total population and a decrease in the proportion of Luxembourgers in the total population, the reform intends to promote the societal and political integration of non-Luxembourgish citizens and to strengthen cohesion within the national community. The main changes introduced by the law include a decreased length of residence requirement for naturalisation (from 7 to 5 years), the right of birthplace (jus soli) of the first generation, a simplified way of acquiring Luxembourgish nationality by 'option', as well as new scenarios to avoid cases of statelessness. The law maintains previous linguistic requirements but makes some adjustments in order to prevent the language condition from becoming an insurmountable obstacle. Ahead of the local elections held on 8 October 2017, the Ministry of Family, Integration and the Greater Region launched a national information and awareness-raising campaign titled "Je peux voter" (I can vote) in January 2017. This campaign aimed to motivate Luxembourg's foreign population to register on the electoral roll for the local elections. The government's intention to legislate face concealment was arguably one of the most debated topics in the field related to community life and integration in the broader sense, both in parliament as well as in the media and public sphere. Bill n°7179 aims to modify article 563 of the Penal Code and to create the prohibition of face concealment in certain public spaces. The bill defines face concealment as the action of covering part of or all of the face in a way of rendering the identification of the person impossible and provides a wide variety of examples, such as the wearing of a motor cycle helmet, a balaclava or a full-face veil. Opposing views among stakeholders, whether political parties, public institutions, civil society or the media, emerged with regard to the necessity to legislate in the matter and if so, on the basis of which grounds and to what extent. The phenomenon of migration has also led to a more heterogeneous population in Luxembourg's schools. To face this situation, the education authorities continued to diversify Luxembourg's offer in education and training, creating for instance a bigger offer for youngsters and adults who do not master any of Luxembourg's vehicular languages, offering more alphabetisation courses or basic instruction courses. The Minister for National Education continued to develop and adapt the school offer to the increased heterogeneity by increasing the international and European school offer, introducing of a new mediation service and putting in place a plurilingual education programme. In the area of legal migration, the most significant changes concerned admission policies of specific categories of third-country nationals. In this respect, bill n°7188 mainly aims to transpose Directive (EU) 2016/801 of the European Parliament and the Council of 11 May 2016 on the conditions of entry and residence of third-country nationals for the purposes of research, studies, training, voluntary service, pupil exchange schemes or educational projects and au pairing. The directive aims to make the European Union a world centre of excellence for studies and training, while favouring contacts between people and favouring their mobility, these two being important elements of the European Union's external policy. Bill N°7188 intends to facilitate and simplify the procedures for intra-European mobility of TCN researchers and students. Moreover, the proposed changes include incentive mechanisms to retain students and researchers. To this end, it proposes that students and researchers, once they have completed their studies/research, can be issued a residence permit for "private reasons" for a duration of 9 months at most in view of finding employment or creating a business. Finally, bill n°7188 also foresees provisions to regulate the family reunification of a researcher staying in Luxembourg in the context of short- and long-term mobility with his/her nuclear family. The legislator furthermore transposed Directive 2014/36 on seasonal workers and Directive 2014/66 on temporary intragroup transfer into national law, and adapted Luxembourg's immigration law to the needs to the economy, by introducing, amongst other things, and authorisation of stay for investors. Organising the admission of stay and the issuance of authorisations of stay was also a key component within the agreement between Luxembourg and Cape Verde on the concerted management of migratory flows and solidary development. Other objectives of the agreement include the promotion of the movement of people, detailing readmission procedures, fighting against irregular migration, strengthening the legal establishment and integration of the concerned nationals, as well as the mobilisation of skills and resources of migrants in favour of solidary development. ; Le présent rapport fait la synthèse des principaux débats et des évolutions majeures concernant les migrations et l'asile au Luxembourg en 2017. Le nombre de personnes demandant une protection internationale est resté élevé en 2017 (2 322 demandes) par rapport aux niveaux enregistrés avant la « crise migratoire » (1 091 en 2014). Toutefois, ce nombre est resté relativement stable par rapport aux deux années précédentes (2 447 en 2015 et 2 035 en 2016). Cette stabilité relative s'est également reflétée dans le débat public et politique dans le domaine des migrations et de l'asile. Depuis 2016, l'accent n'a cessé de se déplacer d'un discours « d'urgence » axé sur la mise en œuvre de mesures et de conditions d'accueil vers des discussions sur des mesures et des politiques d'intégration à plus long terme. À cet égard, le nouveau parcours d'intégration accompagné (PIA) peut être considéré comme un projet phare de l'OLAI, l'Office luxembourgeois de l'accueil et de l'intégration des étrangers. Le PIA vise à autonomiser les demandeurs et les bénéficiaires d'une protection internationale et à les soutenir dans le développement de leur projet de vie. Le parcours, obligatoire pour tous les demandeurs adultes de protection internationale, se compose d'une composante linguistique et d'une composante civique, et il est divisé en trois phases. Bien que l'augmentation des capacités d'hébergement des demandeurs de protection internationale (DPI) figure parmi les priorités des autorités nationales, le logement des DPI reste très problématique et a déclenché un débat à l'échelle nationale. Outre l'accès à la formation, les problèmes liés au logement des DPI ont été parmi les questions les plus fréquemment soulevées en 2017. La pression sur le logement des DPI et des bénéficiaires de protection internationale (BPI) est importante : le manque de logements abordables sur le marché privé, le nombre croissant de réunifications familiales et la progression du nombre de BPI et de personnes qui ont fait l'objet d'une décision de retour mais qui restent hébergées dans les structures de l'OLAI ont été identifiés comme facteurs de pression. Les difficultés liées à la construction de structures modulaires d'hébergement ont également persisté en 2017. Une certaine réticence de la population à l'égard de la construction de ces « villages conteneurs », prévue en réponse à l'afflux croissant qui a commencé en août 2015, était visible dans les recours introduits devant les tribunaux administratifs pour annuler les plans d'occupation des sols liés aux projets. Les conditions de vie au sein des structures d'accueil ont également fait l'objet de discussions. Elles portaient notamment sur l'absence d'équipement en cuisines de plusieurs lieux d'accueil, les différents systèmes d'approvisionnement en nourriture et les types de nourriture disponibles. Afin de répondre au nombre toujours important de DPI en provenance des pays des Balkans occidentaux, une procédure ultra-accélérée a été mise en place. Cette procédure a été instaurée pour diminuer les pressions sur les structures d'accueil et pour éviter de créer de faux espoirs pour les séjours de longue durée. En avril 2017, la structure d'hébergement d'urgence au Kirchberg (SHUK) a été mise en place, afin d'héberger les DPI pour lesquels le Luxembourg n'est pas compétent pour examiner les demandes en vertu de l'application du règlement de Dublin. Ce nombre a fortement progressé. Le placement à la SHUK correspond à une assignation à résidence, donc à une alternative à la rétention. La structure nouvellement créée ainsi que les conditions d'affectation ont néanmoins été critiquées par la société civile. Plusieurs acteurs de la société civile ont manifesté leur opposition face à une disposition de la loi du 8 mars 2017 qui a étendu la période de rétention des adultes ou familles avec enfants de 72 heures à 7 jours afin de rendre plus efficiente l'organisation du retour. Un premier bilan du fonctionnement du Centre de rétention a été publié en 2017. Une commission chargée d'évaluer l'intérêt des mineurs non accompagnés dans le cadre d'une décision de retour a été créé fin 2017. La commission est chargée de mener à bien des évaluations individuelles concernant l'intérêt supérieur de l'enfant dans le but de prendre une décision de retour ou d'accorder une autorisation de séjour. Parmi les éléments pris en considération lors de cette évaluation et dans le contexte d'une éventuelle décision de retour figurent également les informations fournies par l'Organisation internationale pour les migrations (OIM). Cette dernière a conclu un accord avec la Direction de l'immigration pour rechercher les parents de mineurs non accompagnés dans le pays d'origine. Comme les débats s'orientent lentement vers l'intégration à long terme, le Conseil de gouvernement a également approuvé l'élaboration d'un nouveau plan d'action national sur l'intégration. Le plan sera basé sur deux axes : l'accueil et le suivi des demandeurs de protection internationale et l'intégration des résidents non luxembourgeois au Luxembourg. L'Agence pour le Développement de l'Emploi (ADEM) a créé une cellule BPI au sein de son Service employeurs. Cette cellule fournit aux employeurs des renseignements sur les demandes d'emploi et les évaluations des compétences des BPI. Une nouvelle loi sur la nationalité luxembourgeoise est entrée en vigueur le 1er avril 2017. Cette loi s'inscrit dans le contexte démographique particulier du Luxembourg, caractérisé par une augmentation continue de la population totale avec, en parallèle, une diminution de la part des Luxembourgeois dans la population totale. A travers cette loi, le législateur veut favoriser l'intégration sociétale et politique des citoyens non luxembourgeois et renforcer la cohésion au sein de la communauté nationale. Les principaux changements introduits par la loi consistent en la réduction de la durée de résidence pour la naturalisation (de 7 à 5 ans), l'introduction du droit du sol de la première génération, la réinstauration de voies simplifiées d'acquisition de la nationalité luxembourgeoise par « option », ainsi que de nouveaux scénarios pour éviter les cas d'apatridie. La loi maintient les exigences linguistiques antérieures tout en procédant à quelques ajustements afin d'empêcher que les exigences linguistiques ne deviennent un obstacle insurmontable. En vue des élections communales du 8 octobre 2017, le ministère de la Famille, de l'Intégration et à la Grande Région a lancé une campagne d'information et de sensibilisation intitulée « Je peux voter » en janvier 2017. Cette campagne avait pour but d'inciter la population étrangère du Luxembourg à s'inscrire sur les listes électorales pour les élections communales. L'intention du Gouvernement de légiférer sur la dissimulation du visage était sans doute l'un des sujets les plus débattus dans le domaine lié à la vie au sein de la société au Luxembourg et l'intégration au sens large du terme, tant à la Chambre des députés que dans les médias et la sphère publique. Le projet de loi n° 7179 vise à modifier l'article 563 du Code pénal et à créer l'interdiction de dissimuler le visage dans certains espaces publics. Il définit la dissimulation du visage comme le fait de couvrir une partie ou la totalité du visage de façon à rendre l'identification de la personne impossible. Des vues opposées entre les parties prenantes – les partis politiques, les institutions publiques, la société civile ou les médias – se sont exprimées au sujet de la nécessité de légiférer en la matière et dans l'affirmative, sur les motifs et l'étendue de l'interdiction de la dissimulation du visage. Le phénomène des migrations a eu aussi comme conséquence de renforcer l'hétérogénéité de la population scolaire. Pour faire face à cette situation, les autorités scolaires ont continué à diversifier l'offre en matière d'éducation et de formation. Parmi les mesures mises en place, on peut signaler notamment l'élargissement des offres de cours d'alphabétisation et de formation de base, l'extension de l'offre au niveau des écoles internationales et européennes et la mise en place d'un programme d'éducation plurilingue au niveau de la petite enfance. Dans le domaine de l'immigration, les changements les plus importants concernent la politique d'admission de certaines catégories de ressortissants de pays tiers. À cet égard, le projet de loi n° 7188 vise principalement à transposer la Directive européenne 2016/801 du Parlement européen et du Conseil du 11 mai 2016 sur les conditions d'entrée et de séjour des ressortissants de pays tiers à des fins de recherche, d'études, de formation, de volontariat, de programmes d'échanges d'élèves ou de projets éducatifs et de travail au pair. La directive vise à faire de l'Union européenne un centre mondial d'excellence en matière d'études et de formation, tout en favorisant les contacts entre les personnes et leur mobilité, deux éléments importants de la politique extérieure de l'Union européenne. Le projet de loi vise à faciliter et à simplifier les procédures de mobilité intraeuropéenne des chercheurs et des étudiants qui sont des ressortissants de pays tiers. De plus, certaines modifications comprennent des mécanismes incitatifs pour retenir les étudiants et les chercheurs. À cette fin, il propose que les étudiants et les chercheurs, une fois leurs études ou recherches terminées, puissent se voir délivrer un titre de séjour pour « raisons privées » pour une durée maximum de 9 mois en vue de trouver un emploi ou de créer une entreprise. Enfin, le projet de loi entend réglementer le regroupement familial d'un chercheur séjournant au Luxembourg dans le cadre d'une mobilité à court et à long terme. Le législateur a par ailleurs transposé la Directive 2014/36 sur les travailleurs saisonniers et la Directive 2014/66 sur le transfert temporaire intragroupe en droit national, et a adapté le dispositif de l'immigration aux besoins de l'économie en introduisant entre autres, une autorisation de séjour pour les investisseurs. L'organisation de l'admission du séjour et de la délivrance des autorisations de séjour était également un élément clé de l'Accord entre le Luxembourg et le Cap-Vert relatif à la gestion concertée des flux migratoires et au développement solidaire. L'accord approuvé par la loi du 20 juillet 2017 poursuit en outre les objectifs suivant : promouvoir la mobilité des personnes, lutter contre l'immigration irrégulière, préciser les procédures de réadmission, renforcer l'intégration légale des ressortissants concernés, ainsi que mobiliser les compétences et les ressources des migrants en faveur d'un développement solidaire.

