Suchergebnisse

Issue 20.6 of the Review for Religious, 1961. ; Carl ]. P]ei]er, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 398 plan of all liturgical worship: 1) the service is begun with a reading; 2) after the reading follows singing; 3) and the service is ended with a prayer. Among the early Christians all prayer services and devotions were carried out accord-ing to this basic plan, and since the third 6r fourth cen-tury this has been the ruling principle of all liturgical services.-" Such a plan is not merely arbitrary, nor is an accidental or aesthetic arrangement of elements. Ac-cording to Father Jungmann: ¯. it is in character with the essential nature of the Christian plan of redemption. Our salvation, typified by the divine word which we receive in the reading, comes from God. It descends from heaven to earth and stirs within the hearts of the faithful the echo of song. Thereupon the prayers and petitions of the Christian community are gathered up and brought back to God on high by the priest. There is something dramatic about this arrangement; through it we actually come to realize what is meant in saying that the liturgy is the public worship of the Church? This structure--reading, song, prayer--is filled out ac-cording to basic themes central to Christian revelation. In the Christian message of salvation and the prayer of the Church, certain themes appear as focal, around which all other truths are centered and from which they receive their meaning.' One of these themes centers on the love and kindness God shows His people. Freely, out of love, He created man; freely and out of even greater love He has worked out man's salvation. Such generous and unmerited good-ness demands a response of love and thanksgiving. Grati-tude is thus ~een as a fundamental attitude of man, and more so of a Catholic: "O give thanks to the Lord, for He is good" (Ps 135:1). It is this scriptural theme of God's love calling forth our grateful response that runs through the proposed Thanksgiving Day "bible vigil." Perhaps a fuller explanation will be helpful. Reading God's plan of salvation is effected and manifested to us by His Word, and according to Scripture this redemptive plan is realized gradually. Somehow man's redemption was to be achieved through Israel, the Lord's chosen peo- -"J. A. Jungmann, s.J., Liturgical Worship (New York: Pustet, 1941), p. 67. Father Jungmann devotes most of this book to a dis-qussion of the basic liturgical groundplan. See also Louis Bouyer, Liturgical Piety (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame' Press, 1955). ~ Jungmann, op. cit., p. 80. * For a fuller treatment of the structure and themes of Christian revelation see Johannes Hofinger, S.J., The Art o] Teaching Chris-tian Doctrine (Notre Dalne: University of Notre Dame Press, 1957) and Mary Perkins Ryan, Key to the Psalms (Chicago: Fides, 1957). Most useful for constructing "bible vigils" is Reading the Word ol God by Lawrence Dannemiller, S.S. (Baltimore: Helicon, 1960). pie. After centuries of intimate relations with Yahweh, this nation brought forth a:Savior; from this race the Word Himself took flesh. And when in the fulness of time God became man, He suffered, died and rose from the dead that men might die with Him to sin and .rise with Him to forgiveness and grace. His redemptive activity continues on through the centuries in His new people, the Mystical Body of Christ, the Church. Finally, He is to come again bringing the divine plan to its fulfillment in the new and eternal Jerusalem. The .plan itself is one; likewise the revelation of the plan is unified in the unique Word of God. The Old Testament, then, is not just a collection of interesting and sometimes edifying stories, but the gradual manifestation of God's plan for our sal-vation. The God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob is also our Father in heaven. He is the one Lord of History, as the Church teaches us in the. liturgy of the Easter Vigil: "O God, we behold your ancient wonders shining even to our own time. For that which the power of your right hand did for one people in freeing them from Egyptian bondage you accomplish now for the salvation of all men by the waters of rebirth." Throughout the Old Testa-ment run basic themes "about God and man's relationship to Him. Although the stories vary,~ the basic relationships do not. Central to the religion o-f the Israelites was the belief that their God, Yahweh, moved by love alone, not-by any merit on their part, had called them, chosen .them out from among the nations, to be .His people_. "You shall be My people, and I will be your~ God" (Ez 36:26). The initiative was wholly on His~part. This call, given initially to Abraham, found its highest expression through Moses in the Exodus, the focal point of Jewish religious history. Their God saved them from slavery, destroyed their pur-suers, and leading them through the desert, formed and purified them into a nation, His chosen people, and fi-nally brought them to the promised.land. The initiative was all His. He perpetuated His call in a covenant with His people, a promise.eternally binding, freely offered out of love. This covenant was prepared for and initiated in the first act of creative love. It became more definitive in the Garden, then with Noah, later with Abraham, and finally with Moses. From then on, it was renewed ritually each yegr by the Hebrew people. Such a covenant renewal ceremony is found, in the book of Nehemiah, 9: 1-55. This then will be the first selection to be read. It is a prayerful remembrance of God's initia-tive in. forming and saving His people, a remembrance of His covenant, His love. After a short period for silent, prayerful reflection on the first reading, a selection from the New Testament is ÷ ÷ ÷ Thanksgiving Da~ Service VOLUME 20, 1961 399 Carl ]. P~ei]er, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS read. It indicates the continuation of God!s plan and its culmination in Christ. In Nehemiah the ritual renewal of the covenant-between Yahweh and His people is re-corded in which' the fundamental beliefs of Israel's reli-gion were proclaimed to the assembled nation. These same ideas are fundamental to our belief, for, as we saw, God's salvific plan continues into our era and culminates in Christ. What went before Christ was not accidental to God's plan, and hence, not accidental to our own reli-gious education and worship. Rather it was a preliminary stage, preparatory to the coming of the great High Priest and His priestly people. In Him all history finds its mean-ing. This is the substance of what is expressed in the second selection, taken from Paul's letter to the Ephe-sians. For what God did for His chosen people through Abra-ham, Moses, and the prophets, He continues now in a more perfect manner for us, the new Israel, through Christ. The Jews wer6 set apart by Yahweh, a chosen nation; we are adopted as His sons, made members of His eternal Son, temples of His Spirit. The Jews He led out of Egyptian slavery; He frees us from the power of Satan. The manna of old is replaced by "bread from heaven," and the vague prophecies of the Old Law have given away to the full revelation of the Word. And in-stead of a promised land "flowing with milk and honey," we look forward to-the eternal banquet, where "eye has not seen, nor ear heard . " Such is the great love of our Father in heaven for us His new people. "He would have all future ages see, in that clemency which he shewed us in Christ Jesus, the surpassing richness of his grace" (Eph 2:8). Song Filled with the realization of the goodness of our Father, of His love for us sinful creatures, we sing out in gratitude, making use of Hig own revealed words, Psalm 135. Joined together in a worshipping community we re-spond to His word, which has just taken vital form through 'its proclamation in our midst. We sing now, the new Israel, an ancient Jewish hymn of thanks. And as it recalls Yahweh'S great deeds for His ~oeople, we make the words our own, singing our thanks for His even more wonderful deeds toward us. Our song of gratitude is rooted in faith, faith in the Word we have just heard. This faith is our response to God's call and covenant; it, is our total, personal commitment to our Father, a total giving of self to God in return for His gifts. As with Abraham and the Israelites, this faith is the fundamental virtue of our Christian life. God calls, elects, chooses. To him whom He chooses, He freely offers His graces, eve~ ! Himself. Our response is faith, belief in what He says, but also belief in Him, personal dedication to Him, flow-ing over into gratitude, confidence and joy? Prayer Our gratitude now takes the form of prayer. We exer-cise our priestly role, proper to us who share the priest-hood of Christ by our baptism and confirmation. And we enumerate with gratitude the gifts of the new covenant. God's plan of salvation, begun in the Jewish nation, cli-maxing in the Incarnation and Redemption of Jesus Christ, continues on to us through the Mystical Christ, the Church. It is only by pertaining to this Body of Christ that the saving action of God reaches us through Christ our Lord. Through membership in the new people of God we are in personal contact with our Redeemer. His word is proclaimed in our midst, His grace is shared with us in our personal encounters with Him in His sacra-ments. Through our union with Him we are enabled to offer our Father a suitable thank-offering, the Mass. And through our ever increasing share in His life we have al-ready a ~beginning of that glory which awaits us with Him in heaven. And all of this, prefigured in Yahweh's rela-tionships with His chosen people, is a completely free gift of our Father. United, then, in one worshipping commu-nity, we offer our thanks to our Father in our united prayer. Finally, after a moment of silent prayer following our vocal prayer, the priest gathers up our grateful expres-sions and offers them to God for us. Christ's mediatorship is continued through His ordained priests. They stand between us and God, not as barriers, but as the normal means by which God comes to us and we reach up to God. Through the priest His Word is proclaimed and finds living reality; through the priest Christ allows us to come directly in contact with Him in the sacraments--a per-sonal encounter between us and our Savior. And through the priest Christ offers our prayers to the Father. Hence the service ends with the priest's prayer as our representa-tive. The particular prayer chosen dates from the year 215 A.D. and was composed by Hippolytus of Rome as a sample that migh~ be used in the first Mass of a newly consecrated bishop. It is one of the earliest extant formu-laries for the Prayer of Thanksgiving, or Eucharistic Prayer, now more commonly called the Canon of the Mass. The text has been somewhat adapted for use in this "bible vigil"; the words of consecration, for example have been omitted, as have other references to sacrifice. What remains is a beautiful prayer of thanksgiving for God's ~ For,a further treatment of faith as a personal response to God, see Jean Mouroux, I Believe (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1959). + 4- 4- Thanksgiving Day Se~vi~e VOLUME 20, 1961 401 Cad 1. Pleiler, SJ. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 402 redemptive work through the llfe, death, and resurrection of His Son, Christ Jesus, our Lord. Such, then, is the suggested biblical-liturgical service. Its structure leads to an appreciation of the meaning and purpose of public worship, while its content manifests an essential theme of Christian life an.d revelation. In 'this case, the theme is suited to Thanksgiving Day, Similar "bible vigils" can be worked out for almost any occasion and allow for much variety within the basic group plan of reading, song, prayer. For example, a homily may be preached after the reading(s). And although the Psalms~. are admirably suited to such services, any hymn that fits the theme may be substituted. The priestly prayers of the Mass (Collect, Secret, Preface, Postcommunion) are a rich source of acceptable prayers, as is the Raccolta. And the service may be concluded with Benediction or some other suitable rite. For example, a service constructed on the theme of Baptism might fittingly be concluded with blessing and sprinkling with holy water. So much for the explanation of the ser.vice. The text follows in full, with hymns added at the beginning: and end to round out the basic structure. If used in full, it should take about twenty minutes; verses of the Psalms may be omitted to reduce the time. ENTRANCE HYMN: [stand] Psalm 22" (All sing the antiphon after the cantor and after each verse): HIS GOODNESS SHALL FOLLOW ME ALWAYS, TO THE END OF MY DAYS. My shepherd is the Lord; there is nothing I shall want. FreSh and green are the pastures where he gives me repose. Near restful waters he leads me, to revive my drooping spirit. [Antiphon] He guides me along the right path; he is true to his name. If I should walk in the valley of darkness no evil would I fear. You are there with your Crook and your staff; with these you give me Comfort. [Antiphon] You have prepared a banquet for me in the sight of my foes. My head you have anointed" with oil; my cup is overflowing. [AntiPhon] OThe text of the three psalms used in the service is taken from Joseph Gelincau, S.J., Twenty-Four Psalms and a Canticle (Toledo: Gregorian Institute of America, 1955) with permission of the pub-lishers~ Surely goodness and kindness shall follow me all the, days of my life. In the Lord's own house shall' I dwell for ever and ever. [An[iphon] To the Father and Son give glory, give glory to the Spirit. To God who is, who was, ,:and who will be forever and ever. [Antiphon] ' ¯ GOD'S GIFTS IN PREPARATION: [sit] Nehemiah 9: 1-15, 32.' ~ '~ ¯ Then, ~n the twenty-fourth day of this same month~ the men of Israel met together, fasting, and with sack-cloth about them, and sprinkled with dust, ~nd the whole breed of Israel severed itself from all contact with alien, folk. :. This was the prayer offered by the Levi.tes . Up, friends, .and bless the Lord, your God, as blessed he musE be from the beginning to the end of timel.,Blessed be thy. glorious name, O Lords that is beyond all blessing, and all praise! Heaven is of thy fashioning, and the heaven o~ heavens, and all the hosts t.hat dw~ell there, earth and sea~, and all that earth and sea hold; to all these thou givest the life they have; none so high in heayen but must pay thee worship. It was thou,-Lord God, that didst make' choice of Abram, and beckon ~him away from Chaldea, from the City of Fire. And now~ thou. wouldst call~ him Abraham; a loyal servant thou. did~st find him, and didst make a covenant with him, promising that his race should inherit the lands of .Chanaanite and Hethite, Amorrhite and Pherezite, Jebusite, and Gergesite. That promise, in thy faithfulness, thou didst make good, Thou hadst an eye for the affliction our fathers suffered in Egypt, an ear for their cry of distress at the Red Sea; the pride~of Pharao and Pharao's court and all his people, had not passed unregarded; there were porte.nts, an£ cnarvels, and thy name won renown, as it has w~on renown this day: Thou didst part ~the,w~ters.at their coming, so that' they crossed the sea dry-shod, didst hurl their pursuers into the depths of it, so that they sank like a stone be-neath the rushing waves. Thou thyself didst lead thy people on their journey, hidden by day in a pillar of cloud, by night in a pillar of fire, to light the path they must tread. There, on mount Sinai, thou didst keep tryst with them; thy voice came from heaven to teach them thy just decrees, thy abiding law with all its observance.s, all its wholesome bidding. There thou didst reveal to them ~ From the Old Testament, volume i, in the translation of Mo~: ~ignor Ronald Knox, Copyright 1948, Sheed and Ward, Inc, New York. , ,, + Thanksgiving Day Service VOLUME'20, 1961 ÷ ÷ ÷" Carl 1. Ptei~er, $.], REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 404 how thy sabbath should be kept holy; law and observance and award thou, through Moses, didst hand down to them. When they were hungry, thou didst give them bread from heaven; when they were thirsty, thou didst bring water out of the rock; and for the goal of their journey didst beckon them on to take possession of this same land, which thou hadst sworn .to give them . To thee, then, we turn, who art our God, to thee, the great, the strong, the terrible God, who didst not forget thy covenant, or the mercy thou hast promised. A MOMENT OF SILENT PRAYER [kneel] GOD'S GIFTS IN FULFILLMENT: [sit] Ephesians 1:3-14; 2:4-10.8 Blessed be that God, that Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us, in Christ, with every spiritual blessing, higher than heaven itself. He has chosen us out, in Christ, before the foundation of the wbrld, to be saints, to be blameless in his sight, for love of him; mark-ing us out beforehand (so his will decreed) to be his adopted children through Jes~us Christ. Thus he would manifest the splendor of that ggace by which he has taken us into his favor in the person of his beloved Son. It is in him and through his blood' that we enjoy redemption, the forgiveness of our sins. So rich is God's grace, that has overflowed upon' us in a full stream of wisdom and~ discernment, to make known to us the hidden purpose of his will. It was his loving design, centered in Christ, to give history its fulfillment by resuming everything in him, all that is in heaven, all that is on earth, summed up in him. In him it was our 10t to be called, singleff out before-hand to suit his purpose, (for it is he who is at work every-where, carrying out the designs of his will); we were to manifest his glory, we who were the first to set our hope in Christ; in. him you too were called, when you listened to the preaching of the truth, that gospel which is your salvation. In him you too learned to believe, and had the seal set on your faith by the promised gift of the Holy Spirit; a pledge of the inheritance which is ours, tO re-deem it for us and to bring us into possession of it, and so manifest God's glory . How rich Godis in mercy, with what an excess of love he lok, ed usI Our sins had made dead men of us, and he, in'giving life to Christ, gave life to us too; it is his grace that has saved you; raised us up too, enthroned us too above the heavens, in Christ Jesus. He would have all future ages see, in that clemency which he shewed us in~ Chri'st Jesus, the surpassing richhess of his grace. Yes, it was grace that saved you, with faith for its instrumen.t; it s From the New Testament in the translation of Monsignor Ron-aid Knox, Copyright 1944, Sheed and Ward, Inc., New York. '/ did not come from yourselves, it wa~ God's gift, not from any action of yours, or there would be room for pride. No, we are his design; God has created us'-in Christ Jesus, pledged to 'such good actions as he has prepared befor~- hand, to be the employment of ~3ur lives. OUR GRATEFUL RESPONSE IN SONG: [stand] Psahn 135 (All sing the following refrain after each phrase of the cantor): FOR HIS' GREAT LOVE IS WITHOUT END O give thanks to the, Lord for he is go~d, FOR HIS GREAT LOVE IS WITHOUT END. Give thanks to the God of gods . Give thanks to the Lord ,of lords . Who alone has wrought marveilous works . whose wisdom it was made the skies,. who, spread the earth on :the seas, . It was he that made ~the great lights,. the sun to rule in the day . the moon and the stars in the night,. The first-born of the Egyptians he smote . brought Israel out from their midst . arm outstretched, with power in his hand . He divided the Red Sea in two . made Israel pass through the midst,. flung Pharaoh and his ~orce in the sea,. Through the desert his people he led . Nations in their greatness he struck . Kings in their splendour he slew . He let Israel inherit their land . On his servants their land he bestowed,. He remembered us in our distress . And he snatched us away from our foes,. He gives food to all living things . To the God of heaven give thanks . OUR GRATEFUL RESPONSE IN PRAYER: [kneel] ~lifford Howell, s.J.