Suchergebnisse

The international business environment is still changing dramatically and, although international growth may introduce added complexity it may be unavoidable for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) mainly due to the increasing globalization of markets (Levitt 1983) and industries (Yip 2003). In the face of rapid globalization, SMEs are a vital part of the economic systems of both emerging and developed countries. As Veloso (1991) points out, this type of companies may be an important organ for increasing the level of competitiveness of emerging markets. Some studies, for example, Yasuf (2001), go to the extent of suggesting that growth and employment in developing countries depend on the fate of SMEs. The incentive and the legal structures within which firms must operate have been drastically altered. SMEs are no longer protected from foreign competition and local buyers and suppliers are becoming more sophisticated. To compete effectively, SMEs must adapt and reshape themselves to facilitate adjustments and enhance learning for their growth and economic development. This article provides a typology to explain the degree of internationalization of SMEs. At one extreme is tangible internationalization, which is short-term and depends on macro and microeconomics factors exogenous to firms; at the other is a combination of tangible and intangible internationalization, which implies a strong commitment by firms to become competitive at international levels.I argue that different forces have forced the internationalization not only of firms, but also of markets, so that SMEs can become global without a physical presence in foreign markets. Furthermore, it may be necessary for these companies to become global if they are to remain competitive in their local markets. As a result of this paradigm shift, internationalization is based not only on geographical aspects, which are closely related to firm internationalization, but also on intangible considerations, which are closely related to market internationalization.Tangible internationalization is a restricted approach defined as a physical presence in a foreign market; it consists mainly of foreign sales, foreign direct investment (FDI), physical presence in foreign markets, and foreign suppliers. It fluctuates with exchange rates, costs of inputs, and other resource endowments that are tied to a particular geographic location. On the other hand, intangible internationalization implies a change in the comprehensive approach to the way firms should reconfigure, develop and secure resources. Intangible internationalization requires facilitating learning at all levels of a firm to increase the stock of knowledge, and, therefore, to improve flexibility on the production side and increase the likelihood of developing new resources and processes, thus enhancing the firm's critical invisible assets (Itami and Roehl 1987). An SME should aim for both in order to take advantage of a physical presence in foreign markets and provide constant incentives to facilitate learning and new organizational capabilities and processes. Tangible internationalization is a short-term expansion in foreign markets because it takes advantage of temporary macro- and microeconomics conditions; it does not require changes at the firm level. On the other hand, a combination of intangible and tangible internationalization has a higher probability to be sustainable in the long term and mostly depends on the firm's actions to meet international standards.This article emphasizes 5 crucial aspects of that managers need to be aware of: I. A matter of having an strategic plan II. An internal perspective of the firm III.The need of expanding the knowledge bases of SMEs IV.How to access and secure resources: networks V.The entrepreneurial aspectsI. A Matter of Having an Strategic PlanWhile firms have an important degree of freedom to make their own decisions, the effect of the environment cannot be discounted. This matter becomes critically important in the context of emerging economies because firms are not only facing changes in the structure of the industry in which they operate, but also in the surrounding and institutional environments. To be aware of the different courses of action available, decision makers must understand all the pro-market reforms, not just those that most affect their own industry. According to Weick (1995), the strategic decisions that managers make depend on their cognitive structures and how they make sense of the environment. Managers need to understand any intended change in a way that makes sense or fits an interpretative schema or system of meaning (Bartunek 1984). Andrews (1980) compares the role of the owner-manager to an architect who is in charge of doing the synthesis. Senior managers have the role of analyzing, interpreting, and making sense of clues so as to formulate and implement strategies. Senior managers should act as catalysts to understand and create new interpretative frameworks that provide purpose and direction to the members of the organization (Westley 1990).Laying a Formal Foundation: Making the Implicit Explicit The fact that SMEs have inadequate organizational structures and managerial expertise is a real problem in a changing environment. SMEs do not have the same level of support to increase their competitiveness, and given the lack of managerial expertise, building an adequate structure is not a straightforward process, even though it is a central one. Formalizing routines and processes within firms to make them less dependent on a specific individual is key. This is an important concern because SMEs not only have a less highly developed structure, but their fate is closely linked to one or a few individuals who posses knowledge or resources that have not been made explicit to the rest of the firm.Nevertheless, in a changing environment managers need to be proactive and to rethink their approaches regarding the future activities of their firms. A mere replication of previous strategies may no longer be a valid option when firms are competing in the international arena. The future can be imagined and enacted and that companies must be capable of fundamentally reconciling themselves by regenerating their core competencies and reinventing their industry. The role of managers is not to plan for the future, but to manage the process of learning and to be open to the possibility that new strategies can emerge.II. Analyzing the Firm's ResourcesAn analytical examination of the resources of a firm may help to develop an understanding not only of possible short-run business strategies, but also of future diversifications (Montgomery and Wernerfelt, 1988), growth strategies (Penrose, 1959), and sustainability of long-term rents (Rumelt, 1984). SMEs can compete in the international arena, but they will face international competition from foreign SMEs as well as from multinational enterprises (MNEs). Focusing only on product-market strategies is not enough; instead, the long-term survival of a firm depends on the characteristics and endowment of its resources, which should be valuable and difficult to imitate (Mahoney and Pandian 1992; Grant 1991; Amit and Schoemaker 1993). To be able to compete, the manager-owners of SMEs must know the internal resources and capabilities of their companies. As Andrews (1980: 18-19) suggested, a firm should make its strategic plans "preferably in a way that focuses resources to convert distinctive competence into competitive advantage."Firms are a bundle of different kinds of resources and a set of commitments to certain technologies, human resources, processes, and know-how that manager-owners marshal. This issue is particularly important to the present study because it is not unusual that are controlled, managed, and run by one or a small group of individuals that have a deep, but tacit, knowledge of the firm. What is important is a clear identification—not just a vague idea—of the different resources on which a firm can depend.How to Reconfigure a Firm's Resources? Capabilities exist when two or more resources are combined to achieve a goal and they "emphasizes the key role of strategic management in appropriately adapting, integrating and reconfiguring the internal and external organization skills, resources, and functional competences to match the requirements of changing environment" (Teece et al. 1997: 515). It is important to note that the relative endowment of firms may not necessarily relate to their financial performance because "only the service that the resource can render and not the resources themselves provide inputs into the production process" (Penrose 1972: 25). It is the deployment of a combination of those services that are critical to the rent generation of the firm. Firms need to exploit the existing firm-specific capabilities and also develop new ones (Penrose 1959; Teece 1982; Wernerfelt 1984) to compete internationally and to grow. Over time, SMEs have seen the nature of their rents change; we should expect a shift from Ricardian to Schumpeterian rents. A company may not have better resources, but achieve rents because it makes better use of its resources (Penrose 1959). Rents depend not only on the structure of the resources, but also on the ability of firms to reconfigure and transform those resources. The above discussion leads to the formation of the following hypotheses:III. The Need of Expanding the Knowledge Bases of SMEsThe capacity to exploit a new set of opportunities depends partly on the strategic decisions made by managers. In some cases, these opportunities require at least a reconfiguration of the activities of the firm, but more often, they require the incorporation of new resources and, especially, the introduction of new processes.Firms are as systems of purposeful actions engaging in economic activities to achieve objectives, therefore, they must learn adapt and survive in a complex environment. Organizational learning is the process by which firms can cope with uncertainty and environmental complexity, and their efficiency depends on learning how the environment is changing and then adapting to those changes (March and Olsen, 1976).SMEs need to enhance their learning in two different aspects. First, internal knowledge should be coded and made available to selected members in the company. The manager-owner is knowledgeable about almost all aspects of the business (Mintzberg 1979), and his or her knowledge is personal in the sense that it is located in the mind and not always encoded or available to the rest of the firm. Routines should be created in order to secure the long-term existence of the firm because routines capture the experiential lessons and make that knowledge obtainable by the members of the organization that were not part of the history of the company (Levitt and March 1988).The second way SMEs need to enhance their learning is to make changes in their knowledge base. When socio-economic environments change, firms need to assess the change in order to reformulate how they react to new incentives. The first step is developing a capability to understand the new dynamics. When regulatory and competitive conditions change rapidly, persistence in the same routines can be hazardous because managers and employees use organizational memory or knowledge to make decisions and to formulate the present strategy of the firm.The effectiveness of decisions taken by an SME is greatly influenced by its knowledge base which, in turn, is the result of learning processes that are no longer applicable and may be misleading. Changes in the knowledge base are probably requisite for any firms competing in an industry with tradable products. Supporting infrastructure and routines may prove essential to increase the learning pace and to effectively integrate the new knowledge and reduce the inertia due to outdated knowledge.IV. How to Access and Secure Resources: NetworksSMEs, compared to larger firms, face major challenges in terms of securing and updating resources. Where internal resources are important to accounting for a firm's performance (Gnyawali and Madhavan, 2001), resources also can be secured within networks that may allow firms to be competitive locally and internationally. Increasingly, networking is seen as a primarily means of rising required resources. Resources, such as information, equipment, and personnel, can be exchanged in networks because of relationships between. Networks are important instruments to ease the constraints facing SMEs in terms of access to: a) capital markets to obtain long-term finance both locally and internationally, b) narrow and highly regulated labor markets, c) information and technologies, d) inefficient tax codes, and e) highly bureaucratic and expansive legal procedures. SMEs may be part of a network not only because it may find complementary resources, but also because owners and managers may have friendship ties with other owners and mangers. These non-economic reasons may be as important as economic ones.A Particular Kind of Network: Industry Clusters An extensive literature exists on the topic of industry clusters. Ricardo's "comparative advantages" can be considered as a pioneering concept of industrial clusters; and Marshall's exposition about externalities is based on industrial localization. Industrial clusters are characterized by having extensive interfirm exchanges and an advantageous environment to pursue business activities. Marshall (1961) argues that industry localization may be an important factor because a) it creates a market for workers with certain industry-specific skills, b) it promotes production and exchange of non-tradable specialized input, and c) firms may take advantage of informational spillovers. Krugman (1991) points out that given the existence of market imperfection, pecuniary externalities may also play an important role in determining the concentration of industry in a specific geographic location. Pouder and St. John (1996) argue that clustered firms have a greater legitimacy than firms outside a cluster. Clusters can provide a critical mass to counterbalance the political influence of large firms and to increase the pressure for investments that affect the productivity of the cluster. Furthermore, competition within clusters increases productivity and new firm development (Porter 1998).V. The Entrepreneurial AspectsIntangible internationalization requires facilitating learning by its employees in order to constantly transform the firm. Implementing mechanisms to expand the knowledge base and to diffuse information should allow SMEs to increase their capacity to develop new goods and services, and to compete in new markets. Key characteristics of this type of internationalization are common interests, trust and openness that allow employees to challenge assumptions. Intangible internationalization is a more difficult international expansion, but it provides sustainable competitive advantages. Consequently, SMEs would become competitive by reducing their costs, introducing new products and expanding their potential markets.It is not possible to engage in tangible internationalization without having a minimum level of intangible internationalization or being competitive without some degree of valuable, rare, in-imitable, non-substitutable resources (Barney 1991). SMEs should aim for both types of internalization in order to take advantage of physical presence in foreign markets and constantly provide the incentives to facilitate learning, new organizational capabilities and processes.Firms have different combinations of internationalization. In order to analyze how SMEs can take advantage of both tangible and intangible internationalization, the foundation of the potential competitive advantages need to be identified. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how firms deliver products that have value for customers, but also to understand what makes these firms different from the rest (Hall 1998). I argue that there are three major categories of differential that have a strong impact on the nature of internationalization of SMEs. The first is called firm differential, and includes a) organizational (team level), b) managerial (individual level), c) physical endowment and d) technological capabilities differentials. The second category is based on the home country characteristics and it is called country differential. The final category,market differential, takes into consideration the specific features of local markets and industries. These differentials deeply influence the role of owner-manager. There are three basic approaches that a SME can adopt while anticipating and responding to the needs of its customers. The first one is the approach of the Schumpeterian entrepreneur (Schumpeter, 1934), a leader who breaks away from routine and introduces either new goods/services or new production processes for existing goods/services. The second one is related to Porter's (1980) concept of cost leadership even though Porter studied larger firms from developed countries. The last style of owner-manager is the Kirznerian entrepreneur, who is a person alert to opportunities (see figure 1). This type of role implies that the owner-manager acts as a broker in order to take advantage of over-optimistic or over-pessimistic reactions of economic agents (Kirzner 1973); therefore, the owner-manager will act "in regard to the changes occurring in the data of the markets" (Mises 1949: 255).ConclusionIn the business literature, internationalization involvement usually results from one of two factors: a) the firm possesses some monopolistic advantage that it can use in another country, or b) the host country owns resources that are valuable to the foreign firm. While these reasons may be necessary and sufficient conditions for larger companies, is not necessarily the case for SMEs whom have no option but to internationalization.Those two factors do not necessarily apply to SMEs because they need to become international even if they do not compete in international markets. The average level of competitiveness of SMEs is below that of multinational enterprises. SMEs are faced with international competition whether they decide to internationalize or to remain "local." Even SMEs providing non-tradable goods face a "demand side" pressure to meet the characteristic of similar product sell in other countries. SMEs may not have the time required, according to this model, to meet world-class standards. ReferencesAmit, R. and Schoemaker, P. (1993). "Strategic assets and organizational rent". Strategic Management Journal,14(1):33-46. Andrews, K. (1980). The concept of corporate strategy. Homewood, Irwin. Barney, J. (1991). ¨Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage.¨ Journal of Management, 17(1): 99-120. Bartunek, J. (1984). "Changing interpretative schemes and organizational restructuring: the example of a religion order." Administrative Science Quarterly, 29(3):355-372. Child, J. (1972). "Organizational structure, environment and performance: the role of strategic choice". Sociology,6(1):1-22. Gnyawali, D. and Madhavan, R. (2001). "Cooperative networks and competitive dynamics: A structural embeddedness perspective." Academy of Management Review, 26(3):431-445. Grant, R. (1991). Contemporary Strategic Analysis: Concepts, Techniques, Application. Basil Blackwell, Cambridge, MA. Itami, H. and Roehl, T. (1987). "Mobilizing Invisible Assets". Harvard Business School Press. Kirzner, I. (1973). "Competition and entrepreneurship". University of Chicago Press, Krugman, P. (1991). "Increasing Returns and Economic Geography." The Journal of Political Economy, 99(3):483-499. Levitt, T. (1983). The globalization of markets. Harvard Business Review, 61(May-June): 92-102. Levitt, B. and March, J. (1988)."Organizational Learning." Annual Review of Sociology, (14):319-340. Mahoney, J. and Pandian, R. (1992). "The Resource-Based View Within the Conversation of Strategic Management." Strategic Management Journal, 13(5):363-380 . March, J. and Olsen, J.(1976). Ambiguity and choice in organizations. Bergen: Universitetsforlaget. Marshall, A., (1961 (1890)). Principles of Economics. London: Macmillan. Mintzberg, H. (1979). The structuring of organizations: a synthesis of the article. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Mises, L. (1949). "Human action; a treatise on economics". Yale University Press. Montgomery, C. and Wernerfelt, B. (1988). "Diversification, Ricardian Rents, and Tobin's q". RAND Journal of Economics, 19(4):623-632. Penrose, E. (1959). The theory of the Growth of the Firm. John Wiley: New York. Penrose, E. (1972). The theory of the Growth of the Firm. Originally published in 1959, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Porter, M. (1998). On Competition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Porter, M. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. Free Press: New York. Pouder, R. and St. John, C. (1996). "Hot Spots and Blind Spots: Geographical Clusters of Firms and Innovation."The Academy of Management Review, 21(4):1192-1225. Rumelt, R. (1991). "How much does Industry Matter?" Strategic Management Journal, 12(3):167-185. Schumpeter, J. (1934). The Theory of Economic Development. Harvard University Press. Teece, D. Pisano, G. and Shuen, A. (1997). "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management." Strategic Management Journal, 18(7):509-533. Teece, D (1982). "Toward an economic theory of the multiproduct firm". Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 3:39-63. Veloso, P. (1991). "International Competitiveness and the creation of an enabling environment." International competitiveness, ed. By Irfan ul Haque, pp. 29-36. Washington, DC: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank. Weick, K. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Wernerfelt, B. (1984). ¨A resource based view of the firm.¨ Strategic Management Journal, 5(2):171-180. Westley, F. 1990. "Middle Managers and Strategy: Microdynamics of Inclusion." Strategic Management Journal,11(5): 337-351. Yasuf, S. (2001). "Globalization and the Challenge for Developing Countries." Policy ArticleWorking Paper 2618, the World Bank Yip, G. (2003). Total Global Strategy II. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.Sobre el autorCoordinador Académico de Finanzas FACS, Universidad ORT Uruguay

This guide accompanies the following article: Christian Fuchs, 'New Media, Web 2.0 and Surveillance', Sociology Compass 5/2 (2011): 134–147, [DOI]. 10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2010.00354.xIntroductionThe Internet has become part of our everyday lives. Many of us use it for work, hobbies, entertainment, politics, staying in touch with friends and family, learning to know new people and other cultures, for getting all kind of information, etc. In the past 10 years, we have seen the emergence of platforms like Facebook and Myspace (social networking sites), Wordpress and Blogger (blogging) Twitter (social networking, microblogging), YouTube (video sharing), Wikipedia (wiki‐based encyclopaedia), or the Pirate Bay (filesharing index site). The notions of 'web 2.0' and 'social media' have been used by some scholars to describe features of such sites such as community‐building and maintenance, continuous communication, user‐generated content production and diffusion, collaborative authoring, and distributed content classifications (the latter mechanism is also called folksonomy). Most web 2.0 platforms collect, store, and share a lot of personal user data and data about usage behaviour. Therefore, questions about privacy violations and online surveillance have arisen in public discussions, especially concerning Google (for example the discussions about Google targeted advertising, Google Street View, Google Buzz, etc.) and Facebook (for example the discussions concerning Facebook targeted advertising, Facebook beacon, the Facebook privacy policy, Facebook places, etc.). The field of web 2.0 surveillance studies critically asks questions about the data protection aspects and power dimensions of the contemporary Internet. It is crucial for students and scholars, who are interested in the contemporary media landscape, and who study in fields such as media/communication studies, cultural studies, political science, law, computer science, social informatics, information science, sociology, business studies, advertising, marketing and public relations, philosophy, ethics, science and technology studies etc., to also engage with web 2.0 surveillance studies.Recommended readings Fuchs, Christian. 2010. 'Labour in Informational Capitalism and on the Internet'. The Information Society 26(3): 179–96. doi: 10.1080/01972241003712215 Christian Fuchs discusses in this article the political economy of the contemporary Internet. He does so by giving first an introduction to Karl Marx's analysis of capitalism that is then applied for understanding aspects of the exploitation of the users of contemporary commercial Internet platforms like Facebook. Fuchs uses Dallas Smythe's notion of the audience commodity for critically discussing the business models of web 2.0. He coins the notion of Internet prosumer labour in this context. He concludes that on commercial web 2.0 platforms, user activity tends to become exploited and is unpaid labour. Surveillance is situated in the framework of this analysis. Andrejevic, Mark. 2002. 'The Work of Being Watched'. Critical Studies in Media Communication 19(2): 230–48. doi: 10.1080/07393180216561 Mark Andrejevic argues in this article that contemporary commercial forms of interactive media make use of surveillance for exploiting consumers. He introduces in this context the notion of 'the work of being watched'. This concept is based on Sut Jhally's concept of the work of watching. Andrejevic also introduces the notion of the digital enclosure and gives very good examples for online surveillance. Albrechtslund, Anders. 2008. 'Online Social Networking as Participatory Surveillance'. First Monday 13(3). [online]. Retrieved on 1 March 2011 from: http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2142/1949. In this article, Anders Albrechtslund introduces the notion of participatory surveillance. Other than Fuchs and Andrejevic, Albrechtslund has a rather positive concept of surveillance, he focuses on the description of potentially empowering aspects of social networking sites and other web 2.0 technologies. Albrechtslund stresses the social dimension of web 2.0, its ability for enabling communication, sharing, and community‐building. Mathiesen, Thomas. 2004. Silently Silenced. Essays on the Creation of Acquiescence in Modern Society. Winchester: Waterside Press. In this short 100 page book, Thomas Mathiesen discusses mechanisms and examples of how political opposition is silently silenced, that is ideologically forestalled. The work is a masterpiece of contemporary ideology critique. Mathiesen identifies mechanisms of how silent silencing works and gives many examples. In chapter 8, it is discussed how the corporate Internet works as system of silent silencing or what Mathiesen terms the synopticon. Mathiesen's work is influenced among others by Foucault and Frankfurt School ideology critique. Campbell, John E. and Matt, Carlson M. 2002. 'Panopticon.com: Online Surveillance and the Commodification of Privacy'. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 46(4): 586–606. doi: 10.1207/s15506878jobem4604_6 In this paper, Campbell and Carlson discuss the usefulness of Michel Foucault's notion of the panopticon as technology of surveillance for explaining how Internet advertising and marketing work. They employ a political economy framework and argue that Internet advertising and marketing commodify users' private data and their privacy.Online materialsThe following online journals are very good sources for further papers about critical internet studies, information society studies, surveillance studies, and privacy studies:

tripleC: Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society. http://www.triple‐c.at
Surveillance and Society. http://www.surveillance‐and‐society.org
First Monday. http://firstmonday.org/
Journal of Privacy and Confidentiality. http://repository.cmu.edu/jpc/

Sample syllabusTopics for Lectures and DiscussionWeek I: Foundations of surveillance studiesReadings:Foucault, Michel. 1977. 'Panopticims.' (Part 3). Pp. 195–228 in Discipline and Punish. New York: Vintage.Lyon, David. 1994. 'Surveillance in Modern Society' (Chapter 2). Pp. 22–39 in The Electronic Eye. Cambridge: Polity.Lyon, David. 2007. 'Explaining Surveillance' (I.3). Pp. 46–70 in Surveillance Studies. An Overview. Cambridge: Polity.Week II: Foucault's surveillance theory and the panopticon: criticism and defenceReadings:Lyon, David (ed.) 2006. 'Pre‐ and Post‐Panopticism: The Search for Surveillance Theories.' Pp. 3–20 in Theorizing Surveillance. Portland, OR: Willan.Haggerty Kevin. 2006. 'Tear Down the Walls: On Demolishing the Panopticon.' Pp. 23–45 in Theorizing Surveillance, edited by David Lyon. Portland, OR: Willan.Fuchs, Christian. 2010. How Can Surveillance Be Defined? Remarks on Theoretical Foundations of Surveillance Studies. Vienna: Unified Theory of Information Research Group. SNS3 Research Paper No.1. ISSN 2219‐603X. http://www.sns3.uti.at/wordpress/wp‐content/uploads/2010/10/The‐Internet‐Surveillance‐Research‐Paper‐Series‐1‐Christian‐Fuchs‐How‐Surveillance‐Can‐Be‐Defined.pdfWeek III: What is web 2.0?Readings:Fuchs, Christian. 2010. 'Social Software and Web 2.0: Their Sociological Foundations and Implications.' Pp. 764–89 in Handbook of Research on Web 2.0, 3.0, and X.0: Technologies, Business, and Social Applications. Volume II, edited by San Murugesan. Hershey, PA: IGI‐Global.Castells, Manuel. 2009. 'Communication in the Digital Age' (Chapter 2). Pp. 54–136 in Communication Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Alternative to reading Castells (2009):Castells, Manuel. 2010. 'Communication Power: Mass Communication, Mass Self‐Communication, and Power Relationships in the Network Society.' Pp. 3–17 in Media and Society, edited by James Curran. London: Bloomsbury.Scholz, Trebor. 2008. 'Market Ideology and the Myths of Web 2.0.'First Monday 13(3). [online]. Retrieved on 1 March 2011 from: http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2138/1945.Week IV: Computing and surveillanceThe role of surveillance in the age of computingReadings:Marx, Gary T. 2002. 'What's New About the "New Surveillance"? Classifying for Change and Continuity.'Surveillance & Society 1(1): 9–29.Lyon, David. 1998. 'The World Wide Web of Surveillance. The Internet and Off‐World Power‐Flows.'Information, Communication & Society 1(1): 91–105.Clarke, Roger. 1988. 'Information Technology and Dataveillance.'Communications of the ACM 31(5): 498–512.Week V: The capitalist business and ideology of surveillanceReadings:Gandy, Oscar H. 1996. 'Coming to Terms with the Panoptic Sort.' Pp. 132–55 in Computers, Surveillance & Privacy, edited by David Lyon and Elia Zureik. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.Mathiesen, Thomas. 1997. 'The Viewer Society. Michel Foucault's "Panopticon" Revisited.'Theoretical Criminology 1(2): 215–34. doi: 10.1177/1362480697001002003Week VI: The Internet prosumer commodityReadings:Smythe, Dallas W. 1981. 'On the Audience Commodity and Its Work.' Pp. 230–56 in Media and Cultural Studies, edited by Meenakshi G. Durham and Douglas M. Kellner. Malden, MA: Blackwell.Fuchs, Christian. 2010. 'Labour in Informational Capitalism and on the Internet.'The Information Society 26(3): 179–96. doi: 10.1080/01972241003712215Week VII: The work of watching and the work of being watchedReadings:Jhally, Sut. 2006. 'Chapters: Watching as Working. The Valorization of Audience Consciousness. The Political Economy of Culture'. Pp. 25–61 in The Spectacle of Accumulation. New York: Peter Lang.Andrejevic, Mark. 2002. 'The Work of Being Watched.'Critical Studies in Media Communication 19(2): 230–48. doi: 10.1080/07393180216561Week VIII: Economic online surveillance and web 2.0Readings:Mathiesen, Thomas. 2004. 'Panopticon and Synopticon as Silencing Systems' (Chapter 8). Pp. 98–102 in Silently Silenced. Essays on the Creation of Acquiescence in Modern Society. Winchester: Waterside Press.Fuchs, Christian, Kees Boersma, Anders Albrechtslund, Marisol Sandoval (eds) 2011. The Internet and Surveillance. New York: Routledge.

Chapter by Christian Fuchs: 'Critique of the Political Economy of Web 2.0 Surveillance.'
Chapter by Marisol Sandoval: 'A Critical Empirical Case Study of Consumer Surveillance on Web 2.0.'
Chapter by Thomas Allmer: 'Critical Internet Surveillance Studies and Economic Surveillance.'

Campbell, John E. and Matt, Carlson M. 2002. 'Panopticon.com: Online Surveillance and the Commodification of Privacy.'Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 46(4): 586–606. doi: 10.1207/s15506878jobem4604_6Focus questionsDiscussion in week 1:What different kinds of definitions of surveillance are there? Compile various definitions by making a literature search. Compare these definitions and discuss how surveillance should best be defined.Discussion in week 2:Discuss first in small groups of 3–5 and compare then the results of the group discussions in a general discussion.Consider the following list of information processing phenomena. Which one do you consider as surveillance, which one's not? Compare your results with the results of your colleagues. Discuss then if a Foucauldian understanding of surveillance fits your understanding of surveillance or not. Discuss pro and con arguments for 'demolishing' Foucault's notion of the panopticon. Discuss if using the notion of the panopticon makes political and theoretical sense in contemporary society or not.

teachers watching private activities of pupils via webcams at Harriton High School, Pennsylvania,
the employment of the DART system (Deep‐ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis) in the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Caribbean Sea for detecting tsunamis,
the scanning of the fingerprints of visitors entering the United States,
consensual online video sex chat of adults,
parents observing their sleeping sick baby with a camera or babyphone in order to see if it needs their help,
the use of speed cameras for identifying speeders (involves state power),
the seismographic early detection of earthquakes,
electronic monitoring bracelets for prisoners in an open prison system,
the scanning of Internet and phone data by secret services with the help of the Echelon system and the Carnivore software,
the usage of a GPS‐based car navigation system for driving to an unknown destination,
the usage of full body scanners at airports,
biometrical passports containing digital fingerprints,
the use of the DoubleClick advertising system by Internet corporations for collecting data about users' online browsing behaviour and providing them with targeted advertising,
CCTV cameras in public means of transportation for the prevention of terrorism,
the assessment of customer shopping behaviour with the help of loyalty cards,
the data collection in marketing research,
the usage of smog and air pollution warning systems,
the publication of sexual paparazzi photos of celebrities in a tabloid,
the assessment of personal images and videos of applicants on Facebook by employers prior to a job interview,
drinking water quality measurement systems,
the collection of data about potential or actual terrorists in the TIDE database (Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment) by the US National Counterterrorism Center,
Passenger Name Record (PNR) data transfer from Europe to the United States in aviation,
the permanent electrocardiogram of a cardiac infarction patient,
the activities of radioactivity measuring stations for detecting nuclear power plant disasters,
Telekomgate: spying on employees, trade unionists, journalists, and members of the board of directors by the German Telekom,
measurement of meteorological data for weather forecasts
the video filming of employees in Lidl supermarkets and assessment of the data by managers in Germany,
the usage of a fire detector and alarm system and a fire sprinkling system in a public school,
watching the watchers: corporate watch systems, filming of the police beating of Rodney King (LA 1992), YouTube video of the police killing of Neda Soltan (Iran 2009)
systems for detecting and measuring temperature, humidity, and smoke in forest areas that are prone to wildfires.

Discussion in week 3:Work in groups of 3–5 people. Compile a list of Internet platforms that you use. Based on the literature that you have read about web 2.0, try to identify key qualities of the communication processes that are supported by the Internet platforms on your list. Discuss if it makes sense to employ notions like 'web 2.0' and 'social media'. Discuss how the communication qualities of the platforms you listed are connected to/enable surveillance. Compare the results in a plenary discussion.Discussion in week 4:Work first in groups of 3–5 people. Discuss the meaning of the notions of the panoptic sort and the synopticon. Make a list of examples, where surveillance plays a role in the economy. Make a list of examples, where surveillance, the media, and information technology function as means for advancing ideologies. Discuss to which examples the notions of the panoptic sort and/or the synopticon can be applied. Discuss first in the small group and then in general with all colleagues in the seminar how useful the notions of the panoptic sort and the synopticon are for understanding the contemporary Internet and media landscape.Discussion in week 5:Work first in groups of 3–5 people. Find examples for the connection of computers and surveillance. Based on your list of examples and the read literature, try to identify key qualities of computer‐based surveillance. Compare the three articles of Marx, Lyon, and Clarke: What are the key characteristics of computer‐based surveillance for each of the three authors? How do the three approaches differ? What do they have in common? If you compare computer‐based and non‐computer based forms of surveillance, what are commonalities and differences? Can we speak in the case of computer‐based surveillance of a new form of surveillance?Compare the group discussion results to the results of the discussions in the other groups.Discussion in week 6:Work first in groups of 3–5 people. Discuss the meaning of the notions of the audience commodity and the Internet prosumer commodity. Find examples for how the audience commodity works in the area of advertising in newspapers and TV. Find examples for the Internet prosumer commodity in relation to web 2.0 platforms that you use. Discuss the role of surveillance in Internet prosumer commodification. Discuss if you as Interner prosumers that use Facebook, Google, YouTube, etc. are exploited by the companies owning these platforms or not. If you think you are exploited, what can be politically done in order to overcome the exploitation of labour on the Internet? Compare the results of the group discussions and conduct a general discussion about the crucial questions.Discussion in week 7:Work first in groups of 3–5 people. Discuss the meaning of the notions of the work of watching and the work of being watched. Discuss the role of surveillance in the work of being watched. Find examples both for the work of watching and the work of being watched. Compare Dallas Smythe's concept of the audience commodity to Sut Jhally's concept of the work of watching. Compare Fuchs's concept of Internet prosumer commodification to Andrejevic's concept of the work of being watched online. What are differences and commonalities? Compare the results of the group discussions. Discuss with all colleagues what the political implications of economic online surveillance are: How dangerous is economic online surveillance and online labour exploitation? What can be done about it politically?Discussion in week 8:Work first in groups of 3–5 people. Based on the read literature, make a list of qualities of economic surveillance on web 2.0. Identify which web 2.0 platforms you read most frequently. Read the terms of use and privacy policies of these platforms. Make a list, how each of these platforms exactly uses your data and usage behaviour data, for economic purposes. List for each platform what kind of data about you it stores, collects from other Internet platforms, which data it is allowed to sell for advertising purposes, and which data about you or that you upload becomes property of the platform owner. How does the organization model of Wikipedia differ from the ones of Facebook and Google? Inform yourself about the alternative web 2.0 platform Diaspora. What are its organizational principles, how do they differ from Facebook? Compare the results of the group work.Conduct a general discussion about the following questions: What are the problems of surveillance on web 2.0? What are the advantages and disadvantages of platforms like Facebook, Google, YouTube, Twitter? How can advantages and disadvantages be overcome? Do you see possibilities for creating a non‐commercial Internet or non‐commercial Internet platforms? What are advantages and disadvantages of a non‐commercial, non‐profit, commons‐based Internet?Seminar/project ideaInternet Studies in general and Critical Internet Studies and Web 2.0 Surveillance Studies are very young fields of studies. There are a lot of unexplored topics relating to the political economy of web 2.0 that have thus far not been pursued. Writing master's theses and dissertations in this area is not only interesting and important, but is also a lot of fun because one engages in research about those media that we have come used to utilize in our everyday life and work. Students may also consider to present chapters from their dissertations or theses at international conferences, like the PhD student workshops and conferences of the ICTs and Society Network (http://www.icts‐and‐society.net) or the annual conference of the Association of Internet Researchers (http://www.air.org).Research results can also be presented to the public in the form of blog postings or small articles for popular journals or newspapers. For writing for these more popular formats, it is good to connect more theoretical ideas to concrete events and phenomena in the world of the Internet (see the example writings on the NetPoliticsBlog: http://fuchs.uti.at/blog). One can also pursue writing an op‐ed piece for a daily newspaper.Social movements and groups that discuss Internet politics and want to foster a common and free access to knowledge and the Internet can be interesting discussion and co‐operation partners for scholars, which can give a more practical dimension to research.Short BiographyChristian Fuchs holds the chair in media and communication studies at Uppsala University's Department of Informatics and Media. He is also board member of the Unified Theory of Information Research Group, Austria, and editor of tripleC (cognition, communication, co‐operation): Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society. He studied computer science at the Vienna University of Technology in the years 1994–2000. He completed his PhD in 2002 at the Vienna University of Technology. In 2000–2006, he was lecturer for information society studies at the Institute of Design and Technology Assessment of the Vienna University of Technology. He was a research associate at the same department in the years 2002–2004. At the University of Salzburg, he was assistant professor in the years 2005–2007 and associate professor from 2008 to 2010 in the field of ICTs and society. His main research fields are: social theory, critical theory, critical political economy of media, information, technology; information society studies, ICTs and society. He is author of many academic publications, including the books Internet and Society: Social Theory in the Information Age (New York: Routledge, 2008) and Foundations of Critical Media and Information Studies (New York: Routledge, 2011). He is co‐editor of The Internet and Surveillance (edited by Christian Fuchs, Kees Boersma, Anders Albrechtslund and Marisol Sandoval). He co‐ordinates the research project Social Networking Sites in the Surveillance Society (2010–2013), which is funded by the Austrian Science Fund FWF and is management committee member of the EU COST Action Living in Surveillance Societies (2009–2013).

Andehrs Behring Breivik no encaja en ninguna categoría existente de actuación violenta o política. Como lo revela su manifiesto, que dará que hablar durante años, Breivik es un terrorista sui generis.Brevemente, Breivik es un joven noruego que el pasado viernes cometió dos ataques terroristas. En el primero detonó una bomba en el distrito gubernamental de Oslo. En el segundo apareció disfrazado de policía en una pequeña isla donde se celebraba una reunión anual de las juventudes del Partido Laborista del país, y atacó a la multitud con armas y municiones de guerra.El manifiesto que el agresor envió a algunos miles de contactos horas antes de cometer el ataque es una obra sin precedentes en la historia de la acción criminal e ideológica. En primer lugar, el texto suma más de mil quinientas páginas, de las cuales Breivik es el autor de más de la mitad. En segundo lugar, la obra está escrita en perfecto inglés, con el objetivo expreso de difundir la ideología ahí presentada a la mayor cantidad de personas posible. En tercer lugar, los contenidos del trabajo son muy variados y llegan a un nivel de detalle inaudito. Este último aspecto es lo que hace de Breivik y su manifiesto algo extraordinario. Entre otras cosas, el lector encontrará:Una exposición detallada de la ideología política del autor (a la cual llama "Cultural conservatism or a nationalist/conservative direction"), con discusiones sobre Antonio Gramsci, György Lukács, Karl Marx, la historia del comunismo, tablas estadísticas sobre la demografía europea y otros elementos.Una descripción de los orígenes de la organización que pretende tener detrás, la Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Solomonici o PCCTS. El nombre es el término en latín para la orden medieval monástica y militar más conocida como los Templarios.Una guía meticulosa sobre cómo comprar los ingredientes para la elaboración de explosivos, así como su preparación, su detonación en ensayos, e incluso dónde y cómo esconderlos.Una guía similar para la obtención de armas, con discusiones de diversas fuentes como la mafia albanesa o la rusa. También explica cómo preparar una armadura de combate, así como los principios del combate urbano con armas de fuego.Una bitácora de su "trabajo" desde 2002 en adelante, que incluye su dieta con detalles sobre su ingestión de proteínas y su rutina diaria.Un presupuesto de toda su "obra" desde ese año en adelante. Breivik afirma haber invertido €317.000 a lo largo de una década en su "proyecto".Instrucciones para la construcción de su epitafio.Instrucciones para la implementación de un sistema de medallas, uniformes y ritos para la orden neo-templaria, con diagramas, nombres y criterios para la aplicación de cada una.Pasos básicos de contra-inteligencia para evitar ser detectado.Un currículum vitae completo.No hay cuestiones de menor importancia para Breivik: el ensayo también incluye discusiones detalladas sobre el estado actual de la educación terciaria en Estados Unidos y Europa, extensas explicaciones sobre la teología y la historia islámica, críticas hacia las letras del hip-hop misógino estadounidense, listas de canciones inspiradoras, etc. Una enorme proporción de los textos, como el propio Breivik admite, son de autores con argumentos válidos y que están muy lejanos de promover o aceptar actos de violencia como el suyo.El cuadro que ofrece la lectura de este ensayo es de una persona de una enorme inteligencia, capacidad de organización y, sobre todo, disciplina. Breivik es un individuo altamente preparado física y mentalmente para la grotesca tarea que se propuso. Tal como indica su ensayo, ya tiene preparados los discursos que realizará en su juicio, que pretende que sea altamente público. Antes de lanzar su ataque ya tenía decidido qué criterios aplicaría con el abogado que le asignara el estado, lo que le contestará al juez y demás quienes le digan que es un criminal psicótico, y cómo planea que termine el juicio.Esto último hace que sea poco probable que aparezcan otros Breiviks – aunque sigue siendo posible. Resulta simplemente increíble que pueda haber otro individuo que comparta la misma ideología hasta el mismo nivel de compromiso, y que sobre todo elija seguir el mismo camino.Breivik se ve a sí mismo como una persona fuertemente politizada, por lo cual es necesario discutirlo en esos términos. De los primeros que surgen apuradamente en los medios –seguramente por no haber leído el manuscrito-, no se aplica casi ninguno. Breivik no es nacionalsocialista o "neo-nazi"; tampoco es asimilable al Unabomber (por más que haya coincidencias en sus textos), ni al Ku Klux Klan o a los partidos nacionalistas europeos.De hecho, quizá la forma más correcta de definir a Breivik es resucitando el significado verdadero de un término muy abusado: "de derecha". Breivik ha elegido responder a la amenaza que percibe en Europa, que es sin dudas el Islam, con un remedio neo-medieval. En su ensayo, Breivik postula que la forma óptima de organización política en Europa debe estar basada en la monarquía, y no en repúblicas:"The king or queen of a country is more democratic than a president ever could be because he or she represents all citizens." (el original no es de Breivik).El noruego está a favor de la fusión de todas las iglesias bajo el Papa nuevamente, aún siendo él mismo luterano (no practicante, a diferencia de lo que sugieren los medios). La nueva mega-Iglesia tendría un monopolio público de la religión, así como acceso privilegiado a los contenidos de la educación y los medios. Su visión de una sociedad conservadora es esta: "Ladies should be wives and homemakers, not cops or soldiers (…) Children should not be born out of wedlock. Glorification of homosexuality should be shunned."Aunque Breivik dedica literalmente cientos de páginas a textos sobre la historia de la violencia islámica contra Europa (y también sobre el caso opuesto), en ningún momento menciona los más de mil años de calamidades, miseria y sufrimiento humano que fueron consecuencia directa del sistema medieval-monárquico-eclesiástico.El principal objetivo de Breivik y sus "templarios" es la erradicación de la presencia del Islam en Europa a través de tres modalidades. La primera es la conversión al cristianismo (incluyendo como variable su creación intelectual más débil, los cristianismos "agnóstico" y "ateo"). Esta vía tiene clarísimos componentes anti-liberales y anti-democráticos, ya que los musulmanes conversos deberían renunciar a sus nombres, idiomas, vínculos con sus países de origen (incluso por vía electrónica) y otras cuestiones básicas. Para Breivik, incluso será necesario que "All traces of Islamic culture in Europe will be eradicated, even locations considered historical" – algo por definición poco "conservador".Además, Breivik no tiene ilusiones sobre el "liberalismo islámico": "to take the violence out of Islam would require it to jettison two things: the Quran as the word of Allah and Muhammad as Allah's prophet. In other words, to pacify Islam would require its transformation into something that it is not."La segunda modalidad de erradicación del Islam es la limpieza cultural, que consistiría de deportaciones o expulsiones (Breivik menciona muchos modelos, incluyendo las gigantescas ordenadas por Stalin). La última es la exterminación.Es en referencia a esto último que Breivik dedica un pasaje a discutir a Adolf Hitler y el nacionalsocialismo. El autor se aleja de estos claramente, aunque por razones muy diferentes de las del ciudadano común. Su explicación es que la "causa" nacionalsocialista y el liderazgo de Hitler destruyeron a los nacionalismos europeos por más de un siglo (es decir, hasta bien entrado el siglo XXI), porque optaron directamente por el camino de la exterminación. El resultado fue una guerra que terminó en derrota, y la entrega del continente al bolchevismo y uno de sus herederos, la socialdemocracia multicultural.Esto explica una de las principales diferencias entre Breivik y el movimiento neo-nacionalsocialista es su posición respecto a Israel y los judíos. El terrorista noruego interpreta al estado israelí como un modelo a seguir de "reunión nacional" étnica, y simpatiza enormemente con su lucha anti-jihad. Ergo, para Breivik se trata de un aliado ante un enemigo en común. El mismo principio aplica Breivik, quien se define como anti-racista, a las alianzas que propone con asiáticos orientales, hindúes y otros con tal de luchar contra el Islam.A quien sí defiende Breivik abiertamente es a Slobodan Milosevic. De hecho, el noruego argumenta que fueron los ataques de la OTAN a la Serbia de ese dictador genocida lo que primero despertó su instinto conservador. Esa podría ser una pista significativa para entender el rompecabezas ideológico del agresor, ya que las dos intervenciones internacionales en Yugoslavia ocurrieron antes del Once de septiembre, que es el gran disparador de la actual preocupación por la jihad entre muchos occidentales.En la visión de Breivik, quizá el sistema de organización social ideal sería elapartheid, pero a diferencia del caso de Sudáfrica, no dentro de un país. Para él, los judíos deberían haber sido expulsados de Europa en los 1930s; ahora deberían ser expulsados los musulmanes. El autor incluso menciona los casos de países de Asia Oriental del presente, como Corea del Sur y Japón, como ejemplos de naciones étnicamente homogéneas y prósperas. Evidentemente, Breivik es una persona que piensa en términos profundamente colectivistas. No hay derechos individuales para las personas que no forman parte de su grupo. Esta forma de concebir el mundo, sumada a la forma en que Breivik se presenta como líder de un movimiento ideológico violento, lo hacen similar a figuras como Lenin, Hitler, Mao, el Che Guevara u Osama bin Laden.De hecho, como todo pretendiente a líder carismático, Breivik incluye en su manifiesto instrucciones para tener preparadas fotografías en las que el atacante se "vea bien", pensando en el momento en el cual su rostro sea visto por el mundo – tal como está ocurriendo ahora. Así se lo propuso Breivik: "As a Justiciar Knight you will go into history as one of the most influential individuals of your time. So you need to look your absolute best and ensure that you produce quality marketing material prior to operation." El texto incluso recomienda utilizar una cama solar y aplicarse maquillaje antes de tomarse las fotografías.El aspecto más sorprendente del planteo de Breivik es el blanco que escogió para su ataque. Al leer el inmenso manifiesto y contrastarlo con los hechos de los días pasados, es inevitable quedarse con la sensación de que fue todo una excusa para perpetrar un acto de extrema violencia contra jóvenes inocentes (y desarmados, por supuesto). El manifiesto incluso lo admite con una subsección entera: "The cruel nature of our operations". Breivik explica que aunque el enemigo objetivo es el Islam en Europa, el objetivo inmediato son los europeos que han trabajado durante cerca de medio siglo para que exista esa presencia islámica en la región.Estos son, para el noruego, los multiculturalistas, marxistas y demás miembros de una suerte de élite europea. De hecho, su objetivo explícito es que para el año 2020 ocurran golpes de estado en diversos países de Europa occidental (junto con la abolición de la Unión Europea), de modo de instalar regímenes conservadores que trabajen para la eliminación simultánea del marxismo multicultural y del Islam.Estas élites y su "political correctness" son las responsables, para Breivik, de que no se puedan discutir abiertamente cuestiones que preocupan a un nacionalista conservador como él. La principal de ellas es la presencia de musulmanes en Europa. La sección tres del manifiesto es fundamental, porque tras más de 750 páginas de "diagnóstico" sobre el estado actual de Europa, el autor quiebra con todos los demás que citó y anuncia su alejamiento de la vía pacífica. Por ejemplo, en la página 791 aparece, como un subtítulo más, un anuncio importante: "Why armed resistance against the cultural Marxist/multiculturalist regimes of Western Europe is the only rational approach".De hecho, en esa sección hay varias páginas dedicadas a enunciar los cargos legales que se le imputan a multiplicidad de líderes europeos. Como parte de su gigantesca acusación contra el sistema político-social europeo de posguerra, Breivik incluso ofrece cálculos específicos de las cantidades de europeos cuyos derechos han sido violados de diversas maneras por los efectos de esas políticos, que van desde la violación y el asesinato hasta los despidos de personas. Todos se imputan, en conjunto y criminalmente, a estas "élites" cuya muerte se anuncia poco a poco.En lugar de estas personas aparecerá, en palabras de Breivik, un "cultural conservative tribunal" en cada país que implemente un nuevo régimen político. Como parte de esta iniciativa, aparecen mencionadas casualmente algunas medidas atroces: "All Muslims are to be immediately deported to their country of origin. Each family (family head) will receive 25 000 Euro providing they accept the deportation terms. Anyone who violently resists deportation will be executed". Breivik también prevé compensaciones financieras para los sujetos que fueron "víctimas intelectuales" del sistema previo, así como específicamente para los ciudadanos de Serbia por el bombardeo de OTAN. También incluye los parámetros de su propia "ley de medios", por utilizar un desafortunado término rioplatense, que implica la imposición de cuotas de periodistas e intelectuales "conservadores" y nacionalistas en diversas organizaciones mediáticas.El método que ha elegido Breivik, conscientemente sin duda, es similar al viejo anarquismo de la propaganda por el hecho, que consiste de atacantes solitarios que cometen actos espectaculares de demostración e inspiración ideológica. El noruego llama a su campaña de violencia "A Declaration of pre-emptive War" contra sus dos enemigos. Breivik indica claramente que aquellos que existan como él actualmente en Europa son pocos pero que están en aumento; su ataque está pensado para encender la chispa de la conmoción en la región, lo cual incluiría también la aparición de más adeptos. Tácticamente, el ataque del pasado viernes 22 de julio en Noruega es definido por su autor como "military shock attacks by clandestine cell systems".Hay más pasajes que directamente preanuncian el ataque que Breivik escogió lanzar: "consider making use of a remote detonation, (…) to attract attention to one location. Ensure that the enemy forces are heading for this location. By then, you will be on the opposite side of town and in the middle of the process of finishing your primary goal." El blanco se vuelve cada vez más específico: el primero de la lista que hay en el manifiesto es "political parties - cultural Marxist/multiculturalist political parties."En el apartado correspondiente a este tipo de organización, el primer país detallado es Noruega, y el primer partido que aparece ahí es el "Norwegian Labour Party". Más adelante, nuevamente en primer lugar entre una lista de blancos, dice que un blanco primario es: "the annual party meeting of the socialist/social democrat party in your country."Curiosamente, aunque Breivik propone algunas formas de organización colectiva (como la neo-templaria), sus instrucciones para los actos de terrorismo son estrictas respecto a que las células deben ser individuales. Es por eso que Breivik el terrorista pasó desapercibido, a juzgar por la información disponible, incluso en los círculos nacionalistas no violentos.De los nueve miembros que supuestamente asistieron en 2002 a la reunión fundacional en Londres de la organización neo-templaria (todos anónimos), cuatro son descritos como "cristiano ateo" o "cristiano agnóstico". El propio Breivik está muy indeciso respecto a su religión: "I'm not going to pretend I'm a very religious person as that would be a lie (…) I consider myself to be 100% Christian (…) I'm not an excessively religious man". Sería interesante saber qué opinaría Hugues de Payens, fundador de la orden original, respecto a esta falta de disciplina teológica (que en realidad es una ausencia total). Son sin ninguna duda los nombres de estos nueve miembros iniciales, y de otros, lo que más están buscando los servicios de inteligencia de varios estados europeos.La visión del mundo de Breivik está claramente influenciada por el pensamiento colectivista, y su propia obra parece aproximarse a un sistema de pensamiento que podría llamarse ideológico. Es por eso que es posible concluir que no se trata de un lunático desequilibrado que pertenece a un manicomio. Es peor que eso: una persona que en todo momento supo lo que hacía, que se preparó durante años para hacerlo, y que desplegó un alto nivel de meticulosidad para lograrlo. Hasta el efecto de su ataque está pensado desde hace años: "The art of asymmetrical warfare is less about inflicting immediate damage but all about the indirect long term psychological and ideological damage. Our shock attacks are theatre and theatre is always performed for an audience".Las descripciones más personales de Breivik son reveladoras del grado de control que tenía sobre sí mismo: "I have managed to stay focused and highly motivated for a duration of more than 9 years now (…) I have never been happier than I am today (…) I do a mental check almost every day through meditation and philosophizing (…) I simulate various future scenarios relating to resistance efforts, confrontations with police, future interrogation scenarios, future court appearances, future media interviews etc".El objetivo de Breivik es la fundación de una nueva cadena de nacionalismos post-nazis en Europa, y es importante que ese proyecto fracase. El autor concibió un "100 year plan to contribute to seize political power in Western European countries currently controlled by anti-nationalists" (de ahí el título de su manifiesto: 2083). En sus planes más delirantes hacia el futuro, Breivik menciona todo tipo de planes, desde el robo y la detonación de armas nucleares en las capitales europeas hasta la colaboración con Al-Qaeda, el gobierno de Irán, y otros terroristas islámicos.Como se dijo anteriormente, el manifiesto es increíblemente largo y contiene todo tipo de cosas. Hay discusiones muy detalladas sobre la niñez ("My best friend for many years, a Muslim"), adolescencia (incluyendo encuentros con pandillas pakistaníes y un pasado como "graffiti artist") y juventud del autor, con descripciones (con nombres) de sus amigos y hasta las vidas sexuales de sus familiares más cercanos. Hay planes para la importación de inmigrantes en la era "post-islámica" de Europa, con detalles sobre los horarios, la compensación, las localidades y más. Breivik tiene hasta pensado cuál será el nuevo himno de Europa. También explica que él no fue el fundador de la organización neo-templaria, sino el octavo miembro (algo que recuerda a la historia de Adolf Hitler y su ingreso al NSDAP), y que a través de ella conoció a un criminal de guerra serbio en Liberia. Su mentor fue un inglés, fundador de la organización y sin duda un importantísimo blanco para la inteligencia doméstica británica en este mismo momento.Actualmente el "caso Breivik" se encuentra en una etapa que el propio terrorista ya tiene planeada desde hace años: "Your arrest will mark the initiation of the propaganda phase. Your trial offers you a stage to the world (…) A Justiciar Knight is not only a valorous resistance fighter, a one man army; he is a one man marketing agency as well". El terrorista está muy consciente de la opinión que el mundo se ha formado sobre él, y ya ha recorrido mentalmente el camino para superar el ostracismo de su causa: "It might sound completely ridiculous and funny to most people today. But by presenting the following accusations and demands in all seriousness we are indirectly conditioning everyone listening for the conflicts and scenarios ahead. They will laugh today, but in the back of their minds, they have an ounce of fear, respect and admiration for our cause and the alternative and authority we represent".Breivik no es un criminal o incluso un terrorista común. Es una figura nefasta con una ideología totalmente nueva. Es muy importante conocer los términos ideológicos y metodológicos en los que operó, porque existe una preocupante posibilidad de que haya otros como él en el futuro.*Licenciado en Estudios Internacionales - Universidad ORT Uruguay Candidato al Master of Arts in Security Studies - Georgetown University