The present report provides an overview of the main developments and debates in relation to migration and asylum in Luxembourg in 2017. The number of people applying for international protection remained high in 2017 (2.322 applications) compared to the levels registered pre- 'migration crisis' (1.091 in 2014). However, the number of registrations remained relatively stable if compared to the two preceding years (2.447 in 2015 and 2.035 in 2016). This relative stability in numbers also reflected on the general public and policy debate in the field of migration and asylum. Since 2016, its focus has continuously shifted from an 'emergency' discourse axed on the implementation of reception measures and conditions towards discussions on longer-term integration measures and policies. In this regard, the newly introduced Guided Integration Trail (parcours d'intégration accompagné - PIA) can be considered a flagship project of OLAI, the national agency responsible for the reception and integration of foreigners. This multidisciplinary package of measures aims to empower applicants and beneficiaries of international protection and to support them in developing their life project. The trail, compulsory for all adult applicants for international protection, consists of a linguistic component and a civic component and is split into three phases. Although increasing housing capacities for the reception of applicants for international protection was high on national authorities' agenda, housing remained a challenging aspect of the asylum system and triggered debate on a national scale. Alongside access to training, problems related to housing were among the issues most frequently raised by applicants for international protection in 2017. The lack of affordable housing on the private market, an increasing number of family reunifications as well as the increasing number of beneficiaries and persons who have been issued a return decision who remain housed in structures of OLAI were all identified as interplaying barriers for finding available accommodation for applicants for international protection. The difficulties with the construction of modular housing structures also persisted in 2017. A certain reticence of the population towards the construction of these so-called 'container villages, planned in response to the increasing influx that started in August 2015, was visible in the appeals introduced into Luxembourg's First Instance Administrative Courts to annul the land-use plans related to the projects. Living conditions in the various reception facilities were also one of the subjects of discussion in 2017. This included a debate on the (lack of) kitchen infrastructure in reception facilities and the varying systems for provision of food, the types of food available, as well as the availability of internet. As an answer to the resurgence of an increased influx of applicants of international protection from the Western Balkans in early 2017, a new 'ultra-accelerated procedure' was put in place for applicants of international protection stemming from the Western Balkans. According to the state authorities, the ultra-accelerated procedure was set up to take pressure off the reception facilities, but also as a deterrent to avoid creating false hopes for long-term stay. In April 2017, a 'semi-open return structure' (Structure d'hébergement d'urgence au Kirchberg – SHUK) was put in place, from which people are transferred to states applying the Dublin regulation. Due to home custody (assignation à résidence), the SHUK is considered to be an alternative to detention by national authorities. The newly created structure as well as the related conditions for assignment, were nevertheless criticised by civil society. The outcry among civil society was equally high during and after the adoption the Law of 8 March 2017, which endorses the extension of the permitted period of detention of adults or families with children from 72 hours to 7 days, in order to improve the organisation of the return and ensures that it is carried out successfully. A commission in charge of determining the best interests of unaccompanied minors applying for international protection was decided at the end of 2017. The commission is in charge of carrying out individual assessments regarding the best interest of the child with the aim of delivering an authorisation of stay or a return decision. Among the elements taken into consideration when the best interest of the child is evaluated in the context of a potential return decision is information provided by the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The latter made an agreement with the Directorate of Immigration in 2017 to search for the parents of UAMs in the country of origin. With the focus of debates having slowly shifted towards long-term integration issues, the Council of Government also approved the elaboration of a new multiannual national action plan on integration. The plan will be based on two axes: (1) the reception and follow-up of applicants for international protection and (2) the integration of Luxembourg's non-Luxembourgish residents. Luxembourg's National Employment Agency (ADEM) set up a "cellule BPI" (beneficiaries of international protection cell) in its Employer Service in early 2017. This cell provides employers with information regarding job applications and evaluations of the competences of beneficiaries of international protection. A new law on the Luxembourgish nationality entered into force on 1 April 2017. Given the particular demographic situation of Luxembourg characterised by a significant increase in the total population and a decrease in the proportion of Luxembourgers in the total population, the reform intends to promote the societal and political integration of non-Luxembourgish citizens and to strengthen cohesion within the national community. The main changes introduced by the law include a decreased length of residence requirement for naturalisation (from 7 to 5 years), the right of birthplace (jus soli) of the first generation, a simplified way of acquiring Luxembourgish nationality by 'option', as well as new scenarios to avoid cases of statelessness. The law maintains previous linguistic requirements but makes some adjustments in order to prevent the language condition from becoming an insurmountable obstacle. Ahead of the local elections held on 8 October 2017, the Ministry of Family, Integration and the Greater Region launched a national information and awareness-raising campaign titled "Je peux voter" (I can vote) in January 2017. This campaign aimed to motivate Luxembourg's foreign population to register on the electoral roll for the local elections. The government's intention to legislate face concealment was arguably one of the most debated topics in the field related to community life and integration in the broader sense, both in parliament as well as in the media and public sphere. Bill n°7179 aims to modify article 563 of the Penal Code and to create the prohibition of face concealment in certain public spaces. The bill defines face concealment as the action of covering part of or all of the face in a way of rendering the identification of the person impossible and provides a wide variety of examples, such as the wearing of a motor cycle helmet, a balaclava or a full-face veil. Opposing views among stakeholders, whether political parties, public institutions, civil society or the media, emerged with regard to the necessity to legislate in the matter and if so, on the basis of which grounds and to what extent. The phenomenon of migration has also led to a more heterogeneous population in Luxembourg's schools. To face this situation, the education authorities continued to diversify Luxembourg's offer in education and training, creating for instance a bigger offer for youngsters and adults who do not master any of Luxembourg's vehicular languages, offering more alphabetisation courses or basic instruction courses. The Minister for National Education continued to develop and adapt the school offer to the increased heterogeneity by increasing the international and European school offer, introducing of a new mediation service and putting in place a plurilingual education programme. In the area of legal migration, the most significant changes concerned admission policies of specific categories of third-country nationals. In this respect, bill n°7188 mainly aims to transpose Directive (EU) 2016/801 of the European Parliament and the Council of 11 May 2016 on the conditions of entry and residence of third-country nationals for the purposes of research, studies, training, voluntary service, pupil exchange schemes or educational projects and au pairing. The directive aims to make the European Union a world centre of excellence for studies and training, while favouring contacts between people and favouring their mobility, these two being important elements of the European Union's external policy. Bill N°7188 intends to facilitate and simplify the procedures for intra-European mobility of TCN researchers and students. Moreover, the proposed changes include incentive mechanisms to retain students and researchers. To this end, it proposes that students and researchers, once they have completed their studies/research, can be issued a residence permit for "private reasons" for a duration of 9 months at most in view of finding employment or creating a business. Finally, bill n°7188 also foresees provisions to regulate the family reunification of a researcher staying in Luxembourg in the context of short- and long-term mobility with his/her nuclear family. The legislator furthermore transposed Directive 2014/36 on seasonal workers and Directive 2014/66 on temporary intragroup transfer into national law, and adapted Luxembourg's immigration law to the needs to the economy, by introducing, amongst other things, and authorisation of stay for investors. Organising the admission of stay and the issuance of authorisations of stay was also a key component within the agreement between Luxembourg and Cape Verde on the concerted management of migratory flows and solidary development. Other objectives of the agreement include the promotion of the movement of people, detailing readmission procedures, fighting against irregular migration, strengthening the legal establishment and integration of the concerned nationals, as well as the mobilisation of skills and resources of migrants in favour of solidary development. ; Le présent rapport fait la synthèse des principaux débats et des évolutions majeures concernant les migrations et l'asile au Luxembourg en 2017. Le nombre de personnes demandant une protection internationale est resté élevé en 2017 (2 322 demandes) par rapport aux niveaux enregistrés avant la « crise migratoire » (1 091 en 2014). Toutefois, ce nombre est resté relativement stable par rapport aux deux années précédentes (2 447 en 2015 et 2 035 en 2016). Cette stabilité relative s'est également reflétée dans le débat public et politique dans le domaine des migrations et de l'asile. Depuis 2016, l'accent n'a cessé de se déplacer d'un discours « d'urgence » axé sur la mise en œuvre de mesures et de conditions d'accueil vers des discussions sur des mesures et des politiques d'intégration à plus long terme. À cet égard, le nouveau parcours d'intégration accompagné (PIA) peut être considéré comme un projet phare de l'OLAI, l'Office luxembourgeois de l'accueil et de l'intégration des étrangers. Le PIA vise à autonomiser les demandeurs et les bénéficiaires d'une protection internationale et à les soutenir dans le développement de leur projet de vie. Le parcours, obligatoire pour tous les demandeurs adultes de protection internationale, se compose d'une composante linguistique et d'une composante civique, et il est divisé en trois phases. Bien que l'augmentation des capacités d'hébergement des demandeurs de protection internationale (DPI) figure parmi les priorités des autorités nationales, le logement des DPI reste très problématique et a déclenché un débat à l'échelle nationale. Outre l'accès à la formation, les problèmes liés au logement des DPI ont été parmi les questions les plus fréquemment soulevées en 2017. La pression sur le logement des DPI et des bénéficiaires de protection internationale (BPI) est importante : le manque de logements abordables sur le marché privé, le nombre croissant de réunifications familiales et la progression du nombre de BPI et de personnes qui ont fait l'objet d'une décision de retour mais qui restent hébergées dans les structures de l'OLAI ont été identifiés comme facteurs de pression. Les difficultés liées à la construction de structures modulaires d'hébergement ont également persisté en 2017. Une certaine réticence de la population à l'égard de la construction de ces « villages conteneurs », prévue en réponse à l'afflux croissant qui a commencé en août 2015, était visible dans les recours introduits devant les tribunaux administratifs pour annuler les plans d'occupation des sols liés aux projets. Les conditions de vie au sein des structures d'accueil ont également fait l'objet de discussions. Elles portaient notamment sur l'absence d'équipement en cuisines de plusieurs lieux d'accueil, les différents systèmes d'approvisionnement en nourriture et les types de nourriture disponibles. Afin de répondre au nombre toujours important de DPI en provenance des pays des Balkans occidentaux, une procédure ultra-accélérée a été mise en place. Cette procédure a été instaurée pour diminuer les pressions sur les structures d'accueil et pour éviter de créer de faux espoirs pour les séjours de longue durée. En avril 2017, la structure d'hébergement d'urgence au Kirchberg (SHUK) a été mise en place, afin d'héberger les DPI pour lesquels le Luxembourg n'est pas compétent pour examiner les demandes en vertu de l'application du règlement de Dublin. Ce nombre a fortement progressé. Le placement à la SHUK correspond à une assignation à résidence, donc à une alternative à la rétention. La structure nouvellement créée ainsi que les conditions d'affectation ont néanmoins été critiquées par la société civile. Plusieurs acteurs de la société civile ont manifesté leur opposition face à une disposition de la loi du 8 mars 2017 qui a étendu la période de rétention des adultes ou familles avec enfants de 72 heures à 7 jours afin de rendre plus efficiente l'organisation du retour. Un premier bilan du fonctionnement du Centre de rétention a été publié en 2017. Une commission chargée d'évaluer l'intérêt des mineurs non accompagnés dans le cadre d'une décision de retour a été créé fin 2017. La commission est chargée de mener à bien des évaluations individuelles concernant l'intérêt supérieur de l'enfant dans le but de prendre une décision de retour ou d'accorder une autorisation de séjour. Parmi les éléments pris en considération lors de cette évaluation et dans le contexte d'une éventuelle décision de retour figurent également les informations fournies par l'Organisation internationale pour les migrations (OIM). Cette dernière a conclu un accord avec la Direction de l'immigration pour rechercher les parents de mineurs non accompagnés dans le pays d'origine. Comme les débats s'orientent lentement vers l'intégration à long terme, le Conseil de gouvernement a également approuvé l'élaboration d'un nouveau plan d'action national sur l'intégration. Le plan sera basé sur deux axes : l'accueil et le suivi des demandeurs de protection internationale et l'intégration des résidents non luxembourgeois au Luxembourg. L'Agence pour le Développement de l'Emploi (ADEM) a créé une cellule BPI au sein de son Service employeurs. Cette cellule fournit aux employeurs des renseignements sur les demandes d'emploi et les évaluations des compétences des BPI. Une nouvelle loi sur la nationalité luxembourgeoise est entrée en vigueur le 1er avril 2017. Cette loi s'inscrit dans le contexte démographique particulier du Luxembourg, caractérisé par une augmentation continue de la population totale avec, en parallèle, une diminution de la part des Luxembourgeois dans la population totale. A travers cette loi, le législateur veut favoriser l'intégration sociétale et politique des citoyens non luxembourgeois et renforcer la cohésion au sein de la communauté nationale. Les principaux changements introduits par la loi consistent en la réduction de la durée de résidence pour la naturalisation (de 7 à 5 ans), l'introduction du droit du sol de la première génération, la réinstauration de voies simplifiées d'acquisition de la nationalité luxembourgeoise par « option », ainsi que de nouveaux scénarios pour éviter les cas d'apatridie. La loi maintient les exigences linguistiques antérieures tout en procédant à quelques ajustements afin d'empêcher que les exigences linguistiques ne deviennent un obstacle insurmontable. En vue des élections communales du 8 octobre 2017, le ministère de la Famille, de l'Intégration et à la Grande Région a lancé une campagne d'information et de sensibilisation intitulée « Je peux voter » en janvier 2017. Cette campagne avait pour but d'inciter la population étrangère du Luxembourg à s'inscrire sur les listes électorales pour les élections communales. L'intention du Gouvernement de légiférer sur la dissimulation du visage était sans doute l'un des sujets les plus débattus dans le domaine lié à la vie au sein de la société au Luxembourg et l'intégration au sens large du terme, tant à la Chambre des députés que dans les médias et la sphère publique. Le projet de loi n° 7179 vise à modifier l'article 563 du Code pénal et à créer l'interdiction de dissimuler le visage dans certains espaces publics. Il définit la dissimulation du visage comme le fait de couvrir une partie ou la totalité du visage de façon à rendre l'identification de la personne impossible. Des vues opposées entre les parties prenantes – les partis politiques, les institutions publiques, la société civile ou les médias – se sont exprimées au sujet de la nécessité de légiférer en la matière et dans l'affirmative, sur les motifs et l'étendue de l'interdiction de la dissimulation du visage. Le phénomène des migrations a eu aussi comme conséquence de renforcer l'hétérogénéité de la population scolaire. Pour faire face à cette situation, les autorités scolaires ont continué à diversifier l'offre en matière d'éducation et de formation. Parmi les mesures mises en place, on peut signaler notamment l'élargissement des offres de cours d'alphabétisation et de formation de base, l'extension de l'offre au niveau des écoles internationales et européennes et la mise en place d'un programme d'éducation plurilingue au niveau de la petite enfance. Dans le domaine de l'immigration, les changements les plus importants concernent la politique d'admission de certaines catégories de ressortissants de pays tiers. À cet égard, le projet de loi n° 7188 vise principalement à transposer la Directive européenne 2016/801 du Parlement européen et du Conseil du 11 mai 2016 sur les conditions d'entrée et de séjour des ressortissants de pays tiers à des fins de recherche, d'études, de formation, de volontariat, de programmes d'échanges d'élèves ou de projets éducatifs et de travail au pair. La directive vise à faire de l'Union européenne un centre mondial d'excellence en matière d'études et de formation, tout en favorisant les contacts entre les personnes et leur mobilité, deux éléments importants de la politique extérieure de l'Union européenne. Le projet de loi vise à faciliter et à simplifier les procédures de mobilité intraeuropéenne des chercheurs et des étudiants qui sont des ressortissants de pays tiers. De plus, certaines modifications comprennent des mécanismes incitatifs pour retenir les étudiants et les chercheurs. À cette fin, il propose que les étudiants et les chercheurs, une fois leurs études ou recherches terminées, puissent se voir délivrer un titre de séjour pour « raisons privées » pour une durée maximum de 9 mois en vue de trouver un emploi ou de créer une entreprise. Enfin, le projet de loi entend réglementer le regroupement familial d'un chercheur séjournant au Luxembourg dans le cadre d'une mobilité à court et à long terme. Le législateur a par ailleurs transposé la Directive 2014/36 sur les travailleurs saisonniers et la Directive 2014/66 sur le transfert temporaire intragroupe en droit national, et a adapté le dispositif de l'immigration aux besoins de l'économie en introduisant entre autres, une autorisation de séjour pour les investisseurs. L'organisation de l'admission du séjour et de la délivrance des autorisations de séjour était également un élément clé de l'Accord entre le Luxembourg et le Cap-Vert relatif à la gestion concertée des flux migratoires et au développement solidaire. L'accord approuvé par la loi du 20 juillet 2017 poursuit en outre les objectifs suivant : promouvoir la mobilité des personnes, lutter contre l'immigration irrégulière, préciser les procédures de réadmission, renforcer l'intégration légale des ressortissants concernés, ainsi que mobiliser les compétences et les ressources des migrants en faveur d'un développement solidaire.