~ Priest: O Lord God, we thank you. People: ~O LORD GOD, WE THANK YOU. Pr: We thank you *°that our Lord Jesus Christ still lives on in His Church. ~ The text of the people's prayer is qubt¢d with pei'mission of the publisher from the leaflet by Clifford H6well, S.J., You are Christ's Body (St. Louis: Pio Decimo Press, 1949), p. 3. ÷ Thanksgiving DWy Service VOLUME 20, 1961 4o~. 4, 4, + Carl 1. P]eif~r," $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 406 Pe:,.WE THANK YOU * .,THAT THROUGH HIS CHURCH *' HE CONTINUES HIS ACTIV-ITIES AMONG MEN. Pr: We thank You * that when the C[aurch teaches * it is Christ who teaches. Pe: WE THANK YOU * THAT WHEN THE CHURCH SACRIFICES * IT IS CHRIST WHO SACRIFICES. Pri We thank You Christ ~vho doe~ all these things * through the Church, His Mystical Body. Pe: WE THANK YOU * THAT~WE HAVE BEEN MADE MEMBERS * OF THIS MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST. Pr: We thank You * that as members of this Body * we can worship You through Christ our Head * in the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass. Pe: WE THANK YOU * THAT WE MAY OBTAIN ALL GRACES * FROM YOUR HOLY SACRA-MENTS. Pr: We thank You * that through Your Church we may attain to Eternal Life. Pe: O LORD GOD, WE THA.NK YOU~ * TO YOU BE PRAISE IN YOUR CHURCH * AND IN JESUS CHRIST * FOR EVER AND EVER. * AMEN. A MOMENT OF SILEN~ T PRAYER. OUR PRAYERFUL RESPONSE OFFERED TO GOD THROUGH THE PRIEST: [stand] Hippolytus oI Rome?° Priest: The Lord be with you. P~eople: AND WITH YOU ALSO. Priest: Lift up your':h~arts. People: WE HAVE. LIFTEI~ THEM UP TO THE LORD. Priest: Let us give thanks to the Lord. People: IT IS RIGHT AND JUST. Priest: We give thanks to You, O God, "through Your be-loved servant, Jesus Christ, whom You have sent dtoe eums eirn a tnhde smee lsassetn tgimere° so fto Y boeu or ucro usanvsieol.r Haned i sre- Your Word, inseparable from You; thrqugh Him You have made all things and in Him You are well pleased. You did send Him from heaven into, the womb of the Virgin; carried in her womb He was made flesh and was manifested as Your Son; being born of the Holy Ghost and,. of the Virgin. FulfilIing,your Will and acquiring for You a holyl people He stretched out His hands in suffering in~ lo The full text of this thanksgiving prayer can be found in J. A Jungmann, s.J., Public Worship (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1957j~] pp. 92-3.if' order that He might free from suffering those who believed in Him . He was handed over to volun-tary suffering to rob death of its power, to break the bonds of the devil, to tread hell underfoot, to give light to the just, to set up a boundary stone and an-nounce the resurrection . Remembering there-fore His death and resurrection., we thank You that You have considered us worthy to stand before You and to serve You. And we pray that You will send down the Holy Spirit on Your Church. Be-cause You gather all together in unity, we pray that You will grant the fulness of the Holy Spirit to all the saints., that their faith may be strengthened in truth, and that we may praise and glorify You through Your servant Jesus Christ, through whom honor and glory be unto You, O Father, with Your Son and the Holy Spirit in Your Holy Church both now and for ever and ever. People: AMEN. CONCLUDING HYMN: [stand] Psalm 99 (All sing the antiphon after the cantor and after each verse.): ALLELUIA, ALLELUIA, ALLELUIA Cry out with joy to the Lord, all the earth. Serve the Lord with gladness. Come before him, singing for joy. [Antiphon] Know that he, the Lord, is God. He made us, we belong to him, we are his people, the sheep Of his flock. [Antiphon] Go within his gates, giving thanks. Enter his courts with songs of praise. Give thanks to him and bless his name. [Antiphon] Indeed, how good is the Lord, eternal his merciful love; he is faithful from age to age. [Antiphon] Give glory to the Father AJmighty, to 'his Son, Jesus Christ, the Lord, to the Spirit who dwells in our heartsY [Antiphon] n For further information on "bible vigils" see "Organizing a Bible Vigil," by Kilian McDonnell, O.S.B., in Worship, February, 4. 1960, pp. 144-48 and the article by the present writer, "Popular 4. Devotions--a New Look!" to be published soon in Homiletic and Pastoral Review. Examples of such vigils can also be found in Wor-ship, January and March, 1959; March, 1960; January, 1961. Tiuml~giving Day Serv~e VOLUME 20, 1961~ 407 RICHARD M. MCKEON, S.J. ' Human Relations in Religion ÷ ÷ ÷ Richard M. McKeon, $.J., is the director of the Institute for In-dustrial Relations at Le Moyne College, Syracuse $, New York. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 408 The title of this article may seem strange to many. Cer-tainly a great deal has been written about the human factor as applied to the religious and the priestly life. But we wonder if there has ever been a systematic study of human relations in religion similar to the hundreds which are being made in the field of industry. Before me .is book, Human Relations in Management, numbering over 750 pages. Subject to correction, I doubt if there is a similar book concerning human relations in religious management. The following are some of the topics treated in the book: the human factor in industry, the philosophy management, conditions of effective leadership, motiva-tion and increased productivity, work group behavior, basic psychological factors in communication, the psy-chology of participation, dealing with resistance to change, empathy--management's greatest need. If great accent is being placed on human relations "as a systematic, develop-ing body of knowledge devoted to explaining the behavior of industrial man," should there not be a similar body knowledge based on the best findings of the behavioral sciences to explain the human relations factor.in religious and priests? The history of industrial relations shows how the human element was sorely neglected up to the start of the twenti-eth century. That was why in 1891 Leo XIII issued his famous encyclical letter On the Condition of the Working Class. Up to World War II there were some noted ad-vances in this field, as the Hawthorne Studies and the im-petus prompted by the passage of the National Labor Relations Act show. But from 1945 to the present the study and application of human relations in industry has been phenomenal. With these thoughts in mind I shall make comment on an article, "The Human Relations of a Foreman," pub-lished in the Monthly Letter of the Royal Bank of Canada for May, 1961. By applying some of the topics to the re-ligious and priestly life, the need for further exploration will be evident. "Why is the supply of men of supervisory capacity so thin?" Why have so many superiors in religion been lacking in the qualities which make for good administra-tion? Many answers will be given and I have listened to them for over forty years. Some will point out men who have been advanced with no worthwhile achievement behind them--merely because they were sources of no trouble. Is there also a chance that,administrative pro-motion in religion is connected with nepotism and cliques? It is true, of course, that the principles and rules of re-ligious life will sustain su~cient order in a community even under a poor administrator; the vow of obedience is the great foundation here. But in this article let us set aside the supernatural side and try to view human re-lations in the light of modern industry. Let us begin by remarking that just as a foreman in a factory needs "poise, wisdom, suppleness of mind, courage, and energy, besides the know-how of his technical special-ity," so also are these qualities to be hoped for in a su-perior. A superior is called upon to be an executive. Do the current methods of selecting a superior prove that he possesses executive talent for this or that particular position? Take, for instance, the priest who has charge of the ma-terial things in a seminary or a religious house where the teachers and students number one hundred or more, As far as shelter, food, and material services are concerned, such an institution is like a hotel. While custom, tradition, and discipline will keep things going, it is evident that such a priest would do a far better job if he had a course in hotel management. We all know the grand rush for our priests and religious to go on for higher studies in order that Catholic intellectual life be improved. This is to be commended. But is it not logical also to send those in charge of the ordinary living conditions of religious and priests to special studies to improve such conditions? Such training should result in better economical operation as well as in better living conditions. Have you ever tried to dry yourself with the moisture-proof towels found in certain communities? "Good human relations is people getting along well to-gether." It is not enough to rely on the religious or the priestly garb to command proper respect. Respect should b'e won by "intelligence, administrative competence, and the power to make men follow him~ because of personal attributes." All evidence of playing a policeman's role mnst be avoided. + + + Human Relations VO~-UME 20, 1961 409 4. o÷ R. M~ McKeon, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 410 Every religious and priest is a person; the superior must show a. sincere interest in each one; he must give him a sense of really belonging to the team--the institution under the superior's charge. The superior's chair must not be turned into a throne; around it there should be an atmosphere empty of fear but rich with sympathetic un-derstanding. "The best company to work for, and the company that gets the best work done, is the company with a strong company-group feeling." There are and will be divided religious communities; they are not pleasant places to live in.,How can such a situation be remedied? One answer is by superiors "who obtain the collaboration of people in their work-groups through loyalty and liking and coopera-tion." A superior will assign a subject a task; the subject will obey. But it is certain that the job will be better clone if the superior has excited enthusiasm, initiative, loyalty. "However.tall a man may stand in the hierarchy of management, he is not a successful executive unless he un-derstands the points of view and the problems of the rank and file of his workers." This statement is equally true of the religious superior. Unless his interest is sincere and sympathetic, subjects may do their work; but human na, ture being what it is, we wonder how good the work will be. ~A superior must prove himself superior; otherwise his authority is bound to suffer. It is necessary to strengthen that authority by personal performance and demonstrated ability, Good managers ask their workers for counsel and help. They know, that fine ideas are often buried in the mind waiting for the right tapping. The post-war growth of suggestion systems is proof that industry values the min'd of subordinates. It gives courteous hearing to such ideaS; it allows workers to take part in decisions. By such action workers feel that their jobs are important and that they share in responsibility. A few words abou~ discipline. In his own development, a manager should learn to obey. "But discipline is more than blind obedience. The word itself comes from ,the same root as the word 'disciple,' and a disciple is one who follows the teachings and the example of a respected leader." A good manager will have discipline because he is fair in the allotment of work and in the handling of grievances and because he inspires. He is not worried about "losing face" by appearing too human. In a crisis he will be forceful but friendly. The same things will be true of a good superior in reli-gion. Moreover, in his case there is the supreme examplel of Christ in His handling of His disciples to drive home many a lesson applicable to religious life. Christ con7 demned, sin; He had love and mercy for the sinner. "Probably foremost among the techniques of handling men is .the building of morale through praise and en-couragement. Commendation by a superior is of great consequence. It breeds loyalty and it inspires the worker to follow "through." Religious and priests are human and will remain so till their dying breath. Human nature likes encouragement especially when skies are dark. Religious and priests are also humble; when just praise from su-periors is lacking, they will console themselves by remem-bering the words of our Lord: ~'Even so you also, when you have done everything that was commanded you; say 'We are unprofitable,servants; we have done what it _was our du_ty to do.' " But praise justly won for doing one's duty weli means a. great deal in religious life. It does boost morale and it .strengthens self-confidence. It makes~a man willing to as-sume more difficult work. Moreover, when a superior gives credit to his community on the occasion of his in-stitution receiving public praise, he will build up initia-tive and a mutual sense of responsibility. I believe that the words of Peter F. Drucker, an. expert in management matters, should be applied to a religious superior. He writes: "Who is a manager can be defined only by a man's function and by the contribution he is expected to make. And the function which distinguishes the manager above all others is his educational one. The one contribution he is ~uniquely expected to make is'to give others vision and ability to perform:It is vision and moral responsibility that, in the last analysis, define the manager." In the previously mentioned textbook, Human R~la-tions in Management, over one hundred pages are de-voted to communication. I am willing to wager that no treatise on the religious life has a quarter amount of'this topic developed as it should be. If successful communica-tion is necessary for the functioning of industry, it should be equally, true for the religious life. Effective communication can build up a stronger com-munity spirit. How embarrassing it has been for religious and priests to be among lay people and hear, for ex-ample; that a new building will be built on the campus about which they have heard nothing. XVhen special work is assigned, it is,well for superiors to give the subject all information possible or refer him to one. who can help him. When information is passed through several superiors, measures should be'.taken to keep the original information intact. If the lower superiors are not able to explain clearly the.orders and policies of the "top brass," confusion will be more confounded among the rank and file. Communication is a two-way street. A good superior will listen to his subjects. Many have excellent brains + ÷ + Human Relations VOLUM.E 20, 196,1 ÷ ÷ 4. R. M. McKe~n~ $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 412 and are trained in special fields. To pose as all-knowing and not to recognize the interest and contribution of such subjects for the common good is a fatal error. As.I was writing this article, the new president of the college called a special meeting of the community to in-form them about plans for three proposed buildings and for the future development of the entire campus. Three members of the architect's firm spent over two hours ex-plaining intimate aspects of the plans and answering ques-tions. Then followed an informal discussion for another h6ur. As a result, the entire community has a greater in-terest. The president said very little outside of thanking the architects; but he was responsible for this excellent,job of communication. "Sound administration is the sum total of mature imagination, mature perception, mature judgment, and mature humanism." It is well to remember that maturity is not a matter of years of service but of mental develop-ment. It calls for self-discipline manifested by regularity in work habits, exactness in execution, and alertness; More-over "healthy self-criticism and continued willingness to learn are among the important attributes of the foreman" --and likewise for the religious superior. One purpose of this article is to call attention to the great number of books and magazines dealing with the human aspects of industry. In them will be found a wealth of material which can be applied to the religious and priestly life. It is also true that we of the Church, if prop-erly trained, can give to industry the constructive princi-ples of our Christian heritage: the Sermon on the Mount, for example; can be developed into a powerful treatise in industrial relations. What holds for leadership in industry is also true in religion. "Leadership means to initiate, to instruct, to guide, to take responsibility, to be out in front . The joy of leadership and the thrill of being in charge of a group of people does not consist in doing a terrific iob yourself, but in spending your last ounce of energy and encouragement to see the group crack through to success." There have been magnificent leaders in the priesthood and religious life as history testifies. But certainly the Church would make better progress in these critical times if our leaders were well vbrsed in human relations within their respective groups. If the development of human nature studies in industry can be of help to the Church, let us be humble and sincere in translating the best things into the priestly and religious life. SISTER MARTHA MARY, c.s.J. The, Wisdom of Praise Why is p?aise such a welcome sound in our ears? Is it be- Cause we are so egotistic or is it rather that we, as social beings, have such a deep need for the approval of others? St. Thomas remarks that dependence on others is typical of the rational creature. Security in the companionship of our family and associates is our first and most enduring need as a human being. No amount of food, entertain-ment, or suhshine will take th~ place of this ingredient of life. Every li¢ing person needs to know that he is loved and appreciated; and if such recognition is not forthcoming, life loses much of its meaning. He feels that he is'maimed in some interior and frightening way, for deep in his heart everyone agrees with the poet's words: "No man is an is-land." It is interesting to note that our Lord praised people without any hesitation. He praised the widow for her in-significant contribution in the, temple, Mary Magdalene for loving much, the centurion for his faith. What glow-ing words He had for St. John the Baptist, a supposed rivalI1 Sometimes He made these remarks in the presence of the person praised; sometimes not. What is important is that we know our Lord did communicate to others who were with Him the conviction that He appreciated them. He did it by words of praise in many recorded instances. True, He warned against flattery, but that was something quite different, the antithesis of praise--false praise. Jesus Christ was always the enemy of hyp.ocrisy; He was always on the side of truth because He is truth. The qnly true praise is truth. Thus flattery is ruled out from the start. How could it have any meaning when it has no basis in truth? Praise is based on real accomplishment or at least the capacity for ~ Lk 21 : 2-4; 7 : 44--~0; 7 : 9; 7 : 26-28. Sister Martha Mary, C.S.J., teaches religion and English at St. Jos-eph Academy, 1015 South Monroe Avenue, Green Bay; ,Wisconsin. VOLUME 20, 1961 41.