Introducción: La población de Santiago del Estero, asciende a 874.006 habitantes según INDEC (2010). En este último censo, se pudo determinar que existe un 4% de la población con analfabetismo y un 70% con analfabetismo digital, por no tener acceso a una computadora. Las familias santiagueñas del interior, envían a sus hijos a escuelas públicas rurales, es decir, 1 de cada tres alumnos en la provincia, concurre a una escuela rural. Estás instituciones son primordiales, ya que tienen grandes connotaciones sociales, como servicio público básico y elemento de reunión de la población; donde se generan vínculos entre alumnos, padres, docentes y autoridades comunales. Además de su valor formativo, es un espacio de encuentro e intercambio. El Censo Nacional de Infraestructura Escolar (CeNIE:1998) reveló que las escuelas públicas del estado, carecían de buenos niveles de servicios de infraestructura; donde no contaban: el 85% con gas natural, un 38% con electricidad y el 74% de agua corriente de la red. Al mismo tiempo, el 47% de estos edificios escolares, no tenían un buen estado de mantenimiento, en la conservación general de los edificios, específicamente: el 58% con sanitarios en estado regular a malo y un 56%, no cuenta con tamaño adecuado de aulas. Sin embargo, desde 2005 hasta la fecha, es evidente un registro dinámico de acciones con planificación previa, de programas nacionales y provinciales para la renovación y construcción de nuevas escuelas, en la capital y en el interior de Santiago del Estero, que permitieron concluir las obras paralizadas e iniciar otras nuevas, de acuerdo con las urgencias y limitaciones de la infraestructura escolar. Desde la reactivación de las obras de infraestructura escolar hasta el año 2015, no existían antecedentes de escuelas con eficiencia bioambiental y energética. Por lo ello, el presente trabajo de investigación (iniciado en el año 2014), consistió en analizar y evaluar, la producción estatal de tres casos de escuelas rurales, en diferentes zonas bioclimáticas y de distintas tipologías, para poder proponer soluciones apropiadas y apropiables a las problemática local en cuestión, que permitan el fortalecimiento de escuelas rurales en áreas geográficas desfavorables; ya que estas contribuyen a promover igualdad de oportunidades educativas y una mejor educación, se refleja en una mejor sociedad. Propósito y Objetivos:Los resultados de este estudio, tienen como propósito guiar futuras intervenciones en las instituciones públicas, responsables de la producción de distintas tipologías de edificios en Santiago del Estero y en particular del tipo arquitectónico estudiado en el presente trabajo; contribuyendo a la optimización de la eficiencia energética, mediante el mejoramiento de las condiciones de confort higrotérmico interiores, favoreciendo al proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje en aulas y a la calidad de vida de las comunidades educativas. El objetivo general del trabajo, es desarrollar propuestas superadoras de edificios escolares estatales rurales de la provincia, logrando rediseños que verifiquen, las recomendaciones de pautas de adecuación bioambiental y el mejoramiento térmico-energético de las envolventes según normativas nacionales; con uso racional y eficiente de la energía convencional e integrando arquitectónicamente tecnologías sustentables para el aprovechamiento de energías renovables. Por lo cual, para alcanzar este objetivo principal, se plantearon los siguientes objetivos específicos: 1) Identificar particularidades climáticas, geográficas, arquitectónicas, constructivas, entre otras; de prototipos escolares estatales rurales característicos de la provincia; definiendo pautas bioambientales adecuadas, a cada zona bioambiental a la que corresponden; 2) Estimar el grado de confort higrotérmico de los usuarios, a través de evaluación subjetiva, de encuestas socio-ambientales y evaluación objetiva, de monitoreos higrotérmicos y simulaciones térmicas; 3) Desarrollar propuestas de rediseños bioambientales con integración arquitectónica de tecnologías sustentables, evaluando en forma comparativa, los prototipos propuestos junto a los casos de estudio, para estimar la optimización de la eficiencia energética, mediante programas de cálculos y simulaciones computacionales en relación a valores Normados; 4) Calcular el costo económico de los prototipos estatales y rediseñados, verificando su factibilidad económica. Hipótesis de trabajo: 1) En Santiago del Estero, las obras nuevas, remodelaciones y ampliaciones de edificios escolares con antigüedad menor a 15 años, evidencian hoy en su mayoría, un estado de mantenimiento regular, por reducción de los costos invertidos, en materiales y mano de obra local especializada. Esta situación, conduce a una reducción de la calidad de la envolvente; la cual, es posible de evaluarse en relación a valores de referencia mínimos, de la serie de normativas IRAM sobre confort higrotérmico y eficiencia energética. 2) Esta baja calidad de las envolventes, ocasiona que los usuarios realicen un mayor consumo de energía convencional para calefaccionar o refrigerar los espacios escolares, y poder mantener un nivel de confort higrotérmico óptimo. Sin embargo, en la mayor parte de los casos, los edificios escolares no cuentan con artefactos adecuados para ello, ni disponen de energía suficiente para su funcionamiento. 3) Una alternativa viable para contribuir a la eficiencia energética en la construcción de estos espacios educativos, sería la obligatoriedad en etapa de diseño, de aplicar las reglamentaciones nacionales, específicamente de IRAM y de Infraestructura Escolar; que posibilitarían bases para poder estimar antes de la etapa de su construcción, óptimos niveles de confort higrotérmico y de ahorro energético; buscando racionalidad en uso de la energía convencional y la incorporación de energía renovable. 4) Es factible contribuir a generar alternativas sustentables para el hábitat escolar rural, incrementando el valor del costo estándar del prototipo, a un mínimo costo superior de inversión económica, para las etapas proyectuales de diseño y de ejecución; mediante una organización interdisciplinar comprometida, involucrando a los sectores: científico-académico, gubernamental-estatal, emprendedor-privado facilitando acciones concretas de gestión y autogestión en las comunidades rurales, mejorando su calidad habitabilidad y vida, dentro de los espacios educativos. Metodología y Resultados: Se combinaron las siguientes metodologías: analítica, descriptiva, inductivo-deductiva, correlacional y aplicada al estudio de casos. En las primeras tres etapas de trabajo, se definieron prototipos escolares rurales, como objeto de estudio; se analizaron las condicionantes geográficas y climáticas de las localidades correspondientes, en cada zona bioambiental (según Norma IRAM N°11603:1996); además se realizó, un análisis arquitectónico y tecnológico de los prototipos estatales en su estado actual y del grado de cumplimiento de pautas biambientales. Se estimó, el grado de confort higrotérmico de los usuarios, mediante evaluación subjetiva de encuesta socio-ambiental y evaluación objetiva, con registros higrotérmicos, simulaciones térmicas, simulaciones del asoleamiento y cálculos de la eficiencia térmico-energética de la envolvente de los prototipos estatales. Con los datos obtenidos en las primeras etapas de trabajo, se iniciaron otras tres etapas, para completar seis, donde se desarrollaron los proyectos de rediseños bioambiental con integración arquitectónica de tecnologías sustentables. Posteriormente, estos proyectos alternativos fueron evaluados en forma comparativa con los prototipos estatales, calculando y verificando los valores obtenidos, en relación a los valores recomendados por la serie de normas IRAM, referidas a la habitabilidad higrotérmica y racionalidad energética: transmitancia térmica, refrigeración, calefacción y etiquetados de eficiencia energética. Por último, se calculó el costo de las obras de los prototipos estatales y rediseñados. Conclusión: A partir de la evaluación térmico-energética, de prototipos de escuelas estatales rurales representativas de la provincia, se evidenció la baja calidad higrotérmica y de eficiencia energética, en la materialización de las envolventes e instalaciones edilicias en general, en Santiago del Estero. Las evaluaciones subjetivas y objetivas, determinaron en todos los casos, que los estudiantes en época estival, no logran condiciones de confort en las aulas, ya que las temperaturas interiores -monitoreadas y simuladas- superaron la mayor parte del tiempo, los valores del rango de confort considerado adecuado para esa estación (entre 20 a 27ºC). Por ello, se efectuaron propuestas de rediseños, de cada edificio escolar con pautas bioambientales: favoreciendo a orientaciones adecuadas, diseñando protecciones para cada orientación y con una reconfiguración adecuada de masa y aislación térmica en sus envolventes; utilizando materiales y métodos constructivos tradicionales y accesibles a cada sitio. Seguidamente, se propusieron medidas para el ahorro de la energía convencional y el aprovechamiento de energía renovable, mediante el diseño sistemas fotovoltaicos con integración arquitectónica. Se verificó el mejoramiento, de niveles de condiciones de confort higrotérmicas en aulas, debido a los justes térmico-energéticos efectuados, en las envolventes de los edificios escolares rediseñados. Los mismos, fueron valorados en relación a cada prototipo estatal; donde en cada caso, se estimó la disminución de valores de transmitancia térmica en muros y techos rediseñados; escalando de nivel "mínimo C" en prototipos estatales, a "medio B o recomendado A" en los rediseñados (según Norma IRAM N° 11605:1996). Al mismo tiempo, los valores de cargas térmicas de refrigeración ?QR? y coeficientes volumétricos de refrigeración ?GR? obtenidos de forma comparativa, fueron corroborados con el valor ?GR? admisible de la Norma IRAM 11.659:2007, comprobando su optimización en los prototipos rediseñados. Además, con la Norma IRAM 11.604:2001, se cotejó la disminución de las pérdidas de calor ?G? y de cargas térmicas de calefacción anual ?Q?, logrando mejora en los prototipos rediseñados. Por último, a través de la Norma IRAM Nº 11.900:2010, se comprobó que es posible optimizar la eficiencia energética de calefacción, ya que en los prototipos estatales se partió de etiquetados del tipo ?H y G?, de menor eficiencia; hacia los casos de rediseños donde se avanzó, hacia la maximización de la eficiencia energética, a mayores niveles ?verdes?, con etiquetados del tipo ?C?. Se propuso una disminución, de consumos eléctricos excesivos estatales, a consumos eficientes en rediseños; ajustando los items de mayor incidencia: iluminación, refrigeración y calefacción; lo cual fue verificado de manera comparativa. A los valores ajustados, se planteó energizarlos con sistemas fotovoltaicos arquitectónicamente integrados, autónomos o conectados a red según el caso; los que fueron, dimensionados y diseñados al detalle. Finalmente, se calculó la factibilidad económica de las propuestas, ya que se obtuvieron, porcentajes totales de sobrecosto mínimos de entre un 10 a 15%. De esta manera, se buscó generar antecedentes, de edificios escolares bioambientales en la provincia, que permitirán elevar la calidad de la infraestructura educativa; sabiendo que el punto de partida relevante, en lo que respecta a la igualdad de oportunidades, es el mejoramiento de la calidad de las condiciones edilicias y del nivel de confort higrotérmico de todas las comunidades educativas y en especial de los sectores sociales más desprotegidos. Palabras Clave: Escuelas Estatales Rurales, Eficiencia Energética, Santiago del Estero ; The population of Santiago del Estero, amounts to 874,006 inhabitants (INDEC Census, 2010). It registered, 4% of the population with illiteracy and 70% with digital illiteracy, for not having access to PC. The families of the interior of Santiago send their children to rural public schools, that is, 1 out of every three students in the province attends a rural school. These institutions are paramount, since they have great social connotations, as a basic public service and as a gathering element for the population; where links are generated between students, parents, teachers and community authorities. In addition to its formative value, it is a space for meeting and exchange. The National School Infrastructure Census (CeNIE: 1998) revealed that public schools in the state lacked good levels of infrastructure services; where they did not count: 85% with natural gas, 38% with electricity and 74% of mains water. At the same time, 47% of these school buildings, did not have a good state of maintenance, in the general conservation of buildings, specifically: 58% with toilets in regular to bad state and 56%, does not have adequate size of classrooms. However, from 2005 to date, a dynamic record of actions with prior planning, national and provincial programs for the renovation and construction of new schools, in the capital and inland of Santiago del Estero, was evident. paralyzed works and start new ones, according to the urgencies and limitations of the school infrastructure. Since the reactivation of school infrastructure works until 2015, there was no record of schools with bioenvironmental and energy efficiency. Therefore, the present research work (started in 2014), consisted of analyzing and evaluating the state production of three cases of rural schools, in different bioclimatic zones and of different typologies, in order to propose appropriate and appropriable solutions to the local problems in question, which allow the strengthening of rural schools in unfavorable geographical areas; since these contribute to promote equal educational opportunities, and a better education, it is reflected in a better society Purpose and objectives The general objective of the work is to develop proposals to overcome rural state school buildings in the province, achieving redesigns that verify, the recommendations of bioambiental adaptation guidelines and the thermal-energetic improvement of the enclosures according to national regulations; with rational and efficient use of conventional energy and architecturally integrating sustainable technologies for the use of renewable energy. Therefore, to achieve this main objective, the following specific objectives were proposed: 1) Identify climatic, geographical, architectural, constructive particularities, among others; of rural state school prototypes characteristic of the province; defining appropriate bio-environmental guidelines, to each bio-environmental zone to which they correspond; 2) To estimate the degree of hygrothermal comfort of the users, through subjective evaluation, socio-environmental surveys and objective evaluation, hygrothermal monitoring and thermal simulations; 3) Develop bioenvironmental redesign proposals with architectural integration of sustainable technologies, evaluating in a comparative way, the prototypes proposed together with the case studies, to estimate the optimization of energy efficiency, through calculation programs and computational simulations in relation to Normative values; 4) Calculate the economic cost of state prototypes and redesigned, verifying their economic feasibility. Hypothesis 1) In Santiago del Estero, the new works, remodeling and extensions of school buildings with less than 15 years old, show today, mostly, a state of regular maintenance, by reducing the costs invested in materials and local labor specialized This situation leads to a reduction in the quality of the envelope; which, it is possible to evaluate in relation to minimum reference values, of the series of IRAM regulations on hygrothermal comfort and energy efficiency. 2) This low quality of the enclosures, causes that the users realize a greater consumption of conventional energy to calefaccionar or refrigerate the scholastic spaces, and to be able to maintain a level of confort hygrothermal optimum. However, in most cases, school buildings do not have adequate devices for this, nor do they have enough energy for their operation. 3) A viable alternative to contribute to energy efficiency in the construction of these educational spaces, would be the mandatory design stage, to apply the national regulations, specifically IRAM and School Infrastructure; that they would allow bases to be able to estimate before the stage of its construction, optimal levels of hygrothermal comfort and energy saving; looking for rationality in the use of conventional energy and the incorporation of renewable energy. 4) It is feasible to contribute to generate sustainable alternatives for the rural school habitat, increasing the value of the standard cost of the prototype, at a minimum cost of economic investment, for the design and execution design stages; through a committed interdisciplinary organization, involving the following sectors: scientific-academic, governmental-state, entrepreneur-private, facilitating concrete actions of management and self-management in rural communities, improving their quality of living and life, within educational spaces. Methodology The following methodologies were combined: analytical, descriptive, inductive-deductive, correlational and applied to case studies. In the first three stages of work, rural school prototypes were defined as an object of study; the geographic and climatic conditions of the corresponding localities were analyzed in each bioenvironmental zone (according to IRAM Norm N ° 11603: 1996); In addition, an architectural and technological analysis of the state prototypes in their current state and the degree of compliance with environmental guidelines was carried out. The degree of hygrothermal comfort of the users was estimated through subjective evaluation of the socio-environmental survey and objective evaluation, with hygrothermal registers, thermal simulations, solar simulations and calculations of the thermal-energetic efficiency of the envelopes of the state prototypes. With the data obtained in the first stages of work, three other stages were initiated, to complete six, where bioenvironmental redesign projects were developed with architectural integration of sustainable technologies. Subsequently, these alternative projects were evaluated in a comparative manner with state prototypes, calculating and verifying the values obtained, in relation to the values recommended by the IRAM series of standards, referring to hygrothermal habitability and energy rationality: thermal transmittance, cooling, heating and labeled energy efficiency. Finally, the cost of the works of the state and redesigned prototypes was calculated. Conclusion From the thermal-energetic evaluation, of prototypes of representative rural schools of the province, the low hygrothermal quality and of energetic efficiency was evidenced, in the materialization of the envelopes and building facilities in general, in Santiago del Estero. The subjective and objective evaluations, in all cases, determined that students in summer do not achieve comfort conditions in the classrooms, since indoor temperatures -monitored and simulated- exceeded most of the time, the values of the range of Comfort considered adequate for that station (between 20 to 27oC). For this reason, redesign proposals were made for each school building with bioenvironmental guidelines: favoring appropriate orientations, designing protections for each orientation and with an adequate reconfiguration of mass and thermal insulation in its envelopes; using traditional materials and construction methods accessible to each site. Next, measures were proposed for the saving of conventional energy and the use of renewable energy, through the design of photovoltaic systems with architectural integration. It was verified the improvement of levels of hygrothermal comfort conditions in classrooms, due to the thermal-energetic adjustments made in the envelopes of the redesigned school buildings. They were valued in relation to each state prototype; where in each case, the decrease in thermal transmittance values in walls and ceilings redesigned was estimated; climbing from "minimum C" level in state prototypes, to "medium B or recommended A" in the redesigned ones (according to IRAM Norm N ° 11605: 1996). At the same time, the values of thermal loads of refrigeration "QR" and refrigeration volumetric coefficients "GR" obtained comparatively, were corroborated with the admissible "GR" value of IRAM 11.659: 2007, verifying their optimization in the prototypes redesigned. In addition, with the Norm IRAM 11.604: 2001, the reduction of the heat losses "G" and thermal loads of annual heating "Q" was checked, achieving improvement in the redesigned prototypes. Finally, through the IRAM Norm 11.900: 2010, it was found that it is possible to optimize the energy efficiency of heating, since in the state prototypes it started with labeling of type "H and G", of lower efficiency; towards the cases of redesigns where progress was made, towards the maximization of energy efficiency, to higher "green" levels, with labeling of type "C". A reduction was proposed, from excessive state electric consumption, to efficient consumption in redesigns; adjusting the items with the highest incidence: lighting, cooling and heating; which was verified in a comparative manner. At the adjusted values, it was proposed to energize them with architecturally integrated photovoltaic systems, autonomous or connected to the network, as the case may be; those that were, sized and designed in detail. Finally, the economic feasibility of the proposals was calculated, since total percentages of minimum cost overruns of between 10 and 15% were obtained. In this way, it was sought to generate antecedents of bio-environmental school buildings in the province, which will raise the quality of the educational infrastructure; knowing that the relevant starting point, with regard to equal opportunities, is the improvement of the quality of the building conditions and the hygrothermal comfort level of all the educational communities and especially of the most unprotected social sectors. ; Fil: Giuliano Raimondi, Gabriela María del Carmen. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucumán; Argentina

In 1928, Utah Construction Company completed its first project outside of the United States with the 110 mile railroad for Southern Pacific of Mexico. Over the next 30 years, UCC continued to work on projects in Mexico including dams, roads, mining, and canals. The collection contains several booklets and correspondence along with approximately 500 photographs. ; 8.5 x 11 in. paper ; 96) Return to Harry McNev Mexico- Copper & Exploration ABSTRACT CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT MINING EXPLORATION AND MINING PRODUCTION IN MEXICO Private mining industry is experiencing difficult times in many countries that are or have been large mineral producers. Would Mexico offer opportunities for exploration and production? Mexico is a mineral rich country. For the exploration en-gineer this is the most vital point. If the exploration groups are professionally adept, they will find mineralization. A broad review of metallogenetic provinces and of past and present production in Mexico can be used as a guide to explora-tion. Although Mexico is well endowed with minerals, there are many factors that must be considered before a determination can be made that the mineral discovered is ore; (a) restrictive factors in-cluca governmental policy such as taxes, Mexicanization, commodity prices and certain laws; (b) favorable factors include a stable government, strong and freely-convertible peso, and relatively low direct-production costs. -The Mexican mining industry offers an opportunity to those willing to study the problems, accept the law, and invest in the social -as well as financial- future of Mexico. CONDITIONS THAT AffECT MINING EXPLORATION AND MINING PRODUCTION IN MEXICO I. INTRODUCTION. The potential foreign investor in Mexico's Mining In-dustry must carefully consider many facets of the industry and of the country. On the positive side, a stable govern-ment, a healthy monetary position and. above all, a mineral-iy rich country can be found. However, no investments should be made until the potential investor has investigated the min-ing law with its Mexicanization requirements, the mining taxes, the technical manpower regulations and the power of the ex-ecutive branch to set commodity prices. The official mining policy during the period 1930 to 1954, did not encourage investments in the mining industry. However, the future looks much brighter, for now Mexicanization has been accomplished for over 90% of the industry and the gov-ernment realizes that mine products provide a base for Mexico's currency and bring in foreign exchange, that mining provides an important source of government revenue and is an important con-sumer of power, supplies, and transportation services. Also, and of great future importance, Mexico's expanding industry will be in need of more raw materials to supply its demand and its increasing export of manufactured goods. II. HISTORY. The Spanish conquistadores were obsessed by the riches found in Mexico - particularly gold and silver. Thus began the systematic plundering of the new colony and the beginning of mining as the basis of Mexico's economy, Mexico became known as the ""mine and mint of Spain"". Major mining districts such as Taxco, Zacatecas, Santa Brbara and Guanajuato were discovered and brought into pro-duction between 1520 and 1550. It is interesting to note that these selected districts are ail still in production. From 1810, which saw the start, of independence from Spain to 1910 when the Mexican Revolution broke out, mining continued to play a leading role in the national economy. It probably would be fair to say that it sustained the economy. From 1875 to 1900, for example, mining accounted for 70% of the value of Mexico's exports. During the period of the 1910-1917 Revolution mineral pro-duction sharply declined. Silver, lead, and zinc, however, hit their peaks in the late 1920's nut then the general depression followed by governmental restrictions and high taxes reduced exploration which then was followed by reduced production and to date the peaks of production of the late 1920's have not been reached. Under the progressive regime of President Diaz Ordaz, which started in 1964, governmental stimulation to the mining industry has led to greater exploration which is now showing up in increased production. Today Mexico ranks as the leading producer of silver and is the fourth largest producer of lead, fifth of zinc and fourteenth of copper. Mexico also produces major amounts of mercury, bismuth, sulphur, antimony and is the leading producer of fluorite. The entire mineral industry accounts for over 20 percent of the country's foreign exchange earnings although this amounts to less than 2% of the Gross National Product. III. CONDITIONS IN THE MINING INDUSTRY OF MEXICO THAT AFFECT IN-VESTMENT. A. Mexicanization. The term Mexicanization has often been misinterpreted as nationalization. Mexicanization only implies the control of a company in Mexican hands. The transfer of control from foreign to Mexican hands proceeds on a private level by negotiations between local and foreign businessman. Although foreign capital is welcomed, the investor should not expect more favorable treatment than that accorded domestic investors. In Mexicanization it is implicit that as a country progres-ses and matures it must create a body of national capital. For if the profit earned leaves the country (although it created jobs, paid taxes, etc.) the servicing of loans and repatriation of capital would likely endanger the balance of payments leading to an unsound economy. Instead, by retaining within the country at least 51% of the profit, a national capital can be created which is so necessary for further economic expansion and industrialization. - 3 - In 1961 a mining law was passed providing that new mining concessions can be granted only to Mexican nationals, and companies in which a minimum of 51 percent of their capital stock (or 66 per-cent in some instances) is owned by Mexican nationals. This same law, however, granted tax privileges to Mexicanized companies. B. Immigration Restrictions. To protect their skilled and unskilled labor, the Mexican Government has regulated the immigration of foreign technicians in-to Mexico. However, if for the good of the country it is felt that a foreign expert is vitally needed, he can be permitted to enter generally with the stipulation that he train his replacement. Mexican universities are training mining engineers, metal lurgists and geologists but their training is principally academic and an industrial training period is necessary to make these en-gineers capable of filling normal production positions, C. The mining law of Mexico was completely redrafted in 1961, This is an extensive law and only a few of the points will be discussed, 1. Only Mexicans or Mexicanized companies have the right to obtain concessions. 2. A concession shall have a maximum surface area of 500 hectares l hr = 10,000 sq. meters). The sides of the con-cession are limited by vertical planes, 3. The total maximum concession area for a company or an individual is limited depending on the substance. However, three times this maximum can be held for a five-year exploration period. As an example for gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc, a maximum of 9000 hectares can be held for the first five years. After this five year period, a maximum of only 3000 hectares can be held. 4. Mining concessions are issued for 25 years but may be extended on proof of effective exploitation. 5. Assessment work is required. D. Taxes. Taxes paid by mining companies include: 4 1. Income Tax. This tax is modarate and has a maximum of 42%. 2. Production and Export Tax. These taxes are based on price set monthly by the Treasury Department. This official value is arbitrary and can change but generally reflects world prices. These taxes are levied whether the Company is making an operating profit or not. 3. Surface Tax. This tax is a rental on mineral concession of $1.20 dollars per hectare per year. 4. Capital Gains. Capital gains are included in gross income but at a reduced percentage depending on the length of time that assets have been held. 5. Depletion. There is no deduction allowed for depletion. 6. Amortization and Depreciation. It can be stated that deductions allowed are those that the tax authorities regard as normal and necessary for conduct of business. 7. Reduction in Taxes for New Mines. A directive calls for a five year reduction of up to 40% income tax and up to 100% of the federal portion of the production and export taxes, and accelerated depreciation and amortization for certain investment in new operations. 8. Other Taxes. Other taxes such as social security payments and distribution of a portion of annual profits to employees are required. E. Metal Prices. Metal prices for sale in Mexico are set by a govern- - 5 - merit agency. These prices are lower than world prices and act to subsidize Mexico's metal-using industries at the expense of the mining industry. F. Favorable Conditions. 1. Stable Government. The Mexican Government is stable and this stability will be entrenched each passing year with the development of a larger middle class and the strong emphasis on education. 2. Financial Stability. Exchange restrictions have never been imposed and funds are freely convertible and transferable to and from Mexico. The exchange rate has remained at 12.50 pesos per U.S. dollar since 1954. An exchange stabilisation agreement exists between Mexico and the International Monetary Fund which permits Mexico to draw on foreign currencies to maintain the parity of the peso. However, Mexico has maintained a favorable balance of payments for numerous years. 3. Low cost labor. Although there is a notable lack of qualified mining and exploration personnel of the highly technical and supervisory calibre, there is plentiful mining labor in the mining regions. In general, the mining labor is efficient and the costs are reason-able. Recent wage raises have been higher than increased productivity and management must work for higher productivity. In recent years strikes of over 15 days duration have been exceptional and peaceful labor relations are the rule. 4. High mineral potential. We can start with the premise that Mexico is a country extremely well endowed with minerals and many ore bodies await to be discovered. The fact that there has not been more than possibly three major metallic mineral discoveries in the last two decades is not that the bodies do not exist but that fiscal conditions have been such that no search has been made - 6 - for them. Now methods and philosophies of exploration have not been tried until very recently but in them lies the great ex-ploration potential of Mexico. There are three general geologic zones in Mexico. The nor-thern zone is separated from the southern zone by the volcanic-rift belt which runs east-west through Mexico City and Guadalaja-ra and has as its most obvious surface feature a belt of Cenozoic volcanics. Most of the mining in Mexico has taken place in the northern zone in which the more acidic intrusive rocks are found. The southern zone contains more basic rocks, and although there are numerous mineral occurrences, the mines are small in size and number. The scarcity of mines in this zone is undoubt-edly due, in great part, to the lack of exploration which is made difficult due to lack of roads and facilities and to the heavy vegetation covering the outcrops. The volcanic-rift belt exhibits difficult exploration con-ditions; the principal ones being the great amount of volcanic cover and the intense faulting. As in the southern zone this area has not received intensive exploration; however, the famous silver deposits of Pachuca, Taxco, El Oro and Guanajuato lie within this region or at its edge. In the northern zone a long, large northwest trending belt of middle Cenozoic volcanics is found, which constitutes the Sierra Madre Occidental. Pew large mines are known within this belt of very thick volcanics; but where the rocks below the volcanics have been exposed, they are abnormally well mineralized. Therefore, here again the scarcity of mines is due to lack of out-crops. In order to investigate the exploration possibilities in greater detail, let us evaluate the situation of various metals. a. Silver. Mexico is and has been for many years (except 1968) the world's leading producer of silver. In the past a majority of the silver came from such bonanza camps as Pachuca, Guanajuato and Tax co where the silver was found in very high-grade deposits with very minor amounts of other metals. Today. most of Mexico's silver is produced as an accessory mineral in the lead and zinc deposits. This means that with lower lead and zinc prices there has been a reduction in the production of silver although silver prices have advanced. Although the bonanza camps have been reported as ""worked out"", there are definite signs that this may not be the case. Recant high-grade discoveries in Guanajuato and Taxco indicate that if modern techniques and vigorous exploration are carried out, it is quite possible that bonanza deposits will be discovered. Silver is well distributed in many parts of Mexico and it would be difficult to pin-point exact locations favorable for exploration. Slide No.2 shows in general the major distribution of silver. Since the environments vary widely, so also would the exploration techniques. In parts of Mexico numerous silver deposits have been known but left unexploited due to lack of roads and facilities. Large, low-grade deposits probably exist but as yet company philosophies have not been such that they would explore for this type of deposit. b. Copper. Copper, like silver, appears to have a future at favor-able prices. Added to this is the great increase in demand for copper by Mexico to satisfy its rapidly expanding industry. Until this year (1970), there has been only one copper mine in Mexico that could be considered major; the Cananea mine which produces approximately 70% of Mexico's copper. The Santa Rosalia mine in Baja California could be considered a medium sized mine and the rest of the present copper production comes from very small mines or as a minor mineral from other base metal mines. Because of this limited production, Mexico is presently producing just enough copper to supply its internal demand. This picture, however, is changing rapidly. In early 1971, Asarco Mexicana, S.A. will bring into production their Inguarn mine, in the State of Michoacn, which will have a mill capacity of 2000 metric tons per day of 1.8% copper which will more than take care of Mexico's immediate industrial demands for copper. Then in the future lies the immense deposit, La Ca-ridad, of Mexicana de Cobre, which has reserves in excess of 600 million metric tons of 0.75% copper with values in molybdenum. The exact size of this deposit is as yet unknown. Work is now underway to bring this deposit into production in 1974. -8- The reason for not producing more copper in Mexico has been the lack of exploration incentive by the mining companies. The small prospector is not equipped to explore for bulk, low-grade copper deposits and only in the last year or so have major companies made an exerted effort in this field. A very favorable copper mineral province exists in the State of Sonora, Perhaps the most important structural characteristic of this area is its location (Slide #3) along the north-trending Wasatch-Jerome crustal lineament at or near its intersection with the northwest-trending Texas lineament. Correlation between these lineaments and the distribution of the bulk low-grade deposits has been remarkable. Mexico's largest copper producer at Cananea and the previously mentioned La Caridad deposit lie along the Wasatch-Jerome near the intersection with the Texas lineament. Although northern Sonora is a most favorable area in which to explore for copper, this area should not be considered as the only target area since favorable areas exist in other parts of Mexico. Molybdenum can often be expected as an accessory metal with the copper mineralization. If unfavorable conditions for mining investment in Zambia, Peru and Chile -all major copper producing countries- continue or worsen, Mexico will become a major exporter of copper within the next ten years. Even if conditions become better in those countries, Mexico will still play a major role as a copper producing country. c. Lead and Zinc. Although the long term picture for lead and zinc, with silver as an accessory metal, may not be as bright as for copper, established smelter capacity and both local and foreign markets exist and, therefore, exploration for lead and zinc can be con-sidered by both large and small companies. For many years there has been little exploration for new lead and zinc deposits and there has been no exploration with the use of modern tools for locating unexposed bodies. The greatest exploration provinces for lead and zinc are shown on Slide #5. In these areas substantial silver values associated with the lead and zinc could be expected. - 9 d. Other Metals and Minerals. Mexico is a major producer of fluorite, barite, mercury, tungsten and antimony. Exploration will continue for these ma-terials depending primarily on world prices. i IV. SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS. Prom the foregoing, we can quickly summarize the conditions that exist in Mexico that directly affect investment in the mining industry. A. Regulatory. 1. Mexicanization. The requirement of majority investment by Mexican nationals by itself is certainly not unfavorable; however, risk capital is difficult to find. 2. Immigration Restrictions. It is often difficult to obtain highly technical personnel and companies are limited to the number of foreign personnel they can hire. 3. Mining Law. The mining law has been updated and is meant to broaden the mining industry base in Mexico. However restrictions and control are an essential part of the law. 4. Taxes. Income Taxes are moderate but production and ex-port, taxes are a severance tax not based on profit. There is no reduction in taxes for depletion. 5. Metal Prices. Mexico's industry is subsidised at the expense of the mining industry through official prices set slightly lower than world prices -10- B. Favorable. l. Mexico is a mineral-rich country. 2. Mexico has a stable government. 3. Mexico has a strong-convertible currency. 4. Direct production costs for medium to large operations are low. 5. The proximity to the United States assures a large market in addition to the growing market in Mexico. Future. The most striking feature about Mexico today is the tremendous social gains. Education receives, by far, the largest share of the national budget; health facilities are readily available and are ex-panding; electricity and roads are coming to the small villages and wages are being raised in an attempt to make even the poor farmer a consumer. Mexico is expanding industrially to keep in step with the local demands and manufacturing more and more of its necessities in or-der to reduce the need to import, which makes its trade balance more favorable. Mexico yearly increases the export of manufactured goods where previously the country had only been an exporter of raw material and crafts. Politically Mexicans are, and should be, proud of their ancient past and their recant history. They are, therefore, ready and anxious to work with foreign companies if this partership will assist in the development of Mexico as a country and to the advantage of the Mexican people. The exploitation of Mexico to the advantage of other peoples is a thing of the past. Mexico is a developed country and expects to be treated as such. The Mexican mining industry offers an opportunity to those willing to study the problems accept the laws and invest in the social -as well as financial- future of Mexico. D.F. Coolbaugh Mexico, D.F. Mexico, May 1970. DFC/mfb. - 11 -