From July 1915 onwards, leave granted to the front fighters allowed them to spend a few days in the rear. From 6 days in 1915, these leaves increased to 7 days in 1916, then to 10 days in October 1917. Approached from a global perspective, this research seeks to link the social and cultural history of war through the methods of cultural anthropology of social facts, without neglecting the political or military dimensions. The plan followed articulates three levels of analysis, the real, the symbolic and the imaginary, using a very varied corpus of sources. The research is based in particular on the analysis of 200 directories of police station reports in Paris (known as "mains courantes"), which have made it possible to build up a database of some 6,000 pass-holders and 6,000 deserters. Analyses of the social and cultural phenomena linked to permission in the capital use the quantitative study of this abundant source, which provides information on many aspects of the lives of individuals and Parisian neighbourhoods, and is not limited to delinquency. This source thus makes it possible to place the reflection in the perspective of social changes over time. The database has also made it possible to map certain phenomena, such as prostitution, desertion or the relations of soldiers on leave with civilians, women or allied soldiers. Finally, the police reports, which are often consistent, give flesh to an individualised social micro-history.The first part retraces the military, political and administrative construction of the permissions, as well as the logistical stakes of their transport by train, which is also studied from an anthropological perspective. It uses mainly classical military and political sources, but integrates testimonies and representations. The permissions regime set up in 1915 in France was marked throughout the war by permanent improvisation, but evolved and underwent a major reform in October 1916 when the French HQG made permissions a statutory allowance of seven days granted three times a year. Although decisions on permissions were the responsibility of the High Command, citizens and politicians played an important role in successive reforms by putting pressure on the government to grant fairer and longer permissions to men. The ideological stakes of permissions are evident in committees or in debates in the Assembly, in which left-wing MPs give a speech on the rights of republican citizens and the social stakes of recreational leave, which reinforces F. Bock's conclusions on the involvement of parliamentarians in the conduct of the war. At the individual level, the combatants have become involved through demands which show that for them there is a close relationship between the rights and duties of soldiers, and that their sacrifice is not without retribution, if only symbolic. In the context of a dehumanizing industrial war, leave had a great role to play in sustaining combatant morale over the long term. The calamitous management of the permissions in 1915 and 1916 explains the place taken by the permissions in the claims of the mutinees during Spring 1917, whereas they were now more regular and distributed with equity: it is especially as a symbol of the condition of the citizen-soldier and of his rights and duties that they are brandished by some combatants, confirming the study of L.V. Smith on the Vth ID. In this respect, leave is part of the evolution of the relations between the Army, the Republic and the citizens.It should be pointed out here that the theoretical weight of discipline is constantly called into question by the transgressive practices of furloughers, which are particularly evident during train journeys: defying authority, ridiculing employees, travelling first class in disregard of regulations, or seeking to illegally extend their leave.In the long term of the war, furloughs also provided a waiting horizon for a long overdue peace, and played a decisive role in men's ability to endure the war. The cycle of anticipation, experience and recollection of leave thus feeds into family letters or conversations between soldiers, and allows individuals to develop plans, even if the leaves arouse very ambivalent feelings. The second part focuses on the experience of being on leave in the capital, where Parisians rediscover a familiar world, while uprooted and isolated combatants from invaded regions, colonies or allied countries discover a mythical city as tourists. Paris was thus the main centre for furloughs in France, and probably of all the countries at war, receiving about 100,000 men per month, for a cumulative total of about 4 million furloughs between 1915 and 1918. The study conducted is based primarily on a statistical analysis of the directories of the minutes of the Paris police stations. The combatants' stay in the capital reveals the entrenchment of the combatant identity, confirming what is known about the importance of a specific culture born of shared experience, but it also combines with the signs of a lingering civilian identity. While political or working communities have not been studied, the strength of family ties, domestic habits, work gestures or neighbourhood sociability indicate that men are resettling into a familiar daily routine, despite the upheavals caused by the war in Paris. The subject lends itself to an analysis of gender identities through the reunion of couples and the confrontation of male and female communities. Relations between men and women have remained good, mainly thanks to the women in the family, but those of the couples are more tense, due to the suspicion that hangs over the companions. Generally speaking, male-female relations are part of banal practices whose cyclical dimension is mainly reflected in the symbolism surrounding certain gestures or words. The study of leave has also shown that female emancipation is limited, as indicated by women's resistance to the sexual solicitations of those on leave. Finally, the demographic stakes of furloughs can be seen in their impact on nuptiality, but their effects are more modest on the birth rate, which they do not compensate for. The relations of the soldiers on leave with the various components of Parisian society during the war (women, foreigners, allied soldiers) testify to the great credit enjoyed by the soldiers at the rear, even if the importance of theatricalization in Parisian space led them to sometimes violent transgressions of the social order, particularly towards police officers, underlining the redefinition of moral standards while invalidating the thesis of widespread "brutalization", since these practices were part of long-term conscriptive and popular Parisian traditions.The soldiers' stay was also an opportunity to identify the social and cultural circulation between the front and the rear, which contributed to the renewal of the distended links between civilians and combatants between 1914 and 1915. The expression of a need for recognition by the soldiers is coupled with a desire to forget the war, which underlines the complexity of individual reactions to the tension of war. Soldiers on leave sought to become exhilarated and to enjoy the pleasures of Parisian life such as the cinema, café-concert and prostitution, behaviours that contrasted with the puritanical norms of wartime. Permissions take their place here in the movement for the democratisation of leisure and holidays that has been underway since the end of the 19th century and confirm the relevance of drawing a parallel between the world of work and the war from the point of view of combatant mobilization factors. This question was explored in depth through the role of furlough in the mobilization of civilians and combatants. The stay of combatants in the rear presented risks from the point of view of controlling public opinion and the movements of soldiers. However, the complexity of the political and military stakes, particularly in 1917, the conditions for carrying out surveys on the state of mind of the Parisian population, and the weight of rumours during the war, made the study of public opinion delicate. On the other hand, permissions do appear to be one of the ways of desertion during the war, even if police sources do not allow for an exhaustive study of this subject, which is still poorly documented in France. The motivations put forward by the suspects indicate the wide variety of conditions in which men became deserters and it is difficult to say what effect the fear of punishment had on their actions. Police sources also make it possible to trace the modalities of the desertion experience, as well as the social profile of late deserters. The third part is devoted to the representations of furlough and furlough-holders that it confronts with the realities described above, based on the study of the press from the rear and the "newspapers from the front", postcards, novels, plays or songs, and with an emphasis on distinguishing the effects of transmitter and medium on the images produced. The stereotype of the combatant perceptible through the images of permission thus contributes to structuring the gap between civilians and combatants in a Parisian setting that crystallizes ambivalent representations. Indeed, soldiers on leave played an important role in the evolution of the wartime system of social representations by embodying the relationship between the combatant community and the civilian community. The figure of the permissionnaire illustrates the fundamental role of ethics in the identity processes of the First World War and in the construction of a social and cultural field specific to "combatants". The logics of civilian guilt on the one hand, and the need for recognition of combatants on the other, are articulated to give substance to combatant stereotypes. In many cases, the relationship of representation is perverted when the values for which combatants are recognized at the rear differ from those to which they aspire. Numerous, highly stereotypical and enduring, civilian representations carry the myths of heroism and virility attributed to warriors. Those constructed by the combatants are more intermittent and deferred, but their persuasive force is usually greater, due to the weight of the testimony between 1914 and 1918, which is perpetuated after the war, carried by the veterans' speeches. Several systems of representation thus coexist, become contaminated and evolve over the course of the war. In all cases, there is a great contrast between combatant myths and the social practices of the furloughers, particularly in their relations with women. ; A partir de juillet 1915, des permissions accordées aux combattants du front leur permettent de passer quelques jours à l'arrière. D'une durée de 6 jours en 1915, ces congés passent à 7 jours en 1916, puis à 10 jours en octobre 1917. Abordé dans une perspective globale, ce travail cherche à relier l'histoire sociale et l'histoire culturelle de la guerre grâce aux méthodes de l'anthropologie culturelle des faits sociaux, sans négliger les dimensions politiques ou militaires. Le plan suivi articule trois niveaux d'analyse, le réel, le symbolique et l'imaginaire, en utilisant un corpus de sources très varié. Celui-ci s'appuie en particulier sur l'analyse de 200 répertoires de procès-verbaux des commissariats parisiens (connus sous le nom de "mains courantes"), qui ont permis la constitution d'une base de données d'environ 6 000 permissionnaires et 6 000 déserteurs. Les analyses des phénomènes sociaux et culturels liés à la permission dans la capitale utilisent l'étude quantitative de cette source foisonnante, qui renseigne sur de nombreux aspects de la vie des individus et des quartiers parisiens, et ne se limite pas à la délinquance. Cette source permet ainsi d'inscrire la réflexion dans la perspective du temps long des évolutions sociales. La base de données a aussi permis la cartographie de certains phénomènes, comme la prostitution, la désertion ou les relations des permissionnaires avec les civils, les femmes ou les soldats alliés. Enfin, les comptes-rendus de la police, souvent consistants, donnent chair à une micro-histoire sociale individualisée.La première partie retrace la construction militaire, politique et administrative des permissions, ainsi que les enjeux logistiques de leur transport en train, qui est aussi étudié dans une perspective anthropologique. Elle utilise principalement des sources militaires et politiques classiques, mais intègre témoignages et représentations. Le régime des permissions mis en place en 1915 est marqué pendant toute la guerre par une improvisation permanente, mais évolue et connaît une réforme majeure en octobre 1916 lorsque le GQG fait des permissions une allocation réglementaire de sept jours accordée trois fois par an. Bien que les décisions en matière de permissions relèvent du Haut Commandement, les citoyens et les politiques ont joué un rôle important dans les réformes successives en faisant pression sur le gouvernement pour accorder des permissions plus équitables et plus longues aux hommes. Les enjeux idéologiques des permissions sont évidents dans les commissions ou lors des débats à l'Assemblée, au sein desquels les députés de gauche portent un discours sur les droits des citoyens républicains et les enjeux sociaux des congés de détente, qui conforte les conclusions de F. Bock sur la participation des parlementaires à la conduite de la guerre. A l'échelle individuelle, les combattants se sont impliqués par des revendications qui témoignent qu'il y a pour eux une relation étroite entre les droits et les devoirs des soldats, et que leur sacrifice ne va pas sans rétributions, ne seraient-elles que symboliques. Dans le contexte d'une guerre industrielle déshumanisante, les permissions avaient un grand rôle à jouer pour soutenir le moral combattant dans la durée. La gestion calamiteuse des permissions en 1915 et 1916 explique la place prise par les permissions dans les revendications des révoltés du printemps 1917, alors même qu'elles étaient désormais plus régulières et distribuées avec équité : c'est surtout comme symbole de la condition du soldat-citoyen et des droits et des devoirs de celui-ci qu'elles sont brandies par certains combattants, confirmant l'étude de L.V. Smith sur la Vème DI. A ce titre, les permissions s'inscrivent dans l'évolution des relations entre l'Armée, la République et les citoyens.Il faut souligner ici que le poids théorique de la discipline est constamment remis en cause par les pratiques transgressives des permissionnaires, qui sont particulièrement manifestes pendant les trajets en train : défiant l'autorité, tournant en ridicule les employés, voyageant en première classe au mépris des règlements, ou cherchant à prolonger illégalement leur permission.Dans le long terme de la guerre, les permissions ont aussi constitué un horizon d'attente qui s'est substitué à celui d'une paix qui se faisait attendre, et ont joué un rôle décisif dans la capacité des hommes à "tenir". Le cycle de l'anticipation, de l'expérience et de la remémoration des permissions alimente ainsi les lettres familiales ou les conversations entre soldats, et permet aux individus d'élaborer des projets, même si les permissions suscitent des sentiments très ambivalents. La seconde partie s'attache à l'expérience de la permission dans la capitale, où les Parisiens retrouvent un univers familier, tandis que les combattants déracinés et isolés, originaires des régions envahies, des colonies ou des pays alliés, découvrent en touristes une ville mythique. Paris est ainsi le principal centre de permissionnaires en France, et vraisemblablement de tous les pays en guerre, accueillant environ 100 000 hommes par mois, soit un total cumulé d'environ 4 millions de permissionnaires entre 1915 et 1918. L'étude s'appuie ici principalement sur l'analyse statistique des répertoires des procès-verbaux des commissariats parisiens. Le séjour des combattants dans la capitale révèle l'enracinement de l'identité combattante, confirmant ce que l'on sait de l'importance d'une culture spécifique née d'une expérience partagée, mais celle-ci se combine aussi aux signes d'une identité civile rémanente. Si les communautés politiques ou de travail n'ont pas été étudiées, la force des liens familiaux, les habitudes domestiques, les gestes du travail ou la sociabilité de voisinage, indiquent que les hommes se réinstallent dans un quotidien familier, malgré les bouleversements occasionnés par la guerre à Paris. Le sujet se prête à une analyse des identités de genre à travers les retrouvailles des couples et la confrontation des communautés masculines et féminines. Les relations entre hommes et femmes sont restées bonnes, principalement grâce aux femmes de la famille, mais celles des couples sont plus tendues, en raison du soupçon qui pèse sur les compagnes. D'une manière générale, les relations hommes – femmes s'inscrivent dans des pratiques banales dont la dimension conjoncturelle se traduit surtout par la symbolique qui entoure certains gestes ou paroles. L'étude des permissions a aussi permis de montrer que l'émancipation féminine est limitée, comme l'indiquent les résistances des femmes aux sollicitations sexuelles des permissionnaires. Enfin, les enjeux démographiques des permissions se manifestent dans l'incidence de celles-ci sur la nuptialité, mais leurs effets sont plus modestes sur la natalité, dont elles ne permettent pas de compenser la chute. Les relations des permissionnaires avec les différentes composantes de la société parisienne du temps de guerre (femmes, étrangers, militaires alliés) témoignent du grand crédit dont bénéficient les soldats à l'arrière, même si l'importance de la théâtralisation dans l'espace parisien les conduit à des transgressions parfois violentes de l'ordre social, notamment envers les agents de police, soulignant la redéfinition des normes morales tout en infirmant la thèse d'une "brutalisation" généralisée, puisque ces pratiques s'inscrivent dans des traditions conscriptives et des traditions populaires parisiennes de long terme. Le séjour des soldats est aussi l'occasion de repérer les circulations sociales et culturelles entre le front et l'arrière, qui contribuent à renouer entre civils et combattants des liens distendus entre 1914 et 1915. L'expression d'un besoin de reconnaissance par les soldats se double d'une volonté d'oublier la guerre qui souligne la complexité des réactions individuelles à la tension de la guerre. Les permissionnaires cherchent à se griser et à profiter des plaisirs de la vie parisienne comme le cinéma, le café-concert ou la prostitution, des comportements qui contrastent avec les normes puritaines du temps de guerre. Les permissions prennent ici place dans le mouvement de démocratisation des loisirs et des vacances engagé depuis la fin du XIXème siècle et confirment la pertinence d'une mise en parallèle du monde du travail et de la guerre du point de vue des ressorts de la mobilisation combattante. Cette question a été approfondie à travers le rôle de la permission dans la mobilisation des civils et des combattants. Le séjour de combattants à l'arrière présentait des risques du point de vue du contrôle de l'opinion publique et des mouvements des soldats. La complexité des enjeux politiques et militaires, notamment en 1917, les conditions de réalisation des enquêtes sur l'état d'esprit de la population parisienne ou encore le poids des rumeurs pendant la guerre, rendent toutefois l'étude des opinions publiques délicates. En revanche, les permissions apparaissent bien comme une des voies de la désertion pendant la guerre, même si les sources policières ne permettent pas une étude exhaustive de ce sujet, encore peu documenté dans le cas français. Les motivations avancées par les suspects indiquent la grande diversité des conditions dans lesquelles les hommes deviennent déserteurs et il est difficile de se prononcer sur l'effet de la peur de la sanction sur leurs actes. Les sources policières permettent aussi de retracer les modalités de l'expérience de la désertion, ainsi que le profil social des permissionnaires en retard. La troisième partie est consacrée aux représentations de la permission et des permissionnaires qu'elle confronte aux réalités précédemment décrites en se fondant sur l'étude de la presse de l'arrière et des "journaux du front", des cartes postales, des romans, des pièces de théâtre ou des chansons et en s'attachant à distinguer les effets d'émetteur et de support sur les images produites. Le stéréotype du combattant perceptible à travers les images de la permission contribue ainsi à structurer le fossé entre civils et combattants dans un cadre parisien qui cristallise des représentations ambivalentes. En effet, les permissionnaires jouent un rôle important dans l'évolution du système de représentations sociales du temps de guerre en incarnant les relations de la communauté combattante à la communauté civile. La figure du permissionnaire illustre le rôle fondamental de l'éthique dans les processus identitaires de la Première Guerre mondiale et dans la construction d'un champ social et culturel propre aux "combattants". Les logiques de la culpabilité des civils d'une part, et du besoin reconnaissance des combattants, d'autre part, s'articulent pour donner corps aux stéréotypes combattants. Dans bien des cas, la relation de représentation est pervertie quand les valeurs pour lesquelles les combattants sont reconnus à l'arrière diffèrent de celles auxquelles ils aspirent. Nombreuses, très stéréotypées et durables, les représentations civiles drainent avec elles tout le poids des mythes de l'héroïsme et de la virilité attribués aux guerriers. Celles construites par les combattants sont davantage intermittentes et différées, mais leur force de persuasion est a priori plus grande, en raison du poids du témoignage entre 1914 et 1918, qui se perpétue après guerre, porté par les discours anciens combattants. Plusieurs systèmes de représentations coexistent donc, se contaminent et évoluent au fil de la guerre. Dans tous les cas, on relève un grand contraste entre les mythes combattants et les pratiques sociales des permissionnaires, en particulier dans leurs relations avec les femmes.