~ 4. 4. Sister Martha Mar~ REVIEW ~:OR RELIGIOUS 414 this achievement; flattery is an appeal to another's vanity. Praise flows from principle; flattery comes from policy. Praise is genuine; flattery, is counterfeit. Yet, just as no one rejects all currency because he knows that counterfeit money is in circulation,, so no one would wisely reject all praise simply because flattery does exist. Praise is a great goo~ because it is the straightforward recognition of the cooperation of another with the grace of God. Every worthwhile deed a person accomplishes is brought to fruition under the grace of God without whom no one can do the ~lightest thing. This awareness of the good in others is made tangible by words of praise and by the pleasant relationship which these words set up. Praise be-comes the externalization of the empathy within the heart. It is a combination of joy, gladness, and great-heartedness. It is the visible expression of love and admiration. It is the positive keeping of the eighth commandment which is so closely connected with the great commandment. The Christian is so busy bearing true, glowing, enthusiastic witness to the neighbor that he chnnot bear false witness. To praise, then, is to be virtuous. But is praise not t~o be considered_ dangerous to hu-mility? Will it not be aft inducement to pride? Will it not draw us away from God and focus our attention on self? St. Thomas allays our fears on this point. He says that praise can be a very good thing, and this for several rea-sons. Rightfulpraise is iri reality the praise of God through whose power the good ~eeds have been performed. Sec-ondly, the praise of good may stimulate others to emulate these good acts. Finally, prhise is a means by which one can come to recognize good qualities in himself, the talents which God has entrusted to him. Once recognized, these talents can be developed and the person possessing them can thank God in all humility for the many gifts he has received. How could he be grateful if he did not know what God had given? Awareness brings gratitude. In these words, St. Thomas points out that praise is a means to an end; it i's not to be sought as an end in itself.2 God is the end, but praise is a very powerful stimulant to approach Him more quickly. The theological viewpoint receives strong support from psychologists who agree that vanity, conceit and other un-desirable qu.aliti~s flourish widely where recognitiofi is not given, for they serve as modes of self-defense when a per-son's sense of personal worth is or is thought .to be under attack. Humility flourishes best in an atmosphere of loving approval, and the normal means for making known this approval is praise. Regarding this, Sister Annette spoke at some length to religious superiors at the 1959 Institute of Spirituality: ¯ Summa theologiae, 1-2, q. 132, a. 2. All that you have to do to demonstrate that there really is no incompatibility between humility and a sense of personal' worth is to work very hard and consistently for a while at giv-ing your Sisters a sense of personal worth. Show your appreci-ation, of ~hat they are. doifig. Give. them praise whenever, p.os-s~ ble . And you will see more evidences of genuine humility than you did before this principle of psychology was applied so assiduously in your hguse. You see, it is the secure S~ster, the Sister who feels that she counts for something with her superior and with her community, who can afford to be humble. She is not continually being called upon to defend herself . A sense of p.ersonal worth is not only ~ao detriment to the virtue of hu-mility but it is also a natural help to. the .acquisition of humility.8 Father Nuttin notes that individual, actions tend to be repeated in .proportion to the success achieved: ~Experimental data about the way human personality de-velops from past experience show that normal forms of be-havi'our and the dyndmic forces which lie behind them, tend,to develop according to the success achieved; that is to say, forms of behaviour which lead to a satisfactory result are maintained by theoorganism, whilst the kinds of behaviour~ that end in fail-ure or a comparatively unsatisfactory result are increasingly eliminated.' If such is the case, ignoring good actiom, or worse yet, condemning them, may be a p6sitive deterrent to the praiseworthy development of another; Whether we wish to be or not, we constitute someone else's env~ironment. Now the question can be asked: Who should praise? Theologians and psychologists agr~ee that"~ tO produce its most desirable effects, praise must be given'by those who matter to us. Father Lord, in perhaps his greatest pamph-let, In Praise of Praise, comments thus: I should be quick to praise and eager to approve those who are connected with me by blood and kinship. The nearer the re-lati. onship, the more spontaneous and generous should-be my praise. I should gladly praise those who in the slightest .way depend on me. Their dependence extends to a real need for a state-ment that I like them and their work. I should be quick to notice and point out the good work of associates. Assoctation can easily turn out to be less the'occasion for friendship than for rivalry. That is tragic. Men and women thrive under the approval of those who work at their side. I am wise if I.praise those who are or could be my rivals. I may be sure the praise given to them is not stolen from me. Indeed, if I were to play a calculating and selfish game, I can remember that when I praise a rival and speak well of work that parallels my own, I am displaying my own generosity of soul.8 ~ Sister Mary Annette, C.S.J., "Environmental Factors Conditioning Personal Development," in Proceedings oI the 1959 Sisters' Institute o] Spirituality, edited by Joseph E. Haley, C.S.C. (Notre Dame: Uni-versity of Notre Dame Press, 1960); pp. 105-06. ¯ ' Joseph Nuttin, Psychoanalysis and Personality (New.York: Sheed and Ward, 1953), p. 185. ~ Daniel A Lord, S.J., In Praise o[ Praise (St.Louis: Queen's Work, 1953), pp. 47-8. + ÷ + VOLUME "20, 1961 415 $ist~ Ma~tha Ma~y REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 416 It is a known fact that many persons in the United States, even religious, go to 'a psychiatrist to have selbconfidence restored. How has it been lost? Might not a steady diet of apreciation have helped to prevent such personality starv-ation? The duty to praise is far'reaching indeed. It includes family, superiors, associates, everyone--in varying degrees. But for those in a pgsition of authority, the duty is more pressing because the results are more telling. What about religious superiors? Where praise exists, there is a smooth-running, happy community. Where recognition is never given, the virtue of the subjects is tested to the extremes; duty is made very difficult. A much-lo~ed superior general used to say to her subjects: "Do this, Sister dear, with the grace of God and your own smartness." She made her subjects feel that the cooperation they gave to God was tremendous and that they were great persons. They left her presence feeling that they could conquer the world for Christ. Deep in their hearts they felt, too, that perhaps their cooperation had been somewhat defective in the past, but that such a thing would never happen again. Such attitude of mind is healthy. Just the opposite is the de-flation felt when one has been told how inconsequential" one,s achievements and capabilities are. There is no to de better, just a dead feeling that one's clay feet match the rest of one's anatomy. There is always', the danger too, that since religious regard superiors the special representatives of God in their lives, unguarded and thoughtless remarks may be taken very seriously. The commitment of a religious demands excellence performance because what is done for Christ should be' perfection itself. However, a superior who takes the ex-cellent performance of her subjects for granted, does not establish a happy community feeling. The mere fact she provides a well-balanced diet for them, comfortable sleeping quarters, and the proper medicine for them when~ they are sick, does not compensate for a lack of confidence' and trust. Sisters value such comments as: "You did that well, Sister"; "I heard Dr~ Jones comment on your "The talk you gave at assembly was splendid"; "That apple pie tasted just like my mother's." When~ such remarks are made, the small talk of religious becomes, big talk because it makes each member feel that she is necessary person in her religious family, Does this mean that the praise must be all on the side the superior? Should the subject praise the superior? Ob-viously, since praise which is true praise is merely aspect of 19ve, the subject ought to show her appreciationl! for her superior. Too often this manifestation of regard classified as "polishing the apple" or "getting a stand-Yet, in religious communities no one ever aoes anyt alone. Subjects must back their superiors, not just from a sense of duty but in a happy manifestation of esprit de corps. This is best done when appreciation is shown on both sides; therefore, subjects ought not to fear to tell their superiors that a job has beefi well done, that they ap-preciate kindnesses. On the whole, superiors receive less praise than they should. They need kind words to counter-balance the worry and responsibility they have to shoulder. Superiors do a better job when they feel the warmth of subjects' love and admiration. When is the best time to praise a person? Obviously there is no pat answer for this; still it seems that praise should be given as soon as possible after achievement as it is a powerful tonic for relieving the fatigue concomitant with difficult work. It should be given, also in the tedium of steady progress toward distant goals, and it should be given at the moment of failure when discouragement may overwhelm one. In fact, there is no time unsuitable for praise; yet, it is of least value when it is prefaced by un-kind remarks simply because there is little likelihood that it will be believed. Praise, then, we may conclude, is a powerful incentive to virtue when it comes from one who matters to us, when it concerns a good action in an aspect of life which is im-portant to us, and when it is rightly timed. Praise is pre-cious and abundantly at hand. Then why is there so little of it in circulation? Observation will furnish the answer. Praise cannot thrive where there is selfishness, thoughtless-ness, and jealousy, It does not spring from misinterpreted moral principles. Praise is choked in the worldliness of our product-conscious age. All our superlatives have been cheapened in advertisements of such things as cars, beer, patent medicine, soap, and toothpaste. The people who invented these things have usually never been heard of. It seems that only diseases are named for their discoverers. Since the product has taken precedence over the person, we praise the product and ignore the person who devised it. This subtle and damaging form of worldliness can not only creep into religious communities but even thrive un-der the protection of ill-applied moral principles. The extent of the damage which results is almost impossible to gauge. This is true because very few people in the world have enough self-confidence to compensate for not receiving it from others. In our age, most people, rather than tending to pride, seem to be on the opposite side. They tend to be too afraid, infantile, immature, or in a Thomistic sense, pusillanimous. We are more like the man in the parable of the talents who buried his one talent. It is an odd, Jansenistic notion, I suppose, that makes many of us afraid to encourage others for fear we will make them ÷ ÷ Prate VOLUME 201 1961 proud. This is least likely to happen in our age. Rather we seem to need true encouragement to help us along the way.~ The need that is most basic,to our spirit is the need to be loved. We cannot live normally without it, It is being loved by others that gives us our sense of personal worth. Why should we hesitate to let this love shine through our words? Granted that praise does good to others. Does it help the one who bestows it? Yes. Praise dilates the heart. It fills us with love. It makes us outgoing. It makes us want to live life, not just to undergo it. Hearts that sing with praise are far removed from the dry rot of egotism. St. Thomas in explaining why God demands our praise and worship for Himself, underlines the fact that we are the ones who are benefited~ not God. Praise opens us up to God so that we can make contact with the divine. An analogous thing happens when we praise our neighbor. We praise God when we praise what He has made. Thus true praise finds its beginning in the worship of God. °Charles A. Curran, "Some Basic Factors in the Formation of Feminine Character and Spirituality," in Proceedings o! the 1959 Sisters" Institute o[ Spirituality, edited by Joseph E. Haley, C.S.C. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1960), pp. 59-60. 4- Sister Martha Mary REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 418 FATHER AIDAN, C.P. The Examination of Conscience Cemeteries are not, I suppose, places to which we would willingly go to 'pass our time. It is true that the grave-zligger in Hamlet sang at his grave-making, but theh 'custom hath made it in hima property of easiness"; less frequent visitors find light-heartedness the least of their emotions. If the churchyard is well=kept, colorful, and dive with flowers; the contrast between what it looks like ~nd what it serves' as is themore marked; if on the other ,Land it is neglected and untended, theatmosphere of g'en;., eral mournfulness and melancholy befitting the place is dl the more enhanced. No doubt Gray's "Elegy" has done .nuch to contribute to this association of ideas, but the ,~ensive sadness he found in his churchyard is a feeling =ommon to nearly all. I wonder whether a religious about to make his examen ¯ f conscience ever finds himself oppressed by much the ame sensation. Here we are---daily invited to 'attend and :arefully inspect the tombs of our buried ~hopes, our luickly perished good resolutions, our infant virtues; to emember carefully all the ills and diseases that did them o swiftly to death, and thereby to guard more effectively ,gainst the future attacks which we know to be inevitable. 1~o return again and again to the scede of so many defeats, o behold repeatedly evidences of such .feeble efforts--it an be a depressing pilgrimage, so depressing that th6 de- ,otion essential to any pilgrimage quickly evaporates,and ve fall into a routine performance of a task which ought o be, must be, fulfilled: And: tlien, perhaps, our resolutions, like everything me-hanical, begin to wear down. We become less convinced ,f the utility of the practice;, after all, we know ourselves ~retty welt by flow, so wliavis the point of this cons'~ant elf-analysis? Our duties keep us busy, our day is a full ohm, ,nlooked-for circumstances rob us of our precioffs~ mo-aenis; they surely can not be squandered on so profitless ÷ ÷ ÷ Father Aidan, C.P., teaches English at. St. Gabriel's College, Blythe Hall, Orraskirk, Lancs., England. VOLUME 20, 1961 419 Father Aidan, C.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 420 and dispiriting an employment. It can well be treated more cursorily, shortened, even omitted altogether. We are amazed to read what great store has been set on the examen by spiritual writers-~quite reputable ones, too~ and we can only feel that they are given to pious exaggera-tion. Yet for all our specious reasoning, the examen is an es-sential feature in our spiritual life, Perhaps it is not merely our practice of it, but our attitude towards it that stands in need of re-orientation. Perhaps we should remember more firmly that it represents not a solo effort with our-selves as judge and jury, plaintiff and defendant, but a joint partnership between ourselves and Christ. After all, the dead we mourn in our own little cemetery were also once His. He is concerned about all those abortive efforts, those frustrated failures, those sadly neglected promises. The sorry wreckage we contemplate so ruefully is not merely the ruin of our own hopes; it is also the thwarting of His loving desires for us. If we remember His presence,~ His concern in what we do, then perhaps we shall not find it too heart-breaking or too strength-sapping a task. When we look out of a window at a view beyond, we, are really lo~king at two things. We see the window itself,I and through it we see the landscape. Our gaze, it is true,,, is focused on the view, and we are aware of the windowl only secondarily, in a vague sort of way. Further, the more magnificent and appealing the view, the less conscious we are ot~ the intervening glass. There is a certain analogy here with our examen. Our souls should be like clear glass, through Which can be seen the magnificent spectacle of God. Too often, however, that unclouded pane becomes speckled and spotted with dust and dirt, so that it steadily grows opaque. It is to removing the source of that dirt that our examen is directed, so that~ we may look beyond to the splendor of divine brightness, Obviously, to clean merely for the sake of cleaning, like a fussy house-proud housewife, is a soulless occupation. The window is cleaned so that it may be seen through-~ that the beholder may gaze in full enjoyment at the beauty beyond. And when we are once convinced that the view is really worth looking at, surely we labor more eagerly at the window cleaning. In other words, when we attend to keeping clean the window of our soul, we must have our gaze steadily focused on the sight of our Divine Lord beyond. We should not rest in a sterile contemplation of our own limitations-- that way lies discouragement--but should compare them, at once with the unlimited virtues in the Sacred Heart Of Christ. He can, and He will, help us to remove those limitations, if we sincerely will to allow Him to do it. The sincere will to let Him have His way--perhaps i.t, ~as been the lack of this that has made our examens in the past so tedious, so disheartening, so~ fruitless. So easy to allow a gush of self-pity to drown the good resolution; so easy to stand idle, paralyzed with dismay, at the revela-tion of our utter weakness; so e~igy to forget our Divine Partner in the examen, that "combined. operation" that is nothing less than the accomplishment, together with Him, af the redemption He has died to bring, us. This should be remembered even if our examen ,has lacked more than sincere good will, and has been only a perfunctory formality--a mere lip-service without any ,eart-searching.: A few pet imperfections hurriedly re-clewed, their number estimated vaguely if at all, some nechanical acts~of sorrbw and petition, and we rise hastily _o get on with the real business of the dayRsomething for which we can see some positiveresult and tangibl~.fruit Of :ffort. Never a substitute for sincerity; formality has, llere ~. fossilizing effect; every subsequent examen only serves _o add a further stratum in the soul and renders future ~clamation more and more remote. Yet if with us works Dne for whom no obstacle exists, save only in our own tardened wills, we can not doubt the outcome. ~ There can be no excuse of "parvity of matter"~in our .elf-analysis. We are never likely to run short of raw ma, erial.'Our vows, our duties, the virtues we should practice, ,ur attitude to and our contacts with our neighbor--all ,r0vide us with food enough for reflection, and after re, iection, action. If it seems otherwise, then we know with ertainty that we are deceiving ourselves. Five loaves and wo fishes seemed at first a scanty meal for a few men; yet, _~lessed by our Divine Lord, they provided ample nourish- ,-tent for five thousand--and still there were left twelve ~askets of fragments. If we complacently survey our soul :nd can see little therein to engage our attention for long, ;'e need the blessing of Christ upon our efforts to detect ,ur infidelities; then we shall be kept busy indeed. Our poverty, for instance--what can we check on there? .