En mi formación de posgrado a finales de los años ochenta, teníamos cerca de treinta camas hospitalarias en un pabellón llamado "sépticas" (1). En Colombia, donde el aborto estaba totalmente penalizado, allí estaban mayoritariamente mujeres con abortos inseguros complicados. El enfoque que recibíamos era técnico: manejo de cuidados intensivos; realizar histerectomías, colostomías, resecciones intestinales, etc. En esa época algunas enfermeras eran monjas, y se limitaban a interrogar a las pacientes para que "confesaran" qué se habían hecho para abortar. Siempre me inquietó que las mujeres que salían vivas se iban sin ninguna asesoría, ni con un método anticonceptivo. Al preguntar alguna vez a uno de mis docentes me contestó con desdén: "este es un hospital de tercer nivel, esas cosas las hacen las enfermeras en primer nivel". Al ver tanto dolor y muerte, decidí hablar con las pacientes del servicio y empecé a entender sus decisiones. Recuerdo aún con tristeza tantas muertes, pero un caso en particular aún me duele: era una mujer cercana a los cincuenta años que llegó con una perforación uterina en estado de sepsis avanzada. A pesar de la cirugía y los cuidados intensivos, falleció. Alcancé a hablar con ella y me contó que era viuda, tenía dos hijos mayores y había abortado por "vergüenza con ellos", pues se iban a dar cuenta de que tenía vida sexual activa. A los pocos días de su fallecimiento, me llamó el profesor de patología, extrañado, para decirme que el útero que habíamos enviado para examen patológico no tenía embarazo. Era una mujer en estado perimenopáusico con una prueba de embarazo falsamente positiva, debido a los altos niveles de FSH/LH típicos de su edad. ¡¡¡NO ESTABA EMBARAZADA!!! No tenía menstruación porque estaba en premenopausia y una prueba falsamente positiva la llevó a un aborto inseguro. Claro, las lesiones causadas en las maniobras abortivas la llevaron al desenlace fatal, pero la real causa subyacente fue el tabú social respecto a la sexualidad. Tuve que ver muchas adolescentes y mujeres jóvenes salir del hospital vivas, pero sin útero, a veces sin ovarios y con colostomías, para ser despreciadas por una sociedad que les recriminaba el haber decidido no ser madres. Tuve que ver situaciones de mujeres que llegaban con sus intestinos protruyendo a través de sus vaginas por abortos inseguros. Vi mujeres que en su desespero se autoinfligieron lesiones tratando de abortar con elementos como palos, ramas, gajos de cebolla, barras de alumbre, ganchos, entre otros. Eran tantas las muertes que era difícil no tener por lo menos una mujer diariamente en la morgue a consecuencia de un aborto inseguro. En esa época no se abordaba la salud desde lo biopsicosocial sino solamente desde lo técnico (2); sin embargo, en las evaluaciones académicas que nos hacían, ante la pregunta de definición de salud, había que recitar el texto de la Organización Mundial de la Salud que involucraba estos tres aspectos, ¡qué contrasentido! Para dar respuesta a las necesidades de salud de las mujeres y garantizar sus derechos, cuando ya era docente, inicié el servicio de anticoncepción posevento obstétrico en ese hospital de tercer nivel. Hubo resistencia de las directivas, pero afortunadamente logré donaciones internacionales para la institución y esto facilitó su aceptación. Decidí concursar para carrera docente con el ánimo de poder sensibilizar a profesionales de la salud hacia un enfoque integral de la salud y la enfermedad. Cuando en 1994 se realizó la Conferencia Internacional de Población y Desarrollo (CIPD) en El Cairo ya llevaba varios años en la docencia, y cuando leí su Programa de Acción, encontré nombre para lo que estaba trabajando: derechos sexuales y derechos reproductivos. Empecé a incorporar en mi vida profesional y docente las herramientas que este documento me daba. Pude sensibilizar personas del Ministerio de Salud de mi país y trabajamos en conjunto recorriéndolo con un abordaje de derechos humanos en materia de salud sexual y reproductiva (SSR). Esta nueva mirada buscaba además de ser integral, dar respuesta a viejos problemas como la mortalidad materna, el embarazo en la adolescencia, la baja prevalencia anticonceptiva, el embarazo no planeado o no deseado o la violencia contra la mujer. Con otras personas sensibilizadas empezamos a permear con estos temas de SSR la Sociedad Colombiana de Obstetricia y Ginecología, algunas universidades y hospitales universitarios. Todavía seguimos dando la lucha en un país que a pesar de tantas dificultades ha mejorado muchos indicadores de SSR. Con la experiencia de haber trajinado en todas las esferas con estos temas, logramos con un puñado de colegas y amigas de la Universidad El Bosque crear la Maestría en Salud Sexual y Reproductiva, abierta a todas las profesiones, en la que rompimos varios paradigmas. Se inició un programa en el que la investigación cualitativa y cuantitativa tenían el mismo peso y algunos de los egresados del programa están ahora en posiciones de liderazgo en los entes gubernamentales e internacionales replicando modelos integrales. En la Federación Latinoamericana de Obstetricia y Ginecología (FLASOG) y en la Federación Internacional de Obstetricia y Ginecología (FIGO), pude por varios años aportar mi experiencia en los comités de SSR de esas asociaciones para beneficio de las mujeres y las niñas en los ámbitos regional y global. Cuando pienso en quienes me han inspirado en esta lucha, debo resaltar las grandes feministas que me han enseñado y acompañado en tantas batallas. No puedo mencionarlas a todas, pero he admirado la historia de vida de Margaret Sanger con su persistencia y mirada visionaria. Ella luchó durante toda su vida para ayudar a las mujeres del siglo XX para que obtuvieran el derecho a decidir si querían o no tener hijos o hijas y cuándo (3). De las feministas actuales he tenido el privilegio de compartir experiencias con Carmen Barroso, Giselle Carino, Debora Diniz y Alejandra Meglioli, lideresas de la Federación Internacional de Planificación de la Familia, Región del Hemisferio Occidental (IPPF-RHO, por su nombre en inglés). De mi país quiero resaltar a mi compatriota Florence Thomas, psicóloga, columnista, escritora y activista feminista colombo-francesa. Es una de las voces más influyentes e importantes del movimiento por los derechos de la mujer en Colombia y en la región. Arribó procedente de Francia en la década de 1960, en los años de la contracultura, los Beatles, los hippies, Simone de Beauvoir y Jean-Paul Sartre, época en la que se empezó a criticar el capitalismo y la cultura del consumo (4). Fue entonces cuando se comenzó a hablar del cuerpo femenino, la sexualidad femenina y cuando llegó la píldora anticonceptiva como una revolución total para las mujeres. A su llegada en 1967, ella experimentó un choque porque acababa de asistir a toda una revolución y solo encontró un país de madres, no de mujeres (5). Ese era el único destino de una mujer, ser callada y sumisa. Entonces se dio cuenta de que no se podía seguir así, hablando de "vanguardias revolucionarias" en un ambiente tan patriarcal. En 1986 con las olas del feminismo norteamericano y europeo, y con su equipo académico crearon el grupo Mujer y Sociedad de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia, semillero de grandes iniciativas y logros para el país (6). Ella ha liderado grandes cambios con su valentía, la fuerza de sus argumentos, y un discurso apasionado y agradable a la vez. Dentro de sus múltiples libros resalto Conversaciones con Violeta (7), motivado por el desdén hacia el feminismo de algunas mujeres jóvenes. Lo escribe a manera de diálogo con una hija imaginaria en el que, de una manera íntima, reconstruye la historia de las mujeres a través de los siglos y da nuevas luces sobre el papel fundamental del feminismo en la vida de la mujer moderna. Otro libro muestra de su valentía es Había que decirlo (8), en el que narra la experiencia de su propio aborto a sus 22 años en la Francia de los años sesenta. Mi experiencia de trabajo en la IPPF-RHO me ha permitido conocer líderes y lideresas de todas las edades en diversos países de la región, quienes con gran mística y dedicación, de manera voluntaria, trabajan por lograr una sociedad más equitativa y justa. Particularmente me ha impresionado la apropiación del concepto de derechos sexuales y reproductivos por parte de las personas más jóvenes, y esto me ha dado gran esperanza en el futuro del planeta. Seguimos con una agenda incompleta del Plan de acción de la CIPD de El Cairo, pero ver cómo la juventud enfrenta con valentía los retos, me motiva a seguir adelante y aportar mis años de experiencia en un trabajo intergeneracional. La IPPF-RHO evidencia un gran compromiso por los derechos y la SSR de adolescentes en sus políticas y programas, que son consistentes con lo que la Organización promueve; por ejemplo, el 20% de los puestos de toma de decisión están en manos de jóvenes. Las organizaciones miembros, que basan su labor en el voluntariado, son verdaderas incubadoras de jóvenes que harán ese recambio generacional inexpugnable y necesario. A diferencia de lo que nos tocó a muchos de nosotros, trabajar en esta complicada agenda de salud sexual y reproductiva sin bases teóricas, hoy vemos personas comprometidas y con una sólida formación para reemplazarnos. En la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia y en la Facultad de Enfermería de la Universidad El Bosque, las nuevas generaciones están más motivadas y empoderadas, con grandes deseos de cambiar las rígidas estructuras subyacentes. Nuestra gran preocupación son los embates de ultraderecha que soportan grupos antiderechos, muchas veces mejor organizados que nosotros, que sí apoyamos los derechos y somos verdaderos provida (9). Ante este escenario, debemos organizarnos mejor y seguir dando batallas para garantizar los derechos de las mujeres en el ámbito local, regional y global, aunando esfuerzos de todas las organizaciones proderechos. Estamos ahora comprometidos con los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (10), entendidos como aquellos que satisfacen las necesidades de la generación presente sin comprometer la capacidad de las generaciones futuras para satisfacer sus propias necesidades. Esta nueva agenda se basa en: - El trabajo no finalizado de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio - Los compromisos pendientes (convenciones ambientales internacionales) - Los temas emergentes en las tres dimensiones del desarrollo sostenible: social, económica y ambiental. Tenemos ahora 17 Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible y 169 metas (11). Entre estos objetivos se menciona en varias ocasiones el "acceso universal a la salud reproductiva". En el Objetivo 3 de esa lista se incluye garantizar, de aquí al año 2030, "el acceso universal a los servicios de salud sexual y reproductiva, incluidos los de planificación familiar, información y educación". De igual manera, el Objetivo 5, "Lograr la igualdad de género y empoderar a todas las mujeres y las niñas", establece que se deberá "asegurar el acceso universal a la salud sexual y reproductiva y los derechos reproductivos según lo acordado de conformidad con el Programa de Acción de la Conferencia Internacional sobre la Población y el Desarrollo, la Plataforma de Acción de Beijing". No se puede olvidar que el término acceso universal a la salud sexual y reproductiva incluye el acceso universal al aborto y la anticoncepción. Actualmente 830 mujeres mueren cada día por causas maternas prevenibles; de estos decesos, el 99% ocurre en países en desarrollo, más de la mitad en entornos frágiles y en contextos humanitarios (12). 216 millones de mujeres no pueden acceder a métodos de anticoncepción moderna y la mayoría vive en los nueve países más pobres del mundo y en un ambiente cultural propio de la década de los sesenta (13). Este número solo incluye las mujeres de 15 a 49 años en cualquier tipo de unión, es decir el número total es mucho mayor. Cumplir con los objetivos marcados supondría prevenir 67 millones de embarazos no deseados y reducir a un tercio las muertes maternas. Actualmente tenemos una alta demanda insatisfecha de anticoncepción moderna, con un bajísimo uso de los métodos de larga duración reversible (dispositivos intrauterinos e implantes subdérmicos) que son los más efectivos y de mayor adherencia (14). No hay uno solo de los 17 Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible donde la anticoncepción no tenga un papel preponderante: desde el primero que se refiere al fin de la pobreza, pasando por el quinto de igualdad de género, el décimo de reducción de la desigualdad, entre los países y en el mismo país, hasta el decimosexto relacionado con paz y justicia. Si queremos cambiar el mundo, debemos procurar acceso universal a la anticoncepción sin mitos ni barreras. Tenemos la obligación moral de lograr la erradicación de la pobreza extrema y avanzar en la construcción de sociedades más igualitarias, justas y felices. En anticoncepción de urgencia (AU), estamos muy lejos de alcanzar lo que esperamos. Si en métodos de larga duración reversible tenemos una baja prevalencia, en la AU la situación empeora. No en todas las facultades de medicina de la región se aborda este tema, y donde sí se hace, no hay homogeneidad de contenidos, ni siquiera dentro del mismo país. Hay aún mitos sobre su verdadero mecanismo de acción. Hay países como Honduras donde está prohibida y no hay un medicamento dedicado, como tampoco lo hay en Haití. Donde está disponible el acceso es ínfimo, particularmente entre las niñas, adolescentes, jóvenes, migrantes, afrodescendientes e indígenas. Hay que derrumbar las múltiples barreras para el uso eficaz de la anticoncepción de emergencia, y para eso necesitamos trabajar en romper mitos y percepciones erróneas, tabúes y normas culturales; lograr cambios en las leyes y normas restrictivas de los países; lograr acceso sin barreras a la AU; trabajar intersectorialmente; capacitar al personal de salud y la comunidad. Es necesario transformar la actitud del personal de salud en una de servicio por encima de sus propias opiniones. Reflexionando acerca de lo que ha pasado después de la CIPD realizada en El Cairo, su Programa de Acción cambió cómo miramos las dinámicas de población de un énfasis en la demografía a un enfoque en los derechos humanos y las personas. Los gobiernos acordaron que, en este nuevo enfoque, el éxito era el empoderamiento de las mujeres y la posibilidad de elegir a través de expandir el acceso a la educación, la salud, los servicios y el empleo, entre otros. Sin embargo, ha habido avances desiguales y persiste la inequidad en nuestra región, no se cumplieron todas las metas, los derechos sexuales y reproductivos continúan fuera del alcance de muchas mujeres (15). Aún queda un largo camino para recorrer, hasta que mujeres y niñas del mundo puedan reclamar sus derechos y la libertad de decidir. Globalmente la mortalidad materna se ha reducido, hay mayor asistencia calificada del parto, mayor prevalencia anticonceptiva, la educación integral en sexualidad y el acceso a servicios de SSR para adolescentes ya son derechos reconocidos y con grandes avances, además ha habido ganancias concretas en materia de marcos legales más favorables en particular en nuestra región; sin embargo, si bien las condiciones de acceso han mejorado, las legislaciones restrictivas de la región exponen a las mujeres más vulnerables a abortos inseguros. Hay aún grandes desafíos para que los gobiernos reconozcan la SSR y los DSR como parte integral de los sistemas de salud, existe una amplia agenda contra las mujeres. En ese sentido, el acceso a SSR está bajo amenaza y opresión, se requiere movilización intersectorial y litigios estratégicos, investigación y apoyo a los derechos de las mujeres como agenda intersectorial. Hacia adelante hay que esforzarnos más en el trabajo con jóvenes, para avanzar no solo en el Programa de Acción de la CIPD, sino en todos los movimientos sociales. Son uno de los grupos más vulnerables, y de los mayores catalizadores para el cambio. La población joven aún enfrentan muchos desafíos, especialmente las mujeres y niñas; las jóvenes están especialmente en alto riesgo debido a la falta de servicios y salud sexual y reproductiva amigables y confidenciales, la presencia de violencia basada en género y la falta de acceso a los servicios. Además hay que mejorar el acceso al aborto; es responsabilidad de los estados garantizar la calidad y seguridad en el acceso. Aún en nuestra región existen países con marcos totalmente restrictivos. Las nuevas tecnologías facilitan el autocuidado (16), lo que permitirá ampliar el acceso universal, pero los gobiernos no pueden desvincularse de su responsabilidad. El autocuidado se está expandiendo en el mundo y puede ser estratégico para llegar a las poblaciones más vulnerables. Hay nuevos desafíos para los mismos problemas, que requieren una reinterpretación de las medidas necesarias para garantizar los DSR de todas las personas, en particular mujeres, niñas y en general las poblaciones marginadas y vulnerables. Es necesario tener en cuenta aspectos como las migraciones, el cambio climático, el impacto de medios digitales, el resurgimiento de discursos de odio, la opresión, la violencia, la xenofobia, la homo/transfobia y otros problemas emergentes, pues la SSR debe verse en un marco de justicia, y no aislado. Debemos exigir rendición de cuentas a los 179 gobiernos que participaron en la CIPD hace 25 años y a los 193 países que firmaron los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible. Deben reafirmarse en sus compromisos y expandir la agenda a los temas no considerados en ese momento. Nuestra región ha dado ejemplo al mundo con el Consenso de Montevideo, que se convierte en una hoja de ruta para el cumplimiento del plan de acción de la CIPD y no debe permitirnos retroceder. Este Consenso pone en el centro a las personas, en especial a las mujeres, e incluye el tema de aborto invitando a los estados a que consideren la posibilidad de legalizarlo, lo que abre la puerta para que los gobiernos de todo el mundo reconozcan que las mujeres tienen el derecho a decidir sobre la maternidad. Este Consenso es mucho más inclusivo: Considerando que las brechas en salud continúan sobresalientes en la región y las estadísticas promedio suelen ocultar los altos niveles de mortalidad materna, de infecciones de transmisión sexual, de infección por VIH/SIDA y de demanda insatisfecha de anticoncepción entre la población que vive en la pobreza y en áreas rurales, entre los pueblos indígenas y las personas afrodescendientes y grupos en condición de vulnerabilidad como mujeres, adolescentes y jóvenes y personas con discapacidad, acuerdan: 33-Promover, proteger y garantizar la salud y los derechos sexuales y los derechos reproductivos para contribuir a la plena realización de las personas y a la justicia social en una sociedad libre de toda forma de discriminación y violencia. 37-Garantizar el acceso universal a servicios de salud sexual y salud reproductiva de calidad, tomando en consideración las necesidades específicas de hombres y mujeres, adolescentes y jóvenes, personas LGBT, personas mayores y personas con discapacidad, prestando particular atención a personas en condición de vulnerabilidad y personas que viven en zonas rurales y remotas y promoviendo la participación ciudadana en el seguimiento de los compromisos. 42-Asegurar, en los casos en que el aborto es legal o está despenalizado en la legislación nacional, la existencia de servicios de aborto seguros y de calidad para las mujeres que cursan embarazos no deseados y no aceptados e instar a los demás Estados a considerar la posibilidad de modificar las leyes, normativas, estrategias y políticas públicas sobre la interrupción voluntaria del embarazo para salvaguardar la vida y la salud de mujeres adolescentes, mejorando su calidad de vida y disminuyendo el número de abortos (17). ; In my postgraduate formation during the last years of the 80's, we had close to thirty hospital beds in a pavilion called "sépticas" (1). In Colombia, where abortion was completely penalized, the pavilion was mostly filled with women with insecure, complicated abortions. The focus we received was technical: management of intensive care; performance of hysterectomies, colostomies, bowel resection, etc. In those times, some nurses were nuns and limited themselves to interrogating the patients to get them to "confess" what they had done to themselves in order to abort. It always disturbed me that the women who left alive, left without any advice or contraceptive method. Having asked a professor of mine, he responded with disdain: "This is a third level hospital, those things are done by nurses of the first level". Seeing so much pain and death, I decided to talk to patients, and I began to understand their decision. I still remember so many deaths with sadness, but one case in particular pains me: it was a woman close to being fifty who arrived with a uterine perforation in a state of advanced sepsis. Despite the surgery and the intensive care, she passed away. I had talked to her, and she told me she was a widow, had two adult kids and had aborted because of "embarrassment towards them" because they were going to find out that she had an active sexual life. A few days after her passing, the pathology professor called me, surprised, to tell me that the uterus we had sent for pathological examination showed no pregnancy. She was a woman in a perimenopausal state with a pregnancy exam that gave a false positive due to the high levels of FSH/LH typical of her age. SHE WAS NOT PREGNANT!!! She didn't have menstruation because she was premenopausal and a false positive led her to an unsafe abortion. Of course, the injuries caused in the attempted abortion caused the fatal conclusion, but the real underlying cause was the social taboo in respect to sexuality. I had to watch many adolescents and young women leave the hospital alive, but without a uterus, sometime without ovaries and with colostomies, to be looked down on by a society that blamed them for deciding to not be mothers. I had to see situation of women that arrived with their intestines protruding from their vaginas because of unsafe abortions. I saw women, who in their despair, self-inflicted injuries attempting to abort with elements such as stick, branches, onion wedges, alum bars and clothing hooks among others. Among so many deaths, it was hard not having at least one woman per day in the morgue due to an unsafe abortion. During those time, healthcare was not handled from the biopsychosocial, but only from the technical (2); nonetheless, in the academic evaluations that were performed, when asked about the definition of health, we had to recite the text from the International Organization of Health that included these three aspects. How contradictory! To give response to the health need of women and guarantee their right when I was already a professor, I began an obstetric contraceptive service in that third level hospital. There was resistance from the directors, but fortunately I was able to acquire international donations for the institution, which facilitated its acceptance. I decided to undertake a teaching career with the hope of being able to sensitize health professionals towards an integral focus of health and illness. When the International Conference of Population and Development (ICPD) was held in Cairo in 1994, I had already spent various years in teaching, and when I read their Action Program, I found a name for what I was working on: Sexual and Reproductive Rights. I began to incorporate the tools given by this document into my professional and teaching life. I was able to sensitize people at my countries Health Ministry, and we worked together moving it to an approach of human rights in areas of sexual and reproductive health (SRH). This new viewpoint, in addition to being integral, sought to give answers to old problems like maternal mortality, adolescent pregnancy, low contraceptive prevalence, unplanned or unwanted pregnancy or violence against women. With other sensitized people, we began with these SRH issues to permeate the Colombian Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology, some universities, and university hospitals. We are still fighting in a country that despite many difficulties has improved its indicators of SRH. With the experience of having labored in all sphere of these topics, we manage to create, with a handful of colleagues and friend at the Universidad El Bosque, a Master's Program in Sexual and Reproductive Health, open to all professions, in which we broke several paradigms. A program was initiated in which the qualitative and quantitative investigation had the same weight, and some alumni of the program are now in positions of leadership in governmental and international institutions, replicating integral models. In the Latin American Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (FLASOG, English acronym) and in the International Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (FIGO), I was able to apply my experience for many years in the SRH committees of these association to benefit women and girls in the regional and global environments. When I think of who has inspired me in these fights, I should highlight the great feminist who have taught me and been with me in so many fights. I cannot mention them all, but I have admired the story of the life of Margaret Sanger with her persistence and visionary outlook. She fought throughout her whole life to help the women of the 20th century to be able to obtain the right to decide when and whether or not they wanted to have children (3). Of current feminist, I have had the privilege of sharing experiences with Carmen Barroso, Giselle Carino, Debora Diniz and Alejandra Meglioli, leaders of the International Planned Parenthood Federation – Western Hemisphere Region (IPPF-RHO). From my country, I want to mention my countrywoman Florence Thomas, psychologist, columnist, writer and Colombo-French feminist. She is one of the most influential and important voices in the movement for women rights in Colombia and the region. She arrived from France in the 1960's, in the years of counterculture, the Beatles, hippies, Simone de Beauvoir, and Jean-Paul Sartre, a time in which capitalism and consumer culture began to be criticized (4). It was then when they began to talk about the female body, female sexuality and when the contraceptive pill arrived like a total revolution for women. Upon its arrival in 1967, she experimented a shock because she had just assisted in a revolution and only found a country of mothers, not women (5). That was the only destiny for a woman, to be quiet and submissive. Then she realized that this could not continue, speaking of "revolutionary vanguards" in such a patriarchal environment. In 1986 with the North American and European feminism waves and with her academic team, they created the group "Mujer y Sociedad de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia", incubator of great initiatives and achievements for the country (6). She has led great changes with her courage, the strength of her arguments, and a simultaneously passionate and agreeable discourse. Among her multiple books, I highlight "Conversaciones con Violeta" (7), motivated by the disdain towards feminism of some young women. She writes it as a dialogue with an imaginary daughter in which, in an intimate manner, she reconstructs the history of women throughout the centuries and gives new light of the fundamental role of feminism in the life of modern women. Another book that shows her bravery is "Había que decirlo" (8), in which she narrates the experience of her own abortion at age twenty-two in sixty's France. My work experience in the IPPF-RHO has allowed me to meet leaders of all ages in diverse countries of the region, who with great mysticism and dedication, voluntarily, work to achieve a more equal and just society. I have been particularly impressed by the appropriation of the concept of sexual and reproductive rights by young people, and this has given me great hope for the future of the planet. We continue to have an incomplete agenda of the action plan of the ICPD of Cairo but seeing how the youth bravely confront the challenges motivates me to continue ahead and give my years of experience in an intergenerational work. In their policies and programs, the IPPF-RHO evidences great commitment for the rights and the SRH of adolescent, that are consistent with what the organization promotes, for example, 20% of the places for decision making are in hands of the young. Member organizations, that base their labor on volunteers, are true incubators of youth that will make that unassailable and necessary change of generations. In contrast to what many of us experienced, working in this complicated agenda of sexual and reproductive health without theoretical bases, today we see committed people with a solid formation to replace us. In the college of medicine at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia and the College of Nursing at the Universidad El Bosque, the new generations are more motivated and empowered, with great desire to change the strict underlying structures. Our great worry is the onslaught of the ultra-right, a lot of times better organized than us who do support rights, that supports anti-rights group and are truly pro-life (9). Faced with this scenario, we should organize ourselves better, giving battle to guarantee the rights of women in the local, regional, and global level, aggregating the efforts of all pro-right organizations. We are now committed to the Objectives of Sustainable Development (10), understood as those that satisfy the necessities of the current generation without jeopardizing the capacity of future generations to satisfy their own necessities. This new agenda is based on: - The unfinished work of the Millennium Development Goals - Pending commitments (international environmental conventions) - The emergent topics of the three dimensions of sustainable development: social, economic, and environmental. We now have 17 objectives of sustainable development and 169 goals (11). These goals mention "universal access to reproductive health" many times. In objective 3 of this list is included guaranteeing, before the year 2030, "universal access to sexual and reproductive health services, including those of family planning, information, and education." Likewise, objective 5, "obtain gender equality and empower all women and girls", establishes the goal of "assuring the universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights in conformity with the action program of the International Conference on Population and Development, the Action Platform of Beijing". It cannot be forgotten that the term universal access to sexual and reproductive health includes universal access to abortion and contraception. Currently, 830 women die every day through preventable maternal causes; of these deaths, 99% occur in developing countries, more than half in fragile environments and in humanitarian contexts (12). 216 million women cannot access modern contraception methods and the majority live in the nine poorest countries in the world and in a cultural environment proper to the decades of the seventies (13). This number only includes women from 15 to 49 years in any marital state, that is to say, the number that takes all women into account is much greater. Achieving the proposed objectives would entail preventing 67 million unwanted pregnancies and reducing maternal deaths by two thirds. We currently have a high, unsatisfied demand for modern contraceptives, with extremely low use of reversible, long term methods (intrauterine devices and subdermal implants) which are the most effect ones with best adherence (14). There is not a single objective among the 17 Objectives of Sustainable Development where contraception does not have a prominent role: from the first one that refers to ending poverty, going through the fifth one about gender equality, the tenth of inequality reduction among countries and within the same country, until the sixteenth related with peace and justice. If we want to change the world, we should procure universal access to contraception without myths or barriers. We have the moral obligation of achieving the irradiation of extreme poverty and advancing the construction of more equal, just, and happy societies. In emergency contraception (EC), we are very far from reaching expectations. If in reversible, long-term methods we have low prevalence, in EC the situation gets worse. Not all faculties in the region look at this topic, and where it is looked at, there is no homogeneity in content, not even within the same country. There are still myths about their real action mechanisms. There are countries, like Honduras, where it is prohibited and there is no specific medicine, the same case as in Haiti. Where it is available, access is dismal, particularly among girls, adolescents, youth, migrants, afro-descendent, and indigenous. The multiple barriers for the effective use of emergency contraceptives must be knocked down, and to work toward that we have to destroy myths and erroneous perceptions, taboos and cultural norms; achieve changes in laws and restrictive rules within countries, achieve access without barriers to the EC; work in union with other sectors; train health personnel and the community. It is necessary to transform the attitude of health personal to a service above personal opinion. Reflecting on what has occurred after the ICPD in Cairo, their Action Program changed how we look at the dynamics of population from an emphasis on demographics to a focus on the people and human rights. The governments agreed that, in this new focus, success was the empowerment of women and the possibility of choice through expanded access to education, health, services, and employment among others. Nonetheless, there have been unequal advances and inequality persists in our region, all the goals were not met, the sexual and reproductive goals continue beyond the reach of many women (15). There is a long road ahead until women and girls of the world can claim their rights and liberty of deciding. Globally, maternal deaths have been reduced, there is more qualified assistance of births, more contraception prevalence, integral sexuality education, and access to SRH services for adolescents are now recognized rights with great advances, and additionally there have been concrete gains in terms of more favorable legal frameworks, particularly in our region; nonetheless, although it's true that the access condition have improved, the restrictive laws of the region expose the most vulnerable women to insecure abortions. There are great challenges for governments to recognize SRH and the DSR as integral parts of health systems, there is an ample agenda against women. In that sense, access to SRH is threatened and oppressed, it requires multi-sector mobilization and litigation strategies, investigation and support for the support of women's rights as a multi-sector agenda. Looking forward, we must make an effort to work more with youth to advance not only the Action Program of the ICPD, but also all social movements. They are one of the most vulnerable groups, and the biggest catalyzers for change. The young population still faces many challenges, especially women and girls; young girls are in particularly high risk due to lack of friendly and confidential services related with sexual and reproductive health, gender violence, and lack of access to services. In addition, access to abortion must be improved; it is the responsibility of states to guarantee the quality and security of this access. In our region there still exist countries with completely restrictive frameworks. New technologies facilitate self-care (16), which will allow expansion of universal access, but governments cannot detach themselves from their responsibility. Self-care is expanding in the world and can be strategic for reaching the most vulnerable populations. There are new challenges for the same problems, that require a re-interpretation of the measures necessary to guaranty the DSR of all people, in particular women, girls, and in general, marginalized and vulnerable populations. It is necessary to take into account migrations, climate change, the impact of digital media, the resurgence of hate discourse, oppression, violence, xenophobia, homo/transphobia, and other emergent problems, as SRH should be seen within a framework of justice, not isolated. We should demand accountability of the 179 governments that participate in the ICPD 25 years ago and the 193 countries that signed the Sustainable Development Objectives. They should reaffirm their commitments and expand their agenda to topics not considered at that time. Our region has given the world an example with the Agreement of Montevideo, that becomes a blueprint for achieving the action plan of the CIPD and we should not allow retreat. This agreement puts people at the center, especially women, and includes the topic of abortion, inviting the state to consider the possibility of legalizing it, which opens the doors for all governments of the world to recognize that women have the right to choose on maternity. This agreement is much more inclusive: Considering that the gaps in health continue to abound in the region and the average statistics hide the high levels of maternal mortality, of sexually transmitted diseases, of infection by HIV/AIDS, and the unsatisfied demand for contraception in the population that lives in poverty and rural areas, among indigenous communities, and afro-descendants and groups in conditions of vulnerability like women, adolescents and incapacitated people, it is agreed: 33- To promote, protect, and guarantee the health and the sexual and reproductive rights that contribute to the complete fulfillment of people and social justice in a society free of any form of discrimination and violence. 37- Guarantee universal access to quality sexual and reproductive health services, taking into consideration the specific needs of men and women, adolescents and young, LGBT people, older people and people with incapacity, paying particular attention to people in a condition of vulnerability and people who live in rural and remote zone, promoting citizen participation in the completing of these commitments. 42- To guarantee, in cases in which abortion is legal or decriminalized in the national legislation, the existence of safe and quality abortion for non-desired or non-accepted pregnancies and instigate the other States to consider the possibility of modifying public laws, norms, strategies, and public policy on the voluntary interruption of pregnancy to save the life and health of pregnant adolescent women, improving their quality of life and decreasing the number of abortions (17).

Priorities for future sustainable development within Europe and Central Asia are formulated in visions by governments and societal actors. Integrated scenario and modelling studies enable the assessment of impacts on nature, nature's contributions to people, and a good quality of life resulting from these priorities, and help to co-design and codeliver appropriate pathways to sustainable futures (established but incomplete) (5.1.2, 5.4.2, 5.4.3, 5.5.2). Priorities for future sustainable development are captured in regional visions, which describe a future desired by society or parts of society in Europe and Central Asia. Matching these priorities to the Sustainable Development Goals and Aichi Biodiversity Targets revealed that regional priorities include sustainable economic growth in tandem with sustainable industrialization (Goal 8, Goal 9), sustainable agriculture, forestry, aquaculture and management of natural resources (Goal 15, Target 7), all promoted by sustainable consumption and production patterns (Goal 12, Target 4). Climate action and sustainable energy (Goal 13, Goal 7) are also priorities. Reduced inequalities (Goal 10), gender equality (Goal 5) and peace, justice and strong institutions (Goal 16), as well as representation of a diverse range of values, are less emphasized (established but incomplete) (5.1.2, 5.4.2, 5.4.3). Integrated assessments of future interactions between the priorities for sustainable development and nature and its contributions to people, which support proactive decisionmaking that anticipates change, mitigates undesirable trade-offs and fosters societal transformation in pursuit of a good quality of life, are rare due to the complexity of human and environment interdependencies (well established) (5.1.1, 5.3.1, 5.5.3, 5.5.4). Nevertheless, ignoring these complexities is likely to cause undesired trade-offs and to prevent the realization of synergies (5.3.1). Cross-sectoral and cross-scale integration of adaptation, mitigation and transformative actions and policies by multiple actors is key to the co-design and co-delivery of appropriate pathways to realize visions of future sustainable development (established but incomplete) (5.4.2, 5.4.3, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.5, 5.5.6). The choices made by decision-makers and societal actors are expected to lead to large differences in future impacts on nature, nature's contributions to people, and good quality of life within Europe and Central Asia (established but incomplete) (5.2.3, 5.3.3, 5.3.4). More positive impacts are projected under futures that assume proactive decision-making on environmental issues and promote a more holistic approach to managing human and environmental systems which supports multifunctionality and multiple contributions from nature to people (established but incomplete) (5.2.3, 5.3.3, 5.3.4). Projecting historical trends into the future under a businessas- usual scenario results in stable trends in nature (e.g. reflected in biodiversity vulnerability indices), negative trends in nature's regulating contributions (e.g. regulation of climate or hazards and extreme events) and mixed trends in nature's material contributions (e.g. food production) (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Different assumptions about future trends in drivers lead to widely varying projected impacts on nature, nature's contributions to people and a good quality of life. Under economic optimism scenarios, where global developments are steered by economic growth and environmental problems are only dealt with when solutions are of economic interest, an increase in the provision of most of nature's material contributions to people (e.g. food and timber) is projected associated with a general decline in nature and its regulating contributions to people (e.g. air and water quality regulation) (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Under regional competition scenarios there is a growing gap between rich and poor, increasing problems with crime, violence and terrorism, and strong trade barriers. Consequently, its impacts are highly mixed with generally large declines in nature (e.g. habitat maintenance and creation) and the most negative impacts of all scenarios on nature's non-material contributions to people (e.g. learning and inspiration) and good quality of life indicators (e.g. health and well-being) (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Inequality scenarios, which assume increasing economic, political and social inequalities, where power becomes concentrated in a relatively small political and business elite who invest in green technology, result in negative impacts on nature's regulating contributions to people (established CHAPTER 5. CURRENT AND FUTURE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN NATURE AND SOCIETY 575 but incomplete), but mixed or unclear impacts on other indicators (inconclusive) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Under global sustainable development scenarios, which are characterized by an increasingly proactive attitude of global policymakers towards environmental issues and a high level of regulation, positive impacts are projected for nature and its regulating contributions to people. Predominantly positive trends are also projected for nature's material contributions to people and good quality of life indicators, with some regional variation (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Under regional sustainability scenarios, which show increased concern for environmental and social sustainability and a shift toward local and regional decision-making, similar impacts are projected as for global sustainable development. Regional sustainability, however, leads to slightly fewer benefits for nature's regulating and material contributions to people (with decreases in food provision) than global sustainable development and more positive impacts on nature's non-material contributions to people and good quality of life, particularly traditional knowledge and supporting identities reflecting the local focus of the regional sustainability scenario (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Trade-offs between nature and different contributions from nature to people are projected under all plausible futures for Europe and Central Asia (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.3.4). How these trade-offs are resolved depends on political and societal value judgements within each plausible future. In general, those futures where environmental issues are mainstreamed across sectors are more successful in mitigating undesirable cross-sector trade-offs, resulting in positive impacts across a broad range of indicators concerning nature, nature's contributions to people and good quality of life indicators (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Trade-offs between nature's material and regulating contributions to people are commonly projected in the economic optimism and regional competition scenarios, which tend to promote a limited number of nature's material contributions to people. For example, increases in food provision (generally associated with the expansion of agricultural land or the intensification of livestock production and fish captures) are often associated with decreases in the provision of nature's regulating contributions to people (e.g. prevention of soil erosion, regulation of water quality and quantity) and nature values. Similar trade-offs were projected between increases in timber provision and decreases in nature's regulating (e.g. carbon sequestration) and non-material (e.g. aesthetic value) contributions to people. Such trade-offs lead to strong positive effects in nature's contributions to people with market values and negative effects in nature's contributions to people without market values (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Trade-offs were also apparent under the sustainability scenario archetypes, particularly in relation to the use of land and water (e.g. effects of agricultural extensification – the opposite of agricultural intensification - or increases in bioenergy croplands on other land uses and biodiversity) (established but incomplete) (5.6.1). However, such scenarios proactively deal with such trade-offs through, for example, political choices aiming to maximize synergizes through mainstreaming and multifunctionality (global sustainable development) or through societal choices to live less resource-intensive lifestyles and, hence, reduce demand for nature's material contributions to people (regional sustainability). Impacts of plausible futures differ across the regions of Europe and Central Asia. Hence, regional and national decision-makers face different trade-offs between nature and its various contributions to people. Cooperation between countries opens up possibilities to mitigate undesirable crossscale impacts and to capitalize on opportunities (established but incomplete) (5.3.3). In Central Asia, significant water shortages are projected in the long-term. This affects farmers' choices between intensive crop production and more sustainable production with resulting impacts on nature's regulating contributions to people, such as water quality (established but incomplete) (5.3.3). Similar impacts on water stress are projected under future scenarios for Central Europe, including decreases in multiple contributions from nature to people from wetlands (established but incomplete) (5.3.3). Transboundary and integrated water management strategies that protect minimum water levels for the environment are projected to mitigate these negative impacts. In Eastern Europe, particularly Russia, trade-offs between wood extraction and carbon sequestration are projected. Sustainable forest management and reforestation of areas set aside from agricultural activities are suggested as having the potential to mitigate such trade-offs. Similarly, in mountain systems in Central and Western Europe and in marine systems in all subregions adaptive management strategies are projected to address the vulnerability of the majority of nature's contributions to people (established but incomplete) (5.3.3). In the European Union (EU), significant differences between northern and southern countries are projected. Most scenarios indicate increases in agricultural production for food, feed and bioenergy for northern European Union countries, while decreases in agricultural and timber production, as well as increases in water stress, are projected for southern European Union countries. The latter is projected to have considerable negative impacts on nature's non-material contributions to people, such as national heritage and tourism-related services dependent on local food production. Scenarios which included international coordination of adaptive measures across THE REGIONAL ASSESSMENT REPORT ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES FOR EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA 576 geographical areas were projected to have better capacity to cope with, or mitigate, undesirable cross-scale impacts (established but incomplete) (5.3.3). Future impacts of drivers of change on nature and its contributions to people in Europe and Central Asia are likely to be underestimated because scenario studies are dominated by a few individual drivers (e.g. climate change) and often omit other important drivers (e.g. pollution) that may adversely affect their impacts (well established) (5.2.2, 5.3.2). Scenario studies predominantly focus on single direct drivers and fail to capture interactions between drivers (well established) (5.2.2, 5.3.2). Climate change is the most represented single direct driver in scenarios of biodiversity and ecosystem change. By contrast other direct drivers, such as pollution and invasive alien species, which are known to have an adverse impact on nature and its contributions to people, are poorly represented in scenario studies (well established) (5.2.2). Single-driver scenarios fail to capture various dynamics such as feedbacks and synergies between and amongst indirect and direct drivers operating at different scales. Policy approaches that consider single drivers or single sectors are unlikely to successfully address environmental problems as they do not consider trade-offs between different drivers, impacts and responses. Integrated, multi-driver scenario studies offer a more realistic assessment of impacts to inform robust decision-making about future sustainable development pathways that avoid unintended consequences (established but incomplete) (5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.2.4, 5.3.1, 5.3.3, 5.3.4, 5.4.4, 5.4.5, 5.5.5). Priorities for future sustainable development expressed by governments and other societal actors for Europe and Central Asia are more widely achieved under plausible futures that consider a diverse range of values (established but incomplete) (5.3.4, 5.5.4, 5.5.5, 5.6.1). Recognizing the different time frame of the scenarios of plausible futures (often 2050 or later) to those stated in the Sustainable Development Goals and Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2030 or 2020), continuing current trends under a business-as-usual scenario is estimated to lead to failure in achieving most of the Sustainable Development Goals (13 out of 17), but mixed effects on achieving the Aichi Biodiversity Targets (8 achieved). Economic optimism is estimated to have a mixed level of success in achieving the goals (8 achieved), but would fail to achieve the majority of the targets (16 out of 20), while regional competition fails to reach the majority of all goals and targets (15 and 19, respectively). The focus of these scenarios on instrumental values and individualistic perspectives, with little acknowledgement of relational or intrinsic values, means they are unlikely to offer effective sustainable solutions to environmental and social challenges (established but incomplete) (5.3.4, 5.6.1). In contrast, the sustainability scenarios (regional sustainability and global sustainable development) are estimated to achieve the majority of the Sustainable Development Goals and Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Such scenarios attempt to support nature and its multiple nature's contributions to people and aspects of a good quality of life. Thus, they represent a greater diversity of values, but often at the acceptance of lower, or more extensive, production of nature's material contributions to people (established but incomplete) (5.3.4, 5.6.1). Multiple alternative pathways exist to achieve the priorities for future sustainable development set by governments and societal actors within Europe and Central Asia and in particular for mitigating tradeoffs between nature and nature's contributions to people (established but incomplete) (5.5.2). The most promising pathways include long-term societal transformation through continuous education, knowledge sharing and participatory decisionmaking. Such pathways emphasize nature's regulating contributions to people and the importance of relational values in facilitating a holistic and systematic consideration of nature and nature´s contribution to people across sectors and scales (established but incomplete) (5.5.3, 5.5.4). Four types of pathways have been developed to address trade-offs between food, water, energy, climate and biodiversity at different scales (5.5.2). Green economy pathways focus on sustainable intensification and diversification of production activities coupled with the protection and restoration of nature. Low carbon transformation pathways focus on biofuel production, reforestation and forest management. Both types of pathways include actions related to technological innovation, land sparing or land sharing. Green economy and low carbon transformation pathways do not fully mitigate trade-offs between nature's material contributions to people, nature conservation, and nature's regulating and non-material contributions to people (established but incomplete) (5.5.2, 5.5.4). Ecotopian solutions pathways focus on radical social innovation to achieve local food and energy self-sufficiency and the production of multiple contributions from nature to people. They include actions on multifunctionality within individual land uses with connecting green infrastructure, urban design and food production (established but incomplete) (5.5.2, 5.5.4). Transition movements pathways emphasize a change towards relational values, promoting resource-sparing lifestyles, continuous education, new urban spatial structures and innovative forms of agriculture where different knowledge systems are combined with technological innovation. Transformation is achieved through local empowerment, participatory decision-making processes, community actions and voluntary agreements. As opposed to other pathways, transition movements CHAPTER 5. CURRENT AND FUTURE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN NATURE AND SOCIETY 577 pathways address all of the Sustainable Development Goals identified as being important in the Europe and Central Asia visions (5.1.2, 5.5.4), except Goal 7 (sustainable energy). The narrative offers the broadest set of actions targeting elements of nature, multiple contributions from nature to people (material, regulating and non-material) and multiple dimensions of a good quality of life (established but incomplete) (5.5.2, 5.5.4, 5.6.1). Different sets of actions and combinations of policy instruments are suggested by the different pathways. Joint instruments suggested across pathways give priority to participation, education and awareness raising, and often cross-scale integration and mainstreaming of environmental objectives across sectors (established but incomplete) (5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 5.5.6). The green economy and low carbon transformation pathways build towards sustainability without challenging the economic growth paradigm. They are implemented through combinations of top-down legal and regulatory instruments mixed with economic and financial instruments designed at regional (European Union) or national levels (Eastern Europe and Central Asia). Such pathways are often formulated at a sectoral level, and integration across sectoral pathways is critical. However, because green economy and low carbon transformation pathways do not fully mitigate trade-offs, they may not be sufficient alone to achieve sustainability (established but incomplete) (5.5.2, 5.5.4, 5.6.1). The trade-offs are better addressed by diverse local bottom-up transition movements or ecotopian solutions pathways (5.5.2). Such pathways reconsider fundamental values and lifestyles through sets of actions focusing on less resource-intensive lifestyles, education, knowledge sharing, good social relations and equity (e.g. food and dietary patterns, transport, energy and consumption patterns). Transition movements pathways also develop bottom-up transformative capabilities by combining rights-based instruments and customary norms (including indigenous and local knowledge) and social and information instruments (established but incomplete) (5.5.3, 5.5.4). The sets of actions proposed in the pathways are not mutually exclusive and can be combined. For example, actions from green economy and low carbon transformation pathways may pave the way towards more transformative transition movements pathways. Moreover, future transitions to sustainability may be fostered through cross-scale integration and mainstreaming of environmental issues into sectoral policies and decisions, along with nurturing diverse social, institutional and technological experiments (established but incomplete) (5.5.5). Participatory scenario, vision and pathway development is a powerful approach for knowledge co-production and has great potential for the explicit inclusion of indigenous and local knowledge (established but incomplete) (5.4.3, 5.5.1, 5.5.2, 5.5.6, 5.6.2). Many scenario, vision and pathways exercises include local stakeholders and their valuable knowledge and practices. However, the use of different knowledge systems, such as indigenous and local knowledge, was rarely explicitly mentioned in studies (5.6.2). Explicit examples that included indigenous and local knowledge (see Boxes 5.2, 5.6 and 5.10), show a clear added value from combining different forms of knowledge with technological innovations, and cultural diversity, norms and customary rights when pursuing goals of sustainable development (5.2.2, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.6). Knowledge gaps and resulting uncertainties in exploring future interactions between nature and society are substantial because integrated assessments of future impacts on nature, nature's contributions to people and a good quality of life that take account of the complex interdependencies in human and environmental systems are rare (well established) (5.6.2). Very few studies were available for Central Asia and to a lesser extent for Eastern Europe (well established) (5.6.2). Less information was also available for marine systems than for terrestrial and freshwater systems (well established) (5.6.2). Few integrated scenario and modelling studies include indicators of nature's nonmaterial contributions to people and good quality of life (5.3.2, 5.5.1, 5.6.2) and therefore existing assessments of synergies and trade-offs are limited in the interactions and feedbacks they represent (well established) (5.3.2). No studies were found that assessed future flows of nature's contributions to people across countries, which would have been important to assess the impacts of the scenarios and pathways for Europe and Central Asia on other parts of the world (well established) (5.6.2). There is also a significant gap in the current literature in recognizing the diversity of values, with the focus being mainly on instrumental values (well established) (5.6.2). Finally, scenario and modelling studies include many uncertainties in their projections of the future resulting from input data, scenario assumptions, model structure and propagation of uncertainties across the integrated components of the systems, which should be borne in mind when interpreting their results (well established).