With over 3,260 kilometers of coastal line and 112 estuaries, 226,000 square kilometers of internal waters and territorial waters, the exclusive economic zone of more than 1 million square kilometers, and more than 4,000 islands, forming 12 bays and lagoons with a total area of 1,160 square kilometers, Vietnam has high potentials for aquaculture development. Vietnam's seafood output has been growing steadily in recent years (since 2000 up to 2016) with an average increase of 9% per year. Despite its advantages and positive development trends, Vietnam aquaculture has faced several issues including asymmetric information and high demand for quality products. The main cause of these issues is risks, from production to market risks. This study has explored the main risks faced by the coastal clam farming sector in Thaibinh province located in northern Vietnam. The risks can be classified into two types in term of the nature of their cause: man-made and natural ones, and three types in term of their impact: production, market and financial risks. The causes of these risks include extreme weather events, wasted water flows, production technics; market access or financial capacity. However, man-made risks are more severe and more difficult to cope with than natural ones. These above risks have serious consequences for clam farming. For the three communes examined in this study, less than half of the farmers were yet recovered from the loss caused by several shocks although majority of them had mobilized capital to restart clam farming. About one third of the farmers had to sell their fixed assets to pay debts related to their clam investment, and ten households had left their villages under the pressure of debts. However, in such risky clam farming environments and increased market difficulties, not all farmers were seriously impacted. Indeed, it is surprising that one fifth of the surveyed farmers succeeded in all their clam raising cycles so far, and another quarter remained well resilient after the shocks. Different household risk management strategies applied in clam farming are thus discussed in the comparative analysis and discriminant analysis. In general, the tactics related to increasing farm size, applying technical innovation and accessing financial sources with no or a lower interest rate, provided better conditions for clam growth, reducing clam farming losses. They also facilitated speedier recovery from shocks. There are many internal and external factors in the application of risk management strategies and tactics. Of the internal factors identified, include households' financial capacity and the experiences of the head of households had more impact while the education level and the job of the head of household seemed to have little influence on the choice and application of households' risk management strategies. External factors refer to the policy factors and the knowledge capacity enhancing activities in the clam farmers community. Among these activities, those of "groups for experience sharing" were found to have significantly greater impact than the training courses and activities of farmer's union. Besides, the government had played a role in directing farmers in clam farming practices, but not much in risk management. Given that the tactics addressed the capital issues, land uses, and clam farming techniques had positively contributed to the result of household risk management strategies whilst experience gaining and sharing activities strongly impacted the application of these tactics. The intervention and policies of government in all levels to the farmers should therefore focus more on these issues. It is vital that the government's support policies, extension programs, training courses and farmer's union activities be practically oriented and suit farmers' desires. Furthermore, the addition of policies/interventions in market issues (for both input and output) should be taken into account because those risks were considered as meso level, which farmers cannot solve by themselves and thus definitely need the support from the government, from local to the state level. To support farmers in managing risks, several government interventions are needed: (1) improving the support system to household in clam farming such as increasing farm size, promoting linkages to market and training technic; (2) increasing investment in the treatment of the water management issue and protecting the ecosystem; and (3) promoting participatory policy formulation and its enforcement. ; Avec plus de 3 260 kilomètres de lignes côtières et 112 estuaires, 226 000 km2 d'eaux intérieures et d'eaux territoriales, une zone économique exclusive de plus d'un million de km2, et plus de 4 000 îles formant 12 baies et lagunes d'une superficie totale de 1160 km2, le Vietnam présente un potentiel élevé pour le développement de l'aquaculture. La production de produits de la mer du Vietnam a connu une croissance régulière ces dernières années (de 2000 à 2016) avec une augmentation moyenne de 9% par an. Malgré ses avantages et ses tendances positives en matière de développement, l'aquaculture vietnamienne a été confrontée à plusieurs problèmes, notamment le phénomène d'information asymétrique et une forte demande de produits de qualité. La cause principale de ces problèmes est le risque, encouru de la production au marché. Cette étude a exploré les principaux risques auxquels est confronté le secteur de l'élevage des palourdes côtières dans la province de Thaibinh, située dans le nord du Vietnam. Les risques peuvent être classés en deux types en fonction de la nature de leur cause: ceux d'origine humaine et ceux d'origine naturelle, et en trois types en termes d'impact: le risque de production, le risque de marché et le risque financier. Les causes de ces risques comprennent les phénomènes météorologiques extrêmes, les écoulements d'eau gaspillée, les techniques de production; l'accès au marché ou la capacité financière. Cependant, les risques créés par l'homme sont plus graves et plus difficiles à gérer que les risques naturels. Les risques cités ci-dessus ont de graves conséquences pour l'élevage de palourdes. Pour les trois communes étudiés dans cette étude, moins de la moitié des agriculteurs avaient encore récupéré de la perte, bien que le majorité d'entre eux aient mobilisé des capitaux pour relancer la culture de la palourde. Environ un tiers des agriculteurs ont dû vendre des immobilisations pour rembourser leurs dettes liées à leurs investissements dans les palourdes, et dix ménages ont quitté leur village sous la pression des dettes. Cependant, malgré les risques de production et les difficultés de marché accrues, tous les agriculteurs n'ont pas été sérieusement touchés. En effet, il est surprenant qu'un cinquième des agriculteurs interrogés aient réussi jusqu'à présent tous les cycles de récolte de palourdes, et qu'un autre quart soit resté résilient après les chocs. Différentes stratégies de gestion des risques des ménages appliquées à la culture des palourdes sont donc discutées dans l'analyse comparative et l'analyse discriminante. En général, les tactiques liées à l'augmentation de la taille des exploitations, à l'application de l'innovation technique et à l'accès à des sources de financement avec un taux d'intérêt inférieur nul ou faible ont permis de produire des palourdes dans de meilleures conditions réduisant les pertes d'exploitation. Elles ont également facilité une récupération plus rapide des chocs. Il existe de nombreux facteurs internes et externes influant l'application des stratégies et des tactiques de gestion des risques. Parmi les facteurs internes identifiés, on note que la capacité financière des ménages et l'expérience du chef de ménage ont eu le plus d'impact alors que le niveau d'éducation et le travail du chef de ménage semblaient avoir peu d'influence sur le choix et l'application des stratégies de gestion des risques des ménages. Les facteurs externes se rapportent aux facteurs politiques et aux activités de renforcement des capacités de connaissance dans la communauté des producteurs de palourdes. Parmi ces activités, celles des «groupes de partage d'expériences» se sont révélées avoir un impact beaucoup plus important que les cours de formation et les activités du syndicat des agriculteurs. En outre, le gouvernement a joué un rôle en dirigeant les agriculteurs dans les pratiques d'élevage de palourdes, mais pas beaucoup dans la gestion des risques. Étant donné que les tactiques concernent les problèmes de capital, les techniques d'utilisation des terres et d'élevage des palourdes ont contribué de manière positive au résultat des stratégies de gestion des risques des ménages. Alors que l'expérience acquise et les activités partagées ont fortement influencé l'application de ces tactiques. L'intervention et les politiques du gouvernement à tous les niveaux en faveur des agriculteurs devraient donc se concentrer davantage sur ces questions. Il est essentiel que les politiques d'appui du gouvernement, les programmes de vulgarisation, les cours de formation et les activités syndicales des agriculteurs soient axés sur les besoins pratiques des agriculteurs. En outre, l'ajout de politiques / interventions sur les questions de marché (à la fois pour les intrants et les extrants) devrait être pris en compte car ces risques sont considérés comme de niveau intermédiaire; les agriculteurs ne peuvent y faire face seuls et ont donc besoin du soutien de l'Etat. Pour aider les agriculteurs à gérer les risques, plusieurs interventions gouvernementales sont nécessaires: (1) améliorer le système de soutien aux ménages dans l'élevage de palourdes comme: augmenter la taille des exploitations; promouvoir les liens avec du marché et les formations des techniques, (2) accroître l'investissement dans le traitement de la gestion de l'eau et protéger l'écosystème, et (3) promouvoir la formulation de politiques participatives et leur application.

Objetivos: El objetivo general es la necesidad de ubicar adecuadamente al documento administrativo electrónico como elemento central de la gestión dentro del nuevo marco de trabajo generado por la administración electrónica. De forma más específica, con esta investigación se pretende: • Conceptuar debidamente el documento administrativo electrónico, identificando los elementos que lo componen, los formatos que lo normalizan y sus distintas tipologías. • Analizar y constatar la serie de cambios que sobre la gestión de los actos administrativos impone la irrupción del documento electrónico, adecuándola a los tiempos actuales y … • … discernir cuál es la mejor manera de llevar a cabo la gestión del documento electrónico y de los procedimientos y tecnologías vinculados, adaptándolo pertinentemente al nuevo marco legal. Metodología: En la realización de nuestra investigación, se ha tenido en cuenta el siguiente conjunto de consideraciones y operaciones: • En primer lugar, se ha elaborado una presentación general del concepto de documento administrativo, analizando detenidamente su estructura, contenido y sistemas de clasificación. • En los últimos años se ha desarrollado una amplia producción normativa para habilitar la aplicación de las TICs a los procedimientos administrativos de las AA.PP. Esto ha permitido desarrollar un nuevo concepto: el documento administrativo electrónico, que hemos definido y contextualizado debidamente. • Por mandato legal, las AA.PP. al cambiar los sistemas de gestión y adaptarse al documento administrativo electrónico, deben recomponer los modos de funcionamiento tradicionales, cuyos orígenes se pierden en el tiempo en algunas ocasiones, de manera que hemos reflexionado sobre esa imperiosa necesidad de rediseño de los distintos actos administrativos, proponiendo posibles soluciones que los adapten a la nueva realidad. • Como no podía ser de otro modo, las técnicas de Archivo y de Gestión Documental han estado presentes en el momento del análisis. • Tras todo este análisis se procedió a identificar los aspectos clave de este nuevo paradigma intentando aportar una propuesta de gestión que contribuya a afianzar y consolidar nuestra visión de la Administración Electrónica, considerando siempre al documento como el eje principal de la gestión. En nuestra investigación se ha aplicado el método deductivo (análisis de lo universal), entendiendo esto como lo recogido en el marco jurídico, principalmente en la parte básica, a partir del cual se aplica en los casos particulares (los que cada Administración Pública tendrá que abordar en la implementación de los procedimientos administrativos).También se emplea el método inductivo (obtención de conclusiones generales a partir de algo particular). Se basa en la observación y registro de los hechos analizados, su clasificación, la derivación inductiva y su contraste. Bajo esta perspectiva se han estudiado las normas y herramientas TICs disponibles que nos permitirán introducir una mejora en el procedimiento objeto de análisis. Conclusiones: Es un hecho evidente que Administración Pública y Tecnología se dan la mano. La escritura y la construcción de documentos han supuesto para el hombre la delimitación de los momentos más importantes de su existencia. Hoy en día estamos ante el gran reto de introducir una dualidad en la naturaleza del documento, en la medida que se emplean indistintamente los creados en soportes físicos (fundamentalmente en papel) y los que se construirán por medios electrónicos. Estamos convencidos de que una de las tareas más eficientes que se pueden hacer desde las direcciones de las distintas Administraciones, es la puesta en común de estas herramientas. El tipo de documento que contempla nuestra propuesta posee una doble vertiente: ser capaz de transmitir la información que contiene, tanto a un ser humano como a un sistema informático. Para ello se han incluido textos literales, destinados fundamentalmente a la lectura por el hombre, así como datos agrupados en tablas preparadas para la interoperabilidad entre sistemas informáticos. Nuestra propuesta de construcción de documentos administrativos electrónicos desde el ERP de gestión, pretende resolver un conjunto de problemáticas con las que actualmente nos encontramos, así como adelantarnos a situaciones venideras, como es el caso del próximo derecho del que dispondrán los ciudadanos para acceder a los documentos que obren en poder de las Administraciones. Nuestra propuesta de construcción de los documentos administrativos electrónicos por capas secuenciales es una técnica integrable en cualquier aplicación informática. Se trata de una propuesta de elaboración de los documentos fruto del análisis de cada uno de los elementos que componen el documento y su traslación, modificación, incluso eliminación, al mundo electrónico, pasando por el filtro del marco jurídico actual. Cada una de las capas que intervienen contiene un conjunto de atributos, entre los que destacan si contiene datos protegidos o reservados, así como los metadatos y los contenidos de estos. De esta forma, en la composición de cada capa, hay que establecer el texto o estructura de la tabla y datos contenidos, además de identificar si se puede establecer el metadato de forma automática. Esta forma de construir los documentos permitirá crear un conjunto de copias auténticas, totales y parciales, que responderán de forma automática al acceso a los documentos, en función del rol de la persona interesada. Esto es importante en los documentos que contienen datos protegidos por la LOPDP, ya que actualmente disponemos de un sistema dual, en la medida que ante la solicitud de acceso a estos documentos no se permitirá su consulta por contener datos que están protegidos, si bien habría que permitir la consulta al resto del documento. Este problema sólo tiene solución por medio de la construcción de copias auténticas parciales generadas automáticamente por todas las capas que no contengan el atributo «protegido» y/o «reservado». Otra novedad aportada es la técnica de construcción de los documentos encadenados mediante la inserción de un metadato, (el que contiene el hash del primer eslabón). Esta propuesta resuelve la situación que se plantea cuando un documento ha sido corregido, modificado o revocado por otro posterior. Es indispensable que ante la demanda al gestor documental de cualquiera de ellos, el sistema devuelva el conjunto de todos los documentos que componen la cadena, ya que de no hacerlo así, estaría informando sesgadamente, pudiendo dar lugar a confusión, desinformación y ocultamiento. El estudio desarrollado en la elaboración de esta tesis doctoral nos ha permitido construir la técnica que proponemos y que permite devolver al documento todo el protagonismo que ha tenido desde que Alfonso X el Sabio instauró su uso y que parecía haber ido perdiendo en favor de los datos. Con el apoyo de un marco jurídico innovador y aplicando reingeniería de procesos, se ha construido una técnica de elaboración de documentos administrativos electrónicos que, no solo resuelve algunas deficiencias observadas y ancladas en las prácticas administrativas, sino que aporta un mayor grado de seguridad jurídica para el ciudadano, moderniza la administración (situándola en el siglo XXI), a la vez que se da cumplimiento al precepto constitucional de eficacia, eficiencia y economía. The public administrative document, its electronical and technological enviroment and legal framework: a proposal for a paradigm shift. Autor: Rafael Ferrando Martínez Objectives: The overall objective of this thesis is the need to properly locate the electronic administrative document as a central element in the new management framework generated by eGovernment. More specifically, this research aims to: • Properly conceptualize the electronic administrative document, identifying its composition (elements), normalizing formats and types. • Analyze and verify the number of changes introduced on the management of administrative proceedings that imposes the emergence of the electronic document, adapting to the times and . • . discern what is the best way to carry out the management of the electronic and related technologies and procedures, appropriately adapted to the new legal framework. Methodology: During the conducting of our research, we have taken into account the following set of considerations and operations: • First, we has developed a general overview about the concept of administrative document, carefully analyzing their structure, content and classification systems. • In recent years, it has developed a wide legal framework to enable the application of ICT to the administrative procedures of the goverments. It has allowed to develop a new concept: the electronic administrative document, that we have defined and properly contextualized. • Goverments are required by law to change and adapt their management systems to the electronic administrative document. So, they must recompose the traditional modes of management, whose origins are lost in time sometimes. We reflected on the urgent need to redesign of individual administrative acts, proposing possible solutions that adapt to the new enviroment. • Obviously, the techniques of Archives and Records Management has been present in the procedures analysis. • After all this analysis, we tried to identify the key aspects of this new paradigm in order to introduce a new management proposal that contributes to strengthen and consolidate our vision of eGovernment, always considering the document as the main focus of te management. In our research, has applied the deductive method (analysis of the universe), understanding it as enshrined in the legal framework, especially at the basic, from which applies in particular cases (which each Government needs to addressed in the implementation of administrative procedures). We also have used the inductive method (obtaining general conclusions from something particular situation). It is based on the observation and recording of the events analyzed, their classification, referral and contrast inductive. In this perspective, we have studied the available ICT standards and tools that allow to introduce an improvement in the analysed procedures. Conclusions: It is obvious that Governmets and Technology come together. The writing and document construction have led to men the record of the most important moments of their existence. Today, we have the challenge of introducing a duality in the nature of the document, to the extent that the created are used interchangeably in hardware (mostly on paper) to be built and electronically. We believe that one of the most efficient tasks to develop into the managemet of public documents is the sharing of these tools. The type of electronic document of our proposal has two aspects: it is able to transmit information containing both a human and a computer system. This has been included verbatim texts, mainly for reading by humans, as well as grouped data in tables prepared for interoperability between systems. Our proposed construction of electronic administrative documents from ERP management, aims to solve a set of problems with which we are currently and anticipate future situations related with the access to public documents by the citizens. Our proposal for the construction of electronic administrative documents by a sequential layered technique is easy to be integrated into any software application. This proposal is based on the analysis of each one of the elements of the document and its translation, modification, even elimination, to the electronic enviroment, through the filter of the current legal framework. Each of the intervening layers contains a set of attributes, among them whether sheltered or contains data and metadata and the contents of these. Thus, into the composition of each layer, must be established the text or table structure and the included data as well as identifying whether the metadata can be set automatically. This form of construction of documents will be able to create a set of partial certified copies, that automatically respond to access to documents depending on the role of the concerned person. This is specially important in documents containing data protected by the Data Protection Acts, as currently we have a dual system, to the extent that the request for access to these documents will not be allowed to contain query data that is protected, but would to allow consultation to the rest of the document. This problem can only be solved by building automatically generated partial certified copies with the layers that do not contain the attribute "protected" and / or "reserved". Another innovation introduced in our proposal is the chained construction technique of documents from the use of a metadata (which contains the hash of the first link). This proposal solves the situation that arises when a document has been corrected, amended or revoked by a later. It is essential to ask to the document management system of any of them, the system returns the set of all documents that make up the chain, since failure to do so, it would be reporting biased and may lead to confusion, misinformation and concealment. The study developed in the ellaboration of this thesis has allowed to us to build the proposed technique, that allows to return to the documents all the attention that they had since Alfonso X the Wise established their use, and which seemed to have been lost in favor of the data. With the support of a legal framework and implementing innovative process reengineering, we has built a processing technique of constructing of electronic administrative document that not only solves some shortcomings and anchored in administrative practices, but provides a greater degree of legal certainty for the citizens, streamlines management (placing it in the XXI Century), while giving effect to the constitutional precepts of effectiveness, efficiency and economy.