~o great breach, perhaps, but are there no ,lesser infideli-ies? A practical distrust of Providence, for example; else ;,hy do we so often hoard up so much for such~remote ontingencies? How about our spirit of detachment? Why 11 those knick-knacks and bric-a-brac that so drearily ollect the dust in our rooms? They would be at home no loubt in a drawing room, but in a religious cell?. "But, ,f course, I should willingly give them up if the superior sked me for them." And how likely is that? Superiors rave surely more sense than to ask their subjects for lbums-of photographs, tawdry little souvenirs, showy ittle gewgaws, or even that battered copy of the New I'estament, guarded so jealously since profession day-- or its sentimental value only. VOLUME 20, 1961 ÷ ÷ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ~ Or, as superiors, have we put purposes before persons; The purpose we have in mind, that is, before the .persons we should have in mind, those under us whom we are responsible to bring closer to Christ. Have we neglected to give them what we might have done well to give them, with the excuse that necessary retrenchments must be made in order to meet the expenses of some pet project of ours? Has there been an over-cautious pruning of certain preliminary expenses, which in the long run will impair the success of the complete scheme as a whole? We must be poor after the manner of Christ. The key: note of His way of living was simplicity. He did not create artificial needs; He did not hanker after what conduced' merely to comfort. He 'accepted what was given, when it was .given, and did not repine; He slept how, when, and Where He could, and was content; born in another man',, stable, He was buried in another man's tomb. All through His life, His indifference about means shines out: "Do no~ fret~ over your life"; "Be not solicitous, therefore.,' He showed practically His self-aband0nment to the provi: dential.care of His heavenly Father. Analysis of our practice of obedience is another useful mine of self-information. Perhaps our faith here has bei come imperceptibly weaker over the years; we are more conscious of the ,human limitations of the superior ~than we are of the fact that he represents Christ for us. (Yet suppose our Lord had seen the cross merely as a painful instrument of an ignominious death?) Would we not go freely and willingly to Christ to discuss our ideas, plans, suggestions-not trying to catch Him at an off-moment of distraction or when we know He is in a "good mood;!' or when we have paved the way for a successful issue b careless hints? Would we not abide by His decision, after discussion, He gave judgment against our petition~ so obviously to us the best for all concerned? If He were to order us tosome employment which we felt would only expose us to almost certain failure, with all its consequem mortification, we would surely not ~'twist and turn frenzied efforts at evasion. He needs our efforts to do Hi., work about as much :as the sun needs a candle to light thb world; but He does look 'for our good will. Or as superiors, remembering that the sole purpose ot the authority we hold from Christ is to bring those ~ndel us nearer to Him, have we really tried to understand sym pathetically the capabilities and limitations of those dis ciples of His? "Splendid isolation, may be all very well a~ a political slogan; it should be far from the mind of superior. The crown of thorns round the brow is probab!: inevitable; but no prickly thickets round the heart shouR render access difficult and even impossible. Man is, cording to Shakespeare, "dressed in a little brief autho~l ity," and should not play "such fantastic :tricks before high heaven As make the angels weep:" The donkey that bore our Lord into Jerusalem had his moment of triumph, felt the garments under his feet, saw the palm branches being waved as he passed, heard the hosannas and shouts of joy; but he would have been an ass indeed to assume that it was for him that the people were rejoicing. The manner in which we obey provides a wide field for examination. "Prompt, blind, and cheerful" is cer-tainly a high enough ideal. We need to ~be on our guard against any "delaying tactics" ("He may think better of it in a day or so") and against any disinclination to carry out what our own intelligence does not dommend. And if the Lord loves a cheerful giver, how much more is He pleased by. a hearty, willing obedience? Yet~how much disobedi-ence may be dignified by the name of manly self-assertion; and how often may pusillanimity usurp, the title of obedi-ence? We must obey as Christ obeyed. Had He not been obedient "unto death, even the death of the cross," we should not have been redeemed at all. He saw the will of His Father in everything that" befell Him, and "the things that are pleasing to Him.I' do always." Authority, even when vested in unworthy holders of office, whether malicious like Caiphas or weak like Pilate, always re-ceived from Him its due recognition, without servility or consideration of human motives. He knew that even such as these "would have no authority, unless it were given from above"; and since from above it.had been given, He submitted to itowith obedience and dignity. Yet even He, Son of God as He was, had to "learn obedience by the things He suffered." ¯ Our third vow, chastity, is perl~aps, best considered under its~ aspect of love, since serious failure here will not require examination, being self-evident. It is possible to allow our very pursuit of purity to blind us to its wider implications. If we. do not find in ourselves anything con-trary to our vow, we should thank God: "I could not other-wise be continent, except God gave. it." Yet are we in-tolerant and censorious of the peccadilloes of others? The "heart of iron for chastity" must not preclude the "heart of flesh for charity"; for "chastity-without charity shall be chained in hell." A mortal sin again~st charity.will kill the soul no less effectively than a mortal sin against chas-tity. Purity means that we long to love only God and for His sake all others. If self-complacent purity should lead to bitter, wounding remarks and unkind lack of considera-tion, we are completely missing the end of the sacrifice entailed by the vow; we might well ask: "To what purpose was this waste?" Again, it is surely only an incomplete view to confine ÷ ÷, ÷ Ex~mi~tlon o Comci~nce VOLUME 20, 1961 423 ÷ ÷ ÷ our warfare against "the flesh" to sexual temptations alone, Perhaps we may not indeed have offended here; but if faith wanes dim, and love waxes cold, there is the danger of the law of compensation creeping upon us unawares. We may tend to grow self-indulgent in smaller matters: to prolong our sleep unnecessarily, to be fussy over what we have to eat and drink, to be fastidious and finical about what we are given to wear, to show a marked disinclina-tion for work that is boring, disturbs our ease, or does not suit us. Purity should not preoccupy us so much that freedom from its grosser infringements blinds us,to the necessity of mortifying our senses--also "the flesh"--our taste, touch, ease, vanity. Nor should our natural propensity for friendship lead us to exclusiveness or to the loss of the spirit of prayer. Our human affections must not be put down, but put straight; they must not be kept under, but kept under con-trol. Controlled affection can be made to serve Christ's purposes; uncontrolled, our inclinations court disaster. What of Christ? His love was not jealous, mean, or petty; but magnanimous, and universal in its sweep. He did not shrink from self-denial in showing His love; He did not fear running the risk of others failing Him, as others did, like Judas,, Pilate, and the unknown "rich young man." All-embracing in its scope (although He too had His "special friends": John, Martha, Mary), His love went out to beggar and well-to-do, Pharisee and publican, virtuous and vicious. He showed no antipathy, no con-tempt towards any one of His creatures; there was nothing forced or spurious about His love, which was the perfect flowering of the all-holy purity of the Man-God. Our examen is, after all, the mirror we hold up to na-ture; a poor weak human nature,.no doubt, but one that all the more on that.account needs the mirror to reflect faithfully all its deficiencies. If we undertake this work more sincerely, more generously, in partnership with Christ, perhaps we shall find what we thought to be stumbling-blocks transformed by Him into ~stepping stones. Our examen will no longer have the dismal charac-ter of a solitary.visit to a desolate cemetery, but the hopeful quality of a pilgrimage with a Friend eager to help us. We may still discover dry bones aplenty on the face of the plain, but if faithfully we do our part, even of them also it may be said "I will give you spirit and you shall live." ~ Father A/dan, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS MARTIN A. STILLMOCK; C.SS.R. Two Century Masterpiece "Of all my spiritual works, I should call this' one the best." These are the words spoken by St. Alphdnsus Maria de Ligouri on July 24, 1760, about his book, The True S~ouse ol Jesus Christ. When we consider that of the ope hundred eleven books and pamphlets written by the saint sixty-four ar6 ascetical works, this statement commands attention. The book in question could hardly be given higher praise. To understand why St. Alphonstis made this' remarl~- able utterance, it will' be well to consider the background of this book. As a founder of a religi6us congregation of missionary priests, as a popular and skilled retreat ~aster, and later as a bishop, St. Alpho. nsus was deeply concerned that llis priests and all priests should be learned and holy. To help priests in the field of learning he wrote his famous Mm:al Theology. To help prie,sts in their spiritual life he wrote his well known Selva which treats of the dignity and duties of the priest. All Christians know that there is no salvation for the world except through Jesus Christ. Now the ordinary channel of the world's salvation is the priesthood whic.h Christ instituted. Hence it was that Alphonsus loved so much to preach to priests and seminarians. And hence also it was that he wrote for them. He knew that the sanctification of one priest could mean the saving of thousands of souls that perhaps otherwise would not be saved. Alphonsus know he could put weapons into the hands of priests: weapons of theological learning, sermon material, ~naterial for retreats, missions, novenas. He could give them food for spiritual thought by combing spiritual writers, especially the fathers of the Church, and presenting their writings and ideas in a popular and interesting way. He could point out to priests the road to sanctity and the ways and means to attain holiness. All these weapons as well as many more St. Alphonsus, following Catholic tra-dition, put into the hands of pastors and missionaries for converting the world to Jesus Christ. But to insure success, he thought it necessary to supplement these weapons by Martin A. Stillmock, C.Ss:R., is engaged in parish work at St. A1- phonsus Church, 1118 North Grand Boule-vard, St. Louis 6, Mis-souri. ~OLUME 20, 1961 425 ÷ M. A. Stillmock, C.$s.R. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS the prayers of all those who are consecrated to God by religious profession: In every day and age it has been difficult for people to understand the n~cessity and value of the contem-plative life. To mauy it seems a pious waste of time. The problem is that many of these people understand little or nothing of the communion of saints, even though they may believe in it as they profess in the Apostles' Creed. Consequently, they do not understand or even -begin to realize the value of intercessory prayer or suppli-cation. Why God created such an institution as the cloister and why He calls religious to lead lives of penance and pr.ayer is beyond them. But the saints understand the value of these" things; and Alphonsus, from long experience in working for the most. abandoned souls, realized fully how much priests and missionaries need the help of prayers for success in their priestly and missionary work. Whenever Alphonsus had a difficult mission before him, or when he knew strong resistance would be forthcoming from the great enemy of souls, he recommended himself to the prayers of ~:eligious who spend their lives in the presence of God. Alphonsus himself had founded an order of contem-pla'tive nuns, the Redemptoristines. For him they were the second branch of his apostolic congregation, the Redemptorists, While the missionaries were on the front battling [or souls whd were often deep in the clutches of the devil, these nuns raised their minds to "heave/i, like Moses on the mountain, and by 'their prayers and pen-ances obtained the victory. . It was thoughts such as these which impelled A1- phonsus to write The True'Spouse of Jesus Christ. In the volume he says to the religious souls for whom he is writing: You should be :useful to all, especially by yqur prayers. A!l the spouses of our Lord should be zealous for His honor. He Himself said to St. Teresa: "Now that you are My spouse, you must work with zeal for My glory." Indeed, if the souls so ~logely united to Jesus do not take His interests to heart, who will do so? Our Lord has promised to hear anyone who prays to Him. In your prayers, then, at your communions, during the visit to the Blessed Sacrament, recommend to God all poor sinners, infidels, heretics~ and those Who live without God. And Alphonsus goes.on to say: Our Lord Himself asks this of His. special servants. He said to a venerable nun one day: "Help me by your prayers to save souls"; and to St. Mary Magdalene of Pazzi: "See, My daughter, how Christians are in the hands of the evil onel If My elect did not deliver them by their prayers, they would become the prey of that monster." This prompted the counsel which she gave to her religious: "My dear sisters, God has withdrawn, us from the world to save our own' souls, of course, but also that we may satisfy His mercy by interceding for sinners. We shall have to account for the loss of many souls if we neglect to recommend them to God." For this reason she never let an hour of the day go by without prayir[g /0r sinners. Another servant of our Lord did penance for forty years and applied it all to the salvation of souls in need of divine grace. Oh, how many sinners there are who owe their conversion not so much to the sermon of the preacher as to the prayers of some holy re-ligiousl It was revealed to a celebrated orator that the conversions apparently worked by him were not attributable to his elo-quence but to the prayers of the lay brother who sat at th~ foot of the pulpit. Pray then for sinners, and pray also for priests that they may work with true zeal for the salvation of souls. But if religious are to be powerful intercessors with our Lord, it can be only on condition that they be His true spouses. Therefore, just as he did for priests, A1- phonsus treats at length of the duties of religious women. While reading this book, weshould keep in mind that in the eighteenth century many abuses had crept into the cloister. The spirit-of the times breathed laxity, tepidity, and worldliness. A1phonsus was not one to use half meas-ures, and in many instances his language is strong. But his one big purpose is to preach holiness. He does this by pointing out what virtues should be specially practiced, and he prescribes, the means for wiping qut abuses. It may be thought that St. Alphonsus wrote Thk True Spouse solely for cloistered or contemplative nuns. He certainly had° thegn in :mind, but not exclusively. In his preface the saint himself tells us: This work, as appe.ars from the title, is intended particularly for nuns. However, only a small part of it is directed exclusively to them; the remainder, but especially what regards the ob-servance of the vows of religion, regular discipline, and the per-fection of the religious state, is equally suitedto religious of all congregations; and what regards the Christian virtues will be found highly useful even for seculars. What is to be found in The True Spouse? Practically every facet of the spiritual life is treated, The saint starts off his work by treating of the merits of virgins who have consecrated themselves to God. He goes on to state the advantages of the religious state and how religious should belong wholly to God. He speaks of the desire religious should have for perfection and then warns that imper-fect religious are exposed tb danger. The necessity of combating self love is treated. After treating of interior mortifications, the saint goes on to speak of exterior mortification of the appetite, of the senses of hearing and touch, and of the eyes. The book also contains a long treatise on poverty, its perfection, its degrees and practice, the detachment it involves from relatives and other persons. Closely allied to poverty is humility; the saint here discusses its ad-wmtages, the nature of humility of the intellect, heart, and will, and patience in bearifig contempt. ÷ ÷ ÷ Two Century Masterpiece VOLUME 20, 1961 4. M. d. Stillmo¢l¢, C.Ss.R. There is a beautiful chapter on fraternal charity, fol-lowed by one on patience, a virtue that leads to resig-nation to the will of God. Then follows a treatment of mental prayer, its necessity as well as its practice. From there the saint points out the importance and necessity of silence, solitude, and the presence of God. The topic of spiritual reading forms a chapter in itself. The True Spouse contains a long treatment on the frequentation of the sacraments of confession and com-munion. Under confession the saint has a consoling and practical treatise on scruples: what they are, how they are hurtful, their remedy and a practical application. Prayer and purity of intention form two more chapters. A work of this type would not be complete for St~ Alphonsus unless he devoted some space, to the Holy Mother of God. First, Alphonsus contends that no true servant of Mary can be lost; then he goes on to show who are to be considered true servants of Mary. Following the chapter on devotion to Mary is one on the love of Christ, the obligation of a religious to iove Him, and the means of acquiring this love. The saint concludes his work with particular admoni-tions for superiors, novice mistresses, and so on. In the last chapter he gives a rule of life for the religious who desires to become a saint. This includes the treatment of such things as the Divine Office, hearing of Mass, exami-nation of conscience, necessity of banishing melancholy, recreation. The True Spouse even has an appendix con-taining such considerations as a summary of the virtues which the religious who wishes to become a saint should practice, spiritual maxims for religious, and aspirations of love for Christ. Very few books written almost exclusively for religious women handle such a wide and practical range of treat-ment. As one German translator of The True Spouse observes: This book, written as it is with great fo~'ce and piety, contains the.q.uintessence of ascetic theology and is a practical ex-posmon of the virtues of the religious life. I have no hesitation in saying that the reader will find in it all that has been written by ancient and modern writers on the subject of spirituality. It sums up a multitude of books and gives all that the holy author has developed at greater length in other writings on the same matters. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 428 MARCEL MARCOTTE; S.J. Health and Holiness Father, it seems that for the majority of priests, a person suffering from neurosis is condemmed to stand in one spot marking time with no chance of advancing in the spiritual life. I take it that you are not of that opinion, and 1 am so glad. Your opinion confirms my own per-sonal experience and that ol others who have confided in me. When a person is unbalanced in some way, one at once thinks that there has been some frustration in the past of his emotional needs. In most cases this is true. But do not certain neuroses grow worse because of a conflict be-tween the profound need of God which we experience on the one hand and, on the other, the behavior we are led to persist in, sometimes, under the influence o[ the guidance we receive? It seems to me that the more aspir-ing and straightforward a soul is, the more woeful can be certain mistakes in spiritual direction. I think that there is a tendency among religious and priests to make too little of the needs of the soul. Spiritual writers teach clearly that in order to reach God, the soul must proceed by a series of purifications suited to its spiritual progress. But how many spiritual advisors grasp that when the time comes? They seem to think that this was written more for initiates in the spiritual life. But I think that such ideas could be carried over with great profit into many ordinary .lives. Don't you agree? IfI we sidestep debating certain merely incidental ele-ments in this letter so as to throw into relief its main point, the question it asks can be put thus: Does our sanctification depend on our psychological balance as well as, in some degree, on our bodily health and the sound condition of our nerves? Pascal, who was all his life a _very sick and anxiety-haunted man, declared that "ill, ness impairs the judgement and the senses . " "If great 1:This article is translated with permission from Relations, March, . 1961, pp. 64-66. The translation is by George Courtright. 4. 4. 4. Marcel Marcotte, S.J., teaches at the ColI~ge Sainte Marie, 1180 rue Bleury, Montreal 2, Canada. VOLUME 20, 1961 Mar~e! Mav¢otte, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 430 illness," he says plainly, "visibly alters them, I have no doubt at all that minor illnesses have a proportionate fect." This opinion, dictated by the personal experience of a man of genius who was, also, in his own way, a kind of saint, ought doubtless to be kept in mind. How-ever, recent discoverie~ in psychology together with the teaching of experience and certain data of theology lead us to qualify it. Does our relationship with God really depend upon our physical and psychological formation, which, while in us, is, for all that, not us? Are we to be marked in ad-vance for sanctity or for spiritual mediocrity by reason of our temperament, i the condition of our endocrine glands, certain accidents of education, or traumas ex-perienced in the course of life which definitively open or close to us the approaches"to Christian perfect~ion? "The will of God," says St.Paul, "is ,that' you become saints." But is this divine will concerned only with people who have perfectly healthy and well-balanced bodies and minds? Does sanctity reser~b!e some sort of royal feast to which only a small number of chosen guests--great lords and noble ladies with impressive names--are to be in-vited, while the great mass of the faithful must be satis-fied with the crumbs of the banquet? This would be .a surprising and rather scandalous thing. God, in His giving, remains free, but when once He has granted, in baptism, the first, essential gift ("if you knew the gift of Godl" Jesus said to the Samaritan woman), then that spring of living water, which has just penetrated by grac~ into the Christian soul, must inexhaustibly "gush from his breast into eternal life." For the gift of God is nothing else but God Himself, from whom life pours out, diffuses itself, and irresistibly increases in the Christian so as to make him achieve his full height, his complete stature in Christ. S~ill, we must yield to the evidence: Not all Christians are saints--far from it--for indeed if God's gift is to produce its fruit of sanctity in the soul, the Christian must cooperate freely with the ~ace that is offered him. But the usual effects of original sin make this free co-operation very difficult for the normal Christian. Besides this, in many instances, the exercise of freedom is en-cumbered by" special difficulties which render infinitely more unpredictable the conformity of our acts in life to moral standards and the higher dem~inds of sanctity. "It is hard to practice Christian virtue," Alexis Carrel says, "when one suffers from a glandular deficiency." Edu-cators, judges,-moralists, and spiritual directors realize today how important a role the body plays in the origin and development of certain 'kinds of moral, social, and spiritual weaknesses. Chrtesian dualism no longer has currency; we have learned to, recognize ;and admit the. reciprocal influence of the body and the soul~ on .the physical and mental health of human beings. Psycho-somatic medicine, for its 'part, is ready to take into ac-count complications on the physical and bodily level arising from the psychic; why should not .Catholic moral-ity and spiritual teaching,, in turn, take into account the, repercussion of sick organs and nerves upon the interior, psychic life? "Man," says Pascal again, '~is neither angel nor beast, and ill luck would have it that he who would play the angel plays the beast."-" Furthermore, physical health: is not alohe concerned here. Depth psychology has shown (doubtless to the. point;, of sa.t.iety) that the evolution of a religious and moral personality, is linked to the dynhmic'drives of ifiapulses and tendencies of instinct, and emotion which we carry along with us from earliest infancy to adult life. Ac-cording as the liquidation of ce.rtain psychi~ conflicts has been more or less successful, habit~ and moral or spirit-ual attitudes assume very different characters. In certain instances, repression and sublimation will facilitate ,the practice of virtue and thai.pursuit'of sanctity; in others, they will make virtue and holiness, at least in appearance, very difficult or even altogether impossible. Therefore, in the quest for God, the-Christian must not only adapt himself to his nature as he finds it, but, in ad-dition, undergo to a degree very difficult to estimate the inbuilt necessities springing from the past. Why seek to deny it? There are ill-favored creatures who, so far from being naturally equipped to live a truly spiritual life, are not even fit to live a life in accordance with common morality. They will never be so thoroughly good as they might otherwise be simply for lack of discipline and con-tr61 aiid will drag along through weakness after weakness t6'~the end of their lives. Their sense of judgement is warped, their wills debilitated: how can they aspire to personal holiness? Yet, is sanctification to be made de-pendent on the chance that on~ has or has not a healthy hormone balance, or that one is blest in one's psycho-logical makeup or has been guccessfully educated? Some-times, it takes so little (a thyroid'deficiency, the awkward or rough meddling of a teacher) to change the course of one's life. "If Cleopatra's nose had been shorter . " Is the longing of a Christian for sanctity to be similarly sub-ject to accident, to that "grain of sand in the ureter" which, according to Pascal, upset the, Whole map of Europe? To avoid so scandalous a notion, we must first take care to have a right idea of the meaning of sanctification. We must not'confuse it with the attainment of purely human perfection or even~ with the moral perfection Health and Holiness VOLUME 201 1961 43! ÷ ÷ ÷ Marcel Marcotte, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 432 which makes saints so attractive. In essence, sanctification is the act by which God divinizes man. This action occurs in the spiritual order, an order the harmonies of which are not necessarily echoed in the outward behavior and visible appearance of the man God has sanctified. In re-lation to this action, one's psychological makeup is of no importance. Whether a man be endowed with a nature favorable to the acquiring of virtue or is a neurotic ob-sessed by the flesh or by guilt or scruples, it is enough for him to say "Yes" to God, to cling to Him in his soul of souls, beyond all temptation, all childish fear, in order to be swathed in divine grace and himself made divine. On this point, Saint Francis de Sales says: It is beyond question true that our souls ordinarily take on something of the traits and tone of our bodily lower nature . A body weakened and distracted by much pain cannot but in-hibit the vigor and spontaneity of the soul in its performances. But nothing of this is in anyway prejudicial to the spiritual actions of the soul. As pleasing to God as such actions can be when done among all tlie pleasures of the world, they are even more so when done with greater trouble and pain . We must not be unjust to ourselves and demand more of our-selves than we can do. When our bodies and our health give us trouble, we must, at such a time, expect of the soul only acts of submission and resignation and that holy union of ou~' wills with the good pleasure of God, which is formed in the highest reaches of the soul. As for our outward actions, we must direct and perform them as best we can and be conr tent therewith, though our hearts mislike it and the going be slow and heavy. Nevertheless, the fac( remains that sanctity, in the usual sense of the word, requires certain conditions, which are not given to everyone. For example, an idiot finds himself, as such, incapable of that renunciation of sin and of that assent to grace which are essential ,in the spiritual life. Just as a certain healthiness of the nervous system is needed before the moral consciousness can un-fold, So, too, in the order of sanctity, a certain psychologi-cal healthiness is necessary before that love, thanks to which one renounces sin in order to give oneself utterly to God, can unfold. In what does this healthiness consist, without which sanctity becomes impossible~not that sanctity which exists in the hidden mystery, of the sou! but the sanctity we find in the faces, in the words and the actions of those whom we call saints? There are certain characteristics, certain somatic and psychological qualifications which are necessary so that the fruit Of divine grace .may grow and show itself in the form of Christian virtues: for ex-ample, mildness, temperance, purity, brotherly love. If there are serious deficiencies in one's makeup, the soul will struggle vainly to remain faithful; all its efforts, at least in appearance, will remain useless. True, in the eyes of God, "who searches the reins and the heart," all these struggles, endlessly abandoned and endlessly lost, will have contributed to the sanctification of the soul. But for the bystander, and often for the soul itself, hypnotized by its own weakness, this mystei~ious but real sanctifica-tion will never be verified. It will not even be verifiable. It may even happen that priests and experienced spiritual directors will fail to recognize the value and the merit of these hard-fought spiritual battles which always end in a checkmate. But such a lack of understanding--wit-ness the lives of the saints---often forms a part of the means God uses for the spiritual progress of souls. It is a kind of night added to that night in which souls struggle only to make the darkness darker and faith more meri-torious. Yet, the darker the night, the nearer, the more lovely the stars. "Close your eyes, and you will seel ." God has a way all His own of dealing with the emptiness surrounding the soul. It is at the moment when He ap-pears to be forevermore far away that He is often closest. "If you had already found Me," God says to Pascal, "you would not look for Me." The important thing, then, is the search for God, the effort, as the accepted phrase is, toward sanctity while trying evermore in one's life to accept the divine will, even when that will rules that we make our way toward God stumblingly, foundering in the earth like plough-oxen, we who were made to fly high in the heavens like eagles. There are two kinds of saints, says Father Beirnaert. There are the saints with ill-favored and difficult personalities, that mass of people ridden with anxiety, aggressiveness, and love of the body, all those who bear the intolerable weight of having been born as they were, those whose blighted hearts will al-ways be nothing but a knot of snakes, unlucky because they were born with repulsive faces, or because they have never been able to identify themselves with a father. They are those who, unlike St. Francis, will never in their lives charm a bird or pet a wolf of Gubbio; those who sin and will sin again; who will grieve till the day they die, not because they lost their temper a little but because they keep on committing the same filthy, unmentionable action. They are that vast crowd whose sanctity will never shine out in this world through their personalities, who will rise up only on the last day to glitter, finally, in eternity. They are saints without the honor of the name. At their side are the saints blest with attractive personalities, the pure, strong, sweet saints, the model saints, the canonized saints and the saints fit to be canonized, saints with hearts as free and wide as the seasho~'e; saints whose being, like a per-fectly tuned harp, forever sings out the glory of God; wonderful saints, who encourage the advances of grace and in whom we touch a grace-transfigured nature--the recognized, the cele-brated, the great saints, who trail a shining splendor through history. Both kinds of saints are brothers. Those saints whose per- 4- 4- 4- l;ealth and Holiness VOLUME 20, 1961 sonalities are haunted by m'onsters and those in whom angels dwell have the same basic experience, and they speak Of God and of themselves in the same words. They are of the same bourn, the same world; a world where the only grief is to find oneseff so unworthy of God, and the only happinesg is to be loved by Him and to try to give Him love for love. For us, here below, they are different. Before God, they are alike. And we shall see this in the day of the Lord Jesus (Etudes, t. 266, pp. 63-64). Once more, pure holiness can and sometimes must adapt itself to certain bodily and psychological states which will give their stamp to the outward aspect and ac, tions of a Christian, without, for all that, compromising his inner adherence to the divine will and, therefore, without hurting the life of charity in him. "In the evening of'life," says St. John of the Cross, "we shall be judged~on our love." For each and all of us, it is simply a question of love and, therefore, of choosing, according to the meas-ure of freedom that has been given us, between good and bad, between the perfect and the imperfect. In propor-tion to this, God Himself comes to meet us so as to share His life more intimately with us, before finally, bringing us into His beatitude. ÷ ÷ .