As doenças de origem alimentar continuam a ser um problema comum em todo o mundo. Ainda que possam ser provocadas por diversos agentes, são as bactérias, os vírus ou os parasitas a principal causa das infeções alimentares. O consumo ou processamento de alimentos contaminados têm sido descritos como as principais vias de transmissão para os humanos. Campylobacter jejuni e Campylobacter coli têm sido descritos como a principal causa de gastroenterite bacteriana em seres humanos em todo o mundo e em 2013, na União Europeia, a campilobacteriose, infeção causada por Campylobacter, foi a zoonose mais relatada. Nos seres humanos, as espécies de Campylobacter têm sido associadas a uma variedade de condições gastrointestinais, tais como gastroenterite, doenças inflamatórias do intestino, cancro colon-rectal, síndrome do intestino irritável, entre outras e também podem provocar manifestações extra-gastrointestinais, como bacteremia, infeções pulmonares e abcessos. As complicações pós-infeção por este microrganismo incluem a artrite reativa e podem conduzir a doenças auto-imunes, tais como a síndrome de Guillain-Barré. A maioria das infeções por Campylobacter não necessita de intervenção terapêutica sendo apenas necessária reidratação. No entanto, em pacientes imunodeprimidos, pacientes cujos sintomas são severos ou persistentes e aqueles com infeções extra-intestinais é utilizado tratamento antimicrobiano, sendo os antibióticos mais utilizados a eritromicina e a ciprofloxacina. No entanto, em todo o Mundo tem-se verificado que as estirpes de Campylobacter são cada vez mais resistentes a antibióticos, incluindo os usados em humanos. Para além disso também têm sido descritas estirpes de Campylobacter resistentes a desinfetantes, o que se deve, principalmente, à sua capacidade de formar biofilmes. Estes biofilmes são um problema emergente na indústria alimentar, aumentando a possibilidade de contaminações ao longo da cadeia alimentar. Assim, e como os estudos relativos a Campylobacter são escassos, é da maior relevância estudar a epidemiologia de espécies de Campylobacter isoladas em Portugal, a sua resistência a antibióticos e procurar alternativas, aos antimicrobianos convencionais, para o seu controlo. Devido à escassez de estudos relativos à epidemiologia de Campylobacter em Portugal procedeu-se neste trabalho ao estudo da distribuição epidemiológica de isolados de Campylobacter de seres humanos, entre 2009 e 2012, em Portugal. Para isso, foram analisadas 837 estirpes obtidas através do Instituto Nacional de Saúde Dr. Ricardo Jorge. Destas 837 estirpes, 84,5% foram identificados como C. jejuni, 14,8% como C. coli, 0,2% como C. upsaliensis, 0,1% como C. concisus e 0,2% das amostras foram identificadas como Arcobacter butzleri. Em relação à sua distribuição por faixas etárias, observou-se que 61,5% das estirpes pertenciam ao grupo com idades entre 1 e 15 anos. Após este estudo preliminar, a partir deste grupo de isolados humanos, escolheram-se aleatoriamente 125 estirpes de Campylobacter (C. jejuni e C. coli) isoladas de seres humanos. A este grupo de estirpes, adicionaram-se 39 isolados de retalho alimentar e 32 de animais. As 196 amostras foram então caracterizadas através da tipagem por sequenciamento multilocus e da tipagem do gene flaA. Através destes métodos de tipagem, observou-se que as estirpes de C. coli eram geneticamente mais conservadas do que C. jejuni e que dentro de cada espécie, existiam isolados geneticamente relacionados provenientes de fontes diferentes. Em seguida, o fenótipo de resistência ao ácido nalidíxico, amoxicilina, ciprofloxacina, eritromicina, gentamicina e tetraciclina foi avaliado pelo método de diluição em agar. Observaram-se elevadas taxas de resistência para todos os antibióticos com exceção à gentamicina, incluindo para os antibióticos utilizados no tratamento de campilobacteriose grave em humanos. Além disso, observou-se um fenótipo de resistência a múltiplos antibióticos (resistência a 3 ou mais classes de antibióticos) em 86% dos isolados. Perante os elevados níveis de resistência observados, estudaram-se os mecanismos moleculares subjacentes a essas resistências. Verificou-se que todos os isolados resistentes à ciprofloxacina possuíam a mutação Thr-Ile-86 na região que determina resistências às quinolonas no gene gyrA. Para a resistência à eritromicina apenas foi detetada a mutação A2075G no gene 23S rRNA. Em relação à resistência à gentamicina, observou-se que as três estirpes resistentes à gentamicina possuíam o marcador de resistência aos aminoglicosídeos aphA-3, sendo que uma das estirpes tinha uma mutação neste marcador. Foi ainda evidenciado neste estudo, que as bombas de efluxo cmeABC também podem desempenhar um papel na resistência a múltiplas drogas e no fenótipo da resistência a gentamicina. Assim, neste estudo foi possível obter uma visão geral da epidemiologia de Campylobacter em Portugal e descrever pela primeira vez a elevada taxa de multirresistência a antibióticos, assim como realçar o surgimento de estirpes de Campylobacter resistentes aos antibióticos de uso humano. Com base nos resultados deste estudo foram selecionadas estirpes com diferentes perfis genéticos e de resistência a antibióticos para serem utilizadas no decurso deste trabalho. Como o género Campylobacter é a principal causa de gastroenterite bacteriana e a via alimentar é a principal via de contaminação, a elevada percentagem de estirpes resistentes a antibióticos aumenta o potencial zoonótico da infeção com estirpes multirresistentes. Logo, torna-se necessário controlar o crescimento de Campylobacter nas vias mais comuns de contaminação, que são os alimentos. Assim, o objetivo seguinte deste trabalho foi avaliar o potencial do resveratrol para controlar as estirpes de Campylobacter previamente caracterizadas. Apesar do resveratrol possuir várias propriedades biológicas, incluindo antimicrobianas, a sua baixa solubilidade em água e alta instabilidade comprometem a sua aplicação. Assim, para ultrapassar estes problemas, estudou-se o encapsulamento do resveratrol com metil-β-ciclodextrina. Verificou-se que a complexação do resveratrol com esta ciclodextrina provocou um aumento de 400 vezes na sua solubilidade. Em seguida o complexo de inclusão foi caracterizado através de Espectroscopia de Infravermelho por Transformada de Fourier (FTIR), Calorimetria Exploratória Diferencial (DSC), Difração de Raios-X (XRD) e Microscopia Eletrónica de Varrimentos (SEM), confirmando-se efetivamente a sua formação. Seguidamente foram avaliadas algumas propriedades biológicas do resveratrol e do seu complexo de inclusão com metil-β-ciclodextrina, tendo-se verificado que ambos os compostos tinham atividade antioxidante muito forte, baixa toxicidade e ainda capacidade de reduzir a viabilidade das células Caco-2 (linha celular constituída por células epiteliais de adenocarcinoma colorectal heterogéneo). Além disso, também foi demonstrada a sua atividade antibacteriana contra estirpes de Campylobacter previamente selecionadas: duas estirpes de referência (C. jejuni ATCC 33560 e C. coli ATCC 33559), duas estirpes isoladas de fezes de pacientes com gastroenterite aguda (C. coli 53 e C. coli 873) e duas estirpes isoladas de carne de aves fresca (C. jejuni 225421 e C. coli 219872). Estes resultados sugerem que o resveratrol e o seu complexo de inclusão podem ser usados para controlar Campylobacter e que o resveratrol encapsulado em metil-β-ciclodextrina mantem as suas propriedades antioxidantes e antibacterianas. Uma vez que os resultados com o resveratrol e o complexo de inclusão foram bastante promissores, estudou-se ainda outro complexo de inclusão (resveratrol-hidroxipropil-γ-ciclodextrina), previamente formado e caraterizado pelo grupo de investigação, que revelou ainda ter um potencial antimicrobiano mais elevado contra Campylobacter e A. butzleri, um patogéneo de origem alimentar relacionado a Campylobacter. Dado isto, inicialmente avaliou-se a atividade antibacteriana em células planctónicas e mostrou-se que tanto o resveratrol como o complexo de inclusão têm um efeito bactericida contra as estirpes multirresistentes C. coli 873 e C. jejuni 225421. Com o objetivo de esclarecer o potencial mecanismo de ação do complexo de inclusão do resveratrol em hidroxipropil-γ-ciclodextrina sobre as estirpes de Campylobacter, começou por se avaliar a despolarização das membranas celulares e a atividade metabólica por citometria de fluxo. Através desta técnica, observou-se que complexo de inclusão pode atuar induzindo a despolarização da membrana e afetando a atividade metabólica das células. Dado que os biofilmes bacterianos são um problema emergente na indústria alimentar, também foi avaliado o potencial destes dois compostos para inibir a formação de biofilmes e eliminar biofilmes estabelecidos. Tanto o resveratrol como o complexo de inclusão foram capazes de inibir a formação de biofilmes e diminuir biofilmes previamente estabelecidos, mesmo em concentrações sub-inibitórias. O sistema quorum sensing (QS) tem sido associado à resistência antimicrobiana e formação de biofilmes, portanto, o potencial anti-QS destes dois compostos também foi estudado através da utilização de uma estirpe biossensor (Chromobacterium violaceum ATCC 12472). Verificou-se que ambos, o resveratrol e o complexo de inclusão, foram capazes de inibir o sistema QS, o que pode explicar o efeito anti-biofilme destes compostos. Assim, nestes estudos foram demonstradas as propriedades antimicrobianas e anti-biofilme do resveratrol e complexo de inclusão em estirpes de Campylobacter. Este aspeto associado ao facto de o resveratrol ser um composto de origem natural, e de também apresentar forte atividade antioxidante, encorajam futuros estudos com vista à sua aplicação como potencial conservante alimentar. Finalmente, uma vez que tem havido um interesse crescente na utilização de compostos naturais para aplicação em produtos alimentares, também foi avaliado o potencial do óleo essencial de coentros (Coriandrum sativum L.) e do seu principal composto, o linalool, para controlar Campylobacter. Ambos os compostos exibiram um efeito bactericida contra as quatro estirpes testadas (C. jejuni ATCC 33560, C. coli ATCC 33559, C. jejuni 225421 e C. coli 873) com valores de concentração mínima inibitória entre 0,5 e 1 μL/mL e observou-se que os compostos voláteis do óleo essencial de coentros também inibiram o crescimento de Campylobacter. Observou-se ainda que ambos os compostos inibiram a formação de biofilmes e promoveram a dispersão de biofilmes de Campylobacter. Como descrito anteriormente, também foi estudado o efeito destes compostos sobre o sistema QS. Foi demonstrada a atividade anti-QS do óleo essencial de coentros e do linalool através da inibição da produção de violaceína pela estirpe biossensor C. violaceum. Assim, mais uma vez, esta atividade anti-QS pode estar associada com a atividade anti-biofilme dos compostos, uma vez que o QS tem um papel importante na regulação da formação e desenvolvimento de biofilmes. Para além do potencial anti-bacteriano e anti-biofilme do óleo essencial e do linalool, também se avaliou a sua atividade antioxidante, uma vez que o processo de oxidação está relacionado com a perda da qualidade dos alimentos. Assim, observou-se que ambos os compostos têm uma elevada capacidade para inibir a peroxidação de lípidos. Em suma, os resultados demonstraram que estes compostos naturais podem ser utilizado para controlar Campylobacter e também como agentes antioxidantes para melhorar a qualidade dos alimentos. Em conclusão, neste trabalho, foram apresentados, dados recentes referentes à epidemiologia de Campylobacter em Portugal, bem como a sua diversidade genética e respetivos perfis de resistência a antibióticos. Diante disto, são necessários novos agentes antimicrobianos para controlar este patogéneo emergente de origem alimentar. Neste trabalho mostrou-se que o resveratrol e o óleo essencial de coentros, ambos compostos naturais, têm a capacidade de reduzir células planctónicas e biofilmes de Campylobacter, possuindo também várias atividades biológicas, incluindo propriedades antioxidantes. Este trabalho permitiu alargar o conhecimento sobre a epidemiologia e taxas resistência de estirpes de Campylobacter isoladas em Portugal e desenvolver novas estratégias de controlo deste microrganismo baseadas na utilização de compostos de origem natural. ; Foodborne diseases remain common around the world and can be caused by a variety of agents, being bacteria, viruses or parasites the main causes of such infections. Moreover, the major cause of foodborne diseases is consumption or handling of contaminated food. Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli are the major cause of bacterial gastroenteritis in humans worldwide and are increasingly resistant to antimicrobial agents mainly due to its ability to form biofilms. Furthermore, campylobacteriosis was the most commonly reported zoonosis in the European Union in 2013. So, the main objective of this work was to study the epidemiology of Campylobacter species in Portugal and to explore the potential of natural compounds as new antibacterials to control this foodborne pathogen and to increase the shelf life of food products. We started this work with an epidemiological study of Campylobacter in Portugal. Firstly we studied the epidemiological distribution of Campylobacter isolates from humans, between 2009 and 2012, in Portugal. For this, 837 strains from the National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge were analyzed, of which 84.5% were identified as C. jejuni, 14.8% as C. coli, 0.2% as C. upsaliensis, 0.1% as C. concisus and 0.2% of the samples were identified as Arcobacter butzleri. Concerning the distribution per age groups, we observed that 61.5% of the strains belonged to the group aged between 1 and 15 years. Afterward, from the group of 837 strains, we randomly choose 125 Campylobacter isolates from humans. In addition to these isolates, we added strains isolated from different sources: 39 from retail food and 32 from animals. All the 196 strains were then characterized by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and flaA typing. We found that the C. coli isolates were genetically more conserved than C. jejuni, and within each species, genetically related isolates were recovered from different sources. Then, the resistance phenotype to six antibiotics was evaluated by the agar dilution method. We observed high resistance rates to several antibiotics, including the ones used in the treatment of severe campylobacteriosis. We also identified a multidrug resistance phenotype in 86% of the isolates. Once this high resistance to antibiotics was confirmed, we decided to study the underlying molecular mechanisms. In all the ciprofloxacin resistant isolates we found the Thr-86-Ile mutation in the quinolone-resistance-determining regions (QRDR) in the DNA gyrase gene (gyrA). For the erythromycin resistance only the mutation A2075G was detected. Regarding gentamicin resistance, we found the three gentamicin-resistant isolates harboured the aphA-3 aminoglycoside resistance marker, with one strain having a point mutation. In addition, we showed that cmeABC efflux pumps may also play a role in the multidrug resistance phenotype and in the gentamicin resistance. In sum, the results obtained in this first part of the study gave an overview of the Campylobacter epidemiology in Portugal and worrying antibiotic multi-resistance rate. This part also highlighted the emergence of Campylobacter strains resistant to antibiotics commonly used in humans. Then, we select a group of strains with different genetic and antibiotic profiles to be used in the subsequent steps of our work. Since the main source of Campylobacter infection is through contaminated food, it is necessary to find new strategies to control the growth of Campylobacter in the most common way of contamination, which are foods. So, in the next step we assessed the potential of resveratrol to control the strains of Campylobacter that were characterized previously. However, despite resveratrol having several biological properties, its low aqueous solubility and high instability compromise its application. So, to overcome these limitations, we studied the encapsulation of resveratrol with a methyl-β-cyclodextrin. We found that resveratrol complexation caused a 400 fold improvement in its solubility. The inclusion complex was characterized by several techniques. After the formation of the inclusion complex, we compared the biological properties of resveratrol and its inclusion complex. We showed that both compounds had very strong antioxidant activity and low toxicity, together with the ability to reduce the viability of Caco-2 cells (heterogeneous human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line). In addition, we also demonstrated their antibacterial activity against the previously selected Campylobacter strains. These results suggest that resveratrol and its inclusion complex can be used to control Campylobacter, since the biological properties are maintained. Due to the very good results obtained with resveratrol and this inclusion complex, we decided to study another inclusion complex (resveratrol-hydroxypropyl-γ-cyclodextrin) and its potential to control Campylobacter and A. butzleri, a closely related foodborne pathogen. Firstly we evaluated the antibacterial activity against planktonic cells, demonstrating that both resveratrol and inclusion complex have a bactericidal effect against the two microorganisms. The inclusion complex may act by inducing membrane depolarization and by affecting the metabolic activity of the cells. Since bacterial biofilms are an emerging problem in the food industry, we also evaluated the potential of these two compounds against biofilms. We showed that resveratrol and the inclusion complex inhibit biofilm formation and diminish established biofilms, even at sub-inhibitory concentrations. Since the quorum sensing (QS) system has been associated with the antimicrobial resistance and biofilm formation, we also evaluated the potential anti-QS effect of these two compounds by using a biosensor strain. We found that both resveratrol and inclusion complex were able to inhibit the QS system, which could explain their anti-biofilm effect. The results showed that resveratrol could be used as antibacterial and anti-biofilm agent in the food industry, allowing an improve shelf life and an increase in food safety. Finally, since there has been a growing interest in the use of natural compounds for application in food products, we also evaluated the potential of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) essential oil and its major compound linalool to control Campylobacter. Both compounds showed a bactericidal effect against all the tested strains and we observed that the volatile compounds of the coriander essential oil also inhibited the growth of Campylobacter. Then, since biofilms are a growing problem in the food industry, we also evaluated the anti-biofilm activity of these compounds. Both coriander oil and linalool inhibited biofilm formation and promoted biofilm dispersion of Campylobacter biofilms. As previously described, we also studied the effect of these compounds on the QS system and we observed an anti-QS activity by inhibiting the violacein production. So, once more, this anti-QS activity could be associated with the anti-biofilm activity, since QS has been described to regulate the biofilm formation and development. Moreover, in addition to the antibacterial and anti-biofilm potential, we evaluated the antioxidant activity of coriander oil and linalool, since the oxidation process is also associated with the loss of food quality. We observed that both compounds showed an exceptional ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation. Those results demonstrate that these natural compounds could be used to control Campylobacter and as antioxidant to enhance food quality. In sum, in this thesis, we described the recent epidemiology of Campylobacter in Portugal, as well as its genetic diversity and worrying antibiotic resistance rates. In addition, we also demonstrated that resveratrol and coriander essential oil, which are both natural compounds, have the ability to reduce planktonic cells and biofilms of Campylobacter, including the multiresistant strains characterized in the first part of the work. Clearly, the results obtained in this work encourage the future use of these natural compounds to control Campylobacter.

La presente ricerca si è proposta di evidenziare le strategie di integrazione ovvero le pratiche di cittadinanza adottate in favore di un particolare segmento dei fenomeni migratori internazionali attuali: quello dei minori stranieri che soli varcano le frontiere del nostro paese alla ricerca di generiche migliori condizioni di vita. La conoscenza del loro patrimonio culturale e l'analisi delle procedure di accoglienza e di integrazione adottate nelle società di accoglienza, rappresentano una sfida stimolante nella prospettiva della disciplina antropologica, da sempre considerata la scienza 'dell'altro' e della 'differenza culturale' (Callari Galli, 2005). In generale, l'importanza di tale studio è resa evidente certamente dai numeri sempre più consistenti di minori stranieri non accompagnati presenti nel nostro paese, ma ancor più dalla necessità di ridefinire le strategie dell'integrazione sociale complessive se non si vuole alimentare quella che già dagli anni 70 è stata definita da alcuni criminologi come una "una bomba sociale a scoppio ritardato" (Bovenkerk 1973, cit. in Barbagli 2002, p. 31); tanto è la posta in gioco. Sebbene la letteratura sulle seconde generazioni e in particolare quella sui minori stranieri non accompagnati sia ormai cospicua tanto in Italia quanto a livello internazionale, mancano ancora monografie antropologiche su singole nazionalità immigrate soprattutto che siano capaci di accedere, investigare ed indagare il controverso universo emozionale dei minori. La presente ricerca nasce dall'esigenza di colmare questo gap esperienziale assumendo come protagonisti una frangia specifica della categoria minorile: i giovani di origine marocchina che si innescano su uno specifico segmento delle attuali tratte migratorie transnazionali, l'asse Khourigba – Roma. In accordo con le recenti acquisizioni degli studi antropologici (Persichetti, 2003; Riccio; 2007; Capello, 2008) si è ritenuto inoltre opportuno procedere con uno studio multisituato capace di ricomprendere al suo interno i due aspetti del binomio migratorio: il contesto di partenza e quello di arrivo dei giovani migranti. "Prima di diventare un immigrato, il migrante è sempre innanzitutto un emigrato" scrive il sociologo algerino Abdelmalek Sayad (2002) intendendo con tale affermazione che emigrazione ed immigrazione sono due facce della stessa realtà. Uno studio dei fenomeni migratori cioè dimentico delle condizioni di origine si condanna ad offrire degli stessi solo una versione parziale e connotata etnocentricamente. L'etnografia, iniziata nel 2006 e terminata nel 2008, è stata quindi integrata da due viaggi in Marocco con l'intenzione appunto di cogliere quella parte di vissuto fatto anche di suoni, colori, immagini altrimenti non "accessibile" e non "trasmissibile" nel solo contesto di accoglienza. Chiaramente si è fatto largo uso di metodologie qualitative (osservazione partecipante, focus group, interviste in profondità) in quanto maggiormente adatte ad indagare in profondità le complesse dinamiche caratterizzanti i vissuti esperienziali; a cogliere le sfumature di contesto e di restituire per queste stesse ragioni un quadro vivo e frastagliato fuori da logiche pre- costituite. La restituzione delle testimonianze raccolte - grazie a un capillare lavoro di conoscenza della realtà romana dell'immigrazione e a un 'patto' etnografico molto forte intrattenuto con i giovani testimoni nonché con gli operatori che in molte occasioni se ne fanno carico - fa risaltare gli aspetti non solo politico-culturali della questione, ma anche l'intreccio di emotività e fragilità che si cela al centro della loro condizione di minori non accompagnati. La particolare condizione di vulnerabilità di cui sono vittima deriva certamente da una condizione giuridica fortemente "incerta", ma anche dal doppio ruolo sociale che il minore straniero non accompagnato assume su di sé: come "minore" è soggetto di un tradizionale percorso pedagogico, come "straniero" è un pericolo per l'ordine pubblico. La tutela "naturale" viene in questo modo costantemente infranta o finisce per dissolversi in uno spazio che non può essere indirizzato o controllato su logiche o prassi proprie dell'ordine nazionale. Soggetto "anomalo" e "sovversivo"quindi, il minore straniero non accompagnato, spesso relegato negli ambiti bui e marginali delle metropoli odierne, con la sua stessa presenza pone seri interrogativi rispetto alla capacità della nostre società di accoglienza di produrre coesione sociale e di riformulare le regole del gioco di un sistema che sia realmente inclusivo delle parti. Adolescenti (e) immigrati la cui vita si svolge su rotte transnazionali. Il loro percorso è intessuto di piccole casualità - incontri, parole, piccoli gesti - che ne determinano l'intrigo. Sono storie fatte di alternanza di successi e sbandamenti, integrazione e devianza, intreccio di trame che si snodano sul confine tra ciò che è lecito e ciò che non lo è. Minori al "bivio", dunque, qualcuno dice, "tra integrazione e rimpatrio". Questi giovani, figli di una diaspora migratoria che ha tessuto legami sociali internazionali in vari continenti, tendono a pensarsi come cittadini del mondo e possono immaginare il loro futuro in Italia, nel paese d'origine, così come in un altro luogo, conoscono la fatica dell'adattamento, e stanno imparando a gestirlo; sanno che la loro "differenza", le loro conoscenze di un'altra lingua, cultura e religione, il loro aspetto, le loro esperienze non sempre facili di socializzazione, potranno rivelarsi un limite o una risorsa. E' questa nuova consapevolezza che si sta faticosamente facendo strada oggi tra le coscienze a far sperare oggi in un destino per loro diverso da quello vissuto dai loro coetanei delle banlieues francesi o delle inner cities britanniche, dove l'essere cresciuti in quartieri in cui problemi sociali e esistenziali simili tendono a sovrapporsi, ha portato molti giovani a sentirsi collettivamente parte di una generazione tradita e sacrificata, maturando così rancore sociale e desiderio di imporsi, attraverso un'identità fiera o desiderosa di ricreare una sua purezza. La scommessa di una integrazione sociale riuscita per i giovani stranieri cresciuti nel nostro paese, ma ancora più per i minori stranieri non accompagnati, si gioca essenzialmente quindi nelle reti dell'assistenza sociale e quindi nella scuola. Tale scelta pur essendo molto lontana dal conseguimento degli obiettivi economici, e quindi dall'ottemperamento del mandato migratorio, consente di rivendicare principi e ragioni di "somiglianza – uguaglianza" con i compagni di scuola autoctoni; confronto prima pressoché impossibile data la clandestinità cui sono di sovente costretti i minori stranieri non accompagnati e la peculiarità del tipo di lavoro svolto dai marocchini, quello ambulante, per sua natura itinerante e fortemente stigmatizzato dall'opinione comune. Nonostante le evidenti lacerazioni che questa scelta comporta in termini di: rottura con vecchi schemi di comportamento; ridefinizione dei ruoli all'interno della famiglia, nell'ambito societario di arrivo, così come in quello di appartenenza; riapporpiazione della propria identità, questa strada sembra a tutt'oggi l'unica in grado di preservare questi giovani migranti o di stornarli dal destino di devianza e marginalità che spesso si apre loro come scelta obbligata. La ricerca consta di due parti: la prima rende conto della letteratura in materia di seconde generazioni e la seconda restituisce i risultati dell'etnografia. In particolare il primo capitolo affronta i termini generali della questione con l'intenzione di chiarire i diversi misunderstanding che costellano il dibattito in materia di immigrazione attraverso una lettura critica della letteratura nazionale e internazionale. Il secondo e il terzo capitolo si occupano rispettivamente della normativa europea e italiana. Quanto al primo contesto sono evidenziate le diverse pratiche adottate in materia di ingresso dei minori stranieri non accompagnati all'interno dei confini di alcuni Paesi membri di vecchia e nuova immigrazione (Francia, Inghilterra, Germania, Belgio e Spagna) e posti in luce i gaps presenti così come le falle del sistema; quanto al contesto italiano, si mettono in rilievo le criticità che gli apparati giuridici presentano rispetto a una realtà concreta del fenomeno caratterizzata, come è ovvio, da straordinaria fluttuanza e informalità. Il quarto capitolo è stato dedicato alla scuola in quanto considerata la vera fucina del cambiamento sociale per la sua capacità di rappresentare l'occasione primaria di formazione linguistica, di costruzione di reti interne al Paese di accoglienza, di apprendimento di concetti e modalità didattiche ad esso omogenee; un paragrafo a parte è stato riservato all'inserimento lavorativo essendo questo il principale movente della migrazione di questi giovani. Infine il quinto capitolo si è prefisso di indagare il contesto di provenienza dei minori intervistati, il Marocco, ricostruendo l'eredità del passato coloniale, le scelte economiche del Marocco Indipendente, i fattori di push and pull dietro i flussi migratori di ieri e di oggi. Il quadro finale ha permesso di sondare la salute del sistema. Riconoscere diritto di parola e di ascolto dell'infanzia e dell'adolescenza ha significato fare un passo importante in avanti nella comprensione della loro soggettività, consentendo di fare emergere tutti quegli aspetti di conformità, progressivo adattamento ovvero di riottosità rispetto tanto alla propria comunità di appartenenza quanto alla società di arrivo. Considerare i minori come "soggetti di diritto" ha significato in altre parole ripensare sotto un altro punto di vista l'organizzazione e le strutture profonde che quella società regolano con il merito di porre in luce aspetti e problemi inediti, frizioni interne al gruppo normalmente sfuggevoli e molto riposte ed elementi di scarto rispetto a un modello omogeneo e granitico di una data cultura. Occorre sobriamente riconoscere che non si danno più né immigrati né emigrati, ma "pari" cittadini (o spiranti tali) che tessono relazioni effettivamente ed affettivamente collegate in un unico destino interdipendente. La consapevolezza di questo richiede competenza, intelligenza, impegno e determinazione nelle scelte operative da intraprendere; l'altra faccia della medaglia è solo devianza ed emarginazione. ; The following research is aimed to underline the strategies of integration and the practices of citizenship utilized in favor of a particular segment of the actual international migratory phenomenon: the one about foreign minors who alone pass the borders of our country to search for better conditions of life. The knowledge of their cultural background and the analysis of the procedures of the ways in which one is welcomed and the integration adopted by the receiving countries represent a stimulating challenge from the anthropological perspective, always considered the science of "cultural differences" (Callari Galli, 2005). The importance of this study is obviously given forth by the increasing numbers of "separated" minors in our country, but moreover by the necessity to re-define the strategies of social integration tout court if we don't want to feed what has, since 1970, been defined by some criminologists as a real "time bomb" (Bovenkerk 1973, cit. in Barbagli 2002, p. 31). Although nowadays both of the international and Italian literature, about the second generation and in particular those that talk of separated minors are conspicuous, we are still missing anthropological monographs on single nationalities of immigrants able to access, investigate and inquire into the complex emotional world of these minors. The following research was born from the necessity to fill in this experiential gap assuming as its subject a specific part of the category of minors: youth of Moroccan origin that are situated on a particular segment of the transnational migratory trades, the axis Khourigba- Rome. According to the recent anthropological acquisition (Persichetti, 2003; Riccio; 2007; Capello, 2008) it became appropriate to proceed with a multi-situated study able to embrace both of the aspects of the migrants lives: the context of origin and the context of arrival of the young migrants. "Before becoming an immigrant, the migrant is always an emigrant" wrote the Algerian sociologist Abdelmalek Sayad (2002), intending by this affirmation that immigration and emigration are both faces of the same reality. A study of the migrant phenomenon that forgets or leaves behind the condition of origin of immigrants people is condemned to offer only a partial and ethnocentric version of this phenomenon. The ethnography, started in 2006 and finished in 2008, has been integrated by two journeys in Morocco with the purpose to investigate those part of lives – made principally also by sounds, colors and images - not "accessible" and "communicable" in the receiving countries. Clearly the research has required a large use of qualitative methodologies (participant observation, focus group, interview in depth, etc) because of their characteristic to be more adapted to investigate the complex dynamics typical of the lived experience; to catch the shades of content and to give back, for these same reasons, a lively and unusual picture out of rules and schemes prior established. The feedback from the gathered stories – by a meticulous work which consisted in the knowledge of the Roman immigrants reality and a strong ethnographical "pact" with the minors on one hand and the social operators on the other – has brought to light not only the political and cultural aspects of the phenomenon, but moreover the tangle of sensitiveness and fragility hidden behind their condition of separated minors. The particular condition of vulnerability of which they are victims firstly came from an "uncertain" juridical condition, but more so by the double rule that the separated minor assumes on himself: as a "minor" he is subject to a traditional pedagogic approach and as a "stranger" he is considered dangerous to the public order. The natural guardianship which they should enjoy is continuously breached and threatened and dissolves in vague promises and empty rituals. Separated minors are "anomalous" and "subversive" subjects who too often are relegated to the dark and marginal spheres of the actual metropolis. Furthermore, their own presence, even if it is made invisible by the viewpoint of the system, impose serious and urgent questions to contemporary society; in respect of our capacity to produce social cohesion and re-formulate the rules of a game which has to be really inclusive in all its parts. It compromises the global issues of our society. Adolescents (and) immigrants who are living their lives on transnational routes. Their course is woven together by many little causalities - encounters, words and simple gestures that determine its outcome. These are stories made up of alternations of successes and disbandment, integration and deviance, a tangle of plots that lie on the border of what is licit and what is not. Minors on a "crossroad", some say, between "integration and repatriation". These young, son of numerous migratory diasporas that have banded together into international social links in many continents, tend to think themselves as citizens of the world and are able to imagine their future in Italy, in their own country or everywhere. They have lived the fatigue of adaptation and are learning to manage it. They know that their "difference" - the knowledge of another tongue, culture, religion, their physical appearance, their experiences of socialization, not always so simple and immediate - can be either a limit or a resource. Is this new consciousness - that nowadays is hardly rousing our consciences - to leave us the hope in a different destiny from that lived by their residing in the French banlieues or in Britain's inner cities. These communities, where to be brought up in districts in which social and existential problems tend to overlap, has brought many young persons to feel part of a generation betrayed and sacrificed and to foster social resentment and wishes of revenge through an identity that is proud and intent on recreating its original purity. The bet of a successful social integration for the young people growing up in our country, but moreover for the separated minors, is played on the circuits of social assistance and then on the capacity of school to create cohesion as an agency of socialization. This choice, though it is really far away from the fulfillment of their economic objectives and then from the attainment of the migratory cause, allows them to claim principles and reasons of " similarity – equality" with their coetaneous friends of school. This is a kind of comparison that was impossible before because of the irregular condition to which separated minors are often obliged and the peculiar characteristics of the type of job done by Moroccan people, usually pitchmen, from its nature an itinerant job hardly stigmatized by common opinion. Although the evident lacerations that this choice implies in terms of breaking old schemes of behaviours; redefinition of rules in the family, in the society of arrival (as well as in the society of origin); re-appropriation of one's own identity; this road appears uniquely to be able to preserve these young migrants from the solitude of a destiny otherwise made up of deviance and marginality. The research consists of two parts: the first one proposes a general framework about second generation literature and the second one provides the results of the ethnography. In particular, the first chapter copes with these questions in general terms with the intent to clarify the different misunderstandings in the debate about immigration, through a critical reading of national and international literature. The second and third chapters talk respectively of the European laws concerning separated minors and the Italian ones. In regard to the first context, it underlines the different practices adopted about the entry of separated minors in the territories of several old and new European immigration countries (such as France, Britain, Germany, Belgium and Spain) and point out the gaps and problems of these systems. As regards the Italian context, instead, emphasize is put on the critical points of the actual juridical systems in respect to a reality of the phenomenon characterized, as obviously it is, by remarkable unbalance and changeability. The fourth chapter has been dedicated to the school because it is considered the real forge of the social changing in its capacity to represent the primary occasion of: linguistic training, constructing of intern links in the receiving countries, learning of concepts and didactic modalities homogenous to it. A specific paragraph has been reserved to the introduction to the working environment because it is the main reason of the migration of these young people. The fifth chapter is aimed to investigate the context of provenience of minors interviewed, the Moroccan Country, reconstructing the heredity of the colonial past, the economic choices of the Independent Morocco, and the factors of push and pull behind the migratory flows of yesterday and today. The final picture is used to verify the health of the system. Recognizing the right of "speech" and "listening" to infancy and adolescence has meant to make an important step forward in the knowledge of their individuality, making arise all aspects of conformity and progressive adaptation or, on the contrary, their rebelliousness to their own culture as well as to the receiving society. In other worlds, considering minors "subjects of right" has meant rethinking the organization and obscure structures that manage the same societies in which they live, with the merit to point out aspects and elements of forsaking respect to a homogenous and given model of a culture. Nowadays more than ever it is necessary to admit that there are no more immigrants or emigrants, but "equal" citizens (or aspirant ones) who weave together elements of every type in a unique interdependent destiny. The consciousness of this claim calls for competence, intelligence, dedication and determination in the choice to engage; the rest is made by deviance, frustration, marginalization. ; Dottorato di ricerca in Tutela e Promozione dei Diritti dell'Infanzia (XXII ciclo)

Author's introductionThis review of recent feminist analyses and theorizing of labor markets uses a global lens to reveal the forces shaping gender inequality. The first section introduces the key words of globalization, gender and work organization. Next, I examine gender as embodied labor activity in globalized worksites, and the effects of globalization on gendered patterns of work and life. Putting gender at the center of globalization discourses highlights the historical and cultural variability of gender relations intersecting with class, race and nationality, and highlights the impact of restructuring on workers, organizations and institutions at the local, national and regional as well as transnational levels. Then I turn to look at labor market restructuring through commodification of care, outsourcing of household tasks and informalization of employment to show how these processes shape the complexity of relationships between and the interconnectedness of social inequalities transnationally and in global cities. Place matters when analyzing how service employment alters divisions of labor and how these labor market changes are gendered. Global restructuring not only poses new challenges but also creates new opportunities for mobilization around a more robust notion of equality. The final section explores the development of spaces for collective action and the rise of new women's and feminist movements (e.g., transnational networks, non‐governmental agencies). The study of globalization, gender and employment has broad importance for understanding not only the social causes but also the social consequences of the shift to a post‐industrial society.Author recommendsAcker, Joan 2004. 'Gender, Capitalism and Globalization.'Critical Sociology 30, 1: 17–41.Feminist scholarship both critiques gender‐blind globalization discourses and an older generation of women and development theories. By tracing the lineage of current feminist literature on globalization to women and development research, Joan Acker shows both the continuities and distance traveled from the previous terrain of debate. New feminist scholarship on globalization owes a debt to these important, albeit limited, studies of women at work in Latin America, Africa and Asia, but acknowledges the need to go beyond the category of women to analyze specific forms and cultural expressions of gendered power in relationship to class and other hierarchies. One of the major advances in feminist theory comes under the microscope of Acker's keen analysis when she excavates how gender is both embodied and embedded in the logic and structuring of globalizing capitalism. This extends the case she made in her earlier pioneering research on gender relations being embedded in the organization of major institutions. For the study of globalization, Acker posits that the gendered construction (and cultural coding) of capitalist production separated from human reproduction has resulted in subordination of women in both domains. Acker uncovers the historical legacy of a masculine‐form of dominance associated with production in the money economy that was exported to and embedded in colonialist installation of large‐scale institutions. By the late 20th Century large‐scale institutions promoted images and emotions that expressed economic and political power in terms of new articulations of hegemonic masculinity. As an article outlining debates on the nature of globalization and of gender, it serves as a good introduction to the topic.Chow, Esther Ngan‐Ling 2003. 'Gender Matters: Studying Globalization and Social Change in the 21st Century.'International Sociology 18, 3: 443–460.Chow's introduction to the special issue on 'Gender, Globalization and Social Change in the 21st Century' in International Sociology (2003) reviews the literature on gender and globalization and provides an excellent overview of 'gender matters.' Her definition of globalization captures salient features of the current era. This definition encompasses the economic, political cultural and social dimensions of globalization. Further, she offers a framework for studying the 'dialectics of globalization', as 'results of conflicting interaction between the global and local political economies and socio‐cultural conditions…' A dialectics of globalization is a fruitful approach for studying transformative possibilities. This article could serve as background reading or as part of an introductory section.Arlie Russell Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 2003. 'Love and Gold.' Pp. 15–30 in Global Women: Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy, edited by Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell Hochschild. Metropolitan Books.Hochschild's chapter in Global Women examines the transfer of traditional women's work to migrant women. Women in rich countries are turning over care work (nannies, maids, elder care) to female migrant workers who can be paid lower wages with few or no benefits and minimal legal protections. This global transfer of services associated with a wife's traditional role extracts a different kind of labor than in prior migrations based on agricultural and industrial production. Emotional, sexual as well as physical labor is extracted in this current phase of globalization; in particular, emotional labor and 'love is the new gold'. Women migrate not only to escape poverty, but also to escape patriarchy in their home countries by earning an independent income and by physical autonomy from patriarchal obligations and expectations. Many female migrants who leave poor countries can earn more money as nannies and maids in the First World than in occupations (nurses, teachers, clerical workers) if they remained in their own country. Thus, migration can be seen as having contradictory effects on women's well‐being and autonomy. This chapter can be used in a section dealing with the specific topic of globalization and care work or in a section introducing the topic of gendered labor activities.McDowell, Linda, Diane Perrons, Colette Fagan, Kath Ray and Kevin Ward. 2005. 'The Contradictions and Intersections of Class and Gender in a Global City: Placing Working Women's Lives on the Research Agenda.'Environment and Planning A 37, 441–461.This group of prominent social geographers from the UK collaborates to great effect in a welcome addition to the literature theorizing the complex articulations of gender and class in global cities. Their detailed research comparing three localities in Greater London is a corrective to the oft‐cited multi‐site study of global cities by Saskia Sassen. They find that Sassen underestimates gains and losses for both men and women in the 'new' economy. Place makes a difference when assessing the impact of women's increased rates of labor market participation on income inequality and patterns of childcare. The article outlines a new research agenda by 'placing' working women's lives at the center of analysis.Parrenas, Rhacel Salazar 2008. The Force of Domesticity: Filipina Migrants and Globalization. New York: New York University Press.Rhacel Salazar Parrenas brings together her influential research on Filipina migrants and extends her path‐breaking ethnographic analysis to include Filipina domestic workers in Rome and Los Angeles and entertainers in Tokyo. David Eng incisively captures the importance of Parrenas's analysis when he states, 'Extracted from home and homeland only to be reinserted into the domestic spaces of the global north, these servants of globalization exemplify an ever‐increasing international gendered division of labor, one compelling us to reexamine the neo‐liberal coupling of freedom and opportunity with mobility and migration'. The book is well suited to illuminate discussions of domesticity and migration, transnational migrant families, the impact of migration laws in 'home' and 'host' countries, and transnational movements among migrant women.Walby, Sylvia. 2009. Globalization and Inequalities: Complexity and Contested Modernities. London: Sage.This book introduces new theoretical concepts and tests alternative hypotheses to explain variation in trajectories of gender relations cross‐nationally. It synthesizes and reviews a vast literature, ranging from the social sciences to the natural sciences to construct a new approach to theorizing the development of gender regimes in comparative perspective. Sylvia Walby seeks to explain the different patterns of inequalities across a large number of countries. The analysis differentiates between neo‐liberal and social democratic varieties of political economy, and makes explicit the gender component of institutions and their consequences. The project builds on Walby's pioneering work on comparative gender regimes, and extends the research by operationalizing empirical indicators for a range of key concepts, and by analyzing links between a wide set of institutions (including economy, polity, education and violence) and how these are gendered in specific ways. As in the past, Walby is not afraid to tackle big questions and to offer new answers. Throughout the book, like in her previous body of research, Walby takes on the question of social inclusion/exclusion and critically interrogates concepts of democracy, political participation, equality and rights. Walby uses a comparative lens to examine the democratic 'deficit' in liberal and social democratic countries, and how migration restructures patterns of inequality and the consequent reconstitution of national and ethnic relations within countries. There is more to the book than abstract theoretical debates. Walby poses and assesses alternative political projects for achieving equality. The book is an original contribution that will likely influence sociology in general and theories of social change in particular.Online resourcesStatus of women in the world: United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) http://www.unifem.orgUNIFEM was established at the United Nations in order to foster women's empowerment through innovative programs and strategies. Its mission statement summarizes UNIFEM's goals as follows: 'Placing the advancement of women's human rights at the center of all of its efforts, UNIFEM focuses on reducing feminized poverty, ending violence against women; reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS among women and girls; and achieving gender equality in democratic governance in times of peace as well as war'. The website includes information on global initiatives such as zero tolerance of violence against women, the impact of the economic crisis on women migrant workers, and strategizing for gender proportionate representation in Nigeria. Primary documents relevant to women's advancement appear on the website; these include the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security. UNIFEM publishes monographs assessing the progress of women around the world. One notable example is the 2005 publication on Women, Work & Poverty by Martha Chen, Joann Vanek, Francie Lund, James Heintz with Renana Jhabvala and Christine Bonner. http://www.unifem.org/attachments/products/PoWW2005_eng.pdf Gender equity index http://www.socialwatch.org/en/avancesyRetrocesos/IEG_2008/tablas/valoresdelIEG2008.htm Social Watch produces an up‐to‐date gender equity index composed of three dimensions and indicators: empowerment (% of women in technical positions, % of women in management and government positions, % of women in parliaments, % of women in ministerial posts); economic activity (income gap, activity rate gap); and education (literacy rate gap, primary school enrollment rate gap, secondary school enrollment gap, and tertiary education enrollment gap). These separate indicators in addition to the gender equity index are arrayed by country. There are 157 countries, representing 94% of the world's population, in the sample. Mapping these indicators across countries presents a comparative picture of the absolute and relative standing of women and gender equity in the world.Focus QuestionsKey words: Globalization1. What is meant by globalization?

   a. To what extent is globalization new? Or is globalization another phase of a long historical process?
   b. Can we differentiate inter‐national (connections between) from the global (inter‐penetrations)?

Feminism and globalization

 How do feminist interventions challenge globalization theories (for example the presumed relationship between globalization and homogenization and individualization)?
 How do different feminisms frame and assess the conditions of globalization around the world?

Gender and globalization

 What role do women, and different women, play in the global economy?
 Are patriarchal arrangements changing as a result of greater economic integration at the world level?

Migration and mobilities

 What does Parrenas mean by partial citizenship?



 How does it relate to the case of Philippine migrant workers?
 What is the relationship between 'home' and 'host' nations?
 How important is a vehicle like the Tinig Filipino in forging 'imagined communities' and new realities?



 What is the mix of choice and compulsion in the different migrations mobilities of men and women?

Globalization and politics

 Are women subject to the same kinds of legal protections (and regulations) that evolved in earlier periods?
 Do new flexible production processes and flexible work arrangements undercut such legal protections?

Globalization and collective mobilization

 Does globalization open spaces for new women's movements, new solidarities, new subjectivities and new forms of organizing?

Sample syllabusCourse outline and reading assignments Conceptualizing the 'Global' and 'Globalization' Dicken, Peter, Jamie Peck and Adam Tickell. 1997. 'Unpacking the Global.' Pp. 158–166 in Geographies of Economies, edited by Roger Lee and Jane Willis. London: Arnold.Amin, Ash and Nigel Thrift. 1996. 'Holding Down the Global.' Pp. 257–260 in Globalization, Institutions, and Regional Development in Europe, edited by Ash Amin and Nigel Thrift. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Acker, Joan. 2004. 'Feminism, Gender and Globalization.'Critical Sociology 30: 17–42.Background Reading:Gottfried, Heidi. 2006. 'Feminist Theories of Work.' Pp. 121–154 in Social Theory at Work, edited by Marek Korczynski, Randy Hodson, Paul Edwards. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Peterson, V. Spike. 2008. 'Intersectional Analytics in Global Political Economy.' in UberKeruszungen, edited Cornelia Klinger and Gudrun‐Axeli Knapp. Munster: Wesfalisches Dmpfboot.Chow, Esther Ngan‐Ling. 2003. 'Gender Matters: Studying Globalization and Social change in the 21st Century.'International Sociology 18 (3): 443–460.Walby, Sylvia. 2009. Globalization and Inequalities: Complexity and Contested Modemities. London: Sage. Gender and Globalization Gottfried, Heidi. Forthcoming. 'Gender and Employment: A Global Lens on Feminist Analyses and Theorizing of Labor Markets.'Sociology CompassFernandez‐Kelly, Patricia and Diane Wolf. 2001. 'Dialogue on Globalization.'Signs 26: 1243–1249.Bergeron, Suzanne. 2001. 'Political Economy Discourses of Globalization and Feminist Politics.'Signs 26: 983–1006.Freeman, Carla. 2001. 'Is Local: Global as Feminine: Masculine? Rethinking the Gender of Globalization.'Signs 26:1007–1037. Theorizing Politics and Globalization Sassen, Saskia. 1996. 'Toward a Feminist Analytics of the Global Economy.'Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 4: 7–41.Parrenas, Rhacel Salazer. 2001. 'Transgressing the Nation‐State: The Partial Citizenship and 'Imagined (Global) Community' of Migrant Filipina Domestic Workers.'Signs 26:1129–1154.Bosniak, Linda. 2009. 'Citizenship, Noncitizenship, and the Transnationalization of Domestic Work.' Pp. 127–156 in Migrations and Mobilities: Citizenship, Borders, and Gender, edited by Seyla Benhabib and Judith Resnik. New York: New York University Press.Background Reading:Benhabib, Seyla and Judith Resnik. 2009. 'Introduction: Citizenship and Migration Theory Engendered.' Pp. 1–46 in Migrations and Mobilities: Citizenship, Borders, and Gender, edited by Seyla Benhabib and Judith Resnik. New York: New York University Press. Migrations, Mobilities and Care Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 2003. 'Love and Gold.' Pp. 15–30 in Global Women: Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy, edited by Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell Hochschild. Metropolitan Books.Hondagneu‐Sotelo, Pierrette. 2001. Domestica: Immigrant Workers Cleaning and Caring the Shadows of Affluence. Berkeley: University of California Press.Parrenas, Richard Salazar. 2008. The Force of Domesticity: Filipina Migrants and Globalization. New York: New York University Press.Pyle, Jean 2006. 'Globalizations, Transnational Migration, and Gendered Care Work.'Globalizations 3(3): 283–295.Qayum, Seemin and Raka Ray. 2003. 'Grappling with Modernity: India's Respectable Classes and the Culture of Domestic Servitude.'Ethnography 4: 520–555. Restructuring and Gender Inequality in Global Cities McDowell, Linda, Diane Perrons, Colette Fagan, Kath Ray and Kevin Ward. 2005. 'The Contradictions and Intersections of Class and Gender in a Global City: Placing Working Women's Lives on the Research Agenda.'Environment and Planning A 37: 441–461.McDowell, Linda. 1997. 'A Tale of Two Cities? Embedded Organizations and Embodied Workers in the City of London.' Pp. 118–129 in Geographies of Economies, edited by Roger Lee and Jane Willis. London: Arnold.Bruegel, Irene. 1999. 'Globalization, Feminization and Pay Inequalities in London and the UK.' Pp. 73–93 in Women, Work and Inequality, edited by Jeanne Gregory, Rosemary Sales and Ariane Hegewisch. New York: St. Martin's Press. Embodiment and Restructuring Halford, Susan and Mike Savage. 1997. 'Rethinking Restructuring: Embodiment, Agency and Identity in Organizational Change.' Pp. 108–117 in Geographies of Economies, edited by Roger Lee and Jane Willis. London: Arnold.Gottfried, Heidi. 2003 'Temp(t)ing Bodies: Shaping Bodies at Work in Japan.'Sociology 37: 257–276. Gender in the Global Economy: Post‐Socialist and Emerging Economies Salzinger, Leslie. 2004. 'Trope Chasing: Engendering Global Labor Markets.'Critical Sociology 30: 43–62.Kathryn Ward, Fahmida Rahman, AKM Saiful Islam, Rifat Akhter and Nashid Kama. 2004. 'The Nari Jibon Project: Effects on Global Structuring on University Women's Work and Empowerment In Bangladesh.'Critical Sociology 30: 63–102Otis, Eileen. 2007. 'Virtual Personalism in Beijing: Learning Deference and Femininity at a Global Luxury Hotel. Pp. 101–123 in Working in China: Ethnographies of Labor and Workplace Transformation, edited by Ching Kwan Lee. Routledge.Background Reading:Ferguson and Monique Mironesco (eds.). 2008. Gender and Globalization in Asia and the Pactific: Method, Practice, Theory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Globalization and Policy Developments Lenz, Ilse. 2004. 'Globalization, Gender and Work: Perspectives on Global Regulation.' Pp. 29–52 in Equity in the Workplace: Gendering Workplace Policy Analysis, edited by Heidi Gottfried and Laura Reese. Lexington Press.Woodward, Alison. 2004. 'European Gender Mainstreaming: Promises and Pitfalls of Transformative Policy.' Pp. 77–100 in Equity in the Workplace: Gendering Workplace Policy Analysis, edited by Heidi Gottfried and Laura Reese, Lexington Press.Fraser, Nancy. 2007. 'Reframing Justice in a Globalizing World.' in Global Inequality, edited by David Held and Ayse Kaya. Polity. Gender and the New Economy Walby, Sylvia, Heidi Gottfried, Karin Gottschall and Mari Osawa. 2006. Gendering and the Knowledge Economy: Comparative Perspectives, Palgrave, See chapters by Sylvia Walby, Mari Osawa, and Diane Perrons.Ng, Cecelia. 2004. 'Globalization and Regulation: The New Economy, Gender and Labor Regimes.'Critical Sociology 30: 103–108. Globalization and Transnational Organizing Ferree, Myra Marx. 2006. 'Globalization and Feminism: Opportunities and Obstacles for Activism in the Global Area.' Pp. 3–23 in Global Feminism: Transnational Women's Activism, Organizing, and Human Rights, edited by Myra Marx Ferree and Aili Mari Tripp. New York: New York University Press.Yuval‐Davis, Nira. 2006. 'Human/Women's Rights and Feminist Transversal Politics.' Pp. 275–295 in Global Feminism: Transnational Women's Activism, Organizing, and Human Rights, Myra Marx Ferree and Aili Mari Tripp. New York: New York University Press.Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. 2006. "Under Western Eyes" Revisited: Feminist Solidarity Through Anti‐Capitalist Struggles.' Pp. 17–42 in Feminism without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity, edited by Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.