[eng] This doctoral thesis focuses on active Spanish scholarly journals which follow internationally‐recognized quality standards, in order to analyze their main features, study the adoption of Open Access, observe the relationship between their price and bibliometric impact, and examine its internationality characteristics. Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus have been selected as the sources for identifying the journals. After depurating mistakes, a final list of 445 journals has resulted. A set of indicators has been defined and all data has been collected from the journals' primary source (website or hard copy). Correlations and association tests have been carried out to explore relationships among variables. The population of Spanish journals indexed in WoS and Scopus grew steadily over the last years: there were 300 titles by 2012, 406 by 2013 and 445 by 2015. A 69.7% of these were launched after 1980 and their average age is 30 years. This selection of This selection of 445 journals stands for a 25% of journals published in Spain, but the subject areas are not equally distributed - Science, Technology and Medicine fields (STM) are overrepresented, while Social Sciences and Humanities (SSH) appear less frequently. Indeed, 84% of all journals concentrate in only three of the seven subject areas considered for this study – 35% on Social S., 32% on Health S. and 18% on Arts & Humanities. Universities and research centers (mostly the Spanish National Research Council, CSIC) publish 43% of the journals. To run their publishing services, most of them use OJS platforms (34% of the total population). They publish mostly on Arts & Humanities (in Spanish language) and Social Sciences. Online‐only format and free access are their favorite output. Commercial publishers are the second in importance, accounting for the 32% of the journals. They focus on Health Sciences and run most of the few free‐access journals with APCs. They also account for most of the few hybrid journals, which are usually published in English. Elsevier is the largest commercial publisher, publishing about 17% of all the journals in this study. Scientific societies, professional associations and other not‐for‐profit private institutions publish 21% of the journals. They own or participate in another 24% of the journals, which are published by companies like Elsevier. Indeed, their scientific participation is crucial, reaching almost half of the population studied (45%). Government agencies publish only a 4% of all the journals. As to languages, almost half of the journals (47%) are published only in Spanish. Nonetheless, 26% are published both in Spanish and English, and 18% only in English. Remaining languages are residual. Free access is the most common type of publication (64.5%), followed by restricted (16.6%), embargo (14.4%) and hybrid (4.5%). Free‐access is associated with academic publishers and Social Sciences, while restricted‐access and hybrid journals are more common among companies and usually refer to STM fields. Open Access, as measured by free access with self‐archiving permissions, results in 56.9% of the total of journals. This indicates a sustained increase according to previous studies. Article Processing Charges (APCs) are beginning to be introduced in Spain, but only in 7% of these journals. Both free‐access and hybrid journals charging APCs are associated with commercial publishers, English language and high bibliometric impact rates. Annual subscription prices are much higher for STM, commercial companies and English language content, but the difference is lower when using price per article, because expensive journals usually provide more scientific content. APC prices are on average ten times higher in hybrid titles than in free‐access ones. Impact Factor (IF, which is only available for 27% of the studied journals), Scimago Journal Rank (SJR) and Source‐Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP) have in general higher impact values for STM fields, journals with APCs and journals published in English. While the highest IFs usually appear in journals issued by commercial publishers, highest SNIPs are related to journals published by associations and societies. Subscription prices, both at volume and article level, have no relationship with any impact indicator. On the contrary, APC prices correlate moderately with impact indicators, but only with SJR and SNIP, not with IF. English language, foreign‐authored articles, international collaborations and foreign members at scientific teams have been identified and measured as elements that indicate internationality. Except for international collaborations, with very few appearances (especially in Arts & Humanities), all elements have global averages of around 33%, although they vary depending on subject areas and access types. The English language is most common in STM fields, journals published by companies and journals charging APCs. Foreign authors are more present in Health Sciences and Mathematics & Physics, and journals with APCs. The proportion of foreign experts is similar to that of foreign authors', but with smoother differences among categories – also, they are lower in Health Sciences and higher in Engineering. Academic publishers usually include more members from foreign institutions than the rest. Internationality elements present a similar pattern, especially as far as the participation of foreign authors and foreign experts is concerned. Limitations of the study, future research lines and final considerations are provided. ; [cat] Aquesta tesi doctoral estudia les revistes científiques espanyoles actives i amb un nivell de qualitat reconegut internacionalment, per tal d'analitzar les seves característiques principals, el grau d'adopció d'Accés Obert, la relació entre el preu i l'impacte bibliomètric, i els seus elements d'internacionalitat. Web of Science (WoS) y Scopus van ser seleccionades com a les fonts adequades per identificar la població objecte d'estudi. Després de depurar els errors detectats a les llistes de revistes extretes, es va obtenir una llista definitiva de 445 revistes. Es va definir un conjunt d'indicadors i es van recollir totes les dades de la font d'informació principal (el lloc web o la versió impresa de cada revista). Finalment, es van realitzar proves de correlació i associació per explorar relacions entre variables. S'ha posat de manifest que la població de revistes espanyoles indexades a WoS y Scopus ha crescut de manera sostinguda durant els darrers anys: hi havia 300 títols al 2012, 406 al 2013, i 445 al 2015. El 69,7% dels darrers van ser creats després de 1980 i la seva edat mitjana és de 30 anys. Aquesta selecció de 445 revistes suposa el 25% dels títols publicats a Espanya, tot i que les àrees temàtiques no hi estan reflectides de manera proporcional: la ciència, tecnologia i medicina i estan sobre-representades, mentre es recull un baix percentatge sobre ciències socials i humanes. Tot i així, el 84% de les revistes es concentren en només tres dels set camps considerats en aquest estudi: 35% en ciències socials, 32% en ciències de la salut, i 18% en arts i humanitats. Les universitats i els centres d'investigació publiquen el 43% de les revistes estudiades, amb especial menció del CSIC (Centre Superior d'Investigacions Científiques). La majoria d'aquestes revistes usen Open Journal Systems (OJS), plataforma on es recolza el 34% del total. Les institucions acadèmiques també publiquen principalment revistes sobre arts i humanitats (en castellà) i sobre ciències socials. Aquests títols solen estar disponibles en línia, sense versió impresa, i en Accés Obert. Les editorials comercials són les segones en importància, ocupant-se del 32% de les revistes, la majoria de les quals tracten sobre ciències de la salut. Aquestes entitats són responsables de moltes de les escasses revistes que inclouen càrrecs per publicació ("Article Processing Charges", APC), tant en Accés Obert com híbrides (aquestes últimes, principalment en anglès). Elsevier és l'editorial amb més títols, publicant el 17% de les revistes d'aquest estudi. Les societats científiques, associacions professionals i altres institucions privades sense ànim de lucre publiquen el 21% de les revistes, i a més a més col·laboren en un altre 24%, del qual s'ocupa principalment Elsevier. La participació d'aquest tipus d'institucions és crucial, ja que en total arriba al 45% de totes les revistes de la població analitzada. Finalment, els ens governamentals responen només del 4% dels títols Quant als idiomes, quasi la meitat de les revistes (47%) estan publicades només en castellà. No obstant, el 26% està publicat en castellà i anglès, i el 18% exclusivament en anglès. La presència de la resta d'idiomes és residual. L'accés lliure és el tipus d'accés més comú (64,5%), seguit pel restringit (16,6%), embargat (14,4%) i híbrid (4,5%). És freqüent a les editorials acadèmiques i a les ciències socials, mentre que l'accés restringit i híbrid és més comú entre les comercials i normalment es troba als àmbits de la ciència, tecnologia i medicina. Les revistes en Accés Obert, considerades com aquelles disponibles en accés lliure i amb permisos d'auto-arxiu, suposen el 56,9% d'aquesta població. Segons estudis anteriors, aquesta dada indica un augment sostenible del grau d'adopció de l'Accés Obert. Els càrrecs per publicació s'estan començant a introduir a Espanya, però de moment només estan presents al 7% d'aquests títols. Tant les revistes en accés lliure amb APC com les híbrides es publiquen per editorials comercials, en anglès i amb alts indicadors d'impacte bibliomètric. Els preus de subscripció anual són molt més alts a revistes sobre ciència, tecnologia i medicina. També ho són als títols publicats per editorials comercials i a revistes en anglès. No obstant, la diferència de preu disminueix si es considera el preu per article, perquè les revistes més cares solen aportar més contingut científic. Els preus dels APC són, de mitjana, deu vegades més cars a les revistes híbrides que a les d'accés lliure. El Factor d'Impacte (IF, que només està disponible per al 27% de les revistes estudiades), el Scimago Journal Rank (SJR) i el Source-Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP), tenen en general valors més alts per a les revistes sobre ciència, tecnologia i medicina, amb APC i en anglès. Mentre que els valors més elevats d'IF apareixen a les revistes publicades per editorials comercials, els SNIP més alts estan relacionats amb associacions i societats. Els preus de subscripció no guarden relació amb cap indicador d'impacte, ni a nivell de volum anual ni a nivell d'article. Pel contrari, els preus dels APC correlacionen moderadament amb indicadors d'impacte, però només amb SJR i SNIP, no pas amb IF. L'anglès, els articles escrits per autors estrangers, les col·laboracions internacionals i els experts estrangers dels equips editorials han estat considerats com a elements d'internacionalitat mesurables. Excepte les col·laboracions internacionals, amb molt poca incidència (especialment baixa en arts i humanitats), tots els elements tenen una mitjana general aproximada del 33%, tot i que depenen molt de l'àrea temàtica i del tipus d'accés. La llengua anglesa és la més comú en ciència, tecnologia i medicina, així com a les revistes publicades per editorials comercials i també en publicacions amb APC. Els autors d'altres països tenen major presència a ciències de la salut, matemàtiques i física, i també a revistes amb APC. La proporció d'estrangeria és similar entre autors i equip editorial, però amb diferències menys notables entre categories. La proporció d'experts forans és també inferior a ciències de la salut, i superior a enginyeries. Les revistes publicades per institucions acadèmiques solen incloure més investigadors amb filiació estrangera als seus equips editorials que la resta de revistes. En general, els elements d'internacionalitat presenten patrons de distribució similars, especialment quant a autors i experts estrangers. Finalment, es descriuen les limitacions d'aquest estudi, possibles línies futures d'investigació, i conclusions globals.

Северо-Монгольская горная лесостепь, переходная зона между тайгой и открытой степью, имеет богатый животный и растительный мир. Для сельского хозяйства это самая продуктивная часть страны и имеет плотность населения выше средней по Монголии. Древостои светлой тайги, в которых преобладает лиственница (Larix sibirica Ledeb.), представляют основу монгольских продуктивных лесов и поставляются все больше в соответствии с растущим спросом на деловую древесину и дрова. В лесах Монгольской горной лесостепной зоны и таежной зоны наблюдается, особенно с конца прошлого века, заметное сокращение площади леса. Основными факторами этого сдвига растительности являются изменения в землепользовании, частота пожаров, появление вредителей и изменение климата. На видовой состав, прирост и структуру древостоев оказывают сильное влияние различные природные и антропогенные режимы воздействия и климатические факторы. Понимание влияния климатических факторов на эти воздействия и экологическое влияние от воздействий на древостои и их реакцию с точки зрения структуры, прироста и обновлений необходимо для развития экологически и регионально соответствующих программ ведения лесного хозяйства. Частые, интенсивные, обширные воздействия, прежде всего лесозаготовки и лесные пожары, способствовали появлению сукцессионных лесов (Betula platyphylla Sukaczev), в которых преобладает береза. Несмотря на предпринимаемые усилия по созданию альтернативных подходов к управлению лесами в Монголии существует недостаток знаний о влиянии основных факторов и воздействий на структуру лесов и лесной растительности и недостаточная мощность. Одной из областей с традиционно сильным землепользованием является аймак Селенги, расположенный к северу от Улан-Батора. В 2009 году Монгольский Университет естественных наук в Дархане и группа лесопользователей в исследовательском районе Альтансумбэр создали исследуемые площади и провели экспериментальные опыты выборочной рубки. Эта инициатива в области была поддержана в рамках проекта UNFAO «Укрепление потенциала и институциональное развитие для совместного управления природными ресурсами и сохранения лесов в лесных районах Монголии» (GCP / MON / 002 / NET), финансируемого правительством Нидерланды. Большинство исследуемых площадей имеет размер 2500 м². Исследовательский район Альтансумбэр расположен к западу от Дархана и является ярким примером монгольской горной лесостепной зоны. Исследовательский район Бугант расположен к востоку от Дархана в западных горах Хенти и является частью густой таежной зоны. Изучалось влияние климатических факторов и выборочной вырубки на рост и структуру поврежденных от пожара березовых и лиственничных древостоев светлой тайги в исследовательском районе Алтансумбэр (горная лесостепная зона, северные склоны). В исследовательском районе Бугант (таежная зона, южные и восточные склоны) изучено влияние климатических факторов на прирост березы и проведено сравнение с результатами Алтансумбэр. Различия в отношении повреждений от пожара между березой и сосной (Pinus sylvestris L.) оценивались отдельно. Во всех исследованных древостоях обоих исследуемых районов были обнаружены признаки лесных пожаров, и большинство древостоев также показали признаки предыдущих мелкомасштабных лесозаготовок. Посредством дендрохронологических методов были рассмотрены отношения климата и роста и проведен анализ экстремальных годов. В районе исследований Алтансумбэр непространственная и пространственная структура леса была проанализирована как до, так и непосредственно после прореживания и после трех лет. Анализы произведены в форме анализа прореживания с использованием L-функции и радиальной функции распределения. Влияние снижения конкуренции на прирост остальных деревьев было описано и проанализировано с помощью линейных смешанных моделей. Подрост был зафиксирован на всех площадях в Алтансумбэр в 2012 и в Бугант в 2011 году и возобновился на некоторых площадях в Бугант в 2013 году. Для обоих видов, лиственницы и березы, осадки во время позднего лета и ранней осени предыдущего года и непосредственно перед началом вегетационного периода текущего года были решающим климатическим фактором, определяющим рост деревьев. Анализ экстремальных годов сильного и слабого роста показал значительное сходство между обоими видами. Достаточные осадки перед началом вегетационного периода были для роста молодых деревьев важнее, чем для старых. В более сухой и высококонтинентальной горной лесостепной зоне (Алтансумбэр) по сравнению с более влажной таежной зоной (Бугант) связь между осадками и ростом березы была более выраженной. Признаки повреждения насекомыми были найдены только в Бугант (таежная зона). Все хронологии берез показали высокую чувствительность к более высоким температурам, как правило, весной, и взаимосвязь между временным возникновением негативного соотношения температуры и роста и направления склона. На северных склонах в Алтансумбэр статистические отрицательные соотношения температуры и роста березы произошли в мае. На южных склонах в Буганте это отрицательное соотношение возникло раньше по времени, в апреле. Это отрицательное соотношение температуры и роста в хронологии лиственницы в Алтансумбэр не было установлено. В обоих исследуемых районах среднегодовые показатели роста хвойных пород были выше, чем у березы. Наблюдаемое различие в отношении показателей роста и чувствительности к весенним температурам может быть связано с различной защитной способностью березы и хвойных пород от очень распространенных низкоинтенсивных поверхностных пожаров, которые имеют свой пиковый сезон весной и частично управляются климатическими факторами. Количество видимых поврежденных огнем берез с тонкой корой в Буганте было более, чем в восемь раз выше, чем сосны с толстой корой из того же древостоя. В древостоях, где береза смешана со светлыми хвойными породами, малоинтенсивный режим пожаров имеет более негативное и длительное влияния на рост берез, чем на рост хвойных пород с толстой корой. С другой стороны, разрушение древостоя интенсивными пожарами или сокращение площади вследствие повторяющейся интенсивной вырубки может благоприятствовать преобладанию березы из-за ее способности прорастания – поросль от пня. Характеристики структуры леса и реакции на воздействия изучались исключительно в исследовательском районе Алтансумбэр и могли быть связаны с процессами сукцессии, пожарами и нерегулируемыми вырубками. Агрегированное размещение деревьев было подтверждено для всех лиственничных древостоев и большинства березовых древостоев в Алтансумбэр до выборочной рубки. Вследствие прорастания береза часто встречается агрегировано в очень узких, небольших группах. Лиственница, напротив, появилась в более свободных кластерах, где деревья распределены на более дальнем расстоянии. Вследствие того, что березы имеют меньшую продолжительность жизни и интенсивнее конкурируют друг с другом, у березовых древостоев имеется способность развиваться к случайному размещению деревьев раньше, чем у лиственничных древостоев. Конкуренция сыграла значительную роль в исследуемых древостоях светлой тайги. В исследовательском районе Алтансумбэр соотношение между конкуренцией и ростом оценивалось до, непосредственно после и через три года после прореживания. Прореживания проводились с различной интенсивностью (5,4% - 52,4% площадь сечения). Основными критериями отбора деревьев для рубки были относительно низкое состояние здоровья и способность к росту, на что указывало повреждения ствола и развитие кроны, форма ствола, а также расстояние между отдельными деревьями. Этот отбор привел в значительной мере к низовому прореживанию. Как и ожидалось, прореживание