÷ Marcel Marcotte, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 434 THOMAS DUBAY, S.M., ' ' The ,Superior's Predept and God S Will One of the first pro~ositions a.tyro meets in a religious novitiate ,is one to the~effect that a '~superior's directive is "an expression of God's wilV' for .him': If'a religious wishes to know what God' desires of him,~ he need only listen to;accept, and execute the~precepts of his superior. Unfortunately, this early lesson'-'is subject to ambiguity and confusion. And more unfortunately, it can happen that the novice may embrace for life an incorrect interpre-tation of the~,ambiguity or he may simply, practice reli-gious obedience in a pekdffring cloud ofmisunderstand-ing. Does a superior "manifest,God's will" to a subject? If. he does, what does the expression mean? If he does not, ought we to modify our instruction°on this facet of obe-dience? Before attempting an immediate answer to" these, ques-tions, I should like to ask the reader to consider'a philo-sophical and theological antecedent; namely, the problem of how a man can conform his will to the divine will. A conference or retreat master ,can easily advise his listeners to conform their wills to the will of God, but to what ex-tent this conformity is possible and how itls to be achieved is not at all so simple as might appear on the surface. And-, yet a mature and accurate understanding of religious obe-dience would seem to require that we delve beneath the surface and discover~ what-precisely~ we are doing when we obey. For the attainment of this understanding we can follow no better guide than St. Thomas Aquinas. To tinderstand the Angelic Doctbr's doctrine on the precise °fiaanner in which a man is bound to conform his will to the divine will, we must, as Thomas does, dis-tinguish betweeh what may be called a material and a formal conformity.1 In an act of willifig we notice that there are two elements involved: the thing willed and the 1 Summa theologiae, 1-2, q. 19, a. 10~, c. ÷ ÷ ÷ Thomas Dubay, S.M., is spiritual director at Notre Dame Seminary, 2901 South Carrollton Avenue, New Orleans 18, Louisiana. VOLUME 20, 1961 ÷ ÷ Thomas Dubay,. S.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 436 motive for willing it. Willing an act of kindness, for ex-ample, implies first of all, the sundry components of the benign deed, and, secondly, the motive or reason for willing that deed. The activity willed (here, the kind deed) is called the material element, while the motive or the reason~why (for example, love for God) is the formal element. It can happen that even when they will opposite real-ities two created wills can be good provided their- motives are good. St. Thomas uses the example of ttie execution of a thief. The judge wills his death, whereas the thief's wife does not will it. The wills are opposed as regards the material element, the fact of the executiori; but they can both be good provided the judge wills the death for a good reason (thecommon welfare) and the wife opposes that death for some evil consequent on it (for example, harm to her family). Because the judge has care for a more universal good, the community, and the wife for a less universal one, her family, both can will opposites and yet be good as long as their reasons are worthy. The° reader will understand that we .are not suggesting that any action at all may become morally good merely by the presence of a good motive. A man may not stem five dollars in order to buy his wife an anniversary gift. We are simply stating that two wills can at times be opposed regarding one action and yet both be willing rightly. We are now in a position to apply this principle to our problem of conformity to God's will. As St. Thomas points out, God as the Maker and Governor of the whole universe knows and wills .whatever He wills under the aspect of the universal good, which is His very goodness. A created will, on the other hand, knows some particular good and sometimes wills it for some reason that is good on a particular scale but not good from the point of view of, the more universal. For example, the avoidance of a spanking is a good from the particular or limited aspect of a child's physical well being, but itsoadministration may be better from the universal and wider aspect of his whole welfare and that of the family. In orde~ for a man to Will well some particular good he must refer it somehow, to the universal good; that is, to God. This referral, this motivation to the last end is the formal element in willing and must be present in a volitional act in order for that act to be rightly ordered. A man, therefore, conforms0his will to the divine will when he refers all that he does to God, since God Himself refers all to His own glory. This is a formal conformity and must always be present in a human act. A man, how-ever, need not and cannot always materially conform his will to the divine will as regards particular acts. It is sufficient that those particular acts be good in themselves and be referred to God, for in so acting man is operating as God wants him to operate~ even though God may not actually will this or that particular act. Hence, a material conformity to the divine will is ,not always required or even possible. Why do we say that a material Conformity to God's will is not always required or even possible? The reason is simple~ We often do not know what God wills as re-gards particular acts. We surely know that He wills us to do all for His sake, but that is a formal conformity, the ordering of all to Him. On.the other hand,.we~frequently do not know whether He .prefers.us to do on~ thing rather than another. I know He wants me'to tell-the truth when I am rightly questioned, but I do not know with certitude whether in ten minutes I should still be writing or visit-ing the BlesSed Sacrament. I know He wants me to obey canon law and my religious rule/but I may not know whe!her He really desires that I make~ tfii.s or that ex-cepaon to them. What ought I to do in these cases? I shbuld use my reason, follow the principles~of.sound ~asceticai theolggy, and exercise the virtue of supernatural prudence. God undoubtedly wiils that I do these latter, but the fact re-mains that once I have made my decision there may or may~ not be a material confOrmity between my will and His. Such,' however, is quite a Satisfactory situation pro-vided that what I do is good and is ordered to Him. In other words, material .conformity may' be lacking, but formal conformity may not. , ~pp!ication to Religious Obediencei: Can we, then, say that a religious Superior manifests tile will of God when he gives' a directive to his subjects? Surely, if the superior merely reiterates a precept of the natural or divine laws, he is indicating the divine will, but he is hardly manifesting it. ,That will is usually al-ready manifested to the subject, 'remotely by human tea, son or supernatural revelation, and proximately by in-struction he has received. As regards other matters (and they are commonly practical on~s) the superior cannot be said tO manifest the divine intention for the obvious rea-son that he does not know what the divine intention' is. If Father Superior tells Father Jones to suspend convert instruction classes during the summer, he is not neces, sarily manifesting God's will to Father Jones. Short of a private revelation Father Superior cannot know with certitude whether God really desires that suspension or not. All he can °do is.Use his experience, reason, and supernatural prudence in coming to a,decision and then hope he is doing what God wants. When Mother Pro-vincial assigns Sister Alice to teaching rather than to ÷ ÷ ÷ The Superior's Precept VOLUME 20, 1961 437 ÷ ÷ ÷ Thomas Dubay, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS nursing, Mother is not necessarily declaring the divine mind, because God may actually know that Sister Alice is better fitted to be a'nurse. I would say, then, that, simply speakin.g, a religious superior does not manifest God's will when he issues a command. In an improper sense, however, the superior may be said to manifest God's willAn his precept insofar as God wishes the subject to carry~ out what His representative has commanded. While it is true-that the fulfillment of this command is willed by God, yet the command itself does not properly manifest'anything but the superior's intention. I think it would be re.ore correct to say that by his precept a superior gives his subject the opportunity to do God's will, that is, to obey. It would seem wise, therefore, not to use this.expr~ession in an improper sense because it is misleading and confusi.ng. There-is no mani-festation of what we may call the content of God's will. By his obedience, then,, a religious conforms his will formally to the divine will when he orders his obedience to the divine glory through the virtue of charity. There is, secondly, a material conformity insofar as God wills this precept to, be carried out. There may or may not be, thirdly, a material conformity as regards the content of the precept. The reader will notice that our whole position on the superior's inability to manifest with certitude the con-tent of the ~livine will rests on his ignorance of that will. Hgw can~we establish that ignorance? Really, it needs no establishing because it is obvious on a moment's" reflec-tion. St. Thomas himself saw no difficulty about the matter. "Although we cai~not know a proper end, we can know the ultimate end from whom issues all the goodness found in proximate ends, so t.hat we may direct all we do to God, who made all things for Himself."z "The just on earth, whose will clings to the divine goodness, and yet do not so perfectly contemplate it (as the blessed do) that they clearly see the ordering ofoevery actiop to it, are conformed to the divine will as regards thos_e things whose character th~ey perceive . ,,s The Saint's last remark is most clear: "In particulars we do not know what God wills, and a~s regards.these we are not bound to conform our will to the divine will.''4 ~ St. Thomas readily admits our ignorance of the divine will in many details of human life, the proximate ends as he calls them. We need. only apply his thought to reli-gious obedience and _we have the basis on which our above explanation rests. But can a superior because of his sharing in the divine 1 Sententiae, d. 48, q. l, a. 3, ad 6; see also article 4. De veritate, q. 23, a. 8, c. Summa thkologiae, 1-2, q. 19, a. 10, ad I. ruling authority somehow claim to set forth what we have called the content of the divine will? I think not. No man, be he superior, equal, or inferior, can rightly claim to manifest the mind of God unless God in some way re-veals His mind and ratifies, the claim. God's mind is God and~He is unsearchable. Hence, if a mere man may be said to make known God's mind or His will, that man must have some divine-assurance that such is the case. Does the religious superior have this assurance when he directs his subordinates in the observance of their vows and constitutions? The teaching Church, the Roman~ Pontiff and the bishops in union with him, certainly enjoy this assurance when they intend tobind in their authentic teaching (See Mt 16: 16"19; 18: 18; Lk 10: 16; Jn 20:21).~But does a re-ligious superior as such share in these divine commissions in any way that would permit him to claim that he, too, reflects the .divine will in 'his decisions? We ~may note, first of all, that on the one hand a religious superior, qua : talis, does not possess any special teaching authority in : the Church. On the other, Plus XII made it clear that the i ruling power of ~'eligious superiors is,;a participation in the divinely received ruling power of the Supreme Pontiff ~ himself. Speaking to.the superiors general of orders and .~ to other religious superiors, the Holy Father remarked -" thgt "you have been appointed tO a certain participation " in Our apostolic office," and then enlarged his thought: "Thus in this,.part of Our office, most beloved sons, delegating to you some of Our supreme jurisdiction, either directly by the code of canon law or by your insti-tutes and their rules approved by Us, and setting the foundations of your power which is called 'dominative,' We have assumed you as sharers in Our supreme office. Hence, it is that We are .very much concerned that you exercise your authority according to Our mind and that of the Church.'5 Does this participation in the apostolic governing power give a religious superior some capability to manifest God's will? To answer this last question we must distinguish be tween a mere ruling power and a teaching pbwer. Even the Church herself~, does not claim infallibility in as, pects of her universal laws unconnected with doctrine, and therefore, she does not claim in them to bg represent-ing what we have been terming the content of the divine mind. In setting twenty-four years as the minimum age for the reception of the priesthood even the Holy See would not'claim that it knows the content of the divine mind on that question. While God may conceivably prefer some other age limitation, yet it is His will that 6 Translated from L'osservatore romano, February 12, 1958, p. I. ÷ ÷ ÷ The Superior'$ Precepg VOLUME 20, 1961 439 ÷ Thomas Dubay, $.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 440 bishops obey the Church's actual determination of twenty-four years. If the hierarchy itself, divinely endowed with a right to govern men to eternal life, cannot at times be sure that its laws express exactly the divine preference, it can come as a surprise to no one that we deny any such certainly to a religious superior who merely participates in the Church's ruling authority on a delegated basis. When a provincial superior of religious men appoints a priest to the mission band or when a local superior of religious women directs a sister to wax the floors on Saturday morning, it is not objectively sure that the priest is best suited for mission work or that the sister ought not rather be doing background reading in her teaching field. Yet it remains true that both the priest and the sister may be sure that God wills them to give missions and wax the floors respectively. While the two superiors may not6 have manifested the content'of the divine will, both of them have issued directives that God, as a matter of fact, wants implemented by two religious who have received two specific precepts. Even though the religious superior does rule through a participation in a divinely-given governing authority, he has nonetheless received no divine assurance that his commands are always going to conform to the objective truth of things. The subject, then, sees God in his supe-rior not in the sense that the superior's word must be taken as God's own word, but only in the sense that the superior's command is .given by one who has God's authority to give it. The distinction is important. On the one hand it obviates the untenable conclusion that a re-ligious superior is immune from error in his decisions as superior, and on the other it preserves the necessary postulate that a superior's precept is given on no mere human basis. In view of what we have said one could hardly miss the conclusion that a religious superior ought to weigh carefully the directives he gives. Even though it would be unreasonable to expect him to be objectively right in each of his decisions, yet he should make every effort consonant with the gravity of the matter.to be objectively right. Because he rules with a divinely authorized delega-tion, he should take care that his directives be as closely in accord with the divine intentions as possible. Reli-gious government by whim, directives issued by worldly prudence, commands based on favoritism, prejudice, or misinformation are wholly unbecoming in men and women who rule in such wise that their precepts some-e Our use of the word "may" indicates naturally enough that the two superiors may, as a matter of fact, be indicating the content of the divine will. "May not" suggests also "may." how flow from a divine authorizati+n. Traits of the good superior, then, most assuredly include supernatural pru-dence, a personal selflessness, and a willingness to take and follow counsel. We must note correlatively~that what we have said in this article does not absolve a subject from a perfect obedience to his superior. The fact that God may not "agree" that the decision contained in a particular com-mand is the wisest of all choices does not mean that the subject does well in refusing an obedience of execution, will, and intellect (the last, insofar as it is possible). In other words, our discussion is meant to clarify, not to damage the perfection of our obedience. ÷ ÷ ÷ The Superior's Precept VOLUME 20, 1961 44! R. F. SMITH, S.J. Survey of Roman Documents ÷ ÷ R. F. Smith, S.], REVIEW FOR REI.IGIOUS In this article those documents will be summarized wliich appeared in Acta Apostolicae Sedis during June and July, 1961. All page references in the article will be to the 1961 Acta (v. 53). A New Encyclical On May 15, 1961 (pp. 401-64), Pope John XXIII is-sued a new encyclical, Mater et Magistra (Mother and Teacher), to commemorate the seventieth anniversary of Pope Leo XIII's encyclical on social matters, Rerum Novarum. In the introduction to his encyclical, the Pope observed that just as Christ, though primarily interested in the spiritual welfare of men, was also concerned with their material welfare, so also the Church takes care of the spiritual good of men without neglecting their ma-terial, economic, and cultural needs. Passing to the first of the four parts into which the encyclical is divided, His Holiness sketched the evils of the economic and social situation of the nineteenth cen-tury, evils which occasioned Rerum Novarum. The Holy Father then listed the chief principles of Catholic social doctrine as laid down by Leo XIII and as afterwards en-larged and amplified by Pius XI and Pius XII. In the second part of Mater et Magistra, the Vicar of Christ took up and developed certain points of the teach-ing found in Leo XIII's document. While the economic order/ he pointed out, is the. creation of the personal initiative of private citizens, still the State must see to it that economic development benefits all the citizens. This, however, must be done in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity enunciated by Pius XI in Quadragesimo Anno, a principle which protects the personal initiative of individual persons. In this connection the Pontiff con-sidered the matter of modern economic and social plan-ning which involves public authorities in matters as crucial as the care of health or the controlling of pro-fessional careers: Such planning, he remarked, brings many advantages and satisfies many personal rights;, how-ever, it also makes juridical control of hurfian relations more detailed and creates an atmosphere which makes initiative and responsibility difficult. Hence, such plan-ning should be realized in such a way as to draw from it all its advantages and to remove or restrain its disadvan-tages. ¯ .," Pope John then turned to consider the question of "the remuneration to be given to workers. ~AI1 workers, he af-firmed, should be given a wage that:allows them to live a truly human, life and to face with dignity their family responsibilities. Other factors;~.however; must alsb be considered: the worker's effective contribution to produc-tion, the economic state of the enterprise, ~he require-ments of the common good,both of the country and of the entire world~ " The economic'wealth of a people,., the Pontiff went on to say, must not be judged merely.by, its total aggregate wealth, bht also by its efficacious distributidn~throughout the entire populace. One of the most desirable ways of achieving this distribution~ is to permit th~ w6~kers to participate in the ownership of the enterprise. One last necessity for a just economic system was,underscored by the P6pe'when he obseiwe6that~if the structure of an economic system is suEh~that it compromises human dig-nity by systeinatically removing a" sense