JUNE, J899 ooTlhe, Qettysbur ercury CONTENTS. Our College Home 117 The 1900 Spectrum 119 Tick-tack-to 120 A Hero's Reward 123 An Art Fad 125 Retrieved 128 Editor's Desk, 131 Hypnotism 131 " The Influence of Christianity on Roman Jurisprudence ". 134 The Conflict of the Ag-es 139 The Philomathaean Society 144 Monotony of Life 147 Athletics 149 YMMUM FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. wmomrn For Fine Printing GO TO The J. E. WIBLE .Printing Rouee Carlisle Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. C. B. Kitzmiller, Dealer in Hats, Caps, Boots and . Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, PA. J. H. Myers, Fashionable Tailor, Clothier and Gents' Furnisher. The best place in town to have your Cloth-ing made to order. All workmanship and Trimmings guaranteed. No charge for re-pairs and pressing for one year. Dyeing and Repairing a specialty. Ready-made Clothing the largest stock in town. Up-to-date styles. Bicycle Suits and Breeches Headquarters. 11 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. R. A. WONDERS, Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, Etc. Scott's Corner, Opp. Eagle Hotel. GETTYSBURG, A. Have you an assured livelihood? "Would you try for a government posi-tion, if you knew just how to apply, and the kinds of positions from which you can choose, and what to do to insure your getting on the list after you have applied! The Government of the United States is the best of employers. Fair compen-sation, regularity of payment, reason-ably Bure tenure, tasks not too difficult, | ana hours not too I ong, offer strong at-tractions to young persons of both sexes whohavenosettledinuome. Manyenter Government employ, spend their spare i hours in studying law or medicine, or finance, and save enough from their salaries to start in a professional or business career. We have just published a book from whichanj/candidate maylearnjustwhat is necesaary and what unnecessary in brushing up his studies for an examina-tion ; and what his chances are, all things considered, for making bis way into the Civil Service, and staying there. The title of this book is " How to Prepnre for a Civil Service Examination; With Recent Questions and An-swers." It contains all Information which any candidate would require to firepare for any competitive office under ' he Government, and includes a "Ten Weeks' Course of 8tudy,"ln the form of questions actually asked at recent ex-aminations, with the correct answers to i them. Besides the technical require- ' mentSjitalso covers all the elementary branches, like arithmetic, spelling, pen- , manship, geography, letter writing, civil government, etc., etc., so that one who masters this course of study would not only pass well an examination for a gov- , ernment position, but would be sure of I preferment over other applicants for a clerkship in a business house. CLOTH—$2.00 Postpaid—560 PAGES Anotherbookfree(Quickat Figures)if you mention this paper when ordering. HINDS A NOBLE, Publishers 4-5-13-14 Cooper Institute, N. Y. City Schoolbooks ofallpublishers at one store .THE. GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter. Voi,. VIII. GETTYSBURG, PA., JUNE, 1899. No. 4 Editor-in- Chief. J. FRANK EEILMAN, '00. Alumni Editor. REV. F. D. GARLAND. Assistant Editors. LUTHER A. WEIGLE, '00. S. A. VAN ORMER, '01. Business Manager. Assistant Business Manager. JOHN K. HAMACHER, '00. CLARENCE MOORE, '02. Advisory Board. PROF. J. A. HIMES, L,IT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D. D. Published monthly by the students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price One Dollar a year in advance, single copies Fifteen Cents. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. OUR COLLEGE HOME. Oh bright for us the sunbeams rest On tower and town with rosier glow, On sentry Round Top's rugged crest And on the immortal Ridge below, Where marble Victory's fadeless bays The patriot soldier crown, And History graves for future days The deeds of his renown. CHORUS—Then ring we clear a loyal cheer, Wnere'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our famous College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! O fair for us the moonlight falls, To brighten with its silver flame At once the stately College halls wmm 118 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. And the memorials of fame That peer from every grove and grange, And in their silence tell That here heroic spirits range O'er meads of asphodel. CHORUS—Then ring we clear a loyal cheer, Where'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our honored College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! O soft for us the shadows play Among the Campus elms, and woo To merry converse and delay From tasks we busily pursue. Ah Youth and Friendship, how ye charm In Learning's calm abode,— True Graces, twining arm in arm On sweet Arcadian sod ! CHORUS—Then ring we clear a loyal cheer, Where'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our glorious College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah! At morn the duty-call of bells Rings clear and urgent, near and far, At eve a gentler music swells From gleeful viol or guitar. O jolly is the life we lead In study, song or games ! O fortunate the fate indeed That here inscribes our names ! CHORUS—Then ring- we clear a loyal cheer, . Where'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our dear old College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! Energy will do anything that can be done in this world; and no talents, no circumstances, no opportunities will make a two-legged animal a man without it. —Goethe. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 119 THE J900 SPECTRUM. THE most recent claimant, in our midst, to literary and ar-tistic honors, is the class of 1900. Its Spectrum, just is-sued, challenges our admiration from start to finish, and we heartily accord to it equal rank with the best of our college annuals, thus far issued. The form of the book, and the general arrangement of its con-tents, show a pleasing appreciation of responsibility in the plac-ing of details to secure good effects. There has been an evident purpose on the part of the printers, publishers, managers, artists and editors, to produce a work which should be alike creditable to themselves, as well as to the college which this publication represents. The volume is fittingly dedicated to Prof. Klinger, who is justly characterized as "both teacher and fellow student." The various classes and associations are given due recogni-tion by verbal statement, cut, pencil and photograph. The latter are unusually good throughout and constitute an attractive fea-ture. The sketches, are, as a rule, very clearly executed, and are amusing without being either vulgar or rude. The "Literary Record of Gettysburg Alumni," is an import-ant feature and will add permanency to the value of this publication. It will be interesting and profitable for our alumni and friends to have a record of this sort for handy reference. The "Spanish War Record" is not less interesting and valu-able. It is something for us to be proud of, that when our coun-try needed men to prosecute a war in the interests of humanity, against a cruel oppressor, that twenty-eight men, from our grad-uate and undergraduate ranks, cheerfully enlisted and did honor-able service. The humorous thoughts and aspects of college life, receive literary embodiment in the concluding pages of the volume. These show a commendable degree of appreciation of humor, in both possible and impossible, but easily imagined situations. It is a pity that so much of this kind of literature, must necessarily go unappreciated, for it requires an acquaintance with the dramatis personae and the conditions under which described events happen, in order to extract all the flavor of humor which makes them en-joyable. ■MMtimp mum. 120 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. This volume is certainly deserving of hearty recognition, and it is hoped that many of our alumni and friends of the college, will show their appreciation of the arduous labors of the class by acquiring a copy. Reader,—it will add permanent value to your library. Send for a copy at once. —G. D. S. TICK-TACK-TO. THERE is scarcely a conversation indulged in with a greater relish, by persons of a maturer age, than that relating to bygone games and pastimes. The children love to linger by the hearth and will listen with rapt attention, as their father relates to them the strange and antiquated games of his boyhood days. There are, perhaps, few things that brighten the eyes of our sires more readily than mere mention of puerile games. They love to cast away the titles of Rev., Dr., or Mr. and think of the time " when you were Bill and I was Joe " and, if one is in their presence when they are exchanging reminiscences he may be both instructed and agreeably entertained. Nor is the relish for this peculiar sort of conversation peculiar to those who have already passed the meridian of life and can no more win for themselves the eclat of the beholding multitude, or the more modest commendation of a few admiring friends, or even the laudatory look of defeated opponents. It belongs also to us. What conversation can be introduced into our college boudoirs that will be more highly appreciated and rejuvenate happier reminiscences than that relating to the games we used to play. The occasional rehearsing of them forms a condiment whose pungency quickens our appetites for more solid and substantial forms of mental food. As such, however, they tend only to excite pleasure and enter-tain, and are evanescent in their effects. If, on the other hand, we view them in a more serious manner and forget them as prolific of. an almost boundless store of sport and hilarity, we may not only become instructed but learn, to our amazement perhaps, that we are playing the same old games to-day. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 121 To demonstrate this we might choose almost any one of the limited number of juvenile games as an example. Since they all bring forth some phase of life and all contain some suggestion for reflection. Blind-man's-buff for instance, teaches us how gro-tesquely we often grope after the fleeing prizes of life. Leap-frog portrays to us the use to which we are sometimes put by men of ulterior motives and the humility connected therewith, but there are some, however, whose peculiarities stand out in bolder relief than in others ; some whose lessons are more drastic than others, and in few is this more obvious than in the triplicate game of tick-tack-to. It is very simple and probably the most universally known game of childhood. As a palladium against the captiousness of the nursery its charm is talismanic. In point of economy there are few games that excel it: a pencil, a slate or a small slip of paper with two parallel lines drawn perpendicularly upon it and two similar ones crossing them horizontally constitute all that there is of a material outlay. A series of three marks occupying three successive spaces in any direction brings to a proper conclusion the course of the game and suggests to us now, what in childhood's happy hours were arcanums unraveled. One of them is contained in the nature of the game. Unlike many other of our juvenile pastimes tick-tack-to is not a game of luck nor chance but a game of skill and intelligence. Were it a game of luck we would be at a loss to derive any lessons from it and could certainly not compare it to life; since those who have attained to the highest success in life cherish little hope for the man who depends on luck. One of our beloved martyred Presidents, the lamented Jas. A. Garfield, once said, "Luck is an ignis fatuus. It leads to ruin but never to success." The idea that certain men are rich, or prosperous, or popular, because they were born under such circumstances under which it would be impossible for them to be otherwise, finds little credence among successful men. It is not the man who is born at a certain time, in a certain place and under certain environments who attains to success but he who works; he who is active; he who is alive to every oppor-tunity; he whose every mark is prompted by an intelligent judgment. 122 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Another deduction that we can 333ke from the game and apply to life is the mode of procedure. "We used to play7 it under dif-ficulties. Our advance was retarded by opposition. This of course is a common condition to all games and would not distinguish this particular one from any other; but the unique-ness of it lies in the fact that the opposition is created by one op-ponent and only one. Thus in the game of life we proceed against hindrances and against hindrances of but one opponent. Who is that opponent? Who is he, or what is it, that barricades our onward march every time we take a stride toward success ? Who is he who with rude hand dashes a cross before our line of progress every time our success is partially and almost entirely accomplished ? Is he to be found in the personality of some one other than ourselves ? May we detect him among the multitudes that pass before us from day to day ? May we discover him among those with whom we are continually associated ? No, prospection will never reveal him, introspection may. We have but one opponent to contend with, and that oppo-nent is self, the lower self; the material as opposed to the spiritual self. We sometimes suppose that our embarrassments in life, are traceable to external circumstances, to some person or company of persons, or to some combination of circumstances. But they are only the marks used by ourselves against our-selves. They form the media through which our lower nature reacts upon the higher and thus continues the dualisdc game of life. St. Bernard appreciating this fact once said "Nothing can do me damage but myself," and if we wish to reject authority can we not by a little self-examination verify this statement within the scope of our own experience ? Does not the soul in becoming cognizant of the virtue of a certain act urge us to do it ? Does it not in the language of the game place its mark in one of the spaces ? What follows ? The body shrinks from the performance of the act. It opposes the impulse of the soul. It places its mark directly before the one already made. No sooner has this taken place than the conscience comes into prominence. Not willing to acquiesce with one repulse it incites us to a redoubled effort. It places its mark before the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 123 original one in another direction. This being done up swell the passions and endeavor with vehemence to thwart the noble im-pulse and crush all that is holy and pure in man. So the game proceeds with vacillating fortunes until the lower or the higher na-ture is conqueror. A contest it is trying and severe, unheard by mortal ear, un-seen by mortal eye. Revealed only to Him under whose dispen-sation it is possible and under whose guidance only, success is at-tainable. —MARKS. A HERO'S REWARD. IN the spring of 1825, Mr. Perry decided to sell his plantation, very reluctantly however, for it was here that he was born, and then with his family, which consisted of his wife, a son, Philip, and a daughter, Mabel, to go North. It was at Mr. Hall's suggestion that he located in a small town in the northern part of New Jersey and went into business with him. These two families had known each other for years and naturally at once there sprung up a friendship between Philip Perry and Mr. Hall's only son and child, Tom; but from the start Tom seemed to have an especial regard for Mabel, which grew into an affection as they grew in years. The Perrys belonged to one of the old, aristocratic, south-ern families, and were, as most such families were, wealthy. The Halls were also quite independent, though not in such affluent circumstances. The two boys were sent to a small military academy near New York and graduated in the same class. A short time after this Mr. Hall was taken ill and died very suddenly, and a year later Mrs. Hall died through grief for her dead husband. Mr. Perry was also affected by his partner's death and having closed out the business, moved South and located in Richmond, Va. He in-sisted that Tom should go along and make his home with them, and Tom, with a little persuasion from Mabel, did so. The boys went to a southern college, where they stood high both in their class and in the esteem of their fellow students, for they were good, jolly boys. During this time the affection be-tween Mabel and Tom ripened into love and Tom often wished in-wardly that some day he might win Mabel for his wife. y—^——™—™——— miyiiyi 124 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. After their college days both young men had entered Mr. Perry's employ and held positions of trust and responsibility in his cotton mill. So well, indeed, did they manage their work, that Mr. Perry was about to entrust the entire management to them when that dreadful war, which so nearly resulted in the division of our Union, was declared. Recognizing his duty, Philip Perry at once left home and enlisted in the 9th Virginia Regiment. Tom Hall hesitated. He was undecided as to what to do. He knew full well that his duty was to go North and join a Northern regiment, and yet—if he went, it meant, as Mabel had said, that all would end between them, for Mabel was a Southern girl. What was he to do ? On the one side he could hear the call to duty, on the other Mabel wanted him, if he went at all, to go with "Phil." At last his love for his country conquered even his love for Mabel and as a true patriot he secretly made his way north and enlisted in the 1st New Jersey, which was mustered in at his old home. It is needless to follow these two soldiers through the entire campaign, but suffice it to say that they soon rose to high positions in their respective regiments on account of their bravery. On the evening of July 2, 1863, General Dee, who was in command of the Confederate forces at Gettysburg, realizing his perilous position and possibly expecting defeat, decided to make one final, desperate attempt to break through the Union line. That evening he had been reinforced by Stuart's Cavalry and was therefore hopeful of success. His plan was to pierce the Union line at a point now called the "High Water Mark," for that was the turning point of the greatest battle of the Civil War. Everyone has heard of Pickett's famous charge and how the men of the two armies fought hand to hand over the old stone wall. The 9th Virginia belonged to Armistead's brigade, which was almost annihilated in this charge; yet many were not killed outright, but after suffering untold agony, gave up their lives for the cause they thought right. During this battle, a number of regiments were held in reserve and among this number was the 1st New Jersey. On the evening of July 3d, the news of the famous charge of Pickett's Division and the successful repulse was reported among the various Union regiments, and of course reached the 1st New Jersey. \THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 125 Colonel Tom Hall recalled the fact that Philip Perry had en-listed in the 9th Virginia, and he imagined he heard some one say that he was dying on the field. Before dawn he had mounted his faithful horse and galloped off in the direction of the "clump of trees." For some time he searched, but all in vain, and he was about to leave when he heard a terrible groan a short dis-tance beyond the wall on the Union side. It startled him and he drew up his horse, dismounted and stooped over the half-dead body of a Confederate officer. Imagine his surprise to find his old friend, Philip Perry! He gently bound up his wounds and raising him, placed him on his horse and rode slowly back to his regiment. Major Perry remained in a semi-conscious state for several days and when he came to, he found himself in Colonel Hall's tent and over him was stooping his dear sister, washing off the blood stains and dressing his wounds. As soon as Major Perry was strong enough to be moved, Colonel Hall had him exchanged for a Northern officer, who was confined in one of the Southern prisons. However, before Major Perry was taken to his home in Rich-mond, the old love between Mabel and Colonel Hall had over-come all difficulties between them and under a tree not far from where Major Perry had fallen, he witnessed a short ceremony, performed by the Chaplain of the 1st New Jersey, in which Colo-nel Hall received "A Hero's Reward," the long desired hand of Mabel in marriage. —W. G. L. '01. «**£> AN ART FAD. IN these days when fads in almost every line of trade and pro-fession are so prominent, one is not surprised to find that there is such a thing as a fad in art also. The particular one selected for the subject of this essay is that style so prominent at this time in the art. of painting—the poster. The poster occu-pies the same place in the art of painting as do dialect stories in literature or syncopated rhythm, i. e. the so-called "rag-time" in music. Not any of these is a recent creation but rather a recent craze. For instance, considered from a scientific standpoint, "rag-time" has been co-eval with the history of music. 126 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Beethoven and Mozart wrote it and even in the incomparable fugures of Bach we encounter it. And in literature, dialect did certainly not originate with James Whitcomb Riley. The possibilities of the colored poster were first made known to English and French artists when the great flaming advertise-ments of Barnum were first placed upon the exposed places of London and Paris. The influence of these American advertising posters became prominent and at once both England and France began to contribute colored products in poster art, which, while far more artistic than the pictures of Wild West performers, were not after all so widely different in outline, color and other quali-ties. Between that day when vivid and crude design was pre-dominant, and to-day when the artistic poster is so much in evi-dence, there is a considerable advance apparent. Simultaneous with the growth of the poster and practically very beneficial was the adoption of it by the up-to-date theatre for advertising purposes. And it lends itself admirably for this pur-pose. It has also been a favorite mode of advertising in the com-mercial world, but one sees less of its use in this manner now than formerly. In the literary advertising department, the poster still is very prominent and is the usual way of calling the attention of the public to the merits of some special edition of a publication. With the rise of the poster came collectors of posters ; in America alone, there are said to be over 6000 persons who devote themselves to this pursuit. Poster literature and expositions too have come into existence. Of the different nations and in point of art, France, as usual, leads. The "father of the modern poster," as he has been called, M. Cheret, however, says that he owes his first inspiration to the Barnum lithographs. America is greatly indebted to France in this line of art. One of the foremost poster artists who, before he studied in Paris, used to draw the gorgeous theatre lithographs, came back to America and completely transformed the coarse ex-aggerated travesties. For this reason Matt. Morgan stands high among the American poster artists. Of the English school, Aubrey Beardsley is probably the best known. He is said to be always "scholarly" and while "char-acteristic," yet he never loses sight of the fundamental principles of the art in his work. The purchase of a celebrated art-poster called "Bubbles" by the proprietors of a certain soap, seemed to THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 127 give a new impetus to the poster art in England, and many artists no longer hesitated to enter the ranks of poster painters. In Germany, the poster has not developed very rapidly or sat-isfactorily. German artists in every line of art work seem to ad-here strongly to allegorical symbols and types. This is evident in the tonal art as well as in painting. Probably the best known of the German school is Heine, who creates posters for several humorous periodicals. Austria seems to have paid little or no attention to the art; one can find no mention of Austrians who won a reputation for them-selves except in the line of music. All other arts seem to be con-sidered unworthy any attention. There is a poster art school in Belgium which has won a prominent position in this line of art. Though it requires a considerable amount of education on cer-tain lines to enable one to understand correctly any art—such a training, for instance as a good art-critic possesses—yet it is pos-sible for almost any one to appreciate, to some extent, at least, the art of poster painting. Tolstoi .says, "When I call up an emotion which I have ex-perienced, arid by signs, words, colors, sounds, transfer this emo-tion to another, that is art." Bearing this definition in mind and using it as a test, attention is called to a few examples of posters, each peculiarly distinctive in one manner or other. Probably one of the most striking and unique of the products of American artists was the poster announcing a special issue of the New York Sun. A woman with a trailing purple mantle walks through a green meadow, one hand uplifted with a warning ges-ture as if to command silence. The graceful though striking de-sign indicates a fertile imagination as the originator of it. That the creator—~L,. I. Rhead—is not only highly imaginative and fanciful but even verging upon the eccentric is evidenced by others of his productions, in one of which he has painted a woman with a cloak of dark green, outlined boldly against an orange back-ground. Among the posters published by Harpers Bros., was one en-titled "The Letter Box," which, though simple in ideas yet proved very effective. A little Cupid standing on tip-toe, drops a valentine in the slot of the corner letter-box. The entire pic-ture is not at all pretentious, but entirely characteristic and well adapted. ■pJMfiM 128 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Another poster published by the same firm in 1892 is worthy of noting because of the manner in which the lettering is incor-porated in the picture. "The Wooly Horse" representing Napoleon I. on horseback overlooking the battlefield,—with a fiery sky for background, was a very successful poster published by the Century Co. A famous American artist in this line is W. H. Bradley, whose work resem-bles somewhat that of Aubrey Beardsley. His posters seem to have a peculiar melancholy in their expression. Among the prominent advertisements of merchandise, that of Pears' Soap—a humorous sketch of a ragged tramp—is, with its forcible inscription, one of the most prominent. An original idea was brought out by an English artist in the use of the "Silhouette"—a black figure outlined in white stand-ing out against a black background. The manufacturers of a certain blueing, first used this style of poster for an advertise-ment. An advance in poster drawing was made after the several ex-positions of posters which have been held lately. One of these, held in Belgium in 1894, served to propagate extensively the new ideas of the French and the Belgian schools. How long this fad will last, is difficult to predict. It is highly probable, however, that the art will advance with such strides in some particular direction that the new development will com-pletely swallow up the present popular poster style,—a style, which has been characterized as a "phantasy most horrid and de-testable." —W. W. F. '00. RETRIEVED. JIM HAL,Iy, an inhabitant of the village of Alberton, had the reputation of being the most cowardly man to be found in ten counties. He was known to sleep at night with his room door double-barred and the windows tightly fastened, for fear of being killed in his bed by some wandering burglar. He believed in ghosts and witches ; and the small boys often took advantage of this superstitious fear and belief by placing a white sheet over a stick and when Jim came along, waving it wildly. Jim ran like THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 129 a deer for home and next day was made the butt of innumerable jokes. This fear of Jim's was to be accounted for only by the fact that from his birth his mother had shielded him from all dan-ger and taught him to look to her as his natural protector. So when he had come to manhood he had not learned to rely upon himself. He often tried to overcome his cowardice but could not do so when the critical moment came. Affairs were in this state up to the year 1862 when the report was circulated in Alberton that Jim Hall had disappeared from the village. No one had seen him go away, so all the villagers could do was to make suppositions as to his whereabouts. Some thought he had run away for fear of being drafted into the service. A large number of the able-bodied men of the village had already joined as volunteers and now it was reported that additional men were needed and that these would be taken by drafting through-out the whole North. Just the day before Jim Hall's disappear-ance the report was brought that the drafting of Alberton men would take place in four days. So there were some grounds for the common belief that Jim had run away to escape the war. One can easily imagine their surprise when the next day they heard that he had gone to the camp of the Army of the Potomac and had been enlisted as a private soldier. The people treated it as a great joke and many were the jests at poor Jim's expense about his long legs standing him in good stead when a time of great danger should come. However Jim had realty joined the army and was by a lucky chance placed in the same company with the other Alberton men who had gone out long before as volunteers. And as another piece of good fortune the man who was now captain of the com-pany— the former captain having been killed shortly before—had been the only man in the village of Alberton who had not jeered and laughed at his cowardice. This gentleman, a Mr. Leonard, had been a friend of both of Jim's parents and when Jim's father died had been appointed guardian to Jim. He now encouraged Jim to make a man of himself and was the instrument of Jim's doing so. Soon under their gallant leaders they were fighting the rebels with varying success about the swamps and morasses of the Chickahominy. In the battle of Chancellorsville, lost though dearly sold, our hero was in the thick of the fight. At the first mmmw 130 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. shock, however, he turned as if to flee, but at the word of his commander he turned and fought so bravely and so well that he was commended by his captain. Nearly two months later he found himself marching north-ward with his companions to try to check the invasion which the victorious Lee was making upon the North. On July 1st they found themselves on the peaceful fields of Gettysburg so soon to be turned into a veritable slaughter pen. In the first day's fight their regiment was stationed at Seminary Ridge with several other regiments to check the advance of the so far victorious rebels until further reinforcements should come up. Soon the overwhelming numbers of the Confederates forced the greater part to fall back and one lone battered and torn regi-ment was left to face the storm. It was too late to retreat now and almost useless to fight longer, but the blood of the Halls who had fought in the Revolution suddenly came coursing through the veins of Jim, and seizing the colors from the color bearer who had just been shot down Jim waved them aloft and shouted, "Come on boys, don't run, only cowards run." As he uttered the words a volley from the enemy, who had now almost sur-rounded the gallant man and his little band, laid poor Jim low and silenced forever the heart which had just learned that it still had brave blood to force through a manly body. Now indeed had Jim retrieved his name from the most disgraceful blot which can be put on any man's name. The rest of the command were captured and taken prisoners. Several years after they were ex-changed and when those Alberton men who had come safely through the war had returned home, they never tired of telling how nobly Jim Hall had proven that he no longer was the coward whom they had once despised. —V. FREY, '01. c®P June falls asleep upon her bier of flowers; In vain are dew drops sprinkled o'er her, In vain would fond winds fan her back to life Her hours are numbered on the floral dial. * * * June is dead, Dead, without dread or pain, her gayest "Wreaths twined with her own hands for her funeral. —Lucy Larcotn. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. EDITOR'S DESK. 131 THE '00 Spectrum is ample proof that the catalogue of special features has not been exhausted. As it is customary for the Junior class in publishing a Spectrum to make a special feature, '00 has chosen the "Literary Record of Gettysburg Alumni.'' This feature alone would make thepresent Spectrttm val-uable, as well as interesting. Few besides those who have worked upon such a feature can form any idea of the toil and care re-quired to carry it to a successful issue. Certainly it is but justice that the college paper, in the name of the students of Gettys-burg, congratulates the editor and assistant editor, by whom the "Literary Record" has been compiled and arranged, upon their useful, hard work. But not only may the individuals, on whom rested the responsibility for such a task, be congratulated; Gettys-burg may congratulate herself upon the present annual, which un-doubtedly will be regarded for years as a model of neat, original work. Articles by our alumni relating to Gettysburg, would be re-ceived eagerly by the MERCURY. Stories about college life as it was some years ago, the difference between Gettysbtirg of to-day and Gettysburg of the past, or almost any article of like kind, would find space in our pages. The MERCURY would be glad to print poems by the alumni, as well as prose. HYPNOTISM. HYPNOTISM, as best defined, is a nervous artificial sleep. The same thing was formerly called animal magnetism. Hypnotism applies to a definite nervous state and is brought about mostly in persons having a delicate nervous system. The first true inquirer into hypnotism was Dr. Baird. He saw some experiments performed by a professional maguetizer and at once decided that they were merely an arrangement to deceive the people, but after careful observation and study into the methods of producing a state of hypnotism, he decided that it was genuine. After careful study and experiment, he decided that there was no such a thing as a magnetic fluid flowing from the mind of the operator to that of the subject; but that the true cause of hypno- ■mmtnm 132 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. tism lay in the fact that the nerves of one of the senses become deadened by over exertion or constant concentration on a point, and on this account become powerless to act and the person goes into a deep sleep or lethargy. In this, his followers disagree with the other school, headed chiefly by I,afosataine. He asserted that hypnotism was produced by a fluid, known as the magnetic fluid, which passed from one person to another and by its attraction could cause a person of strong will to have complete control of a person of weaker will power, being able to compel him to do anything commanded. Baird was led to his theory by the fact that his subject, while under the influence of this power, was unable to open the eyes. He at once came to the conclusion that excessive fatigue was the only thing that could cause this strange phenomenon as he made no attempt at personal magnetism in producing the sleep. His experiment was performed in the following way. He asked his subject to sit and look steadily at the neck of a wine bottle and allow his mind to wander. The bottle was placed at such an elevation as to cause considerable fatigue to the eyes. After three minutes the subject's eyes were filled with tears, then his eyelids closed and a little later he was in a sound sleep. This experiment proved beyond doubt that a person can be hypnotized without the presence of a second person or operator; but can do it himself by an experiment made under similar circumstances as mentioned above. Baird pursued his discoveries and with the aid of numerous other experiments tried hard to have hypnotism recognized as a science. They were not successful, however, and to-day it is re-garded mostly as something for a show, or to interest the people, without much regard to its cause and the scientific qualities. The most familiar form of producing the state of hypnotism is the following : the operator directs the subject to have no par-ticular thought on his mind, but to let it wander, and gaze steadily into his eyes. After that he generally makes a few passes with the hands, gently rubbing the eyelids, etc., until his subject is in a sound sleep. In explanation of this method I would say that the gazing into the eyes of the operator for some time, is exactly the same as looking at a brilliant object, both have the same effect of fatiguing the nerves of the eye and producing sleep. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 133 This is strikingly illustrated in an experiment with a frog. If a frog is taken in the hand, having the thumb resting on the stomach, and the back gently rubbed ; the animal will go to sleep at once and can be stretched into all sorts of shapes. Another way, as has been stated before, is that of looking steadily at some object. It has also been discovered that the other senses have the same power as that of sight. Thus if you produce monotony in music sleep is produced. Sharp suspense or fright has the same effect of transfixing some people and this has been decided by students of the science ( as it is called by the disciples of hypnotism) to be hypnotism. After careful study it has been proven that the senses of taste and of smell have the same strange effect. As regards the uses of hypnotism little of importance can be said. It is used mostly by professional showmen who call up subjects from their audience or may have them with them. They compel them to do anything they command. One of the common-est ways and also the best to show the entire oblivion of the subject, is the experiment with the letter. The subject is handed a letter and told it is an orange, he immediately eats it with great relish, then if told it is sour at once spits it out with an expres-sion of disgust on his face, showing the subject believes every-thing the operator tells him and is entirely at his command. This, however, was never intended for the chief use of hypno-tism. The experimenters tried to use it in surgery, etc., but it has been found that while some people are easily influenced others give much trouble, so that it would be impracticable to use it in a case of amputation when ether or chloroform serves the same purpose more quickly and better. It has been settled, however, that strong habits can be changed. Persons who have been accus-tomed to strong habits all their lives have been entirely changed and new habits formed. Thus, while very little has been definitely decided about this strange phenomenon, there is every indication that some day in the near future, it will be taken up by experimenters and philoso-phers, thoroughly sifted, and then be proven to be of great value in many respects. It is now in its infancy. —C. J. D. '00. wmm 134 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON ROMAN JURISPRUDENCE." CHRISTIANITY and civilization in its highest degree of ex-cellence are synonomous, hand in hand like two insepara-bles we find them enthroned upon a majestic seat, ruling, guiding, influencing, and may we say carving the destiny of every great nation. If a country is civilized and christianized we need no other proof to be convinced of her pre-eminence and suprem-acy. A glance will show us also that such countries have the most admirable and thoroughly developed codes of jurisprudence. The influences, whose marks upon "Roman Law" are par-ticularly indelible and prominent, may be divided into three classes: conventional morality and usage, natural reason and justice, and Christianity. These fundamental principles in turn clearly mark off three distinct epochs in the development of Ro-man Law. According to the law of the first nearly all power was vested in the individual and that individual was the "Pater familias." The idea of a State right has scarcely begun to dawn upon the Roman mind. At the beginning of the second epoch, Rome is no longer a col-lection of separate communities : Italy, Greece, Spain, Africa, in short the whole world is in her power. Law based on such a no-tion as practically unlimited power of the pater cannot regulate such an empire. No longer is Rome divided into families, tribes and clans, each separate and distinct, but everything concentrates upon and emanates from one person—the Emperor. Something broader, something more general is demanded and, in response, came the principles of the stoic philosophy. Roman Law can-not stand still while the State is enlarging; it too must broaden, and natural equity, justice and reason furnish the soil for its spreading roots. But one link yet is necessary, one step yet is lacking ere the ultimate degree ofperfection is reached. For Christianity it remains to weld the chain and fill the gap which is to make "Roman Law" such a body of principles as to be applicable at all times and among all nations. In such principles as—"honeste vivere, alterum non laedere, suum cinque tribuere," the dawn of Christian-ity can already be seen, only time is needed until its genial rays shall burst forth with increasing intensity. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 135 Christianity had been now the established religion of the Ro-man Empire for more than two centuries; and the influence of its principles was making an untold effect upon the spirit, if not so much upon the letter, of Roman law. The complete moral, social, and political revolution, through Christianity, created a necessity for new laws adapted to the present order of things. Under it a new order of men of a peculiar character, with special privileges has grown up; churches and monasteries had been formed; certain offenses in the penal code were now looked on with a milder or more severe aspect, and vices, which formerly had been tolerated, became crimes against the new social order. It might be shown that Christianity as a system of doctrine, is peculiarity adapted to meet the secular as well as the spiritual wants of men and would naturally work its way into their codes of jurisprudence. But a direct proof is unnecessary, for after hav-ing shown its influence upon the various elements in "Roman L,aw," we can reason backward and reach the same conclusion. Roman Law may be conveniently divided into three classes:— that of Persons, Property and Crime. From time immemorial, slavery had been customary among all nations. Aristotle reasoned "that nature intended barbarians to be slaves, and among the natural and honorable means of ac-quiring wealth, he classes, making war in order to reduce to slavery such of mankind as are intended by nature for it." As an institution of custom, then, slavery received its sanction at Rome. Christianity had exalted a slave to spiritual equality and this religious elevation could not be without influence on their tem-poral and social position. They were no longer to be regarded as brute beasts and inanimate things, nor could they be destroyed by their masters with as much impunity as his other property. Our respect must here be paid the heathen sovereign, Antoniuns, who declared that the master who killed his slave without cause, was liable to the same penalty as if he had killed the slave of another. Justinian writes, "In these times, and under our Em-pire, no one must be permitted to exercise unlawful cruelty against a slave.'' Prohibition of marriage to slaves had been a deep-rooted prejudice for centuries, yet this too melted before the rays of its benign influence. The stricter forms of manumission—the vin-dicta freeing by census or testament were relieved by easier and ■VAMHtfi 136 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. more liberal ones,—for example, per epistolam, inter amicos, in ecclesiis; and whatever of legal impediments yet existed were re-moved by Justinian. Along with this the distinctions formerly made between freedmen, whereby a slave owing to certain kinds of misconduct, when manumitted, could not receive full citizen-ship, were likewise abolished so that after Justinian all libertine were cives Romani. The ancient laws regarding marriage and the legal status of women each crystallized itself in conformity with the new order of things. Marriage was no longer a civil contract but a religious sacrament and the penalties fixed upon celibacy and childlessness were removed. Divorce had been one of the greatest plagues at work in dis-solving the unity of the Roman family. Since the establishment of the XII tables, in 450 B. C, it had been legally recognized. Seneca says of Naecauss, probably satirically, that he changed his wives as he changed his dress. And it is the same writer who says '' that the noble women of Rome calculated the year not by the consuls, but by their husbands." Juvenal, in the bitterness of his satire, could not find words adequate to express his intense indignation of this evil. It is said that the sixth century of Roman greatness had begun ere the evils of a primitive conception that the wife was the property of her husband and might be dismissed at his pleasure were revealed and public feeling shocked by the re-pudiation of a virtuous but barren wife by Spurius Carvilius Ruga. Had Christianity performed no greater good for human society than the removal of this corruption, its influence would not have been in vain or useless. The rights of women over their property were made sub-stantially equal to men's as was the right of guardianship over their children. Parental power, though in theory absolute, had long fallen into disuse and was almost a theoretical nothing long before the ad-vent of Christianity, but whatever of severity yet remained was abolished. Constantine openly declared that the father, who killed his son, should be held for murder, nor was the father allowed to ex-pose his children or sell them into slavery, except in the rarest cases. The proprietary rights of the son, too, were extended from the peculium castreuse to the peculmm quasi castreuse and still later to the peculium adventitium. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 137 Milman says '' Christianity made no change in the tenure or succession to property.'' '' Seeking inheritances by undue means was prohibited and restrained by law as an ecclesiastical evil." Church property was regarded sacred and inviolate and as Milman says was "the sole proprietor, whom forfeiture or confis-cation could never reach; whose title was never antiquated and before whose hallowed boundaries violence stood rebuked." Gifts to temples could now be sold or pledged for the redemp-tion of captives, a purpose which the old Roman law would have disdained to contemplate. In the penal laws of the Roman empire, the influence of Chris-tianity was but moderately exerted. The abolition of the distinc-tions drawn between freedmen and slaves have already been re-ferred to. Crucifixion as a means of punishment was removed by Constantine, rather as an act of religious reverence than of humanity. But in the suppression of gaming and the prohibition of women being forced on the stage, traces of its influence can be seen. As is natural from the subject material under discussion, the law respecting persons has undergone the greatest change. But all these changes, whether in the penal code or in the law of proprietary rights and obligations, were but a means, which made the Roman system adapted to the regulation of all peoples and at all times. When we see that the very barbarians who conquered Rome were in turn conquered by her system of jurisprudence, we are not a little filled with surprise; but when we find it not only influenc-ing and forming the basis of, but being incorporated in the legal codes of almost all nations, we come in contact with an effect that requires an adequate and efficient cause. After paying all due re-spect to that peculiar, innate faculty of administration in the Ro-man mind, without detracting one iota from the excellent opinions of the juristconsuls or limiting in the slightest degeee the wonder-ful influence of stoicism, as a system of philosophy, we are com-pelled to admit that none of these were individually or collectively efficient to produce such an effect. To Christianity must be as-cribed the credit of basing Roman law upon principles, so univer-sal and so humane, as to be applicable not only among the Roman state but among all nations of all times. If this statement seems rather large in its exposition and sweeping in its results, a few illustrations may be necessary to establish its validity. r \UIUW 138 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Can a law, which considers certain classes of men as mere brutes or inanimate things be reconciled to our conception that by nature all men are horn equal ? Or who can reconcile the idea that a woman is but the property of her husband, capable of being dismissed at his bidding, with our conception of human society ? What place could the principle of "patri potesias have in the legal status of a nation, all the citizens of which have equal rights be-fore its laws—yet in the wisdom of the juristconsuls and in the records they have left us, these principles and many others similar to them are found embodied. Stoic philosophy left to Roman law the principles of equity and humanity, but the basis of natural law upon which they rested and by which they were judged and applied, was subjected to a complete change ere they were capable of incorporation into modern jurisprudence. Christianity recognized these same principles of equity and humanity, but substituted truth instead of natural law as their criterion. Based on this principle and judged by this standard the conceptions of equity and humanity lose their limi-tations and assert themselves with the force of universality. It is only under these conditions that we find Roman law incorpo-rated in the laws of every great nation, and only in Christianity do we find a cause adequate to such an effect. Among legal historians there is a vast diversity of opinions with regard to the influence of Christianity upon Roman legisla-tion. This variance, Morey rightly attributes to their failure to distinguish Christianity as an ethical system from the church as a corporate institution.'' It must be remembered that the church, like all institutions, even though divine in their origin, is never-theless subject to the frailties of humanity by which it is regu-lated and too often fails to cancel the limitations between the ideal and the real. The family and the matrimonial ceremony are regarded as divine in their origin and sanction, but do they ever conform to the high standard by which they should be regulated? Perfection is an attribute not of this world, and if the church as a corporate institution has failed to attain the high plane established by the principles it recognizes and enunciates we can condemn the prin-ciples with no more justice than we can reason that a college edu-cation is of no advantage because some particular individual, who has taken a college course, has made a miserable failure in life. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 139 However intolerant the church may have been against pagans, jews, and heretics, the principles of Christianity as an ethical sys-tem remain unsullied and untainted, notwithstanding the injus-tice of their application. Morey has admirably summarized the whole matter: "In spite of the fact that the church in some cases set its face against civil equity, and the fact that Roman law had already received a liberal temper from the influence of Greek philosophy, it cannot be doubted that the progress of the law, in general, kept pace with the unfolding of ethical ideas in the Roman mind; and that so far as Christianity furnished a system of ethics more just, liberal and humane than that of stoicism, it brought to bear upon the Roman law a moral power superior to that which had previously been exerted upon it through the writings of the philosophical jurists." Who then can doubt that in Christianity, Roman law reaches the summit of its greatness and the beginning of its uni-versal application ! —W. E. B. '99. M THE CONFLICT OF THE AGES. AN is a progressive being. Contentment is foreign to his very nature. He is continuously looking to something beyond, to a condition higher and better. As his intellect broadens and quickens, he invariably becomes desirous of greater freedom. This love of liberty is connate with his physical and mental constitution. But there is also another desire deeply implanted within his breast, a desire which is destructive of the liberty of others. It is the love of power, the inherent desire of man to rule over his fellow:man, an ambition, the natural outcome of which is despot-ism. These two desires tend toward opposite directions. Between them is an irrepressible conflict. This conflict is as old as society and as persistent as humanity. From the earliest times its vary-ing phases have determined the condition of the race. The history of civilization is largely the story of this conflict, the story of human liberty struggling against human despotism. The outcome of this struggle has varied in different countries. ; 140 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. As a result their states of society have been vastly different. Just in proportion as liberty has triumphed over despotism so civiliza-tion has advanced beyond barbarism. Among the nations of an-tiquity despotism prevailed everywhere. As a consequence their civilization never advanced beyond a certain point. They were marked in every case either by iunobility or by slight advances and retrogressions. In the countries of Northern Europe arose a people whose chief characteristic was their love of freedom. Here liberty found a soil peculiarly fitted for her growth and develop-ment. What has been the result? Have these people an}' ele-ments of civilization not enjoyed by the nations of antiquity? Read the story of their steady progress through the Middle Ages. L,ook upon the unequalled state of civilization among them to-day and question not the advantages of liberty over despotism. Con-trast the despotic nature of ancient Assyria with the liberal char-acter of modern England and wonder not that the latter stands to-day the first empire of the world, while the former exists only upon the pages of history. During the dark ages humanity struggled against the most terrible despotism man had ever known,—the despotism of igno-rance and superstition. The human mind neglected, uncultivated and depressed sank into the deepest ignorance. So prolonged and intense was the gloom enveloping Europe that her people seemed incapable of advancement, society seemed destined to end-less barbarism. Gradually, however, knowledge became more diffused, inventions and discoveries awakened the human intellect from its long sleep, and man began to learn the truth about him-self and the world. This truth has made him free. Freedom of intellect naturally led to a desire for religious freedom. Ecclesiastical tyranny was incompatible with intellect-ual liberty. Enlightened minds refused to submit any longer to the authority of the Pope. Contentment gave place to unrest, un-rest to action, and action to liberty. The Reformation was more than a contest between Protestant-ism and Catholicism. It was an insurrection of the human mind against pure ecclesiastical monarchy. Do you wonder that the movement was crowned with the most glowing success ? Papal authority in Northern Europe was destroyed forever. This religi-ous liberty will eventually spread over the entire world. The religions of the world are becoming more and more imbued with THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 141 the sentiment of liberality. Sectarian differences are gradually disappearing before the growing light of intelligence. Creed and dogma will be re-adjusted more and more under the light of ad-vancing truth. Formal religion is being supplanted by true Christianity—that "divine keystone in the arch of universal his-tory." With an ever increasing radiance the light of Christianity is slowly but surely penetrating the darkness of heathenism, and hastening the approach of the time when the people of all the earth, regardless of race, sect or nationality, shall bow in worship before the one true God. Turning from the religious to the political world, we behold a revolution no less wonderful, a mighty struggle between despotic and liberal principles of government. This struggle shook Europe from Scandanavia to Italy, and snatched a new world from the threatened grasp of tyranny; a revolution of which the Reign of Terror was but an incident. The ideas engendered by the Reformation inaugurated a mighty epoch of political regeneration. The great sovereigns of Europe, one after another, have been deprived of their prerogatives until to-day the last one sits trembling upou a tottering throne that threatens to fall at any instant. The day is not far distant when even the "Autocrat of all the Russias" shall see his sceptre depart into the hands of his subjects. Thus we have seen during the last three epochs three great stages of the onward march of civilization; three mighty victories for the cause of struggling humanity; victories which include in-tellectual, religious and political freedom. To-day the world has entered upon another epoch; an epoch which brings with it questions far more complicated than those of the past, and far more momentous than those that have convulsed Europe with centuries of revolution. The great struggles of the past have been, in the main, suc-cessful, and the echoes of the mighty battles for civil and religious freedom are growing fainter and fainter. But the cause of freedom is not yet won. The hosts of oppression have been driven from the fields of church and state only to return with renewed vigor to attack freedom in the field of industry. The scene of conflict has extended from the old world to the new. Society has entered upon an industrial age. Modern civilization is marked by ma-terial progress unprecedented in the history of mankind. Great 142 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. inventions have revolutionized travel, commerce and manufacture. Ocean steamers, railroads and telegraphs have practically annihi-lated time and space. By constant and easy intercourse with the world, man's views have been enlarged, his energies stimulated, and his rate of progress quickened. Yet with all this unparalleled progress in the industrial power of society, there has come no proportionate improvement in the condition of the masses. While the great industrial development of the present age has brought many blessings for mankind, the tyranny of selfish men has monopolized these blessings for the few. Capital gets the lion's share of the world's wealth, while Labor is reduced to a condition of servitude. A few monopolists amass colossal fortunes and revel in Croe-cian luxury, while thousands of wage earners, becoming more and more pauperized, sink into intellectual and moral degradation. Millions are wasted in feasting while gaunt starvation stalks the streets. Society has become a vast machine which turns out at one end milliouaries, and at the other tramps, paupers and anarch-ists. The enormous inequalities of existing conditions are creating a discontent in the minds of the laboring classes; a discontent that foreshadows an impending revolution. Profound discontent preceded the great religious upheaval in the sixteenth century. Great unrest ushered in the awful convul-sions of the French revolution. With the reappearance of the same conditions to-day, revolution is as inevitable as the laws of the universe. Human nature will not tolerate abuse forever. Labor will not always submit to the tyranny of capital. Even now the cohorts of freedom are gathering for a mighty effort. There is every indication that we are on the eve of a momen-tous struggle. The discontent of the masses is '' no longer the fretting of the waves;" it is "the roar of the rushing tide." It is to be a contest for the supremacy of wealth on the one hand or the freedom of opportunity on the other ;—a conflict that will decide whether the combined money power of the world is to per-petuate its tyranny of greed and avarice, or whether the toiling millions are at last to enjoy unmolested the products of their own labor. History teaches that there can be but one outcome to this struggle. Despotism again will fall. The indomitable forces of THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. freedom will win another victory. Economic despotism is simply fighting the same hopeless battle that was fought and lost by spiritual and political despotism in the ages that have passed. Civilization will never rest until this great barrier is removed. There are only two ways in which this can be accomplished; by the peaceful methods of education and religion, or through the instrumentalities of war. Should the latter method prevail, and should the masses be led by designing demagogues, or by reason-ing anarchists inspired only by a sense of injustice, and revenge, the innocent will perish with the guilty in the most dreadful social catastrophe that has ever darkened the pages of history. Do the conditions indicate that such will be the result ? Are we to sup-pose that the increased intelligence and morality of the present age will permit such a solution of our great sociological problem ? Have we read history in vain or profited nothing by the great lessons of the past, that we must see re-enacted on the stage of modem history the bloody scenes of the sixteenth century? Is the nineteenth century civilization so little advanced that it is about to behold a social convulsion compared with which the aw-ful horrors of the French Revolution shall sink into insignificance ? A million Christian hearts answer, "No." A million earnest workers for the triumph of right over might, filled with the belief that the signs of the times point upward, and inspired with the hope that social and economic freedom shall come as the product of better hearts and better souls, respond with a mighty " NO." The wrongs of our present industrial system shall not be righted among scenes of violence and confusion. The ceaseless unrest of the multitudes, that are to mould the destinies of the future, is the sign of an advancing civilization. It means that they are acquiring more brain force, more manhood, the raw ma-terials out of which God will shape a better future for humanity The dawn of a better day is breaking the deep clouds of sin. The heart of the world is beating more truly than ever before. Men are beginning to realize that the prosperity of society depends upon the well-being of the whole people. They are coming to see that a divine fatherhood implies an universal brotherhood. The world is moving onward toward the realization of the ideal life of human happiness; a life where manhood shall count for more than gold, where character shall outweigh the dollar ; a life free from selfishness and tyranny, abounding injustice, liberty and equality. i44 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. In this life shall the Conflict of the Ages cease and man find his highest place as he ministers to the good of all. "Then the common sense of most Shall hold a fretful realm in awe, And the kindly earth shall slumber, Lapt in universal law. And the war drum throb no longer, And the battle flags be furled In the parliament of man, The Federation of the world." —W. R. E., '99. THE PHILOMATHAEAN SOCIETY. BY PROF. L. H. CROIX. [From the Pennsylvania College Book, 1832.] MORE than a year before the charter of Pennsylvania Col-lege was granted by the legislature of the State, the Philomathaean Society had its organization, in the "Gettysburg Gymnasium," on the corner of Washington and High streets, Gettysburg, Pa. The students of the institution assembled in the west room of the second story, on the 4th of February, A. D., 1831, to form literary societies whose generous rivalry would stimulate the members to mutual, intellectual and moral improvement. It was agreed to divide the whole number of students into two equal parts, in the order in which their names stood enrolled, each division then withdrew to the "East Room," second story, becoming the founders of the Philomathaean So-ciety, with Prof. M. Jacobs as chairman. With the permission of the Professor of Theology, the meeting continued to be held in the rooms devoted to theological instruction, the corner-stone of the Theological Seminary not being laid until the following- May. A Constitution and a name were adopted, but the latter was not at first settled in its orthography, for the different secretaries give "Philomathian," "Philomathean," "Philomatheon" as the name before the present Philomathaean became confirmed. The signification of the names, "lovers of learning," implies the object of the organization, "to create and cherish a taste for learning, and to promote sentiments of mutual regard and friend- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 145 ship;" or, as afterwards modified, "to cultivate and diffuse among its members liberal principles, and to promote the great objects of social, moral, and intellectual improvements." The constitution provides for the election of all officers, for the admission and the dismissal of members, for fines and penalties, for meetings and work, for the formation and use of a library; and it emphasizes the requirement of each member to hold inviolate his duty to preserve a proper secrecy of the affairs of the society. One of the first peculiarities was the appointment of a "Room-keeper," taken in alphabetical order, to make all the arrangements necessary for holding the next meeting. He seems to have been keeper of the door, introducing any new or honorary member, but, in connection with his more dignified work, he was also "hewer of wood and drawer of water,'' polisher of lamps and factotum in general. This office was abandoned in the new college building, when a janitor become necessary on account of the increased work in hall, library and reading-rooms, and when the funds of the society allowed a consideration for services required. The meetings were first held on Friday evening, and as lamps were a necessity, with the order for their purchase was joined that of a "jug," or "bottle" for the use of the society. Now this bot-tle is evidently not the decanter held in bad repute, nor is the jug the famous "little brown jug," celebrated by the students in their later years in their rollicking glee; for the society was strongly in favor of total abstinence, as the votes on all temperance debates proved. As an illustration of the small beginnings of a society, there is an account of the purchase of a "suitable desk, or covert, for the use of the Secretary, library, lamps, etc." Some later Secretary has changed the v of covert to b, making it "cobert," having doubtless in mind the old family cupboard at home. From the day when a single desk or closet would accommodate not only the library, but the articles of the Secretary and the Janitor be-sides, to the present, when even the present library room has be-come too cramped to display all the volumes to advantage, an earnest of what may be expected in another half century is exhib-ited. Another illustration of small beginnings was the original initiation fee of fifty cents, which rose to two dollars and a half when the college obtained its charter, and not long afterwards to five dollars, at which figure it has since remained. 146 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The first original declamation, by one of the still surviving founders (1882), by permission of the society, was in the German language. From the first the debate took high rank, and seemed to claim the highest interest of the members. The subjects chosen often bore directly upon their personal relations, and the first was upon their call or right to existence as a society. Then the ques-tion of social visiting, the granting of diplomas for partial or special courses of study, and other like topics, were discussed, as well as the questions of public interest in their day. The first anniversary celebration was held February 17, 1832, and the speeches were made by two of the founders. At first these exercises were held in the Gymnasium building, and invita-tions were sent to such persons as were supposed to appreciate literary entertainment. It may seem somewhat primitive at the present day to learn that '' a few verses '' were sung between the speeches, instead of the classical instrumental music furnished at later entertainments. Another novelty was the '' privilege given to those present of making any remarks to the society that might be thought proper. Afterward the exercises were held in the German church, until 1835, when they were transferred to the Presbyterian church, in consequence of obligations being made to the introduction of in-strumental music into the church. After 1836 the public exer-cises were held in Christ (college) church, then completed. In connection with the spring examinations, by request of the Professors, each society appointed an essayist, an orator, and a debater as performers at the closing exercises of the session. The exercises were to be original, and each society was to "chal-lenge" the other alternately to select the subject of debate. Thus originated the annual "contests," which grew in interest from year to year until 1849, when a dispute with the church officers brought all public exercises ofthe societies to a close forseveral years. The customary fees for the sexton and other incidents were asked for in advance, by a regulation of the church officers, in conse-quence of the difficulty of collecting them after the interest of the occasion had passed and the officers of the societies had been changed. This action being misapprehended as a charge for the use of the church, which was free to exercise under the direction of the faculty, or as a reflection upon the integrity of the socie-ties was resisted. Not satisfied with the explanation that the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 147 sum assessed merely covered the expenses incident to the opening of the church, the societies memorialized the Board of Trustees on the question, who replied that the demand was not unreason-able; and thus ended the dispute and the contests at the same time. At the time of the earlier anniversaries, an honorary member was elected to deliver an address. From 1836 to 1853 an address was delivered each year before the societies jointly. From this time there have been annual and biennial addresses, the societies usually alternating in the choice. As a matter of history, between 1852 and 1855, with an organ-ization or union of the different literary societies of various col-leges, bearing the prae-nomen of Philo, and known as the "Philo Union," must not be omitted. It originated at Shelby College, Kentucky, and enrolled Philo Societies of more than a score of colleges, extending from New England to the West. Member-ship in any one of these societies secured admission to all the others, and a general plan of simultaneous anniversaries was pro-posed. The fraternal relations of the brotherhood were to be cul-tivated and the general interest to be promoted by a periodical es-tablished at some central institution; but the difficulties of practi-cal co-operation and the excessive labor of correspondence made the union of short duration, and a second generation of students scarcely learned of its existence. MONOTONY OF LIFE. THAT one could complain of the monotony of life, living in an age and in a nation like ours, certainly seems strange to a wide-awake person with an active mind. One certainly cannot get such an idea from nature in her ever changing forms, if one observes her. She assumes in turn every color known to us, the tender green of spring, the bounteous variety of blossoms and flowers, the splendor of the autumn foliage, the white mantles of snow and the brilliant sunsets. Instead of monotony to the observer it seems all unrest and change with hardly any continua-tion in the same line or place. There is variety in the life all around us, from the tiniest insect up to man ; there is continual change in the life of even the humblest individual. Great changes mmim 148 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. occur in all nations. Thought on different subjects changes, pub-lic opinion changes and is a mighty power worthy of a care-ful consideration. In fact everything changes with the pro-gress of civilization. Truly it is only the inactive mind and un-observant eye and the sluggish spirit that can for a moment imag-ine life to be monotonous. If we look closely we will notice certain principles running through life's changes. We see a union between the old and the new. It is the same old earth, it matters not under how many changes. The same trees are white with blossoms in the spring, green with foliage in the summer and brown and bare in the autumn. So with ourselves, a change of occupation or of resi-dence, a change in our financial circumstances, a marriage, a death, a journey, each brings a new experience for our old selves and forms a fresh union between our past and our present condi-tion. These things may bring happiness or sorrow for the time being, but they all have the power of enriching, enlarging and improving our characters and lives by making good additions to our stock of old experiences. Of course if we do not want it so, we can make it otherwise to a certain extent. We can be dull and inactive and cling to the old, see nothing in all the changing world about us, make no new friends, cling to old ideas, discuss no new methods, hold the same opinions and pride ourselves upon what we might call con-sistency, but which is really only thestubbornness of a mind which thinks that the world is becoming worse with new ideas, new methods and new experiences. We can plainly see that to lead a life like that is to cross our Maker's purpose, for his purpose was without doubt that we should grow into the full richness and value of manhood by cherishing our past experiences and learning well the lessons taught by them while we step forward into new and untried paths with vigor and hope. —R. Z. I., '00. 'Twas an evening of beauty ; the air was perfume, The earth was all greenness, the trees were all bloom And softly the delicate viol was heard, Like the murmur of love or the notes of a bird. —Whittier. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 149 ATHLETICS. BASEBALL, this year is not as successful in some senses as usual, but in others we can pride ourselves upon our team. In the beginning of the season they encountered six hard games in succession, five being away from home, and were greatly hindered by lack of sufficient practice. But in the later games they seem to have rounded well into form, and are playing pretty good ball. The greatest surprise of the year has been Roehner's pitching, he having developed wonderfully, and doing work which, with better support, would have won a number of the games which were lost. The season was opened 011 April 15th, with Franklin and Mar-shall on their grounds at Lancaster, and was won by Gettysburg by a score of 6 to 4. The game was very pretty, both sides play-ing good ball, except in one inning, when the F. and M. boys did their only scoring. The feature of the game was Lantz's home run over left field fence with two men on bases. The trip to the central part of the state was opened at Susque-hanna April 20th, when we were beaten 12 to 6, by a comedy of errors in the first three innings which netted the home team eight runs. After that the boys settled down and played well, but Sus-quehanna's lead was too great. On April 21st we beat Bucknell by a score of 12 to 7, through hard batting coupled with the best fielding of the season. The game throughout was highly interesting and exciting, being marked by a number of pretty plays. Roehner pitched a fine game, allowing Bucknell but six hits, to Gettysburg's eleven. State defeated us April 22d, by the score of 7 to 6 in a game that was very close and exciting, though marked by bad errors on both sides. Ketterman pitched a good game, receiving poor sup-port, while Farr was knocked out of the box, and Morgan sub-stituted. At Bloomsburg, March 24th, we were defeated by the Normal School by the score of 14 to 4. The Normal boys have a good team, but it is only right to say that they would not have beaten us so badly if it had not been for the umpire. The first home game was with Dickinson on April 27th, when we were beaten by a score of 15 to 6. The game was poorly played on both sides, but tight until the sixth inning, when it THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. was tied, after which our boys went to pieces, and Dickinson brought in nine more runs. We were beaten for the second time by Susquehanna Univer-sity on Nixon Field, May 5th, the score being 6 to 5. Our team did far better work in every way than the visitors, but their only two errors were costly, bringing in four runs, aud^poor judgment in base-running at a couple critical points lost a game by what can be termed nothing but hard luck. Games scheduled with the Indians and Dickinson at Carlisle were unavoidably canceled and prevented by rain respectively, and the next game was on Nixon Field with Franklin and Mar-shall, who were beaten in a very pretty game by the same score as in first game, 6-4. They were shut out until the eighth, and secured but four hits in all off Roehner. The Preps have manifested a good college spirit this year by getting up a team that is doing good work in its class. They were beaten by Dickinson Prep at Carlisle, 13-4, and returned the compliment on Nixon Field by the score of 13-9. They also played against '01's team, by whom they were beaten in a one-sided game by a score of 15-0. At the relay carnival at the University of Pennsylvania, April 29th, we were classed with Dickinson, Bucknell, Franklin and Marshall, and Ursinus, and came in fourth in one of the speediest races of the day. Dickinson won, having a clear lead, and Buck-nell, F. & M., and Gettysburg came in in the order named, bunched very close together, with Ursinus trailing some distance in the rear. Probably the most interesting and significant event in athletics of recent years was the dual meet with Dickinson held on Nixon Field, May 17. We were defeated, the score of points being 60 to 28, but can feel that the meet was a success as far as we are concerned, for it has given track athletics the impetus which it has needed so long. Dickinson won all the first places except the high hurdle, captured by Koller, '00, and the high jump a tie between Albers, '99, and Brown, of Dickinson. Our men showed however, that they could have done far better work with proper training, and we believe that they have caught the spirit now, and we can turn out a winning team next year. —W. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Flowery June, When brooks send up a cheerful tune, And groves a joyful sound. JX 151 —Bryant. And what is so rare as a day in June ? Then, if ever, come perfect days; Then heaven tries the earth if it be in time, And over it softly her warm ear lays. -Lowell. And so beside the silent sea I wait the muffled oar; No harm from Him can come to me On ocean or on shore. I know not where His islands lift Their fronded palms in air ; I only know I cannot drift Beyond His love and care. — Whittier. The last bird I ever fired at was an eaglet on the shore of the Gulf of Ir\DT Successor to W. J7. VAJLAJKl, Simon J. Codori Dealer in Beef, Pork, Lamb, Veal, Sausage. Special rates to Clubs. York St., GETTYSBURG. Davib Croxel, Dealer trt ^ine groceries anb ttottons «-x4}ork Street. .GO TO. CHAS. E. BARBEHENN, Barber, In the Eagle Hotel, Cor. Main and Washington Sts. YOHN BROS. Agents for the Keystone State, Waldo, Washburn, Groupner & Meyer. Highest Grade Mandolins, Guitars, Banjos, Mandollas and Mandocellos. Headquarters for Phonographs, G-raphophones and supplies. Trimmings of every description. All sheet music one-half off. Large discounts on Books and studies. 326 Market St., Harrisburg, Pa. FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. Baseball v>tipptie& .Spaloing's league JSall, /Iftits, jflftaelie, Etc. Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for aennf0, ©olf, Grtcftet, Gracft ano fftelo, ©Ktnnastum Equipments anD ©utfite Complete Catalogue Spring and Summer Sports Free. The Name the Guar-antee." a. ©. SpalOing SL JBros. New York .". Philadelphia Chicago ROWE, .Your Grocer. Carries Full Line of Groceries, Canned Goods, Etc, Best Coal Oil and Brooms at most Reasonable Prices. OPPOSITE COLLEGE CAMPUS. S. /. CODORI, Jr. t* Druggists Dealer in Drugs, Medicines, Toilet Articles, J> Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. .Baltimore Street. R. H. Culp, PAPER HANGER, Second Square, York St. COLLEGE EMBLEMS. EMIL ZOTHE, ENGRAVER, DESIGNER AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER. 19 S. NINTH ST. PHILADELPHIA. PA. SPECIALTIES: Masonic Marks, Society Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through C. H. Tilp. Gotrell & Leonard, 472-474 Broadway, Albany, N. Y. makers of CAPS, GOWNS and. HOODS To the leading- American Colleges. Illus-trated Manual, etc., upon application. Meneely Bell Co. TROY, N. Y. MANUFACTURERS OF SUPERIOR BELLS The 2000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania Col-lege was manufactured at this foundry. r . nmmwmmiiMMMmwimmmmmm PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. You can't expect to create the im-pression that you are well dressed unless your clothes are MADE FOR YOU. Equivocate as you may, the fact remains that ready-made garments lack that air of exclusiveness which custom work possesses. J. D. LIPPY, Merchant Tailor 39 Chambersburg St., Gettysburg, Pa. G. E. SPANGLER, ^ Dealer in Pianos, Organs, Music, Musical Instruments, Strings, Etc. YORK STREET, 1ST SQUARE. GETTYSBURG. L. D. Miller, Grocer, Confectioner and Fruiterer. Ice Cream and Oysters in Season . . . \0) lUaxn St., ©ettusburg. City Hotel, Main St. Gettysburg. Free 'Bus to and from all Trains Thirty seconds' walk from either depot Dinner with drive over field with four or more, $1.35 Rates $1.50 to $2.00 per day. John E. Hughes, Prop. WlLLlHSURE^OUR^ lfiiilnl'iil¥rii;TJH w&receipt ot SI0-0 A6AINST ILLNESS., PHYSICIANS'* PLUMBERS- ' BILLS.DUETO IMPURE AIR, ^ FROM CLOGGEDjJ^'HS flew York, Bosfo/i. P/>//dde//i/>/fr<}/7c/sco. lo/?