способствовало регулярному размещению деревьев. Тем не менее, дальнейший рост новых стволов привело к тому, что распределение деревьев древостоя менялось обратно в направлении агрегированного. Прирост был в значительной степени вызван ослаблением конкуренции как результат прореживания, и ответ прироста был действительным в абсолютном и относительном выражении. Относительное увеличение прироста по сравнению с периодом до прореживания было немного выше для березы, чем для лиственницы, несмотря на сравнительно поздний средний возраст древостоев на момент прореживания в 2009 году, особенно для березы. Данные были полученны из анализа годичных колец деревьев ( средний возраст лиственница: 22-61 год, березы - 44-68 лет). Основываясь на региональных данных недавней национальной инвентаризации лесов (MPNFI) как норме, количество подроста во всех древостоях в Алтансумбэр относительно низко, тогда как число подроста в Бугант выше среднего. В целом результаты показали, что более методическая стратегия управления лесами является возможной с научной точки зрения. Вместе с тем местное управление лесами должно служить многофункциональным целям регионального лесопользования. Потенциал лесов обеспечивать такие экосистемные услуги, как защита водного режима и почвы, постоянный растительный покров, биоразнообразие, внесение вклада в снижение негативных последствий изменения климата должен быть гарантирован. Это, принимая во внимание длительное изменение климата, усиление воздействий и развитие требований общества, особенно сложно. Основная цель лесоводства должна заключаться в повышении устойчивости и жизнестойкости лесных экосистем к различным воздействиям и одновременно делать возможным использование древостоев. Две модели использования представляются возможными: промышленное производство изделий из дерева (в основном из лиственницы и сосны) или производство энергии на базе древесины (в основном береза), заготовка дров. Плотные древостои светлой тайги, отведенные под производственные леса, могут быть подвергнуты прореживанию или выборочной рубке от одного до двух раз в первые 50-60 лет. в соответствии с вышеназванными критериями. При выборочной рубке в форме небольших групп (Femel) в этих древостоях происходит способствование регенерации и переход в окончательное пользование. Подсадка подроста должна рассматриваться только в том случае, если желаемая регенерация недостаточна или если древостой должен быть изменен на другой древесный состав. Часть сукцессивных березовых древостоев рядом с поселениями могла бы управляться как низкоствольный лес для получения дров. Директивы лесоводства должны принимать во внимание различные специфические экологические и климатические условия, различный возраст древостоев, цели в области лесоводства и реалистические варианты управления. Управленческие меры должны быть усилены путем национального и регионального управления лесами. Рекомендуется также анализировать экономическую эффективность лесохозяйственных операций, таких, как различные системы заготовки древесины. Результаты и выводы проекта охватывают лишь относительно короткие временные рамки. Необходимо продолжить наблюдение долгосрочного влияния выборочной рубки, особенно с точки зрения стабильности древостоя, почвы и спорадической вечной мерзлоты. ; Die nordmongolische Gebirgswaldsteppe, die Übergangszone zwischen Taiga und offener Steppe, besitzt eine reiche Tier- und Pflanzenwelt. Für die Landwirtschaft ist diese Region der produktivste Landesteil und weist für die Mongolei eine überdurchschnittlich hohe Siedlungsdichte auf. Helle Taigabestände, die von Lärche (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) dominiert werden, stellen das Rückgrat der mongolischen Wirtschaftswälder dar und sind zunehmend einer wachsenden Nachfrage an Industrie- und Brennholz ausgesetzt. Die borealen Wälder der mongolischen Gebirgswaldsteppenzone und der Taigazone sind, vor allem seit dem Ende des letzten Jahrhunderts, sichtbar zurückgegangen. Die hauptsächlichen Triebkräfte dieser Vegetationsverschiebung sind Änderungen in Bezug auf Landnutzung, Waldbrandhäufigkeit und das Auftreten von Schädlingen und Klimawandel. Artenzusammensetzung, Zuwachs und Bestandesstruktur werden stark von den verschiedenen natürlichen und anthropogenen Störungsregimen und auch Klimafaktoren beeinflusst. Ein Verständnis zum Einfluss von Klimafaktoren auf diese Störungen und den ökologischen Einfluss von Störungen auf Waldbestände und ihre Reaktion in Bezug auf Struktur, Zuwachs und Verjüngung ist essentiell für die Entwicklung von ökologisch und regional angepassten Waldbewirtschaftungsprogrammen. Häufigere intensive großflächige Störungen, vor allem Holzeinschlag und Waldbrände, förderten das Auftreten von Sukzessionswäldern, die oft von Birken (Betula platyphylla Sukaczev) dominiert werden. Trotz laufender Bemühungen zur Etablierung alternativer Waldbewirtschaftungsansätze in der Mongolei, fehlt es an Wissen über die Auswirkungen der wichtigsten Einflussfaktoren und Störungen auf Waldstruktur und Waldwachstum und an ausreichenden Kapazitäten. Eine der Provinzen mit traditionell intensiver Landnutzung ist der Selenge Aimag, nördlich von Ulaanbaatar. Im Jahr 2009 wurden von der Mongolischen Universität für Lebenswissenschaften in Darchan und der Waldnutzergruppe Altansumber Referenzflächen und experimentelle Durchforstungsversuche eingerichtet. Die Mehrzahl der Forschungsflächen weist eine Größe von jeweils 2500m² auf. Diese Initiative wurde durch das UNFAO-Projekt " Capacity Building and Institutional Development for Participatory Natural Resources Management and Conservation in Forest Areas of Mongolia" (GCP / MON / 002 / NET) unterstützt, welches durch die niederländische Regierung finanziert wurde. Das Forschungsgebiet Altansumber liegt westlich von Darchan und ist ein Paradebeispiel für die mongolische Gebirgswaldsteppenzone. Das Forschungsgebiet Bugant liegt östlich von Darchan im westlichen Khentii-Gebirge und ist Teil der dicht bewaldeten Taigazone. Die Auswirkungen von Klimafaktoren und selektiver Holznutzung auf Waldstruktur und Wachstum von Birke und Lärche wurden in feuergestörten Beständen der hellen Taiga des Forschungsgebietes Altansumber (Gebirgswaldsteppenzone, Nordhänge) untersucht. Im Forschungsgebiet Bugant (Taigazone, Süd- und Osthänge) wurde der Einfluss von Klimafaktoren auf den Zuwachs der Birke untersucht und mit den Ergebnissen von Altansumber verglichen. Unterschiede in Bezug auf Brandschäden zwischen Birke und Kiefer (Pinus sylvestris L.) wurden separat in einer kleinen Fallstudie erfasst. In allen untersuchten Beständen beider Forschungsgebiete wurden Anzeichen von Waldbränden gefunden, und die meisten Bestände zeigten auch Spuren von ehemaliger, kleinräumiger Holznutzung. Mittels dendrochronologischer Methoden wurden die Klima-Wachstums-Beziehungen untersucht und Weiserjahranalysen durchgeführt. Im Forschungsgebiet Altansumber wurde die nicht-räumliche und räumliche Waldstruktur sowohl vor, als auch direkt nach der Durchforstung und drei Jahre später analysiert. Die Analysen wurden in Form von Eingriffsanalysen unter Verwendung von L-funktionen und Paarkorrelationsfunktionen durchgeführt. Die Auswirkung von Konkurrenzverringerung auf den Zuwachs der verbleibenden Bäume wurde mittels linear gemischter Modelle beschrieben und analysiert. Die Verjüngungsschicht wurde auf allen Flächen in Altansumber 2012 und in Bugant 2011 aufgenommen und auf einigen Flächen in Bugant 2013 wiederaufgenommen. Für beide Arten, Lärche und Birke, war Niederschlag während der Zeit des Spätsommers und Frühherbstes des Vorjahres und direkt vor der Vegetationsperiode des laufenden Jahres, ein entscheidender Klimafaktor und bestimmend für das Baumwachstum. Die Weiserjahranalyse zeigte eine weitgehend gute Übereinstimmung zwischen beiden Arten. Ausreichend Niederschlag vor dem Beginn der Vegetationsperiode war für das Wachstum junger Birken wichtiger als für ältere. Die Beziehung zwischen Niederschlag und Zuwachs der Birke war in der trockeneren und hochkontinentalen Gebirgswaldsteppenzone (Altansumber), im Vergleich zu der feuchteren Taigazone (Bugant), ausgeprägter. Anzeichen für Insektenschäden konnten nur in Bugant (Taigazone) gefunden werden. Alle Birkenchronologien zeigten eine hohe Empfindlichkeit gegenüber höheren Temperaturen, typischerweise im Frühjahr, sowie eine Beziehung zwischen dem zeitlichen Auftreten der negativen Temperatur-Wachstums-Beziehung und Hangexposition. Auf den Nordhängen in Altansumber trat eine signifikante negative Korrelation zwischen Temperatur und Zuwachs der Birke im Mai auf. Auf den Südhängen in Bugant trat diese negative Korrelation zeitlich früher, im April, auf. Diese signifikant negative Temperatur-Wachstums-Beziehung konnte für die Lärchen-Chronologie in Altansumber nicht bestätigt werden. In beiden Forschungsgebieten war die durchschnittliche jährliche Zuwachsleistung der Nadelbäume höher als die der Birke. Die beobachtete Differenz, bezüglich der Zuwachsleistung und der Empfindlichkeit gegenüber der Frühjahrstemperatur, könnte zu einem gewissen Grad mit unterschiedlichen Schutzmechanismen von Birken- und Nadelbäumen, gegenüber den sehr häufig auftretenden niedrig intensiven Bodenfeuer zusammenhängen, welche im Frühjahr ihre Hauptsaison haben und teilweise durch Klimafaktoren gesteuert werden. Die Anzahl von sichtbar feuergeschädigten Bäumen war in Bugant für die dünnborkigen Birken bis über achtmal so hoch wie die für die dickborkigen Kiefern aus dem gleichen Bestand. In aus Birken und Nadelbäumen gemischten Beständen hat ein niedrig intensives Bodenfeuerregime einen negativeren und länger anhaltenden Einfluss auf das Wachstum der Birke als auf das Wachstum von dickborkigen Nadelbäumen. Auf der anderen Seite fördern intensive Brände oder intensiver Einschlag oder Kahlschlag die Dominanz von Birkensukzession aufgrund ihrer Fähigkeit zum Stockausschlag. Charakteristika der Waldstruktur und Störungsreaktion wurden ausschließlich im Forschungsgebiet Altansumber untersucht und konnten mit Sukzessionsprozessen, Waldbränden und ungeregeltem Holzeinschlag in Verbindung gebracht werden. Eine signifikant unregelmäßige ("geklumpte") Baumverteilung konnte für alle Lärchen- und die meisten Birkenbestände in Altansumber vor der Durchforstung bestätigt werden. Aufgrund von Stockausschlag traten junge Birken häufig in sehr engen, kleinen Trupps auf. Lärchen hingegen tauchten in lockereren Clustern verteilt über größere Distanzen auf. Da Birken geringere Lebensspannen aufweisen und intensiver untereinander konkurrieren, könnten sie in reinen Beständen eine zufällige räumliche Verteilung früher als die Lärche erreichen. Konkurrenz spielte eine signifikante Rolle in den untersuchten hellen Taigabeständen. Im Forschungsgebiet Altansumber wurde die Beziehung zwischen Konkurrenz und Zuwachs vor, direkt nach und drei Jahre nach der Durchforstung ausgewertet. Die Eingriffe wurden in verschiedenen Durchforstungsstärken durchgeführt (5,4% - 52,4% G). Hauptkriterien für die Auswahl von zu entfernenden Bäumen waren relativ niedrigerer Gesundheitszustand und Wachstumspotenzial, angedeutet durch Stammschäden, Kronenentwicklung und Stammform sowie Abstand zwischen den einzelnen Bäumen. Diese Auswahl führte weitgehend zu Niederdurchforstungen. Wie erwartet förderte Durchforstung eine regelmäßige Baumverteilung. Allerdings führte das Einwachsen von neuen Stämmen die Waldstruktur zurück in Richtung geklumpter Baumverteilung. Der Zuwachs wurde signifikant durch die, von der Durchforstung ausgelösten, Konkurrenzverringerung gesteuert und die Zuwachsreaktion war in absoluter und relativer Betrachtung gültig. Die relative Zuwachssteigerung gegenüber der Periode vor der Durchforstung war für die Birke etwas höher als für die Lärche, trotz der relativ hohen durchschnittlichen Bestandesalter zum Zeitpunkt der Durchforstung im Jahr 2009, insbesondere für die Birken. Die Daten wurden aus Jahrringanalysen abgeleitet (mittleres Alter der Lärchenbestände: ca. 22 und 61 Jahre; Birkenbestände: ca. 44 und 68 Jahre). Basierend auf den regionalen Daten aus der aktuellen nationalen Waldinventur (MPNFI) als Referenzwert, ist die Anzahl in der Verjüngungsschicht in Altansumber in allen Beständen nach der Durchforstung relativ niedrig, wohingegen die Anzahl in der Verjüngungsschicht in Bugant überdurchschnittlich ist. Insgesamt zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass eine mehr methodisch fundierte Waldbewirtschaftungsstrategie möglich ist. Jedoch müssen die örtlichen waldbaulichen Maßnahmen den multifunktionalen regionalen Waldbewirtschaftungszielen dienen. Die Kapazität der Wälder weiterhin Ökosystemleistungen, wie Wasser- und Bodenschutz, kontinuierliche Vegetationsabdeckung und Biodiversität zur Verfügung zu stellen, und zur Minderung von negativen Effekten durch den Klimawandel beizutragen, muss gesichert werden. Dies ist angesichts des anhaltenden Klimawandels, der zunehmenden Häufigkeit von Störungen und der Entwicklung gesellschaftlicher Bedürfnisse besonders schwierig. Das wichtigste waldbauliche Ziel sollte die Verbesserung der Stabilität und Resilienz der Waldökosysteme gegenüber unterschiedlichen Störungen sein und dabei simultan die Nutzung einiger Bestände ermöglichen. Zwei Nutzungsmodelle könnten möglich sein: Industrieholzproduktion (hauptsächlich Lärche und Kiefer) oder Energieholzproduktion (hauptsächlich Birke). Dichte helle Taigabestände, die als Wirtschaftswälder ausgewiesen sind, könnten in den ersten 50-60 Jahren ein bis zwei Mal, entsprechend den oben genannten Kriterien, durchforstet oder selektiv eingeschlagen werden. Zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt könnten diese Bestände dann in Femelschlagsysteme zur Förderung der Verjüngung und zur endgültigen Nutzung überführt werden. Unterpflanzen von Jungwuchs sollte nur in Betracht gezogen werden, wenn die gewünschte Verjüngung nicht ausreicht oder wenn der Bestand in eine andere Baumartenzusammensetzung überführt werden soll. Ein Teil der Sukzessionsbirkenbestände in der Nähe von Siedlungen könnte als Niederwälder zur Energieholzgewinnung bewirtschaftet werden. Waldbaurichtlinien müssen erarbeitet werden und die unterschiedlichen speziellen ökologischen und klimatischen Bedingungen verschiedener Bestandesalter, die waldbaulichen Ziele und realistische Bewirtschaftungsoptionen berücksichtigen. Kontrollmechanismen müssen von der nationalen und regionalen Forstverwaltung verstärkt werden. Es wird empfohlen, auch die ökonomische Effizienz von waldbaulichen Operationen, z. B. verschiedene Erntesysteme zu analysieren. Die Ergebnisse und Schlussfolgerungen des Projektes stammen aus einem relativ kurzen Beobachtungszeitraum. Die Langzeitwirkungen von verschiedenen selektiven Einschlagsintensitäten müssen untersucht werden, insbesondere in Bezug auf Bestandesstabilität, Boden und sporadischen Permafrost. ; The northern Mongolian mountain forest steppe, the transition zone between taiga and open steppe, is rich in plant and animal life. It is the most productive region in the country in terms of agriculture and, as a result, exhibits settlement density above average for Mongolia. Light taiga stands, dominated by larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.), are the backbone of Mongolian production forests and become increasingly opened to the growing demand for timber and firewood. The boreal forests of the Mongolian mountain forest steppe and taiga zones have experienced a visible decline in forest area and quality, especially since the end of the last century. The main drivers of this vegetation shift are changes in land use, fire frequency, pest occurrence and climate change. Species composition, growth and stand structure are strongly affected by the different natural and anthropogenic disturbance regimes and climate factors. Understanding the impact of climate factors on these disturbances and the ecological impact of disturbances on forest stands and their response in terms of structure, growth and regeneration is essential for the development of ecologically and regionally adapted forest management programs. Increasingly intensive large-scale disturbances, especially logging and forest fires, have boosted the presence of succession forests, often dominated by birch (Betula platyphylla Sukaczev). Despite ongoing initiatives for the establishment of alternative forest management approaches in Mongolia, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the influence of the main impact factors and disturbances on forest structure and forest growth, as well as a lack of capacity. One of the provinces with traditionally intense land use is the Selenge Aimag located to the north of Ulaanbaatar. Reference plots and experimental thinning trials were established in 2009 by the Mongolian University of Life Sciences in Darkhan and the forest user group Altansumber. The majority of the plots exhibit a size of 2500 m² each. This initiative was supported by the UNFAO-Project "Capacity Building and Institutional Development for Participatory Natural Resources Management and Conservation in Forest Areas of Mongolia" (GCP/MON/002/NET), which was financed by the government of the Netherlands. The research area Altansumber is situated west of Darkhan and is a prime example of the Mongolian mountain forest steppe zone. The research area Bugant is situated east of Darkhan in the western Khentii Mountains and is part of the densely forested taiga zone. The effects of climate factors and selective cutting on forest structure and growth of birch and larch were studied in the fire disturbed light taiga stands of the research area Altansumber (mountain forest steppe zone, north-facing slopes). In the research area Bugant (taiga zone, south- and east-facing slopes), the impact of climate factors on the growth of birch was studied and compared with the results from Altansumber. Differences concerning fire damage between birch and pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) were assessed separately in a small case study. Signs of fire were found in all researched stands in both research areas, and most stands also showed traces of previous small-scale logging activities. Using dendrochronological methods, the climate-growth relationships were examined and pointer year analyses conducted. In the research area Altansumber non-spatial and spatial forest structure was analysed before, directly after the thinning and three years later. The analyses were conducted in form of harvest event analyses and using L-functions and pair correlation functions. The effect of competition relief on the growth of the remaining trees was modelled with linear mixed-effects models. Regeneration was assessed in all plots in Altansumber in 2012 and in Bugant in 2011 and re-assessed in some plots in Bugant in 2013. For both, larch and birch, precipitation during the late summer and early autumn of the previous year and directly before the growing season of the current year was a decisive climatic factor determining tree growth. Pointer year analysis showed good agreement between the two species. Sufficient precipitation prior to the start of the growing season was more relevant for the growth of younger birch trees than for older ones. The relationship between precipitation and the growth of birch was more pronounced in the drier and highly continental mountain forest steppe zone (Altansumber) than in the more humid taiga zone (Bugant). Indication of insect damage was found only in Bugant (taiga zone). All birch chronologies showed a strong sensitivity to higher temperatures, typically during spring, and a relationship between the timing of the negative temperature-growth relation and slope exposition. On the north-facing slopes in Altansumber, the significant negative correlation