of-responsibility and of initiative in the 'worker, then .the system is un-just, even though through it riches are accumulated and distributed according to the rules of justice and equity. Hence the continuing importance today of artisan and co-operative enterprises. And in large enterprises, workers should have an active part, the enterprise becoming a real community with relations between employer and employee marked by mutual appreciation, understand-ing, and co-operation and by a mutual,grasp, of,:th~ en-terprise not,merely as a source of income but,,as the ful-fillment of a duty and°the rendering of a service.:~Workers, he.said, should not be reduced to being merely execu'tors of work, entirely passive in regard to decisions that regu-late their activity. Here the Pope stressed the desirability of associations of workers and the need that the influence of workers'should be extended beyond the limits of~their individual productive units. The Holy Father turned next to the matter of. private property, observing that the modern growth of the dis-~- tinction between the ownership of capital and the man: agement of the larger economic entities, the increase of social insurance and security, and the greater confidence in income and rights from, labor,rather'than from capital ÷ ÷ ÷ Roman, Documen~ VOLUME ;'0, ÷ ÷ ÷ R. F. Smith, $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 444 do not diminish the natural right of private ownership. This right, he said, is fouflded on the priority of individ-ual human beings as compared with society,,is necessary for free and personal initiative in the economic field, and prevents the stifling of freedom. Not only must the right to private property be recognized; equally neces-sary is the recognition of the natural right of its effective distribution among all social classes; added to this must be the acknowledgement that a social function is intrinsi-call~ linked with the right, of private property, for the goods of the earth have been destined by God for the worthy support of. all human beings. In the third part of the encyclical, Pope John took up a consideration of new socio-economic problems that face the modern world. First among these is the extensive exo-dus of farm populations to urban centers. While many reasons lie behind this exodus, the Pope pointed out that among these reasons is the fact that the farm sector lags behind other sectors, in productivity of labor and in living standards. Hence public authorities should see that essential services (education, roads, utilities, and so forth) in the country are suitably developed. Improved produc-tion methods and selective agriculture should be encour-aged. In the assessment of taxes, it should be remembered that in ,farming returns come slowly and are exposed to greater risks; the same considerations should lead to a special credit policy for farmers. Social security and in-surance systems should not give farmers allowances sub-stantially lower than those granted to industrial and other' sectors; there should be an effective system to protect farm prices. At the same time, rural workers should keep in mind the rights and interests of other types of workers as well as those of the common good. They should con-ceive their work both as a vocation and as a mission, as a call ~from God and as a contribution to human civili-zation, The Holy Father next took up the matter of relations between developed and underdeveloped countries. Hu-man solidarity as. well as the doctrine of the Mystical Body forbids that political communities with abundant resources remain indifferent tO the misery and hunger of underdeveloped-areas. Countries with an excess of consumer goods, especially farm products,, should give emergency, aid to the indigent and needy of other coun-tries. This, however, should be ,accompanied by scientific, technical, and financial help to remove the causes of *underde~elopment. In the execution of this aid, social progress should grow simultaneously With economic progress, the native characteristics of the country should be respected, and political interestedness--another name [or colonialism--should be avoided. In giving such aid, it should always be remembered that technology, economic development, and material well-being are and must re-main secondary to spii~itual values. At this point the Pontiff showed how the entrance of the Church into a country has always restilted in social and econbfiaic better-ment. With regard to the problem of the increase in popula-tion and the sufficiency of mea'ns of sustenance, the Vicar of Chi'ist remarked that in a view of the world as a whole there does°not seem tobe at least for the moment and the near future a great difficulty. In any.case ~here is no need for solutions such as birth control which offend the moral order established by God. Even in individual countries and regions where there is an actual dispib'- portion between population arid means of sustenance, such means can not be used. The true solution is to be found only in economic development and in social prog-ress brought about in a moral atmosphere. "A provident God," he stated, "grants sufficient means to the human race to solve in dignified fashion even .the many and del-icate problems attendant upon the transmission of life." The last of the problems to be considered by the Pope was that of world co-operation. All problems of any importance, he began, present today supranational and often world dimensions. Hence the different political -communities can not solve such problems on their own and by themselves; accordingly there is a need for mutual °understanding; such understanding, however, is pre-vented today because of the mistrust and fear among nations. This mistrust exists because some political leaders do not recognize the existence of a moral order that is based or/ God. And without God, c6ncluded the Pontiff, science and technology are powerless to con-struct a civilization. In the fourth and last part of the encyclical, the Pope insisted that whatever technical and economic progress there may be, there will be neither justice nor peace in the world until men return to a sense of their dignity as creatures and sons-of God. This is why the Church is a herald of a way of life that is ever modern. From .her doctrine of the sacred dignity of the individual, she has drawn a social teaching that takes into consideration the realities of human nature, the various dimensions of the temporal order, and the characteristics of contem-porary society. This social teaching, he said, is an integral part of the Christian conception of li~[e and should be known, spread, and put into observance by all Catholics. The executibn of this doctrine will be the work especially of the laity whom, in the concluding sections of the en-cyclical, the Pontiff urges to remain close to. the doctrine of Christ and His Church. ÷ 4- 4- Roman Documents VOLUME 20, 1961 445 R. F. Smith~ S,]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOU, S 446 Miscellaneous° Documents O~a July 22, 1960 (pp. 3~1-43)~ Pope John" issued an apostoli~ constitution dstablishing an exarchate foi: Ukranians of the Byzantine Ri~e living in .France. The see of the exarch will be in Pari~ and~he will be a ~uffr~igan of the archbishop of Paris; the power of the exarch will be exercised cumulatively with that of the loc'al ordinaries of France. On the sameday (pp. 343-44) a similar exarch-ate was estabhshed for those of the Armeman Rxte hwng in France. On April 23, 1961 (pp. 314-18), Hi~ Holines~ spoke to members of various Oriental rites, exl~ressing his admiration for the grandeu~ of Eastern Christianity and the hope that it will find'in the Pope "the sweetness of David and the wisdom of Solomon." On Pentecost, May 21, 1961 (pp. 358-62), His Holiness delivered an al-locution after he had consecrated fourteen mi.ssionary bishops from Africa, America, and Asia. He told his listeners tha t the. riew bishops w.ere the flowers of the new churches of Africa and Asia,~urged the new bishops to study the cultures and histories of their peoples and to work and firay that these be~b'enefited by the redemotion, and re'~all'ed the centenary of the dea'th of Bish~)p de Mazenod, founder of the Oblates 9f Mar~ Immaculate, one o~ the gre.at nanies in the modern renaissance of mission.activity. On November 24, 1960 (pp. 346-'50), the Holy Father'issued an apostolic c6nstitution establishing the hi.erarchy in Vietnam- with a division into three ecclesiastical provinces. On May 27, 1961 (p. 388.),. the Sacred .Cong~egation'bf Rites issued a declaration according to _which a ferial of the fourth class i~ never to be commemorated in a festive or votive Mass,. even though it be a conventual,, one. Accordingly~the f611owing numbers of the new code of rubrics are to ~be modified to read: N.-26. All ferials not mentioned in Nos. 23-25 are ferials of the fourth class; these ar~never commemorated. N.-289_. [At the beginning] On all'ferials of the fourth clasS . there may be said without a commemoration of the ferial. N. 299. [Second part] On bther ferials the Mass of the pre-cedin~ Sunday is said unless the rubrics provide otherwise. On May q l, 1961, the Feast of the Ascension (pp. 289- 95), Pope John XXIII solemnly canonized Blessed Mary Bertilla Boscardin'(1888-1922), virgin, of the School Sisters of St. Dorothy, Daughters of the Sacred Hearts. Her feast day is to be kept on October-22. In the hom.ily after the canonization, the Holy Father pointed out that the new saint is a l~sson to the~great and wise of this world, for she achieved greatness through humility and ,heroism through hidden sacrifice. He also stated that her sanctity was founded on her family where she learned the secret of constancy, on her catechism which taught her true wisdom, and on her religious vocation which allowed her to give herself entirely to God and to her neighbor. On April 26, 1961 (pp. 381-85), the Sacred Congregation of Rites affirmed the heroic virtue ol~ the venerable Servant of God, Leonard Murialdo (1828-1900), professed priest and founder of the Pious Society of St. Joseph. On'the same day (pp. 385-88), the congregation also affirmed the heroic virtue o1: the venerable Servant of God, Gertrude Comensoli (1847-1903), ~oundress of the Sacramentine Sisters. ~ On April 21, 1961 (pp. 308-14), the Holy Father ad-dressed the First National Italian Congress for Ecclesiasti-cal Vocations. He laid great stress on the influence of priests on vocations, the importance of seminaries for the developing of the human and Christian virtues of future priests, and the need to labor with discretion and zeal for the increase of vocations. On M~rch 25, 1,961 (pp. 371-80), the Sacred Congregation of Religious issued an instruction and statutes to govern extern sisters of monasteries of nun

Issue 58.4 of the Review for Religious, July/August 1999. ; Review for Religious is a forum for shared reflection on the lived experience of all who ~nd that the church's rich heritages of spirituality support their personal and apostolic Christian lives, The articles in the journal are meant to be informative, practical; historical, or inspirational, written from a theological or spiritual or sometimes canonical point of view. Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-977-7363 ¯ Fax: 314-977-7362 E-Mail: foppema@slu.edu Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP P.O. Box 29260; YVashington, D.C. 20017 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ° P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©1999 Review for Re!igious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission ~nust bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. for religious Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Editorial Staff Adviso.ry Board David L. Fleming sJ Clare Boehmer ASC Philip C. Fischer sJ Elizabeth McDonough OP Mary Ann Foppe Tracy Gramm James and Joan Felling Kathryn Richards FSP Joel Rippinger OSB Bishop Carlos A. Sevilla $3 David Werthmann CSSR Patricia Wittberg SC Christian Heritages and Contemporary Living JULY-AUGUST1999 ¯ VOLUME58 ¯ NUMBER4 contents 342 feature U.S. Catholic Re!igious and Slavery: A Seldom Told Story James Fitz SM examines the significant 19th-century issue of social justice and human transformation, the story of slavery, and how relig!ous in the United States were involved. 364 372 witness Edith Stein: St. Teresa Benedicta of the Cross OCD Rita E. Goldman reviews the life of Edith Stein and points out ways she models a contemporary holy life. At Home by the S~a: ' Isabel Green SCN and the House of Prayer Experience C. Walker Golla~ PhD tells the story of Sister Isabel SCN and her influence in the development .of the Hou~se of Prayer movement for spiritual renewal. 384 393 consecrated life Vita Consecrata and the Anthropology of the Vows Dennis J. Billy CSSR develops five basic anthropological dimensions of human existence for a more thorough understanding of the vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. Authority among Religious in South Asia Nihal Abeyasingha CSSR explores some of the issues dealing with the religious tradition of authority and obedience within different cultural contexts. 403 424 discerning Becoming a Nun: A General Model of Entering Religious Life Barbara Zajac proposes from her sociological research that personal contact and visibility are key elements in fostering vocations to consecrated life. Discerning Community Leadership Mary Benet McKinney OSB presents the advantages and the difficulties that are involved in a community's use of the discernment process. departments 340 Prisms 429 Canonical Counsel: Admission to an Institute of Consecrated Life 435 Book Reviews July-August 1999 prisms In this year dedicated to God the Father, we would do well to bring into sharper focus to whom we pray. For the sake of our prayer life, we might examine how our praying is shaped by Jesus' teaching the Our Father. What are the ordinary elements that we as Christ's disciples appropriately bring to our day-to-day way of l~raying? Our Father Our prayer begins with our, not my, "hello" to One who has loved us into life, the One we call upon as the "God of our life," "Giver of all good gifts," "Abba" (Jesus' love word). who art in heaven One so close, so totally present to us, and yet not in the world of our control--beyond the sphere of limitation and death. hallowed be thy name You are holy--totally other than us; you are God, and we are not. It is your world; we are your creation. Awe-filled, we say "Holy your name!" thy kingdom come For us and for the world, we want what you want. Why? because it is out of love you create and you act and you seek out. thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven May your desires become our desires and so let us act with you--as ones who love. give us this day our daily brei~d Daily let us be with you and work with you for all that sustains our life with Review for Religious and forgive us our trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against us There are times we pay no heed to you; we become so caught up in our own way of finding life and in our own way of seeking love. Forgive us for receiving your love so awkwardly, sometimes so grudgingly. Help us to act like you in offering forgiveness to others who hurt us in any way. and lead us not into temptation You know our limits; please be gentle with us in your unquenchable love. Even more we ask you to be strong within us as together we face the things that might make us less than the human persons you call us to be. but deliver us from evil We know that you are always a saving God, and we stand always in your presence as ones who need saving--so we believe, so we trust, so we love. Moved by Christ's Spirit, our praying may take shape in any and all of these reflections of Jesus' way of teaching us to pray. So we pray in Jesus' name. There are some changes within the Review for Religious staffing that I would like all of you, our readers, to know about. Miss Jean Read is retiring after serving some twenty-three years after her first "retirement" from a variety of Jesuit works. Sister Regina Siegfried ASC is returning to full-time teaching and student counseling after six years on our editorial staff. We remain grate-ful for their lasting contributions. We welcome Sister Clare Boehmer ASC to the editorial staff, who assumes special care for the Reviews department. David L. Fleming sJ P.S. To honor Jean Read, who has shouldered a major respon-sibility for the publishing of all the books in the Best of the Review series, we are publishing a new book, Life through a Poet's Eyes, The Best of the Review - 6. See the insert page at the end of this issue. L___2,4.1__ JAMES FITZ U.S. Catholic Religious and Slavery: A Seldom Told Story feature For religious of the United States, actions for social jus-tice and human transformation have become a signifi-cant aspect of our mission since the promulgation of Gaudium et spes at the conclusion of the Second Vatican Council. "The joys and the hopes, the griefs and anxi-eties of the people of- this age, especially those who are poor or in any way afflicted, these are the joys and the hopes, the griefs and anxieties of the followers of Christ" (§1). The (all to social justice and human transforma-tion was notably addressed to religious in a 1981 docu-ment from the Sacred Congregation for Religious and Secular Institutes (SCRIS) titled "Religious and Human Advancement" (Le scelte evangdiche). l This call was reaf-firmed most recently by the Synod on Consecrated Life in 1994 and the postsynodal apostolic exhortation Vita consecrata (see §82) in 1996. In June 1997 Representative Tony Hall, Democrat from Dayton, Ohio, and a bipartisan group of eleven members of the United States House of Representatives introduced a one-sentence resolution that the U.S. Congress apologize to African Americans, "whose ances-tors suffered as slaves under the Constitution and laws of the United States until 1865:."2 Thi~ resolution, a James Fitz SM returns to our pages after a busy twelve-year absence. His address is Office of Campus Ministry; University of Dayton; 300 College Park; Dayton, Ohio 45469. Review for Religious response to President Clinton's initiative to heal racial division in this country, began a national debate over whether a national ~apol-ogy for slavery is necessary or useful. The recent movie Amistad has heightened awareness of this issue. In this article I examine this significant 19th-century issue of social justice and human transformation, the story of slavery, and how religious in the U.S.A. were involved in and responded to this critical issue in our American social history. This story is sel-dom told. Hardly one of the glorious moments in the history of American religious life, this story can give us religious a perspec-tive and context for understanding present-day events and can teach us multiple ways of bringing our Christian commitment and tradition to contemporary issues. Also, as history has a way of doing, it witnesses to "development of doctrine," with implica-tions for new issues facing the church today. History challenges its students to remember so they will not repeat mistakes of the past. As Elie Wiesel (Jewish scholar, sur-vivor of the Holocaust, and Nobel Prize winner) has pointed out many times, remembering is important. From remembering and pondering the American practice and eventual proscription of slav-ery, what can we religious learn? In the history of the United States, the Civil War (1861-1865) was a profound trial and test of liberty and equality. As President Abraham Lincoln said at Gettysburg, the "nation was "engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so con-ceived and so dedicated, can long endure." This struggle split the country. Among the various causes of the war, the different approaches to slavery in the North and the South were clearly one, and the abolition of slavery was one of the social transfor-mations that resulted from the war. This article examines how religious in the United States responded to the "peculiar institution" of slavery and to its trans-formation. 