JUNE, J899 ooTlhe, Qettysbur ercury CONTENTS. Our College Home 117 The 1900 Spectrum 119 Tick-tack-to 120 A Hero's Reward 123 An Art Fad 125 Retrieved 128 Editor's Desk, 131 Hypnotism 131 " The Influence of Christianity on Roman Jurisprudence ". 134 The Conflict of the Ag-es 139 The Philomathaean Society 144 Monotony of Life 147 Athletics 149 YMMUM FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. wmomrn For Fine Printing GO TO The J. E. WIBLE .Printing Rouee Carlisle Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. C. B. Kitzmiller, Dealer in Hats, Caps, Boots and . Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, PA. J. H. Myers, Fashionable Tailor, Clothier and Gents' Furnisher. The best place in town to have your Cloth-ing made to order. All workmanship and Trimmings guaranteed. No charge for re-pairs and pressing for one year. Dyeing and Repairing a specialty. Ready-made Clothing the largest stock in town. Up-to-date styles. Bicycle Suits and Breeches Headquarters. 11 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. R. A. WONDERS, Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, Etc. Scott's Corner, Opp. Eagle Hotel. GETTYSBURG, A. Have you an assured livelihood? "Would you try for a government posi-tion, if you knew just how to apply, and the kinds of positions from which you can choose, and what to do to insure your getting on the list after you have applied! The Government of the United States is the best of employers. Fair compen-sation, regularity of payment, reason-ably Bure tenure, tasks not too difficult, | ana hours not too I ong, offer strong at-tractions to young persons of both sexes whohavenosettledinuome. Manyenter Government employ, spend their spare i hours in studying law or medicine, or finance, and save enough from their salaries to start in a professional or business career. We have just published a book from whichanj/candidate maylearnjustwhat is necesaary and what unnecessary in brushing up his studies for an examina-tion ; and what his chances are, all things considered, for making bis way into the Civil Service, and staying there. The title of this book is " How to Prepnre for a Civil Service Examination; With Recent Questions and An-swers." It contains all Information which any candidate would require to firepare for any competitive office under ' he Government, and includes a "Ten Weeks' Course of 8tudy,"ln the form of questions actually asked at recent ex-aminations, with the correct answers to i them. Besides the technical require- ' mentSjitalso covers all the elementary branches, like arithmetic, spelling, pen- , manship, geography, letter writing, civil government, etc., etc., so that one who masters this course of study would not only pass well an examination for a gov- , ernment position, but would be sure of I preferment over other applicants for a clerkship in a business house. CLOTH—$2.00 Postpaid—560 PAGES Anotherbookfree(Quickat Figures)if you mention this paper when ordering. HINDS A NOBLE, Publishers 4-5-13-14 Cooper Institute, N. Y. City Schoolbooks ofallpublishers at one store .THE. GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter. Voi,. VIII. GETTYSBURG, PA., JUNE, 1899. No. 4 Editor-in- Chief. J. FRANK EEILMAN, '00. Alumni Editor. REV. F. D. GARLAND. Assistant Editors. LUTHER A. WEIGLE, '00. S. A. VAN ORMER, '01. Business Manager. Assistant Business Manager. JOHN K. HAMACHER, '00. CLARENCE MOORE, '02. Advisory Board. PROF. J. A. HIMES, L,IT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D. D. Published monthly by the students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price One Dollar a year in advance, single copies Fifteen Cents. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. OUR COLLEGE HOME. Oh bright for us the sunbeams rest On tower and town with rosier glow, On sentry Round Top's rugged crest And on the immortal Ridge below, Where marble Victory's fadeless bays The patriot soldier crown, And History graves for future days The deeds of his renown. CHORUS—Then ring we clear a loyal cheer, Wnere'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our famous College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! O fair for us the moonlight falls, To brighten with its silver flame At once the stately College halls wmm 118 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. And the memorials of fame That peer from every grove and grange, And in their silence tell That here heroic spirits range O'er meads of asphodel. CHORUS—Then ring we clear a loyal cheer, Where'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our honored College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! O soft for us the shadows play Among the Campus elms, and woo To merry converse and delay From tasks we busily pursue. Ah Youth and Friendship, how ye charm In Learning's calm abode,— True Graces, twining arm in arm On sweet Arcadian sod ! CHORUS—Then ring we clear a loyal cheer, Where'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our glorious College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah! At morn the duty-call of bells Rings clear and urgent, near and far, At eve a gentler music swells From gleeful viol or guitar. O jolly is the life we lead In study, song or games ! O fortunate the fate indeed That here inscribes our names ! CHORUS—Then ring- we clear a loyal cheer, . Where'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our dear old College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! Energy will do anything that can be done in this world; and no talents, no circumstances, no opportunities will make a two-legged animal a man without it. —Goethe. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 119 THE J900 SPECTRUM. THE most recent claimant, in our midst, to literary and ar-tistic honors, is the class of 1900. Its Spectrum, just is-sued, challenges our admiration from start to finish, and we heartily accord to it equal rank with the best of our college annuals, thus far issued. The form of the book, and the general arrangement of its con-tents, show a pleasing appreciation of responsibility in the plac-ing of details to secure good effects. There has been an evident purpose on the part of the printers, publishers, managers, artists and editors, to produce a work which should be alike creditable to themselves, as well as to the college which this publication represents. The volume is fittingly dedicated to Prof. Klinger, who is justly characterized as "both teacher and fellow student." The various classes and associations are given due recogni-tion by verbal statement, cut, pencil and photograph. The latter are unusually good throughout and constitute an attractive fea-ture. The sketches, are, as a rule, very clearly executed, and are amusing without being either vulgar or rude. The "Literary Record of Gettysburg Alumni," is an import-ant feature and will add permanency to the value of this publication. It will be interesting and profitable for our alumni and friends to have a record of this sort for handy reference. The "Spanish War Record" is not less interesting and valu-able. It is something for us to be proud of, that when our coun-try needed men to prosecute a war in the interests of humanity, against a cruel oppressor, that twenty-eight men, from our grad-uate and undergraduate ranks, cheerfully enlisted and did honor-able service. The humorous thoughts and aspects of college life, receive literary embodiment in the concluding pages of the volume. These show a commendable degree of appreciation of humor, in both possible and impossible, but easily imagined situations. It is a pity that so much of this kind of literature, must necessarily go unappreciated, for it requires an acquaintance with the dramatis personae and the conditions under which described events happen, in order to extract all the flavor of humor which makes them en-joyable. ■MMtimp mum. 120 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. This volume is certainly deserving of hearty recognition, and it is hoped that many of our alumni and friends of the college, will show their appreciation of the arduous labors of the class by acquiring a copy. Reader,—it will add permanent value to your library. Send for a copy at once. —G. D. S. TICK-TACK-TO. THERE is scarcely a conversation indulged in with a greater relish, by persons of a maturer age, than that relating to bygone games and pastimes. The children love to linger by the hearth and will listen with rapt attention, as their father relates to them the strange and antiquated games of his boyhood days. There are, perhaps, few things that brighten the eyes of our sires more readily than mere mention of puerile games. They love to cast away the titles of Rev., Dr., or Mr. and think of the time " when you were Bill and I was Joe " and, if one is in their presence when they are exchanging reminiscences he may be both instructed and agreeably entertained. Nor is the relish for this peculiar sort of conversation peculiar to those who have already passed the meridian of life and can no more win for themselves the eclat of the beholding multitude, or the more modest commendation of a few admiring friends, or even the laudatory look of defeated opponents. It belongs also to us. What conversation can be introduced into our college boudoirs that will be more highly appreciated and rejuvenate happier reminiscences than that relating to the games we used to play. The occasional rehearsing of them forms a condiment whose pungency quickens our appetites for more solid and substantial forms of mental food. As such, however, they tend only to excite pleasure and enter-tain, and are evanescent in their effects. If, on the other hand, we view them in a more serious manner and forget them as prolific of. an almost boundless store of sport and hilarity, we may not only become instructed but learn, to our amazement perhaps, that we are playing the same old games to-day. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 121 To demonstrate this we might choose almost any one of the limited number of juvenile games as an example. Since they all bring forth some phase of life and all contain some suggestion for reflection. Blind-man's-buff for instance, teaches us how gro-tesquely we often grope after the fleeing prizes of life. Leap-frog portrays to us the use to which we are sometimes put by men of ulterior motives and the humility connected therewith, but there are some, however, whose peculiarities stand out in bolder relief than in others ; some whose lessons are more drastic than others, and in few is this more obvious than in the triplicate game of tick-tack-to. It is very simple and probably the most universally known game of childhood. As a palladium against the captiousness of the nursery its charm is talismanic. In point of economy there are few games that excel it: a pencil, a slate or a small slip of paper with two parallel lines drawn perpendicularly upon it and two similar ones crossing them horizontally constitute all that there is of a material outlay. A series of three marks occupying three successive spaces in any direction brings to a proper conclusion the course of the game and suggests to us now, what in childhood's happy hours were arcanums unraveled. One of them is contained in the nature of the game. Unlike many other of our juvenile pastimes tick-tack-to is not a game of luck nor chance but a game of skill and intelligence. Were it a game of luck we would be at a loss to derive any lessons from it and could certainly not compare it to life; since those who have attained to the highest success in life cherish little hope for the man who depends on luck. One of our beloved martyred Presidents, the lamented Jas. A. Garfield, once said, "Luck is an ignis fatuus. It leads to ruin but never to success." The idea that certain men are rich, or prosperous, or popular, because they were born under such circumstances under which it would be impossible for them to be otherwise, finds little credence among successful men. It is not the man who is born at a certain time, in a certain place and under certain environments who attains to success but he who works; he who is active; he who is alive to every oppor-tunity; he whose every mark is prompted by an intelligent judgment. 122 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Another deduction that we can 333ke from the game and apply to life is the mode of procedure. "We used to play7 it under dif-ficulties. Our advance was retarded by opposition. This of course is a common condition to all games and would not distinguish this particular one from any other; but the unique-ness of it lies in the fact that the opposition is created by one op-ponent and only one. Thus in the game of life we proceed against hindrances and against hindrances of but one opponent. Who is that opponent? Who is he, or what is it, that barricades our onward march every time we take a stride toward success ? Who is he who with rude hand dashes a cross before our line of progress every time our success is partially and almost entirely accomplished ? Is he to be found in the personality of some one other than ourselves ? May we detect him among the multitudes that pass before us from day to day ? May we discover him among those with whom we are continually associated ? No, prospection will never reveal him, introspection may. We have but one opponent to contend with, and that oppo-nent is self, the lower self; the material as opposed to the spiritual self. We sometimes suppose that our embarrassments in life, are traceable to external circumstances, to some person or company of persons, or to some combination of circumstances. But they are only the marks used by ourselves against our-selves. They form the media through which our lower nature reacts upon the higher and thus continues the dualisdc game of life. St. Bernard appreciating this fact once said "Nothing can do me damage but myself," and if we wish to reject authority can we not by a little self-examination verify this statement within the scope of our own experience ? Does not the soul in becoming cognizant of the virtue of a certain act urge us to do it ? Does it not in the language of the game place its mark in one of the spaces ? What follows ? The body shrinks from the performance of the act. It opposes the impulse of the soul. It places its mark directly before the one already made. No sooner has this taken place than the conscience comes into prominence. Not willing to acquiesce with one repulse it incites us to a redoubled effort. It places its mark before the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 123 original one in another direction. This being done up swell the passions and endeavor with vehemence to thwart the noble im-pulse and crush all that is holy and pure in man. So the game proceeds with vacillating fortunes until the lower or the higher na-ture is conqueror. A contest it is trying and severe, unheard by mortal ear, un-seen by mortal eye. Revealed only to Him under whose dispen-sation it is possible and under whose guidance only, success is at-tainable. —MARKS. A HERO'S REWARD. IN the spring of 1825, Mr. Perry decided to sell his plantation, very reluctantly however, for it was here that he was born, and then with his family, which consisted of his wife, a son, Philip, and a daughter, Mabel, to go North. It was at Mr. Hall's suggestion that he located in a small town in the northern part of New Jersey and went into business with him. These two families had known each other for years and naturally at once there sprung up a friendship between Philip Perry and Mr. Hall's only son and child, Tom; but from the start Tom seemed to have an especial regard for Mabel, which grew into an affection as they grew in years. The Perrys belonged to one of the old, aristocratic, south-ern families, and were, as most such families were, wealthy. The Halls were also quite independent, though not in such affluent circumstances. The two boys were sent to a small military academy near New York and graduated in the same class. A short time after this Mr. Hall was taken ill and died very suddenly, and a year later Mrs. Hall died through grief for her dead husband. Mr. Perry was also affected by his partner's death and having closed out the business, moved South and located in Richmond, Va. He in-sisted that Tom should go along and make his home with them, and Tom, with a little persuasion from Mabel, did so. The boys went to a southern college, where they stood high both in their class and in the esteem of their fellow students, for they were good, jolly boys. During this time the affection be-tween Mabel and Tom ripened into love and Tom often wished in-wardly that some day he might win Mabel for his wife. y—^——™—™——— miyiiyi 124 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. After their college days both young men had entered Mr. Perry's employ and held positions of trust and responsibility in his cotton mill. So well, indeed, did they manage their work, that Mr. Perry was about to entrust the entire management to them when that dreadful war, which so nearly resulted in the division of our Union, was declared. Recognizing his duty, Philip Perry at once left home and enlisted in the 9th Virginia Regiment. Tom Hall hesitated. He was undecided as to what to do. He knew full well that his duty was to go North and join a Northern regiment, and yet—if he went, it meant, as Mabel had said, that all would end between them, for Mabel was a Southern girl. What was he to do ? On the one side he could hear the call to duty, on the other Mabel wanted him, if he went at all, to go with "Phil." At last his love for his country conquered even his love for Mabel and as a true patriot he secretly made his way north and enlisted in the 1st New Jersey, which was mustered in at his old home. It is needless to follow these two soldiers through the entire campaign, but suffice it to say that they soon rose to high positions in their respective regiments on account of their bravery. On the evening of July 2, 1863, General Dee, who was in command of the Confederate forces at Gettysburg, realizing his perilous position and possibly expecting defeat, decided to make one final, desperate attempt to break through the Union line. That evening he had been reinforced by Stuart's Cavalry and was therefore hopeful of success. His plan was to pierce the Union line at a point now called the "High Water Mark," for that was the turning point of the greatest battle of the Civil War. Everyone has heard of Pickett's famous charge and how the men of the two armies fought hand to hand over the old stone wall. The 9th Virginia belonged to Armistead's brigade, which was almost annihilated in this charge; yet many were not killed outright, but after suffering untold agony, gave up their lives for the cause they thought right. During this battle, a number of regiments were held in reserve and among this number was the 1st New Jersey. On the evening of July 3d, the news of the famous charge of Pickett's Division and the successful repulse was reported among the various Union regiments, and of course reached the 1st New Jersey. \THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 125 Colonel Tom Hall recalled the fact that Philip Perry had en-listed in the 9th Virginia, and he imagined he heard some one say that he was dying on the field. Before dawn he had mounted his faithful horse and galloped off in the direction of the "clump of trees." For some time he searched, but all in vain, and he was about to leave when he heard a terrible groan a short dis-tance beyond the wall on the Union side. It startled him and he drew up his horse, dismounted and stooped over the half-dead body of a Confederate officer. Imagine his surprise to find his old friend, Philip Perry! He gently bound up his wounds and raising him, placed him on his horse and rode slowly back to his regiment. Major Perry remained in a semi-conscious state for several days and when he came to, he found himself in Colonel Hall's tent and over him was stooping his dear sister, washing off the blood stains and dressing his wounds. As soon as Major Perry was strong enough to be moved, Colonel Hall had him exchanged for a Northern officer, who was confined in one of the Southern prisons. However, before Major Perry was taken to his home in Rich-mond, the old love between Mabel and Colonel Hall had over-come all difficulties between them and under a tree not far from where Major Perry had fallen, he witnessed a short ceremony, performed by the Chaplain of the 1st New Jersey, in which Colo-nel Hall received "A Hero's Reward," the long desired hand of Mabel in marriage. —W. G. L. '01. «**£> AN ART FAD. IN these days when fads in almost every line of trade and pro-fession are so prominent, one is not surprised to find that there is such a thing as a fad in art also. The particular one selected for the subject of this essay is that style so prominent at this time in the art. of painting—the poster. The poster occu-pies the same place in the art of painting as do dialect stories in literature or syncopated rhythm, i. e. the so-called "rag-time" in music. Not any of these is a recent creation but rather a recent craze. For instance, considered from a scientific standpoint, "rag-time" has been co-eval with the history of music. 126 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Beethoven and Mozart wrote it and even in the incomparable fugures of Bach we encounter it. And in literature, dialect did certainly not originate with James Whitcomb Riley. The possibilities of the colored poster were first made known to English and French artists when the great flaming advertise-ments of Barnum were first placed upon the exposed places of London and Paris. The influence of these American advertising posters became prominent and at once both England and France began to contribute colored products in poster art, which, while far more artistic than the pictures of Wild West performers, were not after all so widely different in outline, color and other quali-ties. Between that day when vivid and crude design was pre-dominant, and to-day when the artistic poster is so much in evi-dence, there is a considerable advance apparent. Simultaneous with the growth of the poster and practically very beneficial was the adoption of it by the up-to-date theatre for advertising purposes. And it lends itself admirably for this pur-pose. It has also been a favorite mode of advertising in the com-mercial world, but one sees less of its use in this manner now than formerly. In the literary advertising department, the poster still is very prominent and is the usual way of calling the attention of the public to the merits of some special edition of a publication. With the rise of the poster came collectors of posters ; in America alone, there are said to be over 6000 persons who devote themselves to this pursuit. Poster literature and expositions too have come into existence. Of the different nations and in point of art, France, as usual, leads. The "father of the modern poster," as he has been called, M. Cheret, however, says that he owes his first inspiration to the Barnum lithographs. America is greatly indebted to France in this line of art. One of the foremost poster artists who, before he studied in Paris, used to draw the gorgeous theatre lithographs, came back to America and completely transformed the coarse ex-aggerated travesties. For this reason Matt. Morgan stands high among the American poster artists. Of the English school, Aubrey Beardsley is probably the best known. He is said to be always "scholarly" and while "char-acteristic," yet he never loses sight of the fundamental principles of the art in his work. The purchase of a celebrated art-poster called "Bubbles" by the proprietors of a certain soap, seemed to THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 127 give a new impetus to the poster art in England, and many artists no longer hesitated to enter the ranks of poster painters. In Germany, the poster has not developed very rapidly or sat-isfactorily. German artists in every line of art work seem to ad-here strongly to allegorical symbols and types. This is evident in the tonal art as well as in painting. Probably the best known of the German school is Heine, who creates posters for several humorous periodicals. Austria seems to have paid little or no attention to the art; one can find no mention of Austrians who won a reputation for them-selves except in the line of music. All other arts seem to be con-sidered unworthy any attention. There is a poster art school in Belgium which has won a prominent position in this line of art. Though it requires a considerable amount of education on cer-tain lines to enable one to understand correctly any art—such a training, for instance as a good art-critic possesses—yet it is pos-sible for almost any one to appreciate, to some extent, at least, the art of poster painting. Tolstoi .says, "When I call up an emotion which I have ex-perienced, arid by signs, words, colors, sounds, transfer this emo-tion to another, that is art." Bearing this definition in mind and using it as a test, attention is called to a few examples of posters, each peculiarly distinctive in one manner or other. Probably one of the most striking and unique of the products of American artists was the poster announcing a special issue of the New York Sun. A woman with a trailing purple mantle walks through a green meadow, one hand uplifted with a warning ges-ture as if to command silence. The graceful though striking de-sign indicates a fertile imagination as the originator of it. That the creator—~L,. I. Rhead—is not only highly imaginative and fanciful but even verging upon the eccentric is evidenced by others of his productions, in one of which he has painted a woman with a cloak of dark green, outlined boldly against an orange back-ground. Among the posters published by Harpers Bros., was one en-titled "The Letter Box," which, though simple in ideas yet proved very effective. A little Cupid standing on tip-toe, drops a valentine in the slot of the corner letter-box. The entire pic-ture is not at all pretentious, but entirely characteristic and well adapted. ■pJMfiM 128 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Another poster published by the same firm in 1892 is worthy of noting because of the manner in which the lettering is incor-porated in the picture. "The Wooly Horse" representing Napoleon I. on horseback overlooking the battlefield,—with a fiery sky for background, was a very successful poster published by the Century Co. A famous American artist in this line is W. H. Bradley, whose work resem-bles somewhat that of Aubrey Beardsley. His posters seem to have a peculiar melancholy in their expression. Among the prominent advertisements of merchandise, that of Pears' Soap—a humorous sketch of a ragged tramp—is, with its forcible inscription, one of the most prominent. An original idea was brought out by an English artist in the use of the "Silhouette"—a black figure outlined in white stand-ing out against a black background. The manufacturers of a certain blueing, first used this style of poster for an advertise-ment. An advance in poster drawing was made after the several ex-positions of posters which have been held lately. One of these, held in Belgium in 1894, served to propagate extensively the new ideas of the French and the Belgian schools. How long this fad will last, is difficult to predict. It is highly probable, however, that the art will advance with such strides in some particular direction that the new development will com-pletely swallow up the present popular poster style,—a style, which has been characterized as a "phantasy most horrid and de-testable." —W. W. F. '00. RETRIEVED. JIM HAL,Iy, an inhabitant of the village of Alberton, had the reputation of being the most cowardly man to be found in ten counties. He was known to sleep at night with his room door double-barred and the windows tightly fastened, for fear of being killed in his bed by some wandering burglar. He believed in ghosts and witches ; and the small boys often took advantage of this superstitious fear and belief by placing a white sheet over a stick and when Jim came along, waving it wildly. Jim ran like THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 129 a deer for home and next day was made the butt of innumerable jokes. This fear of Jim's was to be accounted for only by the fact that from his birth his mother had shielded him from all dan-ger and taught him to look to her as his natural protector. So when he had come to manhood he had not learned to rely upon himself. He often tried to overcome his cowardice but could not do so when the critical moment came. Affairs were in this state up to the year 1862 when the report was circulated in Alberton that Jim Hall had disappeared from the village. No one had seen him go away, so all the villagers could do was to make suppositions as to his whereabouts. Some thought he had run away for fear of being drafted into the service. A large number of the able-bodied men of the village had already joined as volunteers and now it was reported that additional men were needed and that these would be taken by drafting through-out the whole North. Just the day before Jim Hall's disappear-ance the report was brought that the drafting of Alberton men would take place in four days. So there were some grounds for the common belief that Jim had run away to escape the war. One can easily imagine their surprise when the next day they heard that he had gone to the camp of the Army of the Potomac and had been enlisted as a private soldier. The people treated it as a great joke and many were the jests at poor Jim's expense about his long legs standing him in good stead when a time of great danger should come. However Jim had realty joined the army and was by a lucky chance placed in the same company with the other Alberton men who had gone out long before as volunteers. And as another piece of good fortune the man who was now captain of the com-pany— the former captain having been killed shortly before—had been the only man in the village of Alberton who had not jeered and laughed at his cowardice. This gentleman, a Mr. Leonard, had been a friend of both of Jim's parents and when Jim's father died had been appointed guardian to Jim. He now encouraged Jim to make a man of himself and was the instrument of Jim's doing so. Soon under their gallant leaders they were fighting the rebels with varying success about the swamps and morasses of the Chickahominy. In the battle of Chancellorsville, lost though dearly sold, our hero was in the thick of the fight. At the first mmmw 130 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. shock, however, he turned as if to flee, but at the word of his commander he turned and fought so bravely and so well that he was commended by his captain. Nearly two months later he found himself marching north-ward with his companions to try to check the invasion which the victorious Lee was making upon the North. On July 1st they found themselves on the peaceful fields of Gettysburg so soon to be turned into a veritable slaughter pen. In the first day's fight their regiment was stationed at Seminary Ridge with several other regiments to check the advance of the so far victorious rebels until further reinforcements should come up. Soon the overwhelming numbers of the Confederates forced the greater part to fall back and one lone battered and torn regi-ment was left to face the storm. It was too late to retreat now and almost useless to fight longer, but the blood of the Halls who had fought in the Revolution suddenly came coursing through the veins of Jim, and seizing the colors from the color bearer who had just been shot down Jim waved them aloft and shouted, "Come on boys, don't run, only cowards run." As he uttered the words a volley from the enemy, who had now almost sur-rounded the gallant man and his little band, laid poor Jim low and silenced forever the heart which had just learned that it still had brave blood to force through a manly body. Now indeed had Jim retrieved his name from the most disgraceful blot which can be put on any man's name. The rest of the command were captured and taken prisoners. Several years after they were ex-changed and when those Alberton men who had come safely through the war had returned home, they never tired of telling how nobly Jim Hall had proven that he no longer was the coward whom they had once despised. —V. FREY, '01. c®P June falls asleep upon her bier of flowers; In vain are dew drops sprinkled o'er her, In vain would fond winds fan her back to life Her hours are numbered on the floral dial. * * * June is dead, Dead, without dread or pain, her gayest "Wreaths twined with her own hands for her funeral. —Lucy Larcotn. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. EDITOR'S DESK. 131 THE '00 Spectrum is ample proof that the catalogue of special features has not been exhausted. As it is customary for the Junior class in publishing a Spectrum to make a special feature, '00 has chosen the "Literary Record of Gettysburg Alumni.'' This feature alone would make thepresent Spectrttm val-uable, as well as interesting. Few besides those who have worked upon such a feature can form any idea of the toil and care re-quired to carry it to a successful issue. Certainly it is but justice that the college paper, in the name of the students of Gettys-burg, congratulates the editor and assistant editor, by whom the "Literary Record" has been compiled and arranged, upon their useful, hard work. But not only may the individuals, on whom rested the responsibility for such a task, be congratulated; Gettys-burg may congratulate herself upon the present annual, which un-doubtedly will be regarded for years as a model of neat, original work. Articles by our alumni relating to Gettysburg, would be re-ceived eagerly by the MERCURY. Stories about college life as it was some years ago, the difference between Gettysbtirg of to-day and Gettysburg of the past, or almost any article of like kind, would find space in our pages. The MERCURY would be glad to print poems by the alumni, as well as prose. HYPNOTISM. HYPNOTISM, as best defined, is a nervous artificial sleep. The same thing was formerly called animal magnetism. Hypnotism applies to a definite nervous state and is brought about mostly in persons having a delicate nervous system. The first true inquirer into hypnotism was Dr. Baird. He saw some experiments performed by a professional maguetizer and at once decided that they were merely an arrangement to deceive the people, but after careful observation and study into the methods of producing a state of hypnotism, he decided that it was genuine. After careful study and experiment, he decided that there was no such a thing as a magnetic fluid flowing from the mind of the operator to that of the subject; but that the true cause of hypno- ■mmtnm 132 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. tism lay in the fact that the nerves of one of the senses become deadened by over exertion or constant concentration on a point, and on this account become powerless to act and the person goes into a deep sleep or lethargy. In this, his followers disagree with the other school, headed chiefly by I,afosataine. He asserted that hypnotism was produced by a fluid, known as the magnetic fluid, which passed from one person to another and by its attraction could cause a person of strong will to have complete control of a person of weaker will power, being able to compel him to do anything commanded. Baird was led to his theory by the fact that his subject, while under the influence of this power, was unable to open the eyes. He at once came to the conclusion that excessive fatigue was the only thing that could cause this strange phenomenon as he made no attempt at personal magnetism in producing the sleep. His experiment was performed in the following way. He asked his subject to sit and look steadily at the neck of a wine bottle and allow his mind to wander. The bottle was placed at such an elevation as to cause considerable fatigue to the eyes. After three minutes the subject's eyes were filled with tears, then his eyelids closed and a little later he was in a sound sleep. This experiment proved beyond doubt that a person can be hypnotized without the presence of a second person or operator; but can do it himself by an experiment made under similar circumstances as mentioned above. Baird pursued his discoveries and with the aid of numerous other experiments tried hard to have hypnotism recognized as a science. They were not successful, however, and to-day it is re-garded mostly as something for a show, or to interest the people, without much regard to its cause and the scientific qualities. The most familiar form of producing the state of hypnotism is the following : the operator directs the subject to have no par-ticular thought on his mind, but to let it wander, and gaze steadily into his eyes. After that he generally makes a few passes with the hands, gently rubbing the eyelids, etc., until his subject is in a sound sleep. In explanation of this method I would say that the gazing into the eyes of the operator for some time, is exactly the same as looking at a brilliant object, both have the same effect of fatiguing the nerves of the eye and producing sleep. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 133 This is strikingly illustrated in an experiment with a frog. If a frog is taken in the hand, having the thumb resting on the stomach, and the back gently rubbed ; the animal will go to sleep at once and can be stretched into all sorts of shapes. Another way, as has been stated before, is that of looking steadily at some object. It has also been discovered that the other senses have the same power as that of sight. Thus if you produce monotony in music sleep is produced. Sharp suspense or fright has the same effect of transfixing some people and this has been decided by students of the science ( as it is called by the disciples of hypnotism) to be hypnotism. After careful study it has been proven that the senses of taste and of smell have the same strange effect. As regards the uses of hypnotism little of importance can be said. It is used mostly by professional showmen who call up subjects from their audience or may have them with them. They compel them to do anything they command. One of the common-est ways and also the best to show the entire oblivion of the subject, is the experiment with the letter. The subject is handed a letter and told it is an orange, he immediately eats it with great relish, then if told it is sour at once spits it out with an expres-sion of disgust on his face, showing the subject believes every-thing the operator tells him and is entirely at his command. This, however, was never intended for the chief use of hypno-tism. The experimenters tried to use it in surgery, etc., but it has been found that while some people are easily influenced others give much trouble, so that it would be impracticable to use it in a case of amputation when ether or chloroform serves the same purpose more quickly and better. It has been settled, however, that strong habits can be changed. Persons who have been accus-tomed to strong habits all their lives have been entirely changed and new habits formed. Thus, while very little has been definitely decided about this strange phenomenon, there is every indication that some day in the near future, it will be taken up by experimenters and philoso-phers, thoroughly sifted, and then be proven to be of great value in many respects. It is now in its infancy. —C. J. D. '00. wmm 134 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON ROMAN JURISPRUDENCE." CHRISTIANITY and civilization in its highest degree of ex-cellence are synonomous, hand in hand like two insepara-bles we find them enthroned upon a majestic seat, ruling, guiding, influencing, and may we say carving the destiny of every great nation. If a country is civilized and christianized we need no other proof to be convinced of her pre-eminence and suprem-acy. A glance will show us also that such countries have the most admirable and thoroughly developed codes of jurisprudence. The influences, whose marks upon "Roman Law" are par-ticularly indelible and prominent, may be divided into three classes: conventional morality and usage, natural reason and justice, and Christianity. These fundamental principles in turn clearly mark off three distinct epochs in the development of Ro-man Law. According to the law of the first nearly all power was vested in the individual and that individual was the "Pater familias." The idea of a State right has scarcely begun to dawn upon the Roman mind. At the beginning of the second epoch, Rome is no longer a col-lection of separate communities : Italy, Greece, Spain, Africa, in short the whole world is in her power. Law based on such a no-tion as practically unlimited power of the pater cannot regulate such an empire. No longer is Rome divided into families, tribes and clans, each separate and distinct, but everything concentrates upon and emanates from one person—the Emperor. Something broader, something more general is demanded and, in response, came the principles of the stoic philosophy. Roman Law can-not stand still while the State is enlarging; it too must broaden, and natural equity, justice and reason furnish the soil for its spreading roots. But one link yet is necessary, one step yet is lacking ere the ultimate degree ofperfection is reached. For Christianity it remains to weld the chain and fill the gap which is to make "Roman Law" such a body of principles as to be applicable at all times and among all nations. In such principles as—"honeste vivere, alterum non laedere, suum cinque tribuere," the dawn of Christian-ity can already be seen, only time is needed until its genial rays shall burst forth with increasing intensity. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 135 Christianity had been now the established religion of the Ro-man Empire for more than two centuries; and the influence of its principles was making an untold effect upon the spirit, if not so much upon the letter, of Roman law. The complete moral, social, and political revolution, through Christianity, created a necessity for new laws adapted to the present order of things. Under it a new order of men of a peculiar character, with special privileges has grown up; churches and monasteries had been formed; certain offenses in the penal code were now looked on with a milder or more severe aspect, and vices, which formerly had been tolerated, became crimes against the new social order. It might be shown that Christianity as a system of doctrine, is peculiarity adapted to meet the secular as well as the spiritual wants of men and would naturally work its way into their codes of jurisprudence. But a direct proof is unnecessary, for after hav-ing shown its influence upon the various elements in "Roman L,aw," we can reason backward and reach the same conclusion. Roman Law may be conveniently divided into three classes:— that of Persons, Property and Crime. From time immemorial, slavery had been customary among all nations. Aristotle reasoned "that nature intended barbarians to be slaves, and among the natural and honorable means of ac-quiring wealth, he classes, making war in order to reduce to slavery such of mankind as are intended by nature for it." As an institution of custom, then, slavery received its sanction at Rome. Christianity had exalted a slave to spiritual equality and this religious elevation could not be without influence on their tem-poral and social position. They were no longer to be regarded as brute beasts and inanimate things, nor could they be destroyed by their masters with as much impunity as his other property. Our respect must here be paid the heathen sovereign, Antoniuns, who declared that the master who killed his slave without cause, was liable to the same penalty as if he had killed the slave of another. Justinian writes, "In these times, and under our Em-pire, no one must be permitted to exercise unlawful cruelty against a slave.'' Prohibition of marriage to slaves had been a deep-rooted prejudice for centuries, yet this too melted before the rays of its benign influence. The stricter forms of manumission—the vin-dicta freeing by census or testament were relieved by easier and ■VAMHtfi 136 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. more liberal ones,—for example, per epistolam, inter amicos, in ecclesiis; and whatever of legal impediments yet existed were re-moved by Justinian. Along with this the distinctions formerly made between freedmen, whereby a slave owing to certain kinds of misconduct, when manumitted, could not receive full citizen-ship, were likewise abolished so that after Justinian all libertine were cives Romani. The ancient laws regarding marriage and the legal status of women each crystallized itself in conformity with the new order of things. Marriage was no longer a civil contract but a religious sacrament and the penalties fixed upon celibacy and childlessness were removed. Divorce had been one of the greatest plagues at work in dis-solving the unity of the Roman family. Since the establishment of the XII tables, in 450 B. C, it had been legally recognized. Seneca says of Naecauss, probably satirically, that he changed his wives as he changed his dress. And it is the same writer who says '' that the noble women of Rome calculated the year not by the consuls, but by their husbands." Juvenal, in the bitterness of his satire, could not find words adequate to express his intense indignation of this evil. It is said that the sixth century of Roman greatness had begun ere the evils of a primitive conception that the wife was the property of her husband and might be dismissed at his pleasure were revealed and public feeling shocked by the re-pudiation of a virtuous but barren wife by Spurius Carvilius Ruga. Had Christianity performed no greater good for human society than the removal of this corruption, its influence would not have been in vain or useless. The rights of women over their property were made sub-stantially equal to men's as was the right of guardianship over their children. Parental power, though in theory absolute, had long fallen into disuse and was almost a theoretical nothing long before the ad-vent of Christianity, but whatever of severity yet remained was abolished. Constantine openly declared that the father, who killed his son, should be held for murder, nor was the father allowed to ex-pose his children or sell them into slavery, except in the rarest cases. The proprietary rights of the son, too, were extended from the peculium castreuse to the peculmm quasi castreuse and still later to the peculium adventitium. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 137 Milman says '' Christianity made no change in the tenure or succession to property.'' '' Seeking inheritances by undue means was prohibited and restrained by law as an ecclesiastical evil." Church property was regarded sacred and inviolate and as Milman says was "the sole proprietor, whom forfeiture or confis-cation could never reach; whose title was never antiquated and before whose hallowed boundaries violence stood rebuked." Gifts to temples could now be sold or pledged for the redemp-tion of captives, a purpose which the old Roman law would have disdained to contemplate. In the penal laws of the Roman empire, the influence of Chris-tianity was but moderately exerted. The abolition of the distinc-tions drawn between freedmen and slaves have already been re-ferred to. Crucifixion as a means of punishment was removed by Constantine, rather as an act of religious reverence than of humanity. But in the suppression of gaming and the prohibition of women being forced on the stage, traces of its influence can be seen. As is natural from the subject material under discussion, the law respecting persons has undergone the greatest change. But all these changes, whether in the penal code or in the law of proprietary rights and obligations, were but a means, which made the Roman system adapted to the regulation of all peoples and at all times. When we see that the very barbarians who conquered Rome were in turn conquered by her system of jurisprudence, we are not a little filled with surprise; but when we find it not only influenc-ing and forming the basis of, but being incorporated in the legal codes of almost all nations, we come in contact with an effect that requires an adequate and efficient cause. After paying all due re-spect to that peculiar, innate faculty of administration in the Ro-man mind, without detracting one iota from the excellent opinions of the juristconsuls or limiting in the slightest degeee the wonder-ful influence of stoicism, as a system of philosophy, we are com-pelled to admit that none of these were individually or collectively efficient to produce such an effect. To Christianity must be as-cribed the credit of basing Roman law upon principles, so univer-sal and so humane, as to be applicable not only among the Roman state but among all nations of all times. If this statement seems rather large in its exposition and sweeping in its results, a few illustrations may be necessary to establish its validity. r \UIUW 138 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Can a law, which considers certain classes of men as mere brutes or inanimate things be reconciled to our conception that by nature all men are horn equal ? Or who can reconcile the idea that a woman is but the property of her husband, capable of being dismissed at his bidding, with our conception of human society ? What place could the principle of "patri potesias have in the legal status of a nation, all the citizens of which have equal rights be-fore its laws—yet in the wisdom of the juristconsuls and in the records they have left us, these principles and many others similar to them are found embodied. Stoic philosophy left to Roman law the principles of equity and humanity, but the basis of natural law upon which they rested and by which they were judged and applied, was subjected to a complete change ere they were capable of incorporation into modern jurisprudence. Christianity recognized these same principles of equity and humanity, but substituted truth instead of natural law as their criterion. Based on this principle and judged by this standard the conceptions of equity and humanity lose their limi-tations and assert themselves with the force of universality. It is only under these conditions that we find Roman law incorpo-rated in the laws of every great nation, and only in Christianity do we find a cause adequate to such an effect. Among legal historians there is a vast diversity of opinions with regard to the influence of Christianity upon Roman legisla-tion. This variance, Morey rightly attributes to their failure to distinguish Christianity as an ethical system from the church as a corporate institution.'' It must be remembered that the church, like all institutions, even though divine in their origin, is never-theless subject to the frailties of humanity by which it is regu-lated and too often fails to cancel the limitations between the ideal and the real. The family and the matrimonial ceremony are regarded as divine in their origin and sanction, but do they ever conform to the high standard by which they should be regulated? Perfection is an attribute not of this world, and if the church as a corporate institution has failed to attain the high plane established by the principles it recognizes and enunciates we can condemn the prin-ciples with no more justice than we can reason that a college edu-cation is of no advantage because some particular individual, who has taken a college course, has made a miserable failure in life. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 139 However intolerant the church may have been against pagans, jews, and heretics, the principles of Christianity as an ethical sys-tem remain unsullied and untainted, notwithstanding the injus-tice of their application. Morey has admirably summarized the whole matter: "In spite of the fact that the church in some cases set its face against civil equity, and the fact that Roman law had already received a liberal temper from the influence of Greek philosophy, it cannot be doubted that the progress of the law, in general, kept pace with the unfolding of ethical ideas in the Roman mind; and that so far as Christianity furnished a system of ethics more just, liberal and humane than that of stoicism, it brought to bear upon the Roman law a moral power superior to that which had previously been exerted upon it through the writings of the philosophical jurists." Who then can doubt that in Christianity, Roman law reaches the summit of its greatness and the beginning of its uni-versal application ! —W. E. B. '99. M THE CONFLICT OF THE AGES. AN is a progressive being. Contentment is foreign to his very nature. He is continuously looking to something beyond, to a condition higher and better. As his intellect broadens and quickens, he invariably becomes desirous of greater freedom. This love of liberty is connate with his physical and mental constitution. But there is also another desire deeply implanted within his breast, a desire which is destructive of the liberty of others. It is the love of power, the inherent desire of man to rule over his fellow:man, an ambition, the natural outcome of which is despot-ism. These two desires tend toward opposite directions. Between them is an irrepressible conflict. This conflict is as old as society and as persistent as humanity. From the earliest times its vary-ing phases have determined the condition of the race. The history of civilization is largely the story of this conflict, the story of human liberty struggling against human despotism. The outcome of this struggle has varied in different countries. ; 140 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. As a result their states of society have been vastly different. Just in proportion as liberty has triumphed over despotism so civiliza-tion has advanced beyond barbarism. Among the nations of an-tiquity despotism prevailed everywhere. As a consequence their civilization never advanced beyond a certain point. They were marked in every case either by iunobility or by slight advances and retrogressions. In the countries of Northern Europe arose a people whose chief characteristic was their love of freedom. Here liberty found a soil peculiarly fitted for her growth and develop-ment. What has been the result? Have these people an}' ele-ments of civilization not enjoyed by the nations of antiquity? Read the story of their steady progress through the Middle Ages. L,ook upon the unequalled state of civilization among them to-day and question not the advantages of liberty over despotism. Con-trast the despotic nature of ancient Assyria with the liberal char-acter of modern England and wonder not that the latter stands to-day the first empire of the world, while the former exists only upon the pages of history. During the dark ages humanity struggled against the most terrible despotism man had ever known,—the despotism of igno-rance and superstition. The human mind neglected, uncultivated and depressed sank into the deepest ignorance. So prolonged and intense was the gloom enveloping Europe that her people seemed incapable of advancement, society seemed destined to end-less barbarism. Gradually, however, knowledge became more diffused, inventions and discoveries awakened the human intellect from its long sleep, and man began to learn the truth about him-self and the world. This truth has made him free. Freedom of intellect naturally led to a desire for religious freedom. Ecclesiastical tyranny was incompatible with intellect-ual liberty. Enlightened minds refused to submit any longer to the authority of the Pope. Contentment gave place to unrest, un-rest to action, and action to liberty. The Reformation was more than a contest between Protestant-ism and Catholicism. It was an insurrection of the human mind against pure ecclesiastical monarchy. Do you wonder that the movement was crowned with the most glowing success ? Papal authority in Northern Europe was destroyed forever. This religi-ous liberty will eventually spread over the entire world. The religions of the world are becoming more and more imbued with THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 141 the sentiment of liberality. Sectarian differences are gradually disappearing before the growing light of intelligence. Creed and dogma will be re-adjusted more and more under the light of ad-vancing truth. Formal religion is being supplanted by true Christianity—that "divine keystone in the arch of universal his-tory." With an ever increasing radiance the light of Christianity is slowly but surely penetrating the darkness of heathenism, and hastening the approach of the time when the people of all the earth, regardless of race, sect or nationality, shall bow in worship before the one true God. Turning from the religious to the political world, we behold a revolution no less wonderful, a mighty struggle between despotic and liberal principles of government. This struggle shook Europe from Scandanavia to Italy, and snatched a new world from the threatened grasp of tyranny; a revolution of which the Reign of Terror was but an incident. The ideas engendered by the Reformation inaugurated a mighty epoch of political regeneration. The great sovereigns of Europe, one after another, have been deprived of their prerogatives until to-day the last one sits trembling upou a tottering throne that threatens to fall at any instant. The day is not far distant when even the "Autocrat of all the Russias" shall see his sceptre depart into the hands of his subjects. Thus we have seen during the last three epochs three great stages of the onward march of civilization; three mighty victories for the cause of struggling humanity; victories which include in-tellectual, religious and political freedom. To-day the world has entered upon another epoch; an epoch which brings with it questions far more complicated than those of the past, and far more momentous than those that have convulsed Europe with centuries of revolution. The great struggles of the past have been, in the main, suc-cessful, and the echoes of the mighty battles for civil and religious freedom are growing fainter and fainter. But the cause of freedom is not yet won. The hosts of oppression have been driven from the fields of church and state only to return with renewed vigor to attack freedom in the field of industry. The scene of conflict has extended from the old world to the new. Society has entered upon an industrial age. Modern civilization is marked by ma-terial progress unprecedented in the history of mankind. Great 142 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. inventions have revolutionized travel, commerce and manufacture. Ocean steamers, railroads and telegraphs have practically annihi-lated time and space. By constant and easy intercourse with the world, man's views have been enlarged, his energies stimulated, and his rate of progress quickened. Yet with all this unparalleled progress in the industrial power of society, there has come no proportionate improvement in the condition of the masses. While the great industrial development of the present age has brought many blessings for mankind, the tyranny of selfish men has monopolized these blessings for the few. Capital gets the lion's share of the world's wealth, while Labor is reduced to a condition of servitude. A few monopolists amass colossal fortunes and revel in Croe-cian luxury, while thousands of wage earners, becoming more and more pauperized, sink into intellectual and moral degradation. Millions are wasted in feasting while gaunt starvation stalks the streets. Society has become a vast machine which turns out at one end milliouaries, and at the other tramps, paupers and anarch-ists. The enormous inequalities of existing conditions are creating a discontent in the minds of the laboring classes; a discontent that foreshadows an impending revolution. Profound discontent preceded the great religious upheaval in the sixteenth century. Great unrest ushered in the awful convul-sions of the French revolution. With the reappearance of the same conditions to-day, revolution is as inevitable as the laws of the universe. Human nature will not tolerate abuse forever. Labor will not always submit to the tyranny of capital. Even now the cohorts of freedom are gathering for a mighty effort. There is every indication that we are on the eve of a momen-tous struggle. The discontent of the masses is '' no longer the fretting of the waves;" it is "the roar of the rushing tide." It is to be a contest for the supremacy of wealth on the one hand or the freedom of opportunity on the other ;—a conflict that will decide whether the combined money power of the world is to per-petuate its tyranny of greed and avarice, or whether the toiling millions are at last to enjoy unmolested the products of their own labor. History teaches that there can be but one outcome to this struggle. Despotism again will fall. The indomitable forces of THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. freedom will win another victory. Economic despotism is simply fighting the same hopeless battle that was fought and lost by spiritual and political despotism in the ages that have passed. Civilization will never rest until this great barrier is removed. There are only two ways in which this can be accomplished; by the peaceful methods of education and religion, or through the instrumentalities of war. Should the latter method prevail, and should the masses be led by designing demagogues, or by reason-ing anarchists inspired only by a sense of injustice, and revenge, the innocent will perish with the guilty in the most dreadful social catastrophe that has ever darkened the pages of history. Do the conditions indicate that such will be the result ? Are we to sup-pose that the increased intelligence and morality of the present age will permit such a solution of our great sociological problem ? Have we read history in vain or profited nothing by the great lessons of the past, that we must see re-enacted on the stage of modem history the bloody scenes of the sixteenth century? Is the nineteenth century civilization so little advanced that it is about to behold a social convulsion compared with which the aw-ful horrors of the French Revolution shall sink into insignificance ? A million Christian hearts answer, "No." A million earnest workers for the triumph of right over might, filled with the belief that the signs of the times point upward, and inspired with the hope that social and economic freedom shall come as the product of better hearts and better souls, respond with a mighty " NO." The wrongs of our present industrial system shall not be righted among scenes of violence and confusion. The ceaseless unrest of the multitudes, that are to mould the destinies of the future, is the sign of an advancing civilization. It means that they are acquiring more brain force, more manhood, the raw ma-terials out of which God will shape a better future for humanity The dawn of a better day is breaking the deep clouds of sin. The heart of the world is beating more truly than ever before. Men are beginning to realize that the prosperity of society depends upon the well-being of the whole people. They are coming to see that a divine fatherhood implies an universal brotherhood. The world is moving onward toward the realization of the ideal life of human happiness; a life where manhood shall count for more than gold, where character shall outweigh the dollar ; a life free from selfishness and tyranny, abounding injustice, liberty and equality. i44 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. In this life shall the Conflict of the Ages cease and man find his highest place as he ministers to the good of all. "Then the common sense of most Shall hold a fretful realm in awe, And the kindly earth shall slumber, Lapt in universal law. And the war drum throb no longer, And the battle flags be furled In the parliament of man, The Federation of the world." —W. R. E., '99. THE PHILOMATHAEAN SOCIETY. BY PROF. L. H. CROIX. [From the Pennsylvania College Book, 1832.] MORE than a year before the charter of Pennsylvania Col-lege was granted by the legislature of the State, the Philomathaean Society had its organization, in the "Gettysburg Gymnasium," on the corner of Washington and High streets, Gettysburg, Pa. The students of the institution assembled in the west room of the second story, on the 4th of February, A. D., 1831, to form literary societies whose generous rivalry would stimulate the members to mutual, intellectual and moral improvement. It was agreed to divide the whole number of students into two equal parts, in the order in which their names stood enrolled, each division then withdrew to the "East Room," second story, becoming the founders of the Philomathaean So-ciety, with Prof. M. Jacobs as chairman. With the permission of the Professor of Theology, the meeting continued to be held in the rooms devoted to theological instruction, the corner-stone of the Theological Seminary not being laid until the following- May. A Constitution and a name were adopted, but the latter was not at first settled in its orthography, for the different secretaries give "Philomathian," "Philomathean," "Philomatheon" as the name before the present Philomathaean became confirmed. The signification of the names, "lovers of learning," implies the object of the organization, "to create and cherish a taste for learning, and to promote sentiments of mutual regard and friend- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 145 ship;" or, as afterwards modified, "to cultivate and diffuse among its members liberal principles, and to promote the great objects of social, moral, and intellectual improvements." The constitution provides for the election of all officers, for the admission and the dismissal of members, for fines and penalties, for meetings and work, for the formation and use of a library; and it emphasizes the requirement of each member to hold inviolate his duty to preserve a proper secrecy of the affairs of the society. One of the first peculiarities was the appointment of a "Room-keeper," taken in alphabetical order, to make all the arrangements necessary for holding the next meeting. He seems to have been keeper of the door, introducing any new or honorary member, but, in connection with his more dignified work, he was also "hewer of wood and drawer of water,'' polisher of lamps and factotum in general. This office was abandoned in the new college building, when a janitor become necessary on account of the increased work in hall, library and reading-rooms, and when the funds of the society allowed a consideration for services required. The meetings were first held on Friday evening, and as lamps were a necessity, with the order for their purchase was joined that of a "jug," or "bottle" for the use of the society. Now this bot-tle is evidently not the decanter held in bad repute, nor is the jug the famous "little brown jug," celebrated by the students in their later years in their rollicking glee; for the society was strongly in favor of total abstinence, as the votes on all temperance debates proved. As an illustration of the small beginnings of a society, there is an account of the purchase of a "suitable desk, or covert, for the use of the Secretary, library, lamps, etc." Some later Secretary has changed the v of covert to b, making it "cobert," having doubtless in mind the old family cupboard at home. From the day when a single desk or closet would accommodate not only the library, but the articles of the Secretary and the Janitor be-sides, to the present, when even the present library room has be-come too cramped to display all the volumes to advantage, an earnest of what may be expected in another half century is exhib-ited. Another illustration of small beginnings was the original initiation fee of fifty cents, which rose to two dollars and a half when the college obtained its charter, and not long afterwards to five dollars, at which figure it has since remained. 146 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The first original declamation, by one of the still surviving founders (1882), by permission of the society, was in the German language. From the first the debate took high rank, and seemed to claim the highest interest of the members. The subjects chosen often bore directly upon their personal relations, and the first was upon their call or right to existence as a society. Then the ques-tion of social visiting, the granting of diplomas for partial or special courses of study, and other like topics, were discussed, as well as the questions of public interest in their day. The first anniversary celebration was held February 17, 1832, and the speeches were made by two of the founders. At first these exercises were held in the Gymnasium building, and invita-tions were sent to such persons as were supposed to appreciate literary entertainment. It may seem somewhat primitive at the present day to learn that '' a few verses '' were sung between the speeches, instead of the classical instrumental music furnished at later entertainments. Another novelty was the '' privilege given to those present of making any remarks to the society that might be thought proper. Afterward the exercises were held in the German church, until 1835, when they were transferred to the Presbyterian church, in consequence of obligations being made to the introduction of in-strumental music into the church. After 1836 the public exer-cises were held in Christ (college) church, then completed. In connection with the spring examinations, by request of the Professors, each society appointed an essayist, an orator, and a debater as performers at the closing exercises of the session. The exercises were to be original, and each society was to "chal-lenge" the other alternately to select the subject of debate. Thus originated the annual "contests," which grew in interest from year to year until 1849, when a dispute with the church officers brought all public exercises ofthe societies to a close forseveral years. The customary fees for the sexton and other incidents were asked for in advance, by a regulation of the church officers, in conse-quence of the difficulty of collecting them after the interest of the occasion had passed and the officers of the societies had been changed. This action being misapprehended as a charge for the use of the church, which was free to exercise under the direction of the faculty, or as a reflection upon the integrity of the socie-ties was resisted. Not satisfied with the explanation that the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 147 sum assessed merely covered the expenses incident to the opening of the church, the societies memorialized the Board of Trustees on the question, who replied that the demand was not unreason-able; and thus ended the dispute and the contests at the same time. At the time of the earlier anniversaries, an honorary member was elected to deliver an address. From 1836 to 1853 an address was delivered each year before the societies jointly. From this time there have been annual and biennial addresses, the societies usually alternating in the choice. As a matter of history, between 1852 and 1855, with an organ-ization or union of the different literary societies of various col-leges, bearing the prae-nomen of Philo, and known as the "Philo Union," must not be omitted. It originated at Shelby College, Kentucky, and enrolled Philo Societies of more than a score of colleges, extending from New England to the West. Member-ship in any one of these societies secured admission to all the others, and a general plan of simultaneous anniversaries was pro-posed. The fraternal relations of the brotherhood were to be cul-tivated and the general interest to be promoted by a periodical es-tablished at some central institution; but the difficulties of practi-cal co-operation and the excessive labor of correspondence made the union of short duration, and a second generation of students scarcely learned of its existence. MONOTONY OF LIFE. THAT one could complain of the monotony of life, living in an age and in a nation like ours, certainly seems strange to a wide-awake person with an active mind. One certainly cannot get such an idea from nature in her ever changing forms, if one observes her. She assumes in turn every color known to us, the tender green of spring, the bounteous variety of blossoms and flowers, the splendor of the autumn foliage, the white mantles of snow and the brilliant sunsets. Instead of monotony to the observer it seems all unrest and change with hardly any continua-tion in the same line or place. There is variety in the life all around us, from the tiniest insect up to man ; there is continual change in the life of even the humblest individual. Great changes mmim 148 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. occur in all nations. Thought on different subjects changes, pub-lic opinion changes and is a mighty power worthy of a care-ful consideration. In fact everything changes with the pro-gress of civilization. Truly it is only the inactive mind and un-observant eye and the sluggish spirit that can for a moment imag-ine life to be monotonous. If we look closely we will notice certain principles running through life's changes. We see a union between the old and the new. It is the same old earth, it matters not under how many changes. The same trees are white with blossoms in the spring, green with foliage in the summer and brown and bare in the autumn. So with ourselves, a change of occupation or of resi-dence, a change in our financial circumstances, a marriage, a death, a journey, each brings a new experience for our old selves and forms a fresh union between our past and our present condi-tion. These things may bring happiness or sorrow for the time being, but they all have the power of enriching, enlarging and improving our characters and lives by making good additions to our stock of old experiences. Of course if we do not want it so, we can make it otherwise to a certain extent. We can be dull and inactive and cling to the old, see nothing in all the changing world about us, make no new friends, cling to old ideas, discuss no new methods, hold the same opinions and pride ourselves upon what we might call con-sistency, but which is really only thestubbornness of a mind which thinks that the world is becoming worse with new ideas, new methods and new experiences. We can plainly see that to lead a life like that is to cross our Maker's purpose, for his purpose was without doubt that we should grow into the full richness and value of manhood by cherishing our past experiences and learning well the lessons taught by them while we step forward into new and untried paths with vigor and hope. —R. Z. I., '00. 'Twas an evening of beauty ; the air was perfume, The earth was all greenness, the trees were all bloom And softly the delicate viol was heard, Like the murmur of love or the notes of a bird. —Whittier. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 149 ATHLETICS. BASEBALL, this year is not as successful in some senses as usual, but in others we can pride ourselves upon our team. In the beginning of the season they encountered six hard games in succession, five being away from home, and were greatly hindered by lack of sufficient practice. But in the later games they seem to have rounded well into form, and are playing pretty good ball. The greatest surprise of the year has been Roehner's pitching, he having developed wonderfully, and doing work which, with better support, would have won a number of the games which were lost. The season was opened 011 April 15th, with Franklin and Mar-shall on their grounds at Lancaster, and was won by Gettysburg by a score of 6 to 4. The game was very pretty, both sides play-ing good ball, except in one inning, when the F. and M. boys did their only scoring. The feature of the game was Lantz's home run over left field fence with two men on bases. The trip to the central part of the state was opened at Susque-hanna April 20th, when we were beaten 12 to 6, by a comedy of errors in the first three innings which netted the home team eight runs. After that the boys settled down and played well, but Sus-quehanna's lead was too great. On April 21st we beat Bucknell by a score of 12 to 7, through hard batting coupled with the best fielding of the season. The game throughout was highly interesting and exciting, being marked by a number of pretty plays. Roehner pitched a fine game, allowing Bucknell but six hits, to Gettysburg's eleven. State defeated us April 22d, by the score of 7 to 6 in a game that was very close and exciting, though marked by bad errors on both sides. Ketterman pitched a good game, receiving poor sup-port, while Farr was knocked out of the box, and Morgan sub-stituted. At Bloomsburg, March 24th, we were defeated by the Normal School by the score of 14 to 4. The Normal boys have a good team, but it is only right to say that they would not have beaten us so badly if it had not been for the umpire. The first home game was with Dickinson on April 27th, when we were beaten by a score of 15 to 6. The game was poorly played on both sides, but tight until the sixth inning, when it THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. was tied, after which our boys went to pieces, and Dickinson brought in nine more runs. We were beaten for the second time by Susquehanna Univer-sity on Nixon Field, May 5th, the score being 6 to 5. Our team did far better work in every way than the visitors, but their only two errors were costly, bringing in four runs, aud^poor judgment in base-running at a couple critical points lost a game by what can be termed nothing but hard luck. Games scheduled with the Indians and Dickinson at Carlisle were unavoidably canceled and prevented by rain respectively, and the next game was on Nixon Field with Franklin and Mar-shall, who were beaten in a very pretty game by the same score as in first game, 6-4. They were shut out until the eighth, and secured but four hits in all off Roehner. The Preps have manifested a good college spirit this year by getting up a team that is doing good work in its class. They were beaten by Dickinson Prep at Carlisle, 13-4, and returned the compliment on Nixon Field by the score of 13-9. They also played against '01's team, by whom they were beaten in a one-sided game by a score of 15-0. At the relay carnival at the University of Pennsylvania, April 29th, we were classed with Dickinson, Bucknell, Franklin and Marshall, and Ursinus, and came in fourth in one of the speediest races of the day. Dickinson won, having a clear lead, and Buck-nell, F. & M., and Gettysburg came in in the order named, bunched very close together, with Ursinus trailing some distance in the rear. Probably the most interesting and significant event in athletics of recent years was the dual meet with Dickinson held on Nixon Field, May 17. We were defeated, the score of points being 60 to 28, but can feel that the meet was a success as far as we are concerned, for it has given track athletics the impetus which it has needed so long. Dickinson won all the first places except the high hurdle, captured by Koller, '00, and the high jump a tie between Albers, '99, and Brown, of Dickinson. Our men showed however, that they could have done far better work with proper training, and we believe that they have caught the spirit now, and we can turn out a winning team next year. —W. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Flowery June, When brooks send up a cheerful tune, And groves a joyful sound. JX 151 —Bryant. And what is so rare as a day in June ? Then, if ever, come perfect days; Then heaven tries the earth if it be in time, And over it softly her warm ear lays. -Lowell. And so beside the silent sea I wait the muffled oar; No harm from Him can come to me On ocean or on shore. I know not where His islands lift Their fronded palms in air ; I only know I cannot drift Beyond His love and care. — Whittier. The last bird I ever fired at was an eaglet on the shore of the Gulf of Ir\DT Successor to W. J7. VAJLAJKl, Simon J. Codori Dealer in Beef, Pork, Lamb, Veal, Sausage. Special rates to Clubs. York St., GETTYSBURG. Davib Croxel, Dealer trt ^ine groceries anb ttottons «-x4}ork Street. .GO TO. CHAS. E. BARBEHENN, Barber, In the Eagle Hotel, Cor. Main and Washington Sts. YOHN BROS. Agents for the Keystone State, Waldo, Washburn, Groupner & Meyer. Highest Grade Mandolins, Guitars, Banjos, Mandollas and Mandocellos. Headquarters for Phonographs, G-raphophones and supplies. Trimmings of every description. All sheet music one-half off. Large discounts on Books and studies. 326 Market St., Harrisburg, Pa. FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. Baseball v>tipptie& .Spaloing's league JSall, /Iftits, jflftaelie, Etc. Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for aennf0, ©olf, Grtcftet, Gracft ano fftelo, ©Ktnnastum Equipments anD ©utfite Complete Catalogue Spring and Summer Sports Free. The Name the Guar-antee." a. ©. SpalOing SL JBros. New York .". Philadelphia Chicago ROWE, .Your Grocer. Carries Full Line of Groceries, Canned Goods, Etc, Best Coal Oil and Brooms at most Reasonable Prices. OPPOSITE COLLEGE CAMPUS. S. /. CODORI, Jr. t* Druggists Dealer in Drugs, Medicines, Toilet Articles, J> Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. .Baltimore Street. R. H. Culp, PAPER HANGER, Second Square, York St. COLLEGE EMBLEMS. EMIL ZOTHE, ENGRAVER, DESIGNER AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER. 19 S. NINTH ST. PHILADELPHIA. PA. SPECIALTIES: Masonic Marks, Society Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through C. H. Tilp. Gotrell & Leonard, 472-474 Broadway, Albany, N. Y. makers of CAPS, GOWNS and. HOODS To the leading- American Colleges. Illus-trated Manual, etc., upon application. Meneely Bell Co. TROY, N. Y. MANUFACTURERS OF SUPERIOR BELLS The 2000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania Col-lege was manufactured at this foundry. r . nmmwmmiiMMMmwimmmmmm PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. You can't expect to create the im-pression that you are well dressed unless your clothes are MADE FOR YOU. Equivocate as you may, the fact remains that ready-made garments lack that air of exclusiveness which custom work possesses. J. D. LIPPY, Merchant Tailor 39 Chambersburg St., Gettysburg, Pa. G. E. SPANGLER, ^ Dealer in Pianos, Organs, Music, Musical Instruments, Strings, Etc. YORK STREET, 1ST SQUARE. GETTYSBURG. L. D. Miller, Grocer, Confectioner and Fruiterer. Ice Cream and Oysters in Season . . . \0) lUaxn St., ©ettusburg. City Hotel, Main St. Gettysburg. Free 'Bus to and from all Trains Thirty seconds' walk from either depot Dinner with drive over field with four or more, $1.35 Rates $1.50 to $2.00 per day. John E. Hughes, Prop. WlLLlHSURE^OUR^ lfiiilnl'iil¥rii;TJH w&receipt ot SI0-0 A6AINST ILLNESS., PHYSICIANS'* PLUMBERS- ' BILLS.DUETO IMPURE AIR, ^ FROM CLOGGEDjJ^'HS flew York, Bosfo/i. P/>//dde//i/>/fr<}/7c/sco. lo/?