between temperature and growth of birch occurred in May. On the south-facing slopes in Bugant, this negative correlation occurred earlier, in April. This negative temperature-growth relation was not confirmed for the larch chronology in Altansumber. In both research areas, the average annual growth performance was higher for conifers than for birch. The observed difference concerning growth performance and sensitivity to spring temperature may be to some extend related to the different protection capacities of birch and conifers against the very common low-intensity surface fires, which peak during spring and are partly driven by the climate factors. The number of obviously fire damaged trees in Bugant was up to over eight times higher for the thin-barked birches than for the thick-barked pine trees. In conifer-birch mixed stands, a low intensity surface fire regime has a more negative and longer-lasting influence on the growth of birch than on the growth of thick-barked conifers. However, intensive stand-replacing fires and repeated intensive cutting or clear cutting favour the dominance of birch succession due to their re-sprouting capacity. Forest structure characteristics and disturbance response were studied exclusively in Altansumber and could be linked to succession processes, fire and unregulated logging. A significantly irregular ("clumped") tree distribution was confirmed for all larch stands and the majority of the birch stands in Altansumber before the thinning. Due to coppicing, young birch often occurred in very small, tight clusters. Larch, in contrast, occurred in looser clusters spread over greater distances. Because birches have shorter life spans and compete more intensely with one another, they may have the capacity to develop in pure stands a random spatial distribution sooner than larch. Competition played a significant role in the light taiga stands monitored in this study. In Altansumber, the relationship between competition and growth was evaluated before, directly after and three years after the thinning. The thinnings were carried out with different thinning intensities (removal: 5.4% - 52.4% G). The main criteria for selecting trees for removal were relatively lower health status and growth capacity, as indicated by damages at the stem and crown development, by stem shape, as well as spacing between trees. This selection largely lead to thinnings from below. As expected, thinning promoted regular tree distribution. However, the ingrowth of new stems redirected stand structure towards clumped tree distribution. Growth was significantly triggered by the thinning-induced competition relief, and growth response was valid in absolute and relative terms. Compared to the period before the thinning, relative growth increase was slightly higher for birch than for larch despite the relatively late average stand age at the time of thinning in 2009, especially for the birch trees. Data were derived from tree-ring analyses (average age of the larch stands: ca. 22 and 61 years; birch stands: ca. 44 and 68 years). Based on the regional data of the recent national forest inventory (MPNFI) as reference values, regeneration in Altansumber was relatively low in all stands after thinning, whereas regeneration in Bugant was over average. Overall, the results indicate that a more methodical forest management strategy is feasible. Local silvicultural actions, however, need to serve multifunctional regional forest management objectives. The capacity of the forests to provide ecosystem services such as water and soil protection, continuous vegetation cover, and biodiversity and to contribute to the mitigation of negative effects of climate change has to be ensured. This is particularly challenging in the face of ongoing climate change, increasing disturbance frequency and the development of societal needs. The main silvicultural objectives should be to improve the stability and resilience of forest ecosystems against different disturbances while simultaneously enabling the utilization of some stands. Two utilization models may be possible: timber production (predominantly larch and pine) or energy wood production (predominantly birch). Dense light taiga stands designated as production forests could be thinned or selectively cut one to two times in the first 50-60 years of growth according to the criteria mentioned above. At a later stage, these stands could be transformed to shelterwood cutting systems for promotion of regeneration and for final utilization. Underplanting of regeneration should only be considered if the desired regeneration is not sufficient or if the stand shall be transformed to another tree species composition. Some of the succession birch stands close to settlements could be managed as coppice forests for energy wood production. Forest management guidelines need to be elaborated and take into account the special ecological and climatic conditions, different stand conditions, silvicultural objectives and realistic management options. Control mechanisms need to be reinforced by the national forest administration. It is recommended to analyze also the economic efficiency of silvicultural operations, e.g. different harvest systems. The results and conclusions of the project are derived from a relatively short study period. Long term effects of different selective cutting intensities need to be studied, especially with regard to stand stability, soil and sporadic permafrost.

Importantes falencias en los procedimientos de licenciamiento ambiental en Colombia se relacionan directamente con la degradación generalizada de sus franjas costeras y zonas litorales. Estas áreas se encuentran afectadas severamente por intervenciones humanas que interfieren con los procesos naturales y modifican sustancialmente sus balances sedimentarios, contextos geomorfológicos y condiciones físico-bióticas. Entre muchos otros ejemplos, se destacan: a) La erosión generalizada y la destrucción de playas y dunas en el delta del Río Magdalena, asociadas a la construcción de los tajamares de Bocas de Ceniza; b) La modificación drástica de la hidrodinámica de los litorales de los departamentos del Atlántico y Magdalena por proyectos de infraestructura lineal; c) la híper-salinización y pérdida de más de 30,000 hectáreas de manglar en el complejo lagunar de la Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta (CGSM) debido a la expansión de la frontera agrícola e infraestructura lineal d) el retroceso acelerado de playas y acantilados en el Caribe sur, debido a actividades como la deforestación, extracción de materiales de playa y construcción desordenada y caótica de cerca de 500 obras de defensa costera; y e) La salinización de más de 10,000 hectáreas de pantanos de agua dulce en la Bahía de Cispatá, como consecuencia de la formación inducida del nuevo delta de Tinajones. En este sentido, la ubicación de infraestructura en terrenos geológica y geomorfológicamente inestables, afectados por fenómenos como la subsidencia costera y el diapirismo de lodos, plantea amenazas y riesgos naturales de primer orden. Este es un panorama palpable en el presente y futuro de zonas urbanas y rurales de ciudades como Barranquilla, Cartagena, Arboletes y Necoclí, todas ellas con desarrollos futuros (industria, puertos, urbanísticos) de la mayor importancia. Los costos ambientales asociados a intervenciones como las mencionadas son incalculables, sin contar la existencia de otros numerosos ejemplos, que evidencian entre otros factores un insuficiente reconocimiento a la geomofología en la evaluación, seguimiento y control de las intervenciones humanas en el entorno marino-costero. Estas funciones de manejo ambiental en Colombia se surten por medio del procedimiento de licenciamiento ambiental, que están a cargo de autoridades de orden nacional y regional según la Ley 99 de 1993. En el contexto anterior, se plantean las siguientes preguntas de investigación:  ¿Qué elementos del licenciamiento ambiental de intervenciones en ambientes costeros pueden mejorarse, dando prioridad a los contextos geomorfológicos particulares de las zonas de intervención?  ¿Cómo ha evolucionado el sistema regulatorio en Colombia con respecto a las intervenciones humanas sobre los ambientes costeros? 20  ¿Qué mejoras técnicas se pueden hacer al marco regulatorio colombiano para guiar la evaluación, seguimiento y control de intervenciones humanas desde el enfoque geomorfológico de susceptibilidad? Este trabajo examina el marco regulatorio ambiental que actualmente rige en las zonas costeras colombianas, a través de dos niveles geográficos. En un primer nivel macro se caracterizan y analizan las intervenciones humanas en el litoral Caribe continental, región que representa una muestra significativa del contexto colombiano por sus mayores niveles de ocupación humana y consecuentes perturbaciones antropogénicas. En un segundo nivel, de mayor detalle, se define e ilustra el enfoque conceptual y metodológico que resulta de esta investigación, con la demostración en una de las unidades ambientales costeras definidas por el decreto 1120 de 2013 para el manejo costero integrado. Para responder a los interrogantes planteados, el Capítulo I introduce brevemente la evolución geomorfológica histórica de los litorales colombianos desde finales del siglo XVIII. En este "abrebocas" se evidencia la compleja geología y geomorfología de las costas Caribe y Pacífico de Colombia, en las cuales islas-barrera deltaicas de bajo relieve y manglares contrastan con relieves rocosos escarpados, acantilados y amplias plataformas costeras emergidas y sumergidas. La evolución histórica de los litorales colombianos involucra cambios en la línea de costa estimados en cientos de metros, a tasas máximas de 40 metros al año (Punta Rey, Arboletes, Bahía de Tumaco), y pérdidas y ganancias de terrenos del orden de decenas de kilómetros cuadrados (Ciénaga de Mallorquín, Isla Cascajo, Delta de Tinajones-Bahía de Cispatá, Golfo de Urabá, Delta de los ríos San Juan y Patía). Estos casos reflejan variaciones drásticas en los balances de sedimentos del litoral, muchos de ellos provocados o influenciados por acciones humanas, como infraestructura para la navegación, modificación de cauces y obras de protección costera. El Capítulo II identifica la perspectiva geomorfológica en el licenciamiento ambiental de intervenciones costeras en Colombia, a partir de su comparación con los marcos regulatorios de Italia, España y Cuba. Las entrevistas y revisiones documentales destacaron 59 intervenciones asociadas con usos y actividades humanas en las zonas costeras, cuya obligatoriedad para el licenciamiento varía entre países. Los procesos geomorfológicos naturales también fueron analizados dentro de los criterios técnicos incluidos en las directrices oficiales para estudios ambientales. Se concluye que, a pesar de la aceptación mundial de las evaluaciones de impacto ambiental como procedimiento de licenciamiento, su aplicación es aún muy diversa y limitada en cuanto a la pertinencia de los procesos geomorfológicos costeros. Por consiguiente, se identifican siete buenas prácticas para la evaluación y el control de los impactos antropogénicos en la zona costera y se introduce un nuevo enfoque, orientado en procesos, para los procedimientos de licenciamiento ambiental. 21 En el Capítulo III se hace un inventario y se caracterizan las intervenciones humanas sobre la costa continental del Caribe colombiano, para establecer una línea base regional. A partir de imágenes de Google Earth, se ubicaron un total de 2,742 obras y actividades, que representan 29 tipos diferentes de intervenciones humanas. Este inventario se complementó con una evaluación del impacto general de cada intervención, en función de cuatro atributos de sus efectos geomorfológicos, a saber, extensión, intensidad, reversibilidad y persistencia. Los tres tipos de intervenciones humana más comunes (asentamientos de baja densidad, espolones y asentamientos de lujo con muelle) fueron también los más impactantes. Sin embargo, algunas intervenciones (por ejemplo, asentamientos de alta densidad o infraestructura vial) tuvieron valores de impacto ambiental más altos que otras más frecuentes. A partir de este análisis exhaustivo del Caribe colombiano, en el Capítulo IV se evalúa el marco regulatorio ambiental nacional aplicable a las áreas costeras. Se evidencia que el procedimiento de licenciamiento en Colombia actualmente solo regula cuatro de los diez tipos de intervenciones con mayor efecto en las zonas costeras colombianas. También se resalta que el número de obras y actividades cubiertas en cada nueva reforma legislativa disminuyó constantemente con el tiempo. Adicionalmente, se extrajeron tres implicaciones políticas para la planificación costera y oceánica, relacionadas con: a) la diversidad geográfica de las zonas costeras tropicales; b) la necesidad de instrumentos de capacidad de carga territorial; y c) la falta de articulación de los instrumentos de planificación territorial. Las conclusiones identifican una brecha importante entre la toma de decisiones técnicas y políticas en el marco regulatorio ambiental de Colombia, lo que subraya la necesidad de diseñar nuevos métodos para evaluar la amplitud y la dimensión de la dinámica geomorfológica en un contexto de manejo ambiental. Por consiguiente, los capítulos anteriores resaltan tres deficiencias importantes en Colombia, con respecto al manejo ambiental de intervenciones humanas en zonas costeras: 1) la ausencia de una estrategia para determinar intervenciones que requieren un procedimiento de licencia ambiental (screening); 2) una deficiente definición del alcance de los estudios ambientales a través de requisitos de información pertinentes (scoping); y 3) la desarticulación de los instrumentos de gestión ambiental, como la planificación territorial y las licencias ambientales. Todos estos elementos ratifican que el marco regulatorio ambiental en Colombia ha sido insuficiente hasta la fecha para manejar el impacto antropogénico en los ambientes costeros, debido a que no se tiene en cuenta la susceptibilidad natural al efecto de las intervenciones humanas. En este trabajo se define susceptibilidad como la predisposición de una unidad ambiental (sistema socio-natural) para experimentar cambios o afectaciones debido a la introducción de una intervención humana. Con el fin de proponer mejoras al sistema ambiental colombiano, el Capítulo V plantea un nuevo modelo conceptual y metodológico para guiar la evaluación, el seguimiento y el control de los 22 impactos humanos desde una perspectiva geomorfológica. Este producto novedoso se ha denominado Susceptibilidad a las Intervenciones Humanas con fines de Licenciamiento Ambiental (SHIELP en inglés). La arquitectura de este modelo tiene tres componentes, que son particulares para un tipo de entorno, a saber, procesos geomorfológicos, configuraciones geomorfológicas e intervenciones humanas potencialmente impactantes. Cada uno de estos componentes se traduce en una variable por medio de calificaciones de expertos y el cálculo de lógica difusa. Por lo tanto, el sistema experto-difuso SHIELP cuantifica la susceptibilidad de una geoforma distintiva a los efectos de un tipo característico de intervención humana, a través de la perturbación estimada en cada proceso geomorfológico que configura el tipo de ambiente en estudio. Como demostración, este capítulo también documenta el diseño del sistema experto-difuso para ambientes costeros, esbozado en talleres de investigación con miembros del Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras "José Benito Vives de Andréis"- INVEMAR. El rol que cumple este instituto como asesor oficial de las autoridades ambientales en cuestiones de evaluación de impacto, demuestran su pertinencia para soportar la base de conocimiento experto del modelo. Como resultado, el modelo SHIELP se aplicó con los parámetros establecidos para los entornos costeros, derivando en una base de datos de valores de susceptibilidad para 4,524 interacciones (configuración litoral frente a intervención). La aplicabilidad real de este ejercicio corresponde a la traducción de esta base de datos en un criterio técnico para mejorar el marco regulatorio colombiano. Por un lado, cinco rangos de susceptibilidad se vincularon a cinco instrumentos diferenciados, dos de los cuales articulan el licenciamiento ambiental con planes territoriales, mientras que los otros diferencian el tipo licenciamiento pertinente según las propiedades de ubicación de la intervención (screening). Por otro lado, los instrumentos diferenciados también se combinaron con cuatro grados de requisitos de información para la definición del alcance en los estudios ambientales respectivos (scoping). De esta manera, el valor de susceptibilidad de una intervención dada en una configuración determinada (interacción) se ajusta a un rango percentilico que establece la competencia territorial (regional o nacional) para su control ambiental, así como un instrumento de licencia específico con requisitos de información diferenciados para la definición de la línea base ambiental. Finalmente, la operación del modelo SHIELP se demostró con un estudio de caso: la unidad ambiental costera Rio Magdalena - complejo Canal del Dique - sistema lagunar Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta. La información geográfica de esta unidad costera regional se interpretó de acuerdo con los parámetros definidos en el modelo SHIELP para ambientes costeros. Se delimitaron 154 polígonos en el área de estudio, de acuerdo con las 40 configuraciones litorales identificadas. Como resultado, 13 mapas cartográficos representan esta área, con los niveles de susceptibilidad atribuidos a cada configuración para las 52 intervenciones potencialmente impactantes. A fin de ilustrar la aplicabilidad del modelo, se presentan cuatro escenarios para discriminar las 23 intervenciones por instrumento de manejo ambiental (screening) y para definir los requerimientos de información sobre procesos geomorfológicos (scoping). De esta manera el modelo SHIELP especifica el instrumento de licenciamiento ambiental para las intervenciones humanas y el alcance correspondiente del estudio técnico requerido, dadas las características de su interacción con la configuración gemorfológica. Las Conclusiones Generales documentan reflexiones y recomendaciones al Sistema Nacional Ambiental colombiano (SINA) para implementar los resultados de esta investigación. Además, este trabajo abre una perspectiva amplia para futuras investigaciones en el enfoque de la susceptibilidad al efecto de las intervenciones humanas. El modelo SHIELP para entornos costeros se puede replicar en diversas geografías para articular progresivamente una base de datos nacional de susceptibilidad costera. Asimismo, el esquema metodológico presentado puede aplicarse en diferentes tipos de entornos, distintos de la zona costera. La ampliación de este enfoque de susceptibilidad geomorfológica sobre la variedad de ecosistemas tropicales, establecería el camino para una transición exitosa desde la actual concepción antropocéntrica y orientada a la fragmentación, hacia una aproximación del manejo basado en los ecosistemas. ; Important flaws in the environmental licensing procedures in Colombia are directly related to the generalized degradation of its coastal fringes and littoral zones. These areas are severely affected by human interventions that interfere with natural processes and severely modify their sedimentary balances, geomorphological contexts, and physical-biotic conditions. Among many other examples, the following stand out: a) the widespread erosion and destruction of beaches and dunes in the Magdalena River delta, associated with the construction of the Bocas de Ceniza jetties; b) the drastic modification of the hydrodynamics of the littorals at the Atlantic and Magdalena departments due to linear infrastructure projects; c) the hyper-salinization and loss of more than 30,000 hectares of mangrove in the lagoon complex of the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta (CGSM) due to the expansion of the agricultural frontier and linear infrastructure projects; d) the accelerated retreat of beaches and cliffs in the southern Caribbean, due to activities such as deforestation, beach material extraction, and disordered and chaotic construction of nearly 500 rigid shore protection works; and e) the salinization of more than 10,000 hectares of freshwater marshes in the Bay of Cispatá as a consequence of the induced formation of the new delta of Tinajones. In this sense, the location of infrastructure in geological and geomorphologically unstable lands, affected by phenomena such as coastal subsidence and mud diapirism, poses first order natural threats and risks. This is a palpable panorama in the present and future of urban and rural areas of cities such as Barranquilla, Cartagena, Arboletes and Necoclí, all of them with future developments (industry, ports, urban development) of the greatest importance. The environmental costs associated with such interventions are incalculable, not counting the existence of numerous other examples, which demonstrate among other factors an insufficient acknowledgment to geomorphology in the evaluation, monitoring, and control of human interventions in the marine-coastal environment. These environmental management functions in Colombia are provided through the environmental licensing procedure, which rests upon national and regional authorities according to Law 99 of 1993. In the above context, the following research questions arise:  What elements of the environmental licensing of interventions in coastal environments can be improved, giving priority to the particular geomorphological contexts of the intervention zones?  