^DJBYJTH^STUDENTS OF PENNSYLVANIA (GETTYSBURG) COLLEGE. ! AIJVKRTISiJMKNTS. I, mmw Importers and Jobbers of «» Nos. 16 and 18 W. German Street, BALTIMORE, Offer to the trade their large and well-selected ; stock of llli ! &mm l«tlf, Make a specialty to have on hand everything required by Pharmacists. A complete stock can at any time be selected or wants supplied. ALQNZO L, THQMSEN,^- KAOE, WINDEB, snAitp AND LEADENHALL STS., P. o. Box 557, Baltimore, Md. I beg to call to the attention of the Trade that I have re-cently added to my Plant a complete set of Drug Milling Ma-chinery ot the most Improved pattern. HtfS, CAPS, ^ BOOTS * SHOES. G^Satisfaction Guaranteed.^?; No. 6 S. Baltimore Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. Accumulated Wealth, Laying up of riches isn't the only thing in life, for fre-quently a sour disposition is the result. You want to take comfort in life as you go along, one of the best ways to take comfort is to buy well-fit-ting clothing. My Spring Styles are now here and the selection is large and varied. Suits made to your order from $12 up. Pressing and Repairing done at short notice. ). D. UPPV, ^sss^ 43 Chambersburg St., GETTYSBURG, PA. -DEALER IN— Hats, Skirts, Shoes, Ties, Umbrellas, Glcvn Satchels, Hose, rPocket (Books, Trunks, Telescopes, (Rubbenl Etc., Etc. AMOS ECKERT. BCX^:R,:DI::LTG By Day, \Afeel FOII CATAMItiUK AMI JOUKNAI. TO lj»B t':, Eev. 0. L. KBBDT^A. II., M. D., President, Hagerstown, Hd. j. A TAWNEY" -mm ready to furnish clubs and boarding houses BREAD, ROLLS, ER, ^ ^ PHOTOGRAPHED, SS Balto. St., GETTYSBURG. SPECIAL ATTENTION PAID TO C0JLMG1H Wmil BATTLEFIELD YIEWS ALWAYS ON HAND. MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT ATTENTION. ADVERTISEMENTS. *R.$H.$REININGER,«> MERCHANT TAILOR e tatt Work at %) NEXT DOO^ TO $ Suits from $12,00 to $10,1 Lowest Prices. V p?|T ST 0AmS CE' ? Pants ^m WO to 9V C , PICTURE FRAMES. Baltimore street, Gettysburg, Pa. FURNITURE. Settysburg, !Penn'a, -WILL FIND THE-Cumberland Valley R. R. running in a South-Westerly direction from Harrisbnrg, Pa., through Carlisle, Chambersburg, Hagerstown and Martinsburg to Winchester, Va., a direct and available Q route from the North, East and West to Gettysburg, Pa., via. Harrisbnrg and Carlisle. Through tickets via. this route on sale at all P. E. R. offices, and baggage checked through to destination. Also, a popular route to the South via. Carlisle. Ask for your tickets via. Ctuntelanil Valley Railroad anil Carlisle, Pa, J. F. BOYD, Superintendent. H. A. RIDDLE, Gen. Passenger Agent. rPH. H. fylMNlCtl, ^^~w*~*~*~T"TT^—TWIIIIM IIW I Il'l Wllll—^l Mantifdctnrer, Wholesale and (ionfeetionepv,! OYSTERS Manvfartmer, Retail Dealer in -^Q AND O^- IN- |ee (§>i*eam. ] SEASON. NEWS DEPOT & SUBSCRIPTION AGENCY. Main street, - - Gettysburg, F=e>. SOLE MANUFACTURER OF DR. TYLERS COUGH DROPS SIMON X^ODORT .DEALER IN. BEEF, PORK, LAMB, VEAL, SAUSAGE, York Street, Gettysburg. peoial Rates to Clubs.ia R. A. WONDERS' Corner Cigar ZParlors. -A PTJLL LINE OF., CIGARS, TOBACCOS, PIPES, &C, Scott's Cor. Opp. Eagle Hotel, Gettysburg, Pa ADVliRTISUMKNTS. gOLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS S SURGEONS, The College of Physicians and Surgeons of Balti-more, Maryland, is a well-equipped school. Four ses-sions are required for graduation. For full informa-tion send for the annual catalogue, or write to THOMAS OPIE, M. D., Dean, Cor. Calvert and Saratoga Sts. t-S^Established \&j6.^~r-> WATSHMAKER AND Gettysburg Souvenir Spoons, College Souvenir Spoons, No. 10 Baltimore Street, GETTYSBURG, PENN'A. John n. Minnigh^ ^onfeetionepxj (Jjee^peam, OYSTERS Stewed and Fried. No. 17 Baltimore St. GETTYSBURG, PA., - Main sh FP.EE BUS TO AND FROM ALL T^AIH RATES $1J?o PER DAY. SQ) Seeojtjucfs Watk tfirara EBtSterr Depot. DINNER WITH DRIVE OVER FIEID WITH 4 OR MORE 111 Ji Li HUGHES; PBOPRI Calvin F. Solt, 2nd Floor Spangler Building, dfhe fashionable dfailc: Satisfaction Suaranteed. Prices to Suit (h? Tine:. I Webster's Send a Postal for Specimen Pages, etc. International Successor of the " Unabridged." Dictionary; c THE BEST FOR TEACHERS AND SCHOOLS BECAUSE IN THIS DICTIONARY It is easy to find the word wanted. It is easy to ascertain the pronunciation. It is easy to learn what a word means. It is easy to trace the growth of a word. o _ Sic:—elarrcl of the TJ. S. Supremo Court, of all the State Supreme Courts, of the (■) u. U. Government Printing Ofiice, and of nearly all tho Schoolbooks. Warmly com- I "otl by Stato Superintendents of Schools and other Educators almost without number. 'The Pennsylvania School Journal says:—The Internationa] Webster is a tTCCCuro Itouse of universal knowledge to which all the world, in all its ages, has made ccatri) , and any ono of us may nave it at his elbow. Of itj half hundred bpeoial-cf value and importance, the most attractive to uo i.i itj otymolopy, an un-failin :. i iiirce of interest and enjoyment, ofteu of surpriseand wonder.—OCTOM'EI:, 18%. G. & C. HEKRIA9I CO., Publishers. Springfield, Mass. The College Metcufy. fOL. V. GETTYSBURG, PA., JULY, 1897. No. THE COLLEGE MEfiCUfiY', blished each month during the college year by the Students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. ■ SMITH, 'g8. : E. FLECK '98. : W. WOODS, '9! STAFF. Editor: E. L. ,KOLLER, '98. Associate Editors : J. H. MEYER, '99. J. H. BEERITS, '99. H, C'. ROEHNER, '99. R. D. CLARE, 1900. Alumni Association Editor: REV. D. FRANK GARLAND, A. M., Taneytown, Md. Business Manager: J. W. WEETER, '99. Assistant Business Manager: j. A. MCALLISTER, '98. T f One volume (tell months), . . . $1.00 1 ERMS ■ j Single copies, . . ' . . 15 Payable in advance .11 students are requested to hand us matter for publication, he Alumni and ex-members of the College will favor us by sending information concerning their whereabouts or any items they may think would be interesting for publication. All subscriptions and business matters should be addressed to the Business Manager. Matter intended for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address, THE COLLEGE MERCURY, Gettysburg, Pa CONTENTS. COMMENCEMENT WEEK, - 79 BACCALAUREATE SERMON, - - 79 ADDRESS TO Y. M. C. A , 80 CONCERT BY THE MUSICAL CLUBS, 80 JUNIOR ORATORICAL CONTEST, 81 CLASS DAY EXERCISES, 8r CLASS AND FRATERNITY BANQUETS, - - - - 82 COMMENCEMENT ORATIONS, 84 GRADUATES AND HOME ADDRESSES, - - 85 DEGREES CONFERRED, 8? CLASS POEM, '97, --■-• --- .*.* g- UGHTH ANNUAL TENNIS TOURNAMENT, - - - - gg A RESUME OF ATHLETIC MATTERS, - - . 86 COLLEGE LOCALS, . 87 MOVEMENTS OF OUR ALUMNI IN THE PAST FEW WEEKS, - SS AMERICA'S NOBLE SON, - " STATE POLITICS IN PENNSYLVANIA. - - - - - 9o COWIWIENCEIVIENT WEEK. SUNDAY, MAY 30 TO FRIDAY, JUNE 4. Commencement is over. The class of '97 have been graduated and have gone. The ex-ercises of the past week have been of the most enjoyable nature, and everything has been done without a flaw—truly a grand success. For the greater part of the week we were fort-unate in having the most perfect days for our Commencement, especially Wednesday, and. this added in no small degree to the magnifi-cent success of the whole occasion. The Senior class who have just been gradu-ated, will indeed be missed from the ranks of old Gettysburg. Their successes in literary matters and in athletics have raised them to such a position in the estimation of all the un-dergraduates that we feel as if the vacancies occasioned in all departments of college ac-tivity by their departure will indeed be hard to fill. While we do not believe in all this talk about "fighting the battle of life," etc., yet the MERCURY hopes that each and every member of the class of '97 will attain the best of success in whatever they undertake. The order of exercises during the week will be followed in the recounting, just as they oc-curred, and the most important events will be given. BACCALAUREATE SERMON. COLLEGE CHURCH, SUNDAY, IO.30 A. M. The Commencement exercises of the Col-lege and Seminary opened in Christ Lutheran church, Sunday morning. The Baccalaureate sermon was delivered by Rev. M. Valentine, D. D. LL,. D., President of the Theological Seminary, to the graduating classes of both institutions. He based his remarks upon the 18th verse of the 4th chapter of the Second 8o THE COLLEGE MERCURY. Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, "While we look not at the things which are seen, but at the things which are not seen ; for the things which are seen are temporal ; but the things which are not seen are eternal." The theme of the discourse was based on the right relation of the things of life to per-manent good. Life has its rightful setting in the perspective of eternity. Every life is a failure which is not directed toward the invisi-ble things which endure. The discourse was a masterful one and no partial report could do it justice. Dr. Valentine, in all his many scholarly sermons from the College church pulpit seldom, if ever, surpassed the effort of Sunday, May 30th. ADDRESS"TOT. M. C. A. COLLEGE CHURCH, SUNDAY, 7.3O P. M. In the evening an earnest and forcible ad-dress was delivered to the Young Men's Chris-tian Association of the College, by Hon. W. N. Ashman, of Philadelphia. His discourse was founded on answers to certain objections to religion as raised by men of business and men of science. The speaker argued that the principles and truths of the Christian religion could be fully established when tried by the same tests as are applied in the determination of ordinary busi-ness propositions. The element of the supernatural in religion prevented the application of the rules and methods of scientific investigation where ma-terial facts and substances alone are dealt with. The scientific man is therefore unfair when he applies his methods to the examination of re-ligious questions. The large audience was highly edified with the Judge's clear, forcible, earnest and ex-haustive presentation of the subject. The music at the morning and evening serv-ices was an attractive feature of the session. It was furnished by the highly efficient choir of the church, assisted by Miss Leopold, in-structor of vocal music at Wilson College, who sang several beautiful solos with fine effect, Mr. Segrist, of Lebanon, playing the organ accompaniments. 1 » » CONCERT BT THE MUSICAL CLUBS. BRUA CHAPEL, TUESDAY, EIGHT P. M. The concert this year was a grand success in every way. The audience was without doubt the largest that has ever attended a concert by our musical clubs, and their ability to appre-ciate the selections of the clubs was shown by their judicious applauding, enthusiastic for the humorous songs, and appreciative for the more classic selections. The best selections render-ed were the opening ones of each part, "Schu-bert's Serenade," arranged by C. Kuntze, and "Lead Kindly Light," by Dudley Buck, al-though the humorous encores seemed to elicit the heartiest applause from the boys. Our glee club is to be congratulated upon its excel-lent taste in the selection and rendition of music that is undoubtedly far above that sung by the average glee club; and the college may well feel proud in having had a glee club of such pronounced ability during this year. Four of the eight have been graduated this commencement, Messrs. Ott, White, Arm-strong and Manges, and they will be greatly missed. Our hope is that the next year's class may have excellent material to fill the breach, The stage on Tuesday evening was very taste-fully decorated with potted plants, palms, with the class flower of '97, the daisy. The whole affair was one of beauty, both to the eye and ear. PROGRAMME. PART I. i. Schubert's Serenade, - - arr. C. Kuntze GLEE CLUB. 2. The Serenade, VIOLIN CLUB. 3. Recitation—The Swan Song, Miss GERTRUDE SIEBER, 4. Solo—The Old Grave Digger, • A. G. Henderson MR. MANGES. 5. The Phantom Band, - ' - - A. W. Thayer GLEE CLUB. 6. Violin Solo-Obertass, - - - H. Wieniawski MR. ERDMAN. THK COLLKGK MERCURY. ,r- Lead Kindly Light, Dudley Buck Selected Franz Abt GLEE CLUB. 2. Quartette—(Instrumental) VIOLIN CLUB. 3. Solo—Because I Love You Dear, Mr. NICHOLAS. 4. The Wandering Minstrel's Patrol, - Willis Clark GLEE CLUB. 5. Quartette—(vocal) Selected. Messrs. NICHOLAS, WHITE, KOLLEB and MANGES. . 6. Good Night, - Frank Thayer GLEE CLUB. ORGANIZATIONS. GLEE CLUB. 1st Tenors, C. M. Nicholas, '98 17. W. Ott, '97 1st Bass, E L. Roller, '98 C. T. Lark, '98 2nd Tenors. C. G. White, '97 E. A. Armstrong, 2nd Bass, Lewis C. Manges, '98 Harry Musselman. VIOLIN CLUB. H. B. Erdman, '96 C. T. Lark, '98 John M. Gates, '01 A. T. Smith, '00 ELOCUTIONIST, Miss Gertrude Sieber, '97 PIANIST, Geo. A. Englar, '97 JUNIOR ORATORICAL CONTEST. BRUA CHAPEL,, WEDNESDAY, IO A. M. The contest this year, by the six members f the class of '98, for the Recklig prize iu ora-tory, has been pronounced, by those who are competent judges of such matters, better than any for the past few years. There were but Ex contestants, three from each of the Liter-ary societies, but the number was large enough |o make the exercises interesting and not tire-me. The music for the intermissions was famished by the Harrisburg orchestra. The attendance was very large, and, with the ex-ception of the stir and bustle made by those coming and going, excellent order was ob-served throughout. It might be well to say, a word, to the coming Junior class, that they fcould do well to start early to make their preparations for next year's Junior Oratorical, and not only get their best men to compete, put also see that these men do their best. PROGRAM. MUSIC—' Gay Coney Island March"—M. Levi. PRAYER. MUSIC—"Anita" (Mexican Waltzes)—Barnard. The New Slavery, CHARLES E. FLECK* New Kingston Tragedies of the Present. CHARLES M. NICHOLAS,! Beerett, Md. MUSIC—A Kansas Two Step—Pryor. The Emancipation of Cuba, CHARLES B. KEPHART,* Taneytown, Md. True Nobility, ALBERTUS G. Fuss,t Williamsport, Md. MUSIC—Intermezzo (Cavalleria Rusticana)—Mascagni. America's Noble Son, IRA G. BRINER,* New Bloomfield The Present Social Discontent RALPH L. SMITH,! Pittsburg MUSIC—March, "The Girl of '99"—Zickel. BENEDICTION. *Phrenakosmian. fPhilomathsean. The judges, Dr. Weigle, of Mechanicsburg, Pa.; Rev. A. R. Steck, pastor of St. James Lutheran church, Gettysburg, and Rev. D. W. Woods, pastor of the Presbyterian church, Gettysburg, made their decision as follows : REDDIG PRIZE IN ORATORY. IBA G. BEINEB, New Bloomfield, Pa. WITH HONOEABLE MENTION OF CHAELES E. FLECK New Kingston, Pa. CHAELES M. NICHOLAS Beerett, Md. Mr. Briner's oration, "America's Noble Son," is published in the Literary Department of this issue. CLASS DAY EXERCISES. COLLEGE CAMPUS, WEDNESDAY, 2 P. M. To some, these exercises by the graduating class constitute the most enjoyable feature of the whole Commencement. And they really are a diversion from the somewhat heavy na-ture of the matter of Commencement week. It lias been the custom to hold the exercises on Tuesday evening of Commencement week, but the change to Wednesday afternoon, has certainly been to make it more convenient for everyone concerned. On the occasion of this year's Class Day exercises, everything seemed to join to make them successful in every way. The afternoon was the most pleasant that could have been desired—not too warm and a slight breeze through the branches above the speakers' platform and the audience made these out-door exercises a delightful affair. 82 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. The platform was decorated with the '97 class colors, nile green and pink, and with potted plants, and the class flower—the daisy. Benches and chairs were provided for the large crowd that was present and all were comfort-ably fixed. The music was furnished by the Commencement Orchestra. The Seniors, in cap and gown, were all seated on the speakers' platform, and certainly made an imposing spectacle. In spite of the general strain of humor and roasting notice-able in all the speeches, there was nevertheless an under-current of sadness at parting, deep down beneath this gay exterior of mirth. Many of the parts were excellent, and we are sorry that space will not permit our pub-lishing several of the papers, for a very meagre idea of the character of them can be gotten from the program. PROGRAM. Muster 01' Ceremonies,.:.: :.: :::: BIKLK MUSIC. Class Roll ^!V.K-.::-.:::::y.v.w.v.-.-.v.-:.v.v. WHITE Ivy OMitIo&i:::'.v.»»i:»u:s'.u.'.u»usisn ENGLAR Ivy Poem,.; :.OTT MUSIC. . Ciass History,. '■■'■ • KAIN Class Poem FRIDAY-Our Absent Ones, BUTTON ■ MUSIC. The Loving Cup ERB Conferring of Degrees , MILLER Miintlc Qrationv, .'. LEISENKING Junior Response LABK MUSIC. Presentation of Gifts,. WOLF Prophecy WHEELER MUSIC. At "the close of the exercises, after the mo-tion for adjournment had been put and passed, the class yell was given. (LASS AND FRATERNITY BANQUETS. TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY & THURSDAY NIGHTS. This Commencement was made especially interesting by the several reunions of classes and fraternities, thus bringing back to the old walls those who have been away for many years. Three of the classes, '82, '87 and '93 held reunions, and two of the fraternities, the Alpha Tau Omega, and the Phi Delta Theta. The seniors, also, held their banquet, Thursday night. THE FIRST REUNION OP '93. TUESDAY NIGHT. [Written for the MERCURY by Rev. Diffenderfer, '93.] In reply to the call of the Secretary of the class, Rev. A. J. Rudisill, of New Bloomfield. twenty of the survivors of the class assembled at the Eagle Hotel, on Tuesday evening, June 1st. At 8 p. m., they attended the concerto: the musical clubs in Brua Chapel, in a body. There was a strong temptation to renew old-time customs and habits when some familiar faces entered. An occasional "guy" and out-burst of friendly joking, and a hearty applause for the clubs were the only features of interest. Immediately after the concert was over, the class gathered at the tower door of the chapel and gave their good old yell with a vim and ring, that made the dead spirits of former days arise and hover about them in eager expecta-tion for some old-time trick, or class-rush. At 10.00 p. m., all went to the dining hall of the Eagle Hotel to partake of the splendid "banquet" which "Mine host" Eberhart had prepared. The dining hall was beautifully decorated with plants and palms, and bloom-ing flowers. In the centre of the room, at tie head of the table, was placed a beautiful dis-play of colored electric lights, on a background of Class colors. The bill of fare was elabor-ately prepared, and served in the best style. Mr. Eberhart and his efficient corps of waiter-did all they could to make the banquet a grand success. Well, did we have any fun? There U Niels L. J. Gron, our Danish brother, with his sedate and dignified bearing; dreaming of some fair and beautiful form which had presented to his sight in some far off across the sea. "Niels" looks as genteel refined as ever, ready at a moment's noticett| say "maecanos el evis," etc. Then "Bisl Grimes' calm, sedate, peaceful countenance wondering why Prof. Himes didn't call 011M to recite, as it was his "turn up," and Frank' THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 83 Melanchton Bortner with his favorite ■Penn'a Dutch" brogue, saying to Dr. Martin, "I am sitting on the front row, and never of-fered any criticism, but made that noise.'' And I'Judge" Alleman, with his serious counte-lance and dignified demeanor, wondering 'What the deuce we can get up to start a racket." And "Bill" Vastine, the Catawissa iase ball magnate, singing his beautiful ('falsetto," to "The Old Oaken Bucket," and leclaring that either he or Prof. Nixon must |ake more physical exercise, or travel with a Dime Museum. Then think of "Sail" Tur-ber "kicking" about the bill of fare not pro-biding the extras, "Mumm's Dry," etc., rais-ing a row about everything in general, then laughing at the excitement he had caused. Ime old "Ajax," boisterous and demonstra-te Andrew Jackson Rudisill, who always vas the "noisiest" man about the Dormitory. Then all the others, Geesy, Kline, Hilton, 3aum, "Neudy," "Whiskers" Ehrhart, oh, they were all boys back to college again, and "Diff," the Proctor, as lenient as ever. A beautiful menu card had been engraved by E. A. Wright, the class cut on first page, ind menu in class colors next, toast and offi-cers following: Toast master, Hilton. "Our First Reunion,'' E. Gettier; "Our Alma Mater," G. M. Mffenderfer; "The Future Prospects of a Col-lege Widow," E. E. Parsons; "Daw: What it is, and What it Does," F. M. Bortner; "The Traveller in all Eands," N. L. J. Gron; "Gos-pel: What it is, and what it Does," M. J. nine; "Eife in a University," E. E. Seyfert; "The Blessings of a Bachelor," E. E. Neude-vitz; "High Eife at Washington," J. C. Bow-rs; "Fun we had in College," W. M. Vastine; "Pleasures of a Doctor's Eife," M. S. Boyer; "What '93 Did for Athletics," G. E- Hipsleyj 'Our Honored Dead," W. H. Ehrhart; "Our lost," A. J. Rudisill. In the "wee small" hours of the morning ye adjourned, after having passed a Resolu-tion to meet again in 1900, the same commit-tee to be continued. What a pleasure it was to meet again amid these old familiar scenes; even the town "kids" recognized us and shouted "there goes '93." Let us all endeavor to be present in 1900, if we live, and make it the occasion of our life, and aii epoch in the history of the College. REUNION OP '82. [Written for the MERCURY.] The reunion of '82 was held at the Eagle Hotel, on Wednesdaj' evening of Commence-ment week. The menu was excellent—such as the Eagle knows how to arrange—and all the old fellows who were back enjoyed this part immensely. The banquet was not marked by its lengthy addresses or "toasts," but there was a general good social time had, and the whole affair was very informal. Of course we all had to tell what happened since we met last, and this really constituted a greater pleasure than "toasts" would have af-forded. The proposal of a reunion at Phila-delphia in the near future was met with ap-plause. Of the twenty-three living members of the class, there were thirteen present at the banquet. . REUNION OF '87. [Written for the MERCURY by Rev. H. C. Allemau, '87.] The announced reunion of the class was abandoned because so few of the boys could be present at Commencement this year. Charles E. Stahle, Esq., invited the six faithful who made the pilgrimage to his home Wednesday evening, where an impromptu reunion was en-joyed. Those present were Parr, Crouse, Sny-der, Snively, Wolf and Alleman. After re-freshments the silver class-cup was presented to Harold F. Snyder, the first son of'87, born May 19, 1891. Regrets were read from Hol-zapfel, Coover, Croll, Brame, Fishburn, Fisher, McDermod, Dreibelbis and Bateman. "Non vi sed saepo cadendo" was again ex-tolled, and pledges made for social meetings every year and a reunion every decade. ALPHA TAU OMEtJA BANQUET. WEDNESDAY NIGHT. The Banquet was held at the Eagle Hotel at 11.30. Many of the Alumni of the Chapter ,84 THK COU,EGK MKRCURY. were present, making an attendance of twenty-three in all. The toasts were as follows : Franklin Menges, Ph. D., '86, Toast Mas-ter; Geo. M. Hosack, Esq., "TheFraternity;" L. DeWitt Gerhardt, Esq., '84, "Our Early Days;" Morris T. Brown, '92, "A. T. O. in Business;" F. M. Bortner, Esq., '93, "A. T. O. in the Professions;" Win. O. Nieklas, Esq., '94, "College Reminiscences of an A. T. O.;" W. H. Menges, '96, "The Spirit of Our Alumni;" C. B. Erb, '97, "Our Ladies;" J. A. McAllister, '98, "The Goat." PHI DELTA THETA BANQUET. WEDNESDAY NIGHT. The Hotel Gettysburg was the place of the banquet. The Ahunni of the Chapter helped to add to the spirit of the occasion by their presence. The toasts were as follows : Rev. H. H. Weber, Toast Master. "Why We are Here," Rev. L. S. Black, '88; "Our Position in the Fraternity World," J. S. Eng-lish, '94; Our Alumni Phi's," G. H. Eckels, '95; Our College Phi's," J. H. Beerits, '99; "A Phi's Start in Life," J. W. Ott, '97; "Our Bumper Billy," B. F. Carver, '00; "My New Guardians," Rev. M. J. Killian, Va. Alpha; "Phi Recollections," B. R. Lantz, '94; "Next Year's Chapter," J. C. Markle, '00. SENIOB CLASS BANQUET. THURSDAY NIGHT. A very fitting close to the existence of '97 at Gettysburg, was the Banquet held at the Hotel Gettysburg, on Thursday night. The intention was to have a final reunion of the class and its ex-members before the class leaves. Ten ex-members were invited to be present, some of whom responded. The Ban-quet was a purely informal affair, its object being, as expressed by one of the Seniors, to have "a good time;" and from all accounts they had it. There were twenty present, and little informal addresses were made by R. N. Stable, H. Sheely, and C. G. Smith, M. D., ex-members of'97, and by C. B. Erb, White Hutton and P. J. Shriver, of the graduating class. The menu was an excellent one, and from many sources and for many reasons, we know that everybody had "a good time." (OHMENCEM ENT ORATIONS. BY THE TEN MEMBERS OF THE GRADUATING! CLASS, BRUA CHAPEL, THURSDAY, 9 A. M. Up to Thursday, the weather during Com-I mencement week was of the finest, but on the■ morning of Commencement day, it rainedl quite heavily for some time. However, the I audience that assembled in the Chapel to hear the orations, did not seem to be at all fright-ened by the unfavorable condition of the elej rnents and the Chapel was well filled. ORDER OF EXERCISES. MUSIC—March "Corps do Sards"—Oodfrej. PRAYER. MUSIC-Melody in F-Eu.binstein. Latin Salutatory GEORGE F ABEL, Philadelptil Chri-tian Socialism, ELKANAH M, DUCK, Spring Mill The Extiniof the Laborer'sGrievance, ARTHUR B. COBLE, Lyki«| MUSIC— "Pilgrim Chorus" (Tannhaonser)—Wagner. The Unification of Science GEORGE HAY KAIN, Vat| State Politics in Pennsylvania,.HORACE E. CLUTE, Harriskil The Chief Religious Problem of the Age, HENRY R. SMITH, Chamberslui|| MUSIC—March, "The American Girl"—Herbert, Physical Training for the Twentieth Century, CLIFTON G. WHITE, Manhtii| Greece and the European Concert, ROBBIN B. WOLF, Gettysbnil MUSIC—"Bolero" (Spanish Dance)—Moszkowsky. Sixty Years of Queen Victoria, A. GERTRUDE SIEBER, Gettysbin| The Curtitls for To day, with Valedictory, HENRY WOLF BIKLE, Gettysteq| MUSIC -"Im Tiefen Keller" Fantasie—Lovenberg. CONFERRING OF DEGREES BY THE PRESIDENT. MUSIC-March, "Old Club "—Schremser. BENEDICTION. HONORS AND PRIZES. FIRST HONOR. HENRY WOLF BIKLE Gettysburg. GEORGE F. ABEL Philadelphia. ELKANAH M. DUCK Spring Mills. SECOND HONOR. HORACE E. CLUTE, Harrisburg. G. HAY KAIN York. ANNA G. SIEBER, (two years) Gettysburg GR/EFF PRIZE, FOR BEST E9SAV ON 7HE RELIGIOUS FAITH OF ROBERT BURNS. AS SHOWN IN HIS PO*' GEORGE F. ABEL Philadelphia. | WITH HONORABLE MENTION OP HENRY WOLF BIKLE Gettysburg. THE COEEEGE MERCURY. 85 HASSLER GOLD MEDAL, JUNIOR LATIN PRIZE. B>MUND W. MEISENHELDER York. WITH HONORABLE MENTION OF b. L. KOLLER, Hanover. BtALPH L. SMITH Pittsburg BAUM SOPHOMORE MATHEMATICAL PRIZE. feRTHUR S. BRUMBAUGH Roaring Spring. BOS. N. K. HICKMAN Steelton. WITH HONORABLE MENTION OF &ACOB D. SNYDER McKnightstown. J(HIX F. STALEY, Middletown. [WHEN 0. DIEHL Bedminster. MUHLENBERG FRESHMAN PRIZE. FOR BEST GENERAL SCHOLARSHIP. OTHER A. WEIGLE Mechanicsburg. WITH HONORABLE MENTION OF [WILLIAM W. FREY York. BEDDIC PRIZE IN ORATORY. [iKA G. BRINER ; New Blcomfield. WITH HONORABLE MENTION OF EA.RLES E. FLECK, New Kingston. 3ARLES M. NICHOLAS, Berrett, Md. ♦—♦—♦ I GRADUATES AND HOME ADDRESSES. BACHELOR OF ARTS. George Ferdinand Able, Philadelphia, Pa. [Ernest Adelbert Armstrong, Hellam, Pa. [Henry Wolf Bikle, Gettysburg, Pa. :harles Roy Coble, Eykens, Pa. jthur Byron Coble, Lykens, Pa. Elkanah Maximillian Duck, Spring Mills, Pa. [George William Englar, Linwood, Md. Frederick Whipp Friday, Jefferson, Md. White Hutton, Chambersburg, Pa. Bamuel Jacob Miller, Edgemont, Md. John William Ott, Rocky Ridge, Md. Pearl Johnston Shriver, Gettysburg, Pa. Anna Gertrude Sieber, Gettysburg, Pa. Henry Rouzer Smith, Chambersburg, Pa. William Rufus Stahl, Hay's Mills, Pa. Philip Thos.Em'y Stockslager,Funkstown,Md. William Edward Wheeler, Baltimore, Md. [Clifton Glemm White, Manheim, Pa. [obbin Bayard Wolf, Gettysburg, Pa. BACHELOR OF SCIENCE. Horace Edwin Clute, Harrisburg, Pa. Charles Eeroy Boyer Erb, Boyertown, Pa. George Hay Kain, York, Pa. Fran'l'n Schoch Eeisenring,Chambersburg,Pa. r^wis Clarence Manges, Felton, Pa. John Elmer Meisenhelder, Hanover, Pa. Class Motto—Pertinax Animo. Class Colors—Pink and Nile Green. Class Flower—Daisy. Class Yell— Pertinax Animo, Rah ! Rah !.! Rah ! ! ! Ninety-Seven, Ninety-Seven, Gettysburgia. ~*-~^ ♦- DEGREES CONFERRED. COMMENCEMENT DAY JUNE 3. A. M. Prof. H. A. Allison, '94, Rev. R. W. Mottern, '94 " c- p- Bastian, 94, • koehuer, c f. Burns, p Herman, 1. f. Brown, r f. Spealman, r. f Wolf, 1. f. Loudon, r. f. Lawyer, r. t Gettysburg College, Opponents, 273 ::s 63 269 19 12 S". .11 .125 .875 .292 .171 .340 .233 .304 .222 .000 .200 .000 .143 .231 .15fi Pastor of the Quincy charge, in Franklin ounty, Pa. '94- Rev. Matthew S. Kemp, of Hazleton, Pa., has received a call from Smithsburg, Pa. Mr. Kemp graduated last week from Gettys-burg Seminary. '94. Fred. Bloomhardt, of the University of Pennsylvania, spent a short time at his home Tiring the latter part of May. >" AMERICA'S NOBLE SON. JNIOR PRIZE ORATION BY I. G. BRINER. We are to-day standing upon sacred ground. Q the war of '63 these hills and mountains echoed and re-echoed with the cannon's awful roar. For three days the mighty columns of the Southern Confederacy surged against our hues. Sometimes our phalanx faltered. Some-times it broke. But in the final and awful charge, made by Pickett's men, victory was forever emblazoned upon our immaculate ban-ner. To-day, behold ! how changed. The gory and tattered flag has been cleansed by more than three decades of sweet peace and wel-comed prosperity. In our National Cemetery those, who loved their country and their homes better than their lives, now repose in silent sleep. Their tombs are covered with earth's richest mantle. By their side stand stately trees with waving boughs and wide spreading branches. Over them the happy children scatter fragrant flowers, while the sun looks down, from the vaulted sky, and smiles. The relatives and friends of the heroes come close to those mounds and shed a loving and parting tear. But even weeping will not make sacred this ground. In his dedicatory speech Abraham Lincoln said, "We cannot hallow this ground, the brave men living and dead who fought here, have hallowed it far above our powers to add or detract." Not only do we revere and honor the meni-of those who sleep here, but we would hold in grateful remembrance every man who has p'-oven a friend and defender of our national faith and honor. Many there are to whom we can point with pride. Men, who, on the bat-tlefield, exhibited the greatest skill, bravery and courage. Those, when duty called, pressed forward into the thickest of the con-flict, that our freedom might be won and our beloved Union preserved. Those, when en-trusted with national honor, had dignity and manhood enough to keep it pure and unsullied. Among the host of such Americans shines, in undimmed splendor and glory, the name of* Ulysses S. Grant. His deeds of courage and bravery, his genuine high statesmanship and Christian character will ever be remembered and held in high esteem by all men who love the land of the free and the home of the brave. In our sister state, only four weeks ago was dedicated to his memory a beautiful and mas-sive memorial. By this act a premium was placed upon the actions of great and good men. This silent witness, as its beauty is reflected in the peaceful waters of the Hudson, is but a slight token of the Nation's gratitude for him. Historians tell us, as a soldier General Grant stood without a peer. To him was entrusted the closing scenes of an awful conflict. In him the nation saw a leader fearless and un-daunted as well as tender and kind. When his forces stormed Fort Donelson with heavy charges, the commander asked for terms. THE COLLEGE MERCURY General Grant replied : "No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I purpose to move immediately upon your works." On the other hand, when Lee was over-powered and the Southern army shattered, it was General Grant who proposed that the soldiers who had horses should retain them. He said, "The men will need them in plowing their fields, when they return to their homes." During the four years of this civil strife he had the confidence and esteem of soldiers and officers. With a unanimity that was never disturbed by an audible voice of dissent, the two million veterans gave to him supremacy over all the other officers under whom they served. The battles of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania, Cold Harbor and Five Forks have immortalized his name among the greatest generals of the earth. How beautiful thus to see blended in one man true humanity, mingled with pure patriotism and undaunted courage. When our beloved country was yet tremb-ling and groaning from the shock received by the Civil war, news came to General Grant that he had been nominated for President of the United States. In his letter of acceptance he penned the words which are sweetest to those who have seen the horrors and ravages of war: ' 'Let us have peace.'' But this man was opposed to even having peace until he was sure it would be universal and abiding. Later in his official capacity he affirms that he would have "no policy to enforce against the will of the people." His entire adminis-tration is a living testimony that these words came forth from a heart radiant with truth. The character of this great man stands out clear and strong. Those that know him best saw in him a man in the truest sense of the term. Other men might be swerved from the path of duty by the temptations so numerous and strong in public life, by disappointed and coveting office seekers, by streams of immor-ality and waves of infidelity, but General Grant turned these discouragements and sins into stepping stones by which he arose to where his character to-day shines with tin-dimmed luster. When he assumed the functions of the Presi-dential office his highest ambition was to prove a worthy and trusted leader. He had learned through the great and far-reaching lessons taught by Jesus of Nazareth, "he that is greatest among you shall be your servant." He possessed abiding confidence! the honesty and intelligence of his coiuitr men, and always retained his deep holdup their affections. With Washington and Li: coin, Grant has an exalted place in our com try's history. When his monument was dedicated tha were present representatives from all brands of our Government, the resident officials < foreign nations, the Governors of the state and the sovereign people from every sectio of our common country. What a glowii tribute thus to pa}' to one who has reachedti; highest pinnacle of human distinction. Tt story of this man's life is worthy the conten plation of the ages. Now that beautiful memorial, honor of this General, Statesman, and Christian Gentleman, risees majesty before us. May it thus point us a individuals, and as a nation, to a higher splie of living, and clearer and more sublime fellow-ship with the God who rules the destiny rf Nations. erected i: President in siletl STATE POLITICS IN PENNSYLYANIl SENIOR ORATION, BY HORACE E. CLUTE, ') In examining the political situation in Pen sylvania we must feel, first of all, the needo! liberal point of view. If our position be thati patriots, we must consider all sides. It is nea less to say that this is, in its very nature, « a party question but one appealing to the leji imate interest of every loyal citizen of ti "laud of Penn." At a time when so much:: terest is being taken in the political affairs! our own Commonwealth, a broad basis for criticism must seem important. A certain gree of conservatism on the one hand, anda the other, an insistence on a full and da light on every part of our political svstea should characterize our consideration. In a question of this kind, the compart view will be found helpful to the broader bas we have referred to. What conditions at problems are met and settled in other state Nor need our range be confined to this con-try. European systems will be found uioreo less rich in political suggestion, when co: pared with our own. And we can readilyni derstand how a foreigner should be able! take this comparative view better perhaps tb any of us. The question touches us • closely. Professor Bryce, an Englishman eminence, furnishes, in his "American Cd THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 9i The! IS legit- I lb stec rafc bas ; as .ate :oE mi co: yd ile: tkjl ■an |Cc: I mwealth," an excellent illustration of this, onsiders the working and conditions of j"r political institutions in relation both to Hose of his own country and to each other in |e different sections and Commonwealths in ,is country. He says: "The spirit and force fcarty has, in America, been as essential to lie action of the machinery of government as team is to the locomotive engine. His view i briefly this: "in Europe the parties stand for jiiciples, in America they do not;" in the one 1'issues have never been lacking which Sought their respective principles into opera- En:" in the other "the chief practical issues which once divided the parties have been set-fled." In spite of the heated discussion and the definiteness in issue of the last-presidential campaign, we Americans cannot deny that fhere is much truth in his view and particu-larly as applied to State politics. What great principle does the Republican or the Demo-cratic party stand for in State elections? Does the citizen vote on some State issue or because R: wants his party to get the spoil? Bryce aptly says: "Bringing men up to the polls is like passing a stone roller over stones newly laid on a road." As the angularities in the stones are pressed out so individuality is merged into party. We fear this is what has happened very largely in Pennsylvania. Yet if asked to analyze the present political condition, we should say that it is perhaps nearer a transition, a revolution, from the existing order of things, than a solid-fying in them; recent indications seem to point in that direction. Prominent among these we might mention the withdrawal from power of a. U. S. Senator whose sway has extended for a number of years; though a candidate put forward by a boss took his place it was not without comparatively formidable opposition and the absence of the impliciteness with which many former behests were obeyed; and it is believed by some that if brought up now this candidate could not be elected. It is prob-ably true, as some one suggests, that the pres-ent legislature —the House at least—is more its own than in some former sessions. Citizens Reform Leagues and Associations, though aim-g more especially at municipal reform, show a marked tendency, not always appearing on e surface, to wipe out political corruption. The recent formation of Business Men's Leagues throughout the State, whatever news-papers may say about the aims of the leaders Jf the movement, shows a rebellion on the part 'fa very substantial proportion of our citizen-ship against the existing order of things. The recent exposure, on the part of contractors and others in possession of the facts, the waste of the people's money in "padded" bills, appro-priations, &c, may also be added to the gen-eral indications. We may think that a great hue and cry is raised about the corruption and degradation of Pennsylvania politics, and that the real con-dition is exaggerated. Perhaps the way to get anything like an accurate idea, is to investigate along the line of just what a real reform would mean, how many points it must touch, and how fundamental it must be, to cope with the enormousness of the task. It is not an overstatement to say that the system of bossism has in this State received flattering encouragement. (It is a continuation of the medieval "sale of indulgences" and we need a Luther to expose it!) It is the people we ought to censure, to censure the boss is a waste of breath. Yet we would not say this without two words, one as to the boss, the other from the side of the people. To one who says to us : "We need men of executive ability, bosses if you please," it is sufficient to reply simply by distinguishing the term "leader and boss;" by the former is suggested the idea of one who by natural selection or otherwise leads a new movement, by the latter the foreman of a gang of foreign laborers out in some Western railway cut; the arguments of the one are listened to; the orders of the other are mechanically obeyed. Why do the people endure it? Well, first of all, they have arrayed against them a machine, and to resist its clock-like movement is 110 easy matter. You will perhaps meet one class of persons who speak of "necessary evils." We deny their existence ! There is no reason under the sun, save the weakness of men, why our Commonwealth should not be a perfect Utopia! Eltwood Pomeroy, in the April Arena, char-acterizes another class." "I know of men," he says, "honest, honorable, capable, who have refused to vote for over a quarter of a century. They say it is no use." As cit-izens, however, we must remember that the use of that silent weapon, the ballot, is not only a privilege but a duty. Let us be sure that there are thousands in Pennsylvania who have not in their heart of hearts bowed the knee to the Baal of bossism. Perhaps no bet-ter counsel can be given to the true citizen than the words of the poet: "Be noble and the nobleness that lies In others, sleeping but never dead, Will rise in majesty to greet thine own." ADVERTISEMENTS. Classical Course for the Degree of A. B. II. Scientific Course for the Degree of B. S. III. Post-Graduate Course fcr the Degree of Ph. D. IV. Special Course in all Departments. V. Elective Studies in Junior and Senior Years. VI. New Testament Greek and Hebrew in English Bible Departinj Observatory, Laboratories and new Gymnasium. Four large buildings. All b heated with steam from central plant. Libraries, 25,000 volumes. Fine Museum. Expi low. Department of Hygiene and Physical Culture in charge of an experienced physid Accessible by frequent railroad trains. Location, on BATTLEFIELD of Gettysburg;" pleasant and healthy. PREPARATORY DEPARTMENT, in separate buildings, for I and young men preparing for business or college, under special care of the principal andtl assistants, residing with students in the building. For full particulars, apply for catalog^ HARVEY w. MCKNIGHT, D. D., LL. D., ?m\ F@ras]?(]w*iiiiia (MUtege, Gettysburg