How has the regulatory system evolved in Colombia with respect to human interventions on coastal environments?  What technical improvements can be made to the Colombian regulatory framework to guide the evaluation, monitoring, and control of human interventions from the geomorphological approach of susceptibility? This research work examines the environmental regulatory framework that currently governs Colombian coastal zones, through two geographic levels. At the first macro level, human interventions 16 are characterized and analyzed on the continental Caribbean coast, a region that represents a significant sample of the Colombian context due to its higher levels of human occupation and consequent anthropogenic disturbances. At a second level, in greater detail, the conceptual and methodological approach resulting from this research is defined and illustrated, with the demonstration in one of the coastal environmental units defined by decree 1120 of 2013 for integrated coastal management. To answer the questions raised, Chapter I briefly introduces the historical geomorphological evolution of the Colombian coastlines since the end of the XVIII century. The complex geology and geomorphology of the Caribbean and Pacific coasts of Colombia are evident in this "appetizer", in which low-relief deltaic islands and mangroves contrast with steep rocky reliefs, cliffs and wide emerged and submerged coastal platforms. The historical evolution of the Colombian littorals involves changes in the coastline estimated in hundreds of meters, at maximum rates of 40 meters a year (Punta Rey, Arboletes, Tumaco Bay), and land losses and gains of the order of tens of square kilometers (Ciénaga de Mallorquín, Isla Cascajo, Tinajorenas Delta - Cispatá, Bay, Urabá Gulf, San Juan and Patía river deltas). These cases reflect drastic variations in the sediment balances of the coast, many of them caused or heavily influenced by human actions, such as navigation infrastructure, modification of river courses and coastal protection works. Chapter II identifies the geomorphological perspective in the environmental licensing of coastal interventions in Colombia, based on its comparison with the regulatory frameworks of Italy, Spain, and Cuba. The interviews and documentary reviews highlighted 59 interventions associated with human uses and activities in the coastal zones, whose compulsory nature for the licensing varies among countries. The natural geomorphological processes were also analyzed within the technical criteria included in the official guidelines for environmental studies. It is concluded that, despite the worldwide acceptance of environmental impact assessments through a licensing procedure, their application in coastal environments is still very diverse and limited in terms of the pertinence of the geomorphological processes that configures the coast. Therefore, seven good practices for the evaluation and control of anthropogenic impacts in the coastal zone are underlined, and a new process-oriented approach is introduced for environmental licensing procedures. In Chapter III, an inventory and characterization of human interventions on the continental coast of the Colombian Caribbean are documented, to establish a regional baseline. Based on images from Google Earth, a total of 2,742 works and activities were located, representing 29 different types of human interventions. This inventory was complemented with an evaluation of the general impact of each intervention, based on four attributes of its geomorphological effects, namely, extension, intensity, reversibility, and persistence. The three most common types of human interventions (low-density settlements, groins and luxury settlements with dock) were also the ones with the higher environmental impact. However, some interventions (e.g., high-density settlements or road infrastructure) had higher environmental impact values than more frequent ones. 17 Based on this exhaustive analysis of the Colombian Caribbean, Chapter IV evaluates the national environmental regulatory framework applicable to coastal areas. It evidences that the licensing procedure in Colombia currently regulates only four of the ten types of interventions with greater effect in the Colombian coastal zones. Also, the number of works and activities covered in each new legislative reform consistently decreased over time. In addition, three policy implications were extracted for coastal and ocean planning, related to a) the geographic diversity of tropical coastal zones; b) the need for territorial carrying capacity instruments and; c) the lack of articulation of territorial planning instruments. The conclusions identify an important gap between technical and political decision making in the environmental regulatory framework of Colombia, which stresses the need for the design of novel methods to assess the breadth and length of geomorphological dynamics in an environmental management context. Therefore, the previous chapters highlight three important deficiencies in Colombia, with respect to the environmental management of human interventions in coastal areas: 1) the absence of a strategy to determine interventions that require an environmental licensing procedure (screening); 2) a poor definition of the scope of environmental studies through relevant information requirements (scoping) and; 3) the disarticulation of environmental management instruments, such as territorial planning and environmental licenses. All these elements ratify that the environmental regulatory framework in Colombia has been insufficient to date to manage the anthropogenic impact in coastal environments due to the unawareness of the natural susceptibility to the effect of human interventions. In this work, the susceptibility is defined as the predisposition of an environmental unit (socio-natural system) to experience changes or affectation due to the introduction of human interventions. In order to propose improvements to the Colombian environmental system, Chapter V establishes a new conceptual and methodological approach to guide the evaluation, monitoring, and control of human impacts from a geomorphological perspective. This novel product has been called Susceptibility to Human Interventions for Environmental Licensing Purposes (SHIELP). The architecture of this model has three components, which are particular to a kind of environment, namely, geomorphological processes, geomorphological configurations and potentially impacting human interventions. Each of these components is translated into a variable by means of expert qualifications along with a fuzzy logic computation strategy. Therefore, the expert-diffuse system SHIELP qualifies the susceptibility of a distinctive landform to the effects of a characteristic type of human intervention, through the estimated perturbation in each geomorphological process that configures the kind of environment under study. As a demonstration, this chapter also documents the design of the expert-diffuse system for coastal environments, drafted from research workshops with members of the marine and coastal research institute INVEMAR (In Spanish: Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras "José Benito Vives de Andréis"). The role of this institute as an official adviser to the environmental authorities in matters of impact assessment demonstrates its relevance to support the expert-knowledge base of the model. 18 As a consequence, the SHIELP model was applied with the parameters established for coastal environments, resulting in a database of susceptibility values for 4,524 interactions (littoral configuration vs intervention). The real applicability of this exercise corresponds to the translation of this database into a technical criterion to improve the Colombian regulatory framework. On the one hand, five susceptibility ranges were linked to five differentiated instruments, two of which articulate environmental licensing with territorial plans, while the others differentiate the pertinent degree of licensing for human interventions according to location properties (screening). On the other hand, the differentiated instruments were also combined with four degrees of information requirements for the definition of the scope in the respective environmental studies (scoping). In this way, the susceptibility value of a given intervention in a given configuration (interaction) would fit a percentile range that places its environmental control in a territorial competence (regional or national), and through a specific licensing instrument, with differentiated information requirements for the baseline definition. Finally, the operation of the SHIELP model was also demonstrated with a case study: the environmental coastal unit Magdalena River - Canal del Dique complex - Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta lagoon system. The geographic information of this regional coastal unit was interpreted according to the parameters defined in the SHIELP model for coastal environments. 154 polygons were delimited in the study area, according to the 40 coastal configurations identified. As a result, 13 cartographic maps represent this area, with the levels of susceptibility attributed to each configuration for the 52 potentially impacting interventions. In order to illustrate the applicability of the model, four scenarios are presented to discriminate interventions by environmental management instrument (screening) and to define information requirements on geomorphological processes (scoping). In this way, the SHIELP model specifies the environmental licensing instrument for human interventions and the corresponding scope of the technical study, given the characteristics of its interaction with the geomorphological configuration. The Overall Conclusions document reflections and recommendations to the Colombian national environmental system – SINA (in Spanish: Sistema Nacional Ambiental) to implement the results of this research. In addition, this work opens a broad perspective for future research in the approach of susceptibility to the effect of human interventions. The SHIELP model for coastal environments can be replicated in different geographies to progressively articulate a national database of coastal susceptibility. Also, the presented methodological scheme can be applied in different kinds of environments, other than the coastal zone. The extension of this approach of geomorphological susceptibility to the variety of tropical ecosystems would set the path for a successful transition from the current anthropocentric and fragmentation-oriented conception towards an ecosystem-based management approach.

The Berre Lagoon is an ecosystem historically disturbed by strong industrial discharges and significant freshwaters inputs from both natural and anthropogenic (EDF hydroelectric power station) origins. While rehabilitation policies initiated in 1994 are already showing some success, the introduction and proliferation of Mnemiopsis leidyi since 2005 could limit their effectiveness. The originality of this study is to associate oceanography and sociology in order to estimate the impact of M. leidyi on the functioning of this socio-ecosystem. We were able to show that the population of M. leidyi is maintained within a large range of temperatures (3 °C-28 °C) and salinities (10-30), with a quantity of carbon available ~ 3 mg C L-1 or more. In the laboratory, spawning by adults was observed at temperatures as low as 8 °C, while transition larvae can spawn at 10 °C. The temperature thus appears to be a determining factor in the dynamics of the population of this ctenophore. Larval stages see their development into adults blocked for temperatures below 14 °C. In summer the population is dominated by adults with high spawning rates (2 221 ± 2 496 eggs ind-1 d-1) supporting large blooms (up to 96 ind m-3). Ingestion of Mnemiopsis on the zooplankton community (mainly copepods and meroplankton larvae) was highly variable from 4 ± 2 prey ind-1 d-1 to 1 370 ± 97 prey ind-1 d-1 but was able to control up to 80% of the standing stock of zooplankton, reducing the top-down control over the phytoplankton communities. In addition, Mnemiopsis contributes poorly through its N-NH4 excretion (~3.8% at the most) to the pool of ammonium pool and to the regenerated production, also favouring phytoplankton growth. As a result, the population acts positively on maintaining the eutrophication of the lake by "top-down" and "bottom-up" effects. The absence of this ctenophore on during cold events and its recurrence several months later suggests either the existence of an external source or the presence of a refuge zone. The use of a Lagrangian modelling of particle transport coupled with measurements of the environmental variables has not only helped to understand the distribution of Mnemiopsis within the lagoon but also to identify a refuge zone (the Vaine lagoon) favorable to the maintenance of M. leidyi. The strong proliferation of M. leidyi in the Berre lagoon mainly affects professional fishermen. The clogging of nets, the mutilation of catches, the accelerated degradation of the material and the increase in the strenuousness induce an annual economic loss estimated at 50 %. Swimming is not affected except in case of large blooms during which beaches of the lagoon might be avoided; likewise, boating activities are impacted only in case of strong blooms when the organisms clog the cooling systems of the engine. Here in our interdisciplinary framework, the understanding of the biological and the anthropogenic interactions has shown that Mnemiopsis is tempering with the implementation of the rehabilitation efforts. In addition, the recent installation of the invasive highly potent hydromedusae Gonionemus vertens could also become a real threat as the widening of its range can be associated with the transplantation of eelgrass. Therefore, in the context of biological invasions, the prospects for the rehabilitation of the Berre Lagoon remain subject to the unpredictability of nature. ; L'étang de Berre est un écosystème lagunaire historiquement perturbé par de forts rejets industriels et par des apports importants en eau douce naturels et anthropiques (centrale hydroélectrique EDF). Alors que les politiques de réhabilitation de l'étang de Berre, initiées depuis 1994, commencent à enregistrer leurs premiers succès, l'introduction et la prolifération de Mnemiopsis leidyi en 2005 pourraient limiter leur efficacité. L'originalité de cette étude est d'associer océanographie et sociologie afin d'estimer l'impact de M. leidyi sur le fonctionnement de ce socio-écosystème. Nous avons pu montrer que la population de M. leidyi est capable de se maintenir sur une large gamme de températures (3°C-28°C) et de salinités (10-30), pour une quantité de carbone disponible > 3 µgC L-1. Nous avons démontré en laboratoire que la ponte est observée chez les adultes dès 8°C, et à partir de 10°C chez les larves transitoires. La température apparait ainsi être un facteur déterminant dans la dynamique de la population de ce cténaire. Les larves voient leur développement en adulte bloqué pour des températures inférieures à 14°C. En été la population est dominée par des adultes dont les taux de reproduction sont élevés (2 221 ± 2 496 œufs ind-1 j-1) soutenant de larges blooms (jusqu'à 96 ind m-3). L'ingestion de Mnemiopsis sur la communauté zooplanctonique (principalement copépodes et larves méroplanctoniques) est très variable de 4 ± 2 proies ind-1 j-1 à 1 370 ± 97 proies ind-1 j-1, mais montre une capacité à contrôler jusqu'à 80 % du stock de zooplancton réduisant le control top-down sur les communautés phytoplanctoniques. De plus, Mnemiopsis contribue faiblement via son excrétion N-NH4 (jusqu'à 3,8 %) au pool d'ammonium et à la production régénérée, favorisant aussi la croissance du phytoplancton. De ce fait, la population agit favorablement sur le maintien de l'eutrophisation de l'étang de Berre par effet « top-down » et « bottom-up ». L'absence de ce cténaire au cours d'évènements froids et sa réapparition plusieurs mois après laissent penser soit à l'existence d'une source externe à l'étang ou à la présence de zone refuge. L'utilisation de la modélisation lagrangienne des transports de particules couplée aux mesures des variables environnementales a non seulement permis de comprendre la distribution de Mnemiopsis dans l'étang mais aussi d'identifier une zone refuge (l'étang de Vaine) favorable au maintien de M. leidyi. Les fortes proliférations de M. leidyi dans l'étang de Berre affectent principalement la pêche professionnelle. Le fort colmatage des filets, la mutilation des prises, la dégradation accélérée du matériel et l'augmentation de la pénibilité induisent une perte économique annuelle estimée à 50 % par les pêcheurs. La baignade est peu impactée sauf en cas de fortes proliférations durant lesquelles il peut y avoir désertion des plages de la lagune ; de même, le nautisme n'indique une gêne qu'en cas de fortes proliférations lorsque les cténaires colmatent les circuits de refroidissement des moteurs. Dans le cadre interdisciplinaire, la compréhension des interactions biologiques et anthropiques a permis de montrer que Mnemiopsis présentait une entrave à la mise en œuvre des efforts de réhabilitation. De plus, la récente installation de l'hydroméduse invasive urticante Gonionemus vertens pourrait également être une menace en raison de l'élargissement de son aire de répartition liée à la transplantation des herbiers à zostère. Par conséquent, dans un contexte d'invasions biologiques, les perspectives de réhabilitation de l'étang de Berre restent toutefois soumises au caractère imprévisible de la nature.