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Oddarahatti microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 546 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soils , 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 4 per cent by habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 30 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 6 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 89 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 15 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 80 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 29 per cent are moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 25 per cent are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) and 42 per cent are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in 66 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is high (>57 kg/ha) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 78 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 17 per cent soils.  Available sulphur is low (320 ppm) in the 1 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 89 per cent and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 70 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 53 (10) 200 (37) Sapota 16 (3) 180 (33) Maize 37 (7) 217 (40) Pomegranate 16 (3) 229 (42) Bajra 122 (22) 300 (55) Musambi 32 (6) 213 (39) Groundnut 22 (4) 323 (59) Lime 32 (6) 213 (39) Sunflower 28 (5) 156 (28) Amla 97 (18) 423 (78) Red gram 12 (2) 154 (28) Cashew 5 (1) 179 (33) Bengalgram 48 (9) 294 (54) Jackfruit 16 (3) 180 (33) Cotton 28 (5) 225 (41) Jamun - 190 (35) Chilli 18 (3) 187 (34) Custard apple 119 (22) 401 (74) Tomato 50 (9) 155 (29) Tamarind - 101 (18) Brinjal 87 (16) 215 (39) Mulberry 70 (13) 273 (50) Onion 22 (4) 232 (42) Marigold 1 (<1) 253 (46) Bhendi 22 (4) 280 (51) Chrysanthemum 1 (<1) 253 (46) Drumstick 70 (13) 192 (35) Jasmine 1 (<1) 204 (38) Mango - 85 (16) Crossandra 1 (<1) 222 (41) Guava - 195 (36)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SILENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The results indicated that among 35 farmers, 17 (48.57%) were marginal farmers, 10 (28.57 %) were small farmers, 2 (5.71 %) were semi medium farmers, 1 (2.86%) medium farmers and 5 (14.29 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 128 population households were there in the studied micro-watershed. Among them 64 (50 %) men and 64 (50 %) were women. The average family size of marginal farmers was 4, small farmer was 4, semi medium farmer was 4 and for landless farmers it was 4.  The data indicated that 22 (17.19 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 49 (38.28 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 40 (31.25 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 17 (13.28 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Oddarahatti had 27.34 per cent illiterates, 35.16 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.16 per cent of them had both middle school and high school education, 6.25 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.78 per cent them had Diploma education, 7.81 per cent of them had degree education and 0.78 per cent of them had masters education.  The results indicated with reference to occupation of the household showed that, 54.29 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 2.86 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers, general labour, in Government service and in private service respectively. 8.57 per cent of the households were doing trade and business and 11.43 per cent of them were housewives.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 50.78 per cent of the household members, 1.56 per cent were agricultural labourers, 3.13 per cent were general labours, 1.56 percent were in government service, 1.56 per cent of them were in private sector, 4.69 per cent of them were trade and business, 19.53 per cent of them were students and 9.38 per cent were housewives.  In case of landless households 10.53 per cent were agricultural labourers, 15.79 per cent were general labour, 5.26 per cent in government service, 15.79 per cent were in trade& business, 21.05 per cent ware housewife and 26.32 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 60.94 per cent were agriculturist, 1.56 percent was in government service, 3.13 per cent were in trade and business and 18.75 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 55.88 per cent of them were agriculturist and 20.59 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 50 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 12.50 per cent of them were students.  The results showed that 3.13 per cent of them participated in self help groups, 0.78 per cent of them participated in cooperative bank. Landless, semi medium farmers and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. 2 Marginal farmers and small farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions.  The results indicated that 97.14 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 2.86 per cent of them possess Thatched house. 100 percent of the landless, marginal and small farmers possess Katcha house.  The results showed that 88.57 per cent of the households possess TV, 54.29 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.71 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 45.71 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 85.71 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 2112, mixer grinder was Rs.1121, refrigerator Rs.13500, bicycle Rs.1000, motor cycle was Rs.29250 and mobile phone was Rs.800.  The results indicated that about 22.86 per cent of the households possess plough, 14.29 per cent of them possess bullock cart, 14.29 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 5.71 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 62.86 per cent of the households possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.660; the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 22000, the average value of sprayer Rs.2480, the average value of weeder Rs. 39 and the average value of chaff cutter Rs.3000.  The results indicated that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 5.71 per cent of the households possess local cow. In case of marginal farmers, 29.41 per cent of the households possess bullock and 5.88 per cent of the households possess local cow. In case of small farmers, 20 per cent of households possess bullock. In case of semi medium farmers, 50 per cent of the households possess bullock and local low respectively.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro-watershed was 1.23, average own labour (women) available was 1.03, average hired labour (men) available was 7.53 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.37.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.24, average own labour (women) was 1.12, average hired labour (men) was 4.94 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.82. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.10, average own labour (women) was 0.90, average hired labour (men) was 10.70 and average hired labour (women) available was 12.20. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.50, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 12.50 and average hired labour (women) available was 10. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 10. 3  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate About 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 100 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and medium farmers have opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Oddarahatti micro-watershed possess 21.17 ha (71.84 %) of dry land and 8.26 ha (28.06 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 8.45 ha (91.25 %) of dry land and 0.81 ha (8.75%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 10.70 ha (86.01%) of dry land and 1.74 ha (13.99 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.02 ha (66.67%) of dry land and 1.01 ha (33.33%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.69 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 318724.91 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 363235.29. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 408313.36 for dry land and Rs. 494000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 261573.37 for dry land Rs. 746744.19 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247000 for dry land and Rs. 494000 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 170344.82 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 6 functioning and 7 defunctioning bore wells in the micro-watershed. The results indicated that, there were 2 functioning open wells in the micro-watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the irrigation source for 17.14 per cent of the farmers and open well was the source for 5.71 per cent of the farmers. The results indicated that, in case of semi medium farmers there was 1.01 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (3.94ha), cotton (1.77ha), crossandra (0.81ha), horse gram (1.32ha), maize (9.72 ha), navane (1.21 ha), papaya (0.91 ha),red gram (3.78 ha), sorghum(0.45 ha) and sugarcane (1.01 ha). Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sorghum, crossandra and Redgram. Small farmers have grown Maize, cotton, horse gram, navane and red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown Maize, bajra, and red gram. Medium farmers have grown papaya.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Oddarahatti micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent in marginal farmers, small farmers, semi medium farmers and medium farmers respectively.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have bank account and savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 60 percent of them possess both bank account and savings. 88.24 per cent of small farmers possess both bank account and savings correspondingly. Semi medium farmers possess 50 per cent of both bank account and savings respectively and medium category of farmers possess 100 per cent of bank account and also savings. 4  The results indicated that, 60 per cent of landless, 88.24 per cent of marginal, 100 per cent of small, 50 per cent semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 56.67 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank, 16.67 per cent have availed loan from money lender and 3.33 per cent have availed loan from commercial bank, input dealers/ suppliers and SHGs/CBOs respectively.  The results indicated that,, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs.62666.67, Rs. 80500, Rs50,000, and Rs. 100000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro-watershed is 63166.67.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production. The results indicated that, agriculture production, Construction-house, Construction-cattle shed and other reasons were the main purpose for which marginal, small farmers, semi medium farmers borrowed loan. About 71.43 percent of loan was taken for agriculture production and 14.29 per cent of the farmers taken loan for construction-house, Construction-cattle shed and other purpose respectively.  Results indicated that 38.89 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially and 55.56 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 5.56 per cent of the households were fully paid their loan.  Results indicated that 28.57 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially, 57.14 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 14.29 per cent of them fully paid their loan.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 16072.05. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21880.63. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 5808.58, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.36. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 18362.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35368.63. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 17005.84. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.93.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 10533.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31122. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 20588.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.95. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 18020.16. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26596.61. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 8576.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.48.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 17906.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31578.54. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 13671.95. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.76. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Horse gram was Rs. 12039.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31271.56. The net income 5 from Horse gram cultivation was Rs. 19232.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.60.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sugarcane was Rs. 220236.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 978120.00. The net income from Sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 757883.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.44. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 20286.97. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48946.79. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 28659.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.41. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for crossandra was Rs. 41401.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 97330.35. The net income from crossandra cultivation was Rs. 55928.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.35.  The results indicated that, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. Among overall households 23.56 per cent of the marginal farmers, 30 per cent of small farmers and 50 per cent of semi medium farmers were opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The results indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 16514.29, business Rs. 17571.43, wage Rs. 23971.43, agriculture Rs. 81182.86, farm income Rs. 3,800 and dairy farm Rs. 414.  The results indicated that, 74.29 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 76.47 per cent marginal farmers, 100 per cent small farmers, semi medium farmers and medium farmers respectively. The results indicated that for 68.57 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for land development. Similarly for the dependency was for irrigation facility was 77.14 percent and 20 percent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, chilly, cotton, Horse gram, Kanakambara flower, maize, navane, papaya, red gram, sorghum and sugar cane crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Only bajra was sold to the extent of 98.15 per cent.  The results indicated that, 11.43 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchants and 77.14 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets. The results indicated that 75.51 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 28.57 per cent have used tractor.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing. The results indicated that, 25.71 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 11.76 per cent of marginal, 60 per cent of small farmers, and 50 per cent of semi medium farmers.  Results showed that summer ploughing was adopted by 82.86 per cent of the households i.e. 94.12 per cent of the marginal farmers and 100 per cent of the small and semi medium farmers respectively. Form pond was adopted by the farmers was 2.86 per cent. 6  The results indicated that 14.29 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by the government, 2.86 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by the farmer's organization and another 5.71 per cent is constructed by others.  The results indicated that, 74.29 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel, and 25.71 percent of the households used LPG. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent which includes 100 per cent of landless, 94.12 per cent of marginal, 100 per cent of small farmers, semi medium and medium farmers respectively.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light which was found to be 97.14 per cent and 2.86 per cent of the households were used kerosene lamp as a source of light.  The results indicated that, 48.57 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 40 per cent of landless, 41.18 per cent of marginal, 50 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 11.43 per cent of the sampled households not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 51.43 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 8 per cent of the landless, 47.06 percent of the marginal, 30 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of cereals, pulses, milk and egg were adequate for the households. Vegetables and fruits were adequate only for 5.71 per cent and meat was adequate for only 2.86 per cent for the households respectively.  The results indicated that, both vegetables and fruits were inadequate for 94.29 per cent, of the households. Oilseed was inadequate for 5.71 per cent. Meat was inadequate for 97.14 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 60 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field and frequent incidence of pest and diseases (77.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (74.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals and high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.86 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (85.71%), inadequate extension services and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (82.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (2.86). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ballary-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 606 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 92 per cent is covered by soils, five per cent by rock out crops and 2 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 18 soil series and 35 soil phases (management units) and 10 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 0.75%) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 20 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 73 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 21 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 30 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 72 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 14 (2) 269(44) Pomegranate 8(1) 68(11) Maize 8(1) 279(46) Guava 8(1) 45 (7) Bajra 50(8) 239(40) Jackfruit 8(1) 45(7) Redgram 8(1) 50 (8) Jamun - 53(9) Bengal gram 6 (<1) 277 (46) Musambi 8 (1) 68 (11) Groundnut 30(5) 161(27) Lime 8(1) 68(11) Sunflower 8(1) 65 (11) Cashew 8(1) 65(11) Cotton 6 (<1) 276(46) Custard apple 56(9) 278(46) Chilli 8(1) 177(29) Amla 50(8) 284 (47) Tomato 8(1) 177(29) Tamarind - 49(8) Drumstick 20(3) 53 (9) Marigold 8(1) 275(45) Mulberry 49(8) 102(17) Chrysanthemum 8(1) 275(45) Mango - 49(8) Jasmine 8(1) 252(42) Sapota 8(1) 45(7) Crossandra 8(1) 193(32) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 10 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Drainage line treatment and Soil and water conservation treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Results indicated that 37 farmers were sampled in Bellary-3 micro watershed among them 5 (13.51%) were marginal farmers, 13 (35.14%) were small farmers, 10(27.03%) were semi medium farmers, 4 (10.81%) were medium farmers and 5 (13.51%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 179 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 115 (64.25%) men and 64 (35.75%) were women. The average family size of landless and small was, semi medium and medium farmers were 5 and Marginal farmers were 6.  The data indicated that 22 (12.29%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (49.16%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (27.93%) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (10.61%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Bellary-3 had 32.96 per cent illiterates, 19.55 per cent of them had primary school education, 13.41 per cent of them had both middle school, 14.53 per cent them had high school education, 7.26 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.56 per cent them had Diploma education and ITI, 6.15 per cent of them had degree education, 1.68 per cent of them had masters education and 3.35 per cent them had others.  The results indicated that, 75.68 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 16.22 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 8.11 per cent of the household heads were general labour.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 60.89 per cent of the household members, 6.70 per cent were agricultural labourers and general labours, 0.56 percent were in household industry, 4.47 per cent of them were in private sector, 15.08 per cent of them were students and 3.35 per cent of them were children.  In case of landless households 20 per cent were agricultural labour, 60 per cent were general labourers and 20 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 76.67 per cent were agriculturist, 3.33 percent was in private service and 20 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 68.97 per cent of them were agriculturist and 5.17 per cent of them were agricultural labours, and 18.97 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 70.59 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 5.88 per cent were general labour and were in private service and 3.92 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 50 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 10 per cent were general labour, 20 per cent were students and 20 per cent of them were in private service.  The results showed that 1.12 per cent of them participated in self help groups and 98.88 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. 2  The results indicated that 81.08 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 8.11 per cent of the households possess Pucca house and 8.11 per cent of the households possess Semi Pacca house.  The results showed that, 2.70 per cent of the households possess radio, 59.46 per cent of the households possess TV, 24.32 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 27.03 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 37.84 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 97.30 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of radio was Rs.500, television was Rs. 3409, mixer grinder was Rs.1033, bicycle was Rs.1400, motor cycle was Rs.35000 and mobile phone was Rs.1398.  About 18.92 per cent of the households possess bullock cart and plough, 13.51 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 70.27 per cent of the households possess weeder, 5.41 per cent of the households possess thresher and 29.73 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.16000; the average value of plough was Rs. 1133, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 2300, the average value of weeder was Rs. 32, the average value of thresher was Rs. 500 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 1327.  The results indicated that, 37.84 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 32.43 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.70 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow and 5.41 per cent of the households possess poultry birds. In case of marginal farmers, 40 per cent of the households possess bullock and 20 per cent of the household possess local cow and poultry birds respectively. In case of small farmers, 38.46 per cent of households possess bullock, 46.15 per cent possess local cow and 7.69 per cent possess poultry birds. In case of semi medium farmers, 40 per cent of the households possess bullock, 30 per cent of the household possess local cow and 10 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow. In medium farmers 75 per cent of the households possess bullock and 50 per cent of the household possess local cow.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 6.72, average own labour (women) available was 4.25, average hired labour (men) available was 8.41 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.16.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 3, average own labour (women) was also 1.40, average hired labour (men) was 9.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.60. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 13, average own labour (women) was 8.31, average hired labour (men) was 9.92 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.85. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.20, average own labour (women) was 1.60, average hired labour (men) was 6.90 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.20. In medium farmers average own labour men 3 available was 2.25, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 6 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.75.  The results indicated that, 86.49 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Bellary-3 micro watershed possess 29.40 ha (55.96%) of dry land and 23.14 ha (44.04%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.10 ha (70.61%) of dry land and 0.88 ha (29.39%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 18.41ha (95.79%) of dry land and 0.81ha (4.21%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 7.27ha (40.35%) of dry land and 10.74 ha (59.65%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 1.62 (13.13%) of dry land and 10.71ha (86.87%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 302,629.41 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 395,293.31. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 664,999.99 for dry land and Rs. 1,540,896.49 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 255,255.06 for dry land Rs. 988,000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 302,561.25 for dry land and Rs. 325,612.05 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 370,500 for dry land and Rs. 326,719.58 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 14 functioning and 4 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 37.84 per cent of the farmers and 2.70 per cent households were using open well for irrigation.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 27.51 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.40 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 1.62 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 8.10 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 12.11 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 22.23 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (3.24 ha), groundnut (10.26 ha), maize (37.65 ha), paddy (0.81 ha) and tomato (0.54 ha) in kharif season. Farmers grown bajra (1.62 ha) and sunflower (0.40 ha) in Rabi season. Also grown groundnut (2.83 ha) in summer season. Marginal farmers had grown maize, tomato and groundnut. Small farmers had grown bajra, groundnut and maize. Semi medium farmers had grown Bajra, groundnut, maize and sunflower. Medium farmers had grown groundnut, maize, paddy and tomato.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Bellary-3 micro watershed was found to be 83.06 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers it was 81.04 , in semi medium farmers it was 91.19 and in medium farmers it was 69.68 per cent. 4  The results indicated that, 83.78 per cent of the households have bank account and 2.70 per cent of them savings. In land less farmers 80 per cent of the household possess bank account. Among marginal farmers 60 percent of them possess bank account and 20 per cent of the household possess savings. 92.31 per cent of small farmers possess bank account. In semi medium farmers possess 80 per cent of them possess bank account and medium category of farmers possess 100 per cent of bank account. The results indicated that, 80 per cent of landless, 60 per cent of marginal, 92.31 per cent of small, 80 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 3.23 per cent have availed loan from friends/ relatives and 9.68 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank.  The results indicated that, semi medium farmers have availed Rs.52500. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 13,548.39.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production.  The results indicated that, 100 percent of loan was taken for household consumption.  Results indicated that 100 percent of the households have unpaid their institutional loan.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households have partially paid their private loan.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 18425.71. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31260.94. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 12835.23, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.7.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 31011.05. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 43640.22. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 12629.17. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.41.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 33295.80. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37297.00. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 4001.20. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.12.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 44988.36. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 104414.40. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 59426.04. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.32.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 47943.10. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 103740.00. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 55796.90. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.16.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Tomato was Rs. 102707.41. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 335876.41. The net income from 5 Tomato cultivation was Rs. 233169.00. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.27.  The results indicated that, 43.24 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.11 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage Rs.66000.In marginal farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.16000, wage was Rs.39000 and agriculture was Rs.52240. In small farmers the average income from wage was Rs.8076.92 and agriculture was Rs.97480.77 and dairy farm was Rs.3826.92. In semi medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.15000, business was rs.12000, wage was Rs.22200 and agriculture was Rs.132600. In medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.218000, wage was Rs.5000 and agriculture was Rs.287500.  The results indicated that in landless, the average expenditure from wage was Rs.3333.33. In marginal farmers the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs.22200. In small farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.2000, agriculture was Rs.51464.54 and dairy farm was Rs.7666.67. In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from business was Rs.60000, wage was Rs.20000 and agriculture was Rs.65000.In medium farmers the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs.126250.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 65 coconut, 1 lemon and 7 mango trees in their field and also planted 2 coconut and 1 mango trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have planted 4 Eucalyptus tree, 56 teak trees, and 144 neem trees in their field and also grown 2 Neem tree in the their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 135.14 for improved crop production and Rs.81.08 for improved livestock management. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 384.62 for improved crop production and Rs.230.77 for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that for 2.70 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank for improved crop production and improved livestock management respectively.  The results indicated that, Bajra, sunflower and tomato crops were sold to an extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut, maize and paddy crops were sold to an extent of 97.68 per cent, 98.81 per cent and 70 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 2.70 percent of the households have sold their produce to agent/traders, 100 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant and 21.62 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets. 6  The results indicated that 2.70 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 100 per cent of them have used tractor and 5.41 per cent have used truck.  The results indicated that, 72.97 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 60 percent of marginal farmers, 84.62 per cent of small farmers, 90 per cent of semi medium farmers and 100 percent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 81.08 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 72.97 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 27.03 percent of the households used LPG.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 75.68 per cent, 16.22 per cent of them were using bore well and 8.11 per cents of the households were using lake/tank for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 86.49 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, marginal, small, 50 per cent of semi medium and 75 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.70 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 40.54 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless and marginal, 7.69 per cent of the small, 20 per cent of the semi medium and 50 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 91.89 per cent, 27.03 per cent, 81.08 per cent, 5.41 per cent, 75.68 per cent, 48.65 per cent and 21.62 per cent of the households respectively.  The results indicated that, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 8.11 per cent, 70.27 per cent, 16.22 per cent, 89.19 per cent, 18.92 per cent, 48.65 per cent and 72.97 per cent of the households respectively.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 81.08 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (83.78%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (62.16%), inadequacy of irrigation water (29.73%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (70.27%), high rate of interest on credit (35.14%), low price for the agricultural commodities (72.97%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (56.76%), inadequate extension services (10.81%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (67.57%), less rainfall (13.51%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (5.41%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project