3 First, how did the overall U.S. Catholic Church respond to slavery? Second, what was the involvement of religious with slaves and with ministry to slaves? Third, what was the atti-tude of religious toward slaves and the institution of slavery? Lastly, what tentative conclusions can be drawn fo~ religious living in today's world? Besides some primary ~ources, there are significant studies (by Jesuits and Vincentians, for example) on the involvement of their particular religious orders with slavery.4 Many religious commu- July-August 1999 Fitz ¯ U.S. Catholic Religious and Slavery nities either have not written or are in the process of writing or rewriting histories of their foundations in this country. Once com-pleted, these congregational histories will be valuable in nuanc-ing any conclusions drawn from the information now available. A thorough study of the archives of religious orders and congrega-tions throughout the country could reveal some significant details and interesting historical anecdotes to complete the picture. The information already available, however, is enough for an overview of the response of U.S. religious to slavery. Attitude toward Slavery in the Catholic Church of the United States I suspect that for most American religious of the 20th cen-tury, the ownership of sla~es by their forebears in religion is dis-turbing. For religious formed since Vatican Council II, this fact might seem incomprehensible. That council places slavery among the crimes against the dignity of the human person and calls the church to work to eliminate all forms of slavery: The varieties of crime are numerous:., all offenses against human dignity, such as subhuman living conditions, arbi-trary imprisonment, deportation, slavery, prostitution, the selling of women and children, degrading working condi-tions where people are treated as mere tools for profit rathe.r than free and responsible persons: all these and the like are criminal; they poison civilization; and they debase the per-petrators more than the victims and militate against the honor of the creator . Human institutions, both private and public, must labor to minister to the dignity and purpose of the human person. At the same time let them put up a stubborn fight against any kind of slavery, whether social or political, and safeguard the basic rights of the human person under every political system. (GS §§27, 29) In the Catholic Church of the early 19th century, no formal and absolute condemnation of slavery as an institution existed. Although recognizing abuses in the system, the ch~arch did not see slavery as a moral evil in itself, but as a result of original sin, Christians found no condemnation of slavery in the Scriptures or in the writings of early church theologians. "From Genesis to Philemon one could find no condemnation of the practice. Jesus did not utter one word of censure against slavery even though it was in full existence-in,his day. St. Paul, who claimed to have met Review for Religious the resurrected Christ, did nothing to abolish it--in fact, he did just the opposite when he said, 'Slaves, be obedient to your masters.'" Although slavery per se was not condemned, Pope Pius II in 1482 and Pope Urban viii in 1639 had condemned the slave trade. Pope Benedict XlV condemned the continued enslavement of native peoples in 1741.5 By the end of the 18th century, abolition movements began in various countries and in some of the states of the United States. In 1839 Pope Gregory Xvi issued an apostolic letter again calling for the elimination of the African slave trade.6 Voices opposing slavery began to arise among Catholics in European countries.7 Catholics in the United States, how-ever, did not take a lead in the aboli-tionist movement. Of the few significant Catholic voices, the most prominent came from outside the United States--the Irish leader Daniel O'Connell. His voice did not, however, receive a warm welcome in the United States) Catholic leaders consistently tended to identify the abolitionists with anti-Catholic and In the Catholic Church of the early 19th century, no formal and absolute condemnation of slavery as an institution existed. nativist sentiments. The Know-Nothing party platform of 1855, which combined anti-slavery, nativist, and anti-Catholic concerns, did nothing to win Catholic converts to the antislavery movement.9 Catholics leaders tended to avoid the slavery issue, which divided the nation. In their 1859 provincial council meeting in Baltimore, the bishops of the United States avoided taking a stand on the issues. Although Catholic leaders admitted that human bondage was not an ideal system, they differed on the gravity of the evil and the practicality of proposals to end the system. The only element upon which they agreed was that the principles and methods of the abolitionists were a threat to the safety of the country2° At time of the Civil War, northern church leaders generally supported the position of the union, and southern church leaders generally supported the confederacy. In 1862 Orestes Brownson, a prominent American Catholic layman and thinker, wrote that in the mind of Catholics the preservation of the union took prece-dence over the abolition of slavery. As a northerner he wrote that it was his impression that the majority of Catholics opposed the July-August 1999 Fit~ * U.S. C~tbolic Religious and Slavery abolitionists, but were neither in favor of slavery nor opposed to gradual emancipation. At the time he himself supported emanci-pation as a political and military necessity.1~ In his manual of moral theology written in the early 1840s, Francis Patrick Kenrick, bishop of Philadelphia and later archbishop of Baltimore, regretted the institution of slavery as it was practiced in the United States, but generally acquiesced in the prevailing conditions in the country. Although especially concerned about the restrictions on the edu-cation of slaves and on the slaves' freedom to practice religion, he nevertheless opposed violation of laws controlling slavery. He encouraged slaves to be obedient and masters to be just and kind. Though he considered the original seizure of slaves to be immoral, he argued that the descendants of those who originally purchased the slaves should not be held accountable.~2 Kenrick represented Catholic opinion in the United States, which generally supported the status quo. Those Catholics who saw slavery as an evil were generally for gradual, not forced, emancipation. Southern Catholic Church leaders defended slavery, although some, like Bishop Augustin Verot of St. Augustine, Florida, also pointed out that many southern masters had abused slaves, and that the war might be God's punishment for this. Among the abuses Verot listed were masters separating families, masters taking advan-tage of female slaves, and masters providing neither religious instruction nor proper clothing, food, and dwellings for slaves.~3 Like many of their fellow Americans, many Catholics also had racist attitudes toward the slaves. Although Catholics recognized slaves as human persons, they did not necessarily accept them as equals. Reflecting this belief, Orestes Brownson could write, "We recognize in the Negro a man, and assert for him in their plenitude the natural rights of man, but we do not believe him the equal of the white man, and we would not give him in society with white men equality of respect to those rights derived not immediately from manhood, but mediately from political and civil society, and in this we express, we apprehend, the general sentiment of the Catholic population of this country." 14 Religious Involvement with Slaves In his first report to the prefect of the Congregation de Propaganda Fide, Father John Carroll, superior of the priests in the missions of Maryland (and later the first American bishop), sent the Review for Religious statistics concerning Catholics in the United States. African slaves were a significant part of the Catholic Church in Maryland, about twenty percent of the Catholic population.~s Catholics owned most of these slaves. In the period before the Civil War, some American religious, like their American compatriots and fellow Catholics, owned slaves, Most early American Catholics lived in Maryland and Kentucky, states that permitted slavery. The owning of slaves was an adaptation religious made to living in America. Records document that both men and women religious owned slaves. The Jesuits were major slave owners. Lord Baltimore had granted them extensive lands. They owned four large estates in Maryland in Prince Georges, Charles, and St. Mary's counties and two smaller plan-tations on the Eastern Shore. They also had two farms in eastern Pennsylvania. At first they relied upon indentured servants, a practice they never completely aban-doned. "As this form of labor became increasingly difficult to secure and retain in Maryland, the Jesuit missionaries, like their secular fellow planters, turned to slave labor." The first explicit reference to slaves is from 1711, although they probably had slaves before then. By 1765 they had 192 slaves.~6 The Jesuits also owned slaves in the Louisiana Territory, in both St. Louis and New Orleans27 Two congregations of men came to America to establish sem-inaries: the Sulpicians and the Vincentians (Congregation of the Mission). Because the Sulpicians were not large landowners, they did not own 'a large number of slaves. Individual Sulpicians in Emmitsburg and Louisville (Bardstown) owned slaves28 At the invitation of William DuBourg, apostolic administrator of the Louisiana territory, the Vincentians staffed St. Mary's Seminary in Perry County, Missouri, beginning in 1818. DuBourg provided them slaves. The first Vincentian superior of the American mission, Father Felix DeAndreis, hesitated to accept them, but did so because there were no lay brothers who could do the manual labor. In fact, DeAndreis considered the possibility of.enlisting free blacks and mulattoes into the Vincentian community, but discarded the idea because he was convinced, probably rightly at the time, that no white men would enter the community. The introduction of slaves was considered a necessary adaptation to the American sit- The owning of slaves was an adaptation religious made to living in America. Jtdy-August 1999 Fitz ¯ U.S. Catholic Religious and Slavery uation. A'major concern of the Vincentian superiors in Rome was that a woman was admitted to the kitchen and thus within the com-munity living quarters. There was no comment about the fact that she was a slave. In 1830 the seminary had twenty-seven slaves; this appears to be the highest number at any one time.~9 Of the first eight permanent communities of women religious founded within the original boundaries of the United States, six had Slaves: three in Maryland (the Carmelites of Port Tobacco, the Visitation Sisters of Georgetown, the Sisters of Charity of Emmitsburg) and three in Kentucky (the Sisters of Loretto, the Sisters of Charity of Nazareth, and 'the Dominican Sisters of St. Catherine). The annals and traditions of these six communities refer to "Negro" or "colored" servants" brought by some women as part of their down. For example, at the Carmelite convent, where the slaves numbered thirty by 1829, they lived "comfort-ably" outside the cloister and did the farm work.2° Of the first eight congregations, the Oblate Sisters of Divine Providence (an order of African American religious in Baltimore) and the Sisters of Our Lady of Mercy (Charleston, South Carolina) were the two con-gregations that did not have slaves. The other major grouping of religious during the time of slav-ery were those who came to the Louisiana Territory, which became part of the United States in 1803. Most of these religious were French-speaking congregations, although Spanish religious served during the time of Spanish control. In the Louisiana Territory, the Capuchins owned slaves to work their plantations. Mready mentioned was the Jesuit ownership of slaves in the territory.2! Among the communities of women, French-speaking Ursulines were the first to come to New Orleans in 1727. They had slaves provided as part of their contract with the Company of the Indies.22 Although at first reluctant to purchase a slave, Mother Hyacinth, of the Daughters of the Cross (Cocoville, Louisiana), accepted the recommendation of the bishop and purchased a slave.23 The Madames (Religious) of the Sacred Heart had slaves at Grand Coteau, Louisiana, and in Missouri.24 There is correspondence from St. Philippine Duchesne requesting a slave from the Vincentians. The Sisters of Loretto of Bethlehem convent across the road from the Vincentians in Perry County, Missouri, also owned slaves.25 The owning of slaves led consequently to the involvement of religious in the purchase and sale of slaves. For the Sisters of Review for Religious Charity of Nazareth, the purchase of slaves in 1840 was an eco-nomic decision: "The Council decided it was better to buy ser-vants for the farm, and so forth, than pay so much for hire and then often get bad ones."26 When the Carmelites left Charles County for Baltimore in 1831, the disposal of their slaves was one of their difficulties. According to the Carmelite centennial histo-rian, the slaves became a source of anxiety because the sisters did not have the resources to grant them their freedom, so they gave them permission to seek their own masters. The sisters received whatever price the new master gave. Older slaves were left to the care of competent persons, and the sisters provided for their neces-sities until their deaths.27 The involvement in the sale of slaves by the Vincentians is documented in the previously mentioned study. The ownership of slaves led the Vincentians to become involved in the sale and purchase of slaves. There was an attempt t9 be faithful to church law. In a letter addressed to the Vincentian general in 1840, the American provincial, Father John Timon, explained that the"pur-pose of the increased buying of slaves was to bring families together. The Vincentians slowly phased out slaveholding during the 1850s and 1860s. Although personally opposed to slavery, Timon justified the decision to sell the slaves in terms of economic and political rather than moral factors. Freeing the slaves was not considered.28 The sale of the Jesuit slaves in Maryland caused great con-troversy. Some Jesuits sought to free the slaves and, in the pro-cess, change the labor force running their farms from slave to free. When the Jesuits were restored in 1814, the civil corpora-tion made a resolution to this effect in that same year; it was, however, never carried out. The Jesuits became embroiled in a dispute with Ambrose Marechal, the new archbishop of Baltimore, who had initiated claims against the Jesuit estates, arguing that they were meant to support the entire church in Maryland, not just the Jesuits.29 Any sales were delayed until the dispute could be settled. By the 1830s the new group of younger Jesuits was becoming uncomfortable with the estates and their status as slave owners. By this time, however, the climate in the country had changed and the policy of deferred emancipation became more difficult to fol-low. Older Jesuits, mostly Europeans, supported keeping the estates. Younger Jesuits, mostly Americans, wanted to sell them July-Augl~St 1999 Fitz ¯ U.S. Catholic Religious and Slavery and the slaves and concentrate on education. The older Jesuits argued that the slaves were a patrimony. Father Francis Dzierozynski wrote, "I consider the blacks under this respect only, that they are our sons, whose care and salvation have been entrusted to us by Divine Providence and who are always happy under our Fathers." For Dzierozynski and~others, the bond between the slaves and the Jesuits was not to be broken for finan-cial reasons. They argued that selling the slaves would lead to the slaves' physical and moral ruin and would give great scandal.3° In October 1836 the superior general approved the sale of the slaves with the condition that their religious needs must be met, families must not be separated (especially spouses), and the money must be invested for the support of Jesuits in training.31 In June, Father Thomas Mulledy, the provincial, sold the slaves to Henry Johnson of Louisiana. The main group of the slaves was sent to Louisiana in November 1838. Mulledy was denounced to the supe-rior general because some of the slave families were separated, and Mulledy was subsequently replaced. The change to tenant farming ended the Jesuit history as slaveholders. Clearly the young Jesuits who advocated sale of the slaves perceived correctly that owning slaves was scandalous. Their manner of handling the sale clearly violated the principles of the church concerning the sale and treatment of slaves, and they did not provide for their even-tual emancipation. This too wa~ a scandal. ~ In general, how did religious treat their slaves? In his study on American Catholics and slavery, Kenneth Zanca notes "that reli-gious orders treated their slaves more humanely than other slave holders and generally saw to their religious education--even in the defiance of state laws. To be a 'priest's slave' or a 'nun's slave' was considered a fortunate circumstance for a slave.''32 Although the slaves of religious may have been treated more humanely than other, slaves, problems persisted. Father Adam Marshall, the Jesuit charged with overseeing the plantations for the corporation, described the dwellings for the slaves as "almost universally unfit for human beings to live in." When possible, Jesuit brothers were given charge of the farms. Father .Peter Kenney, an Irish Jesuit, sent by the Jesuit superior general as a special visitor to evaluate the American mission in 1819, took exception to the arbitrary treatment of the slaves by the brothers. He found general disaffection among the slaves and particular abuses (for example, whipping pregnant women). He also found the Review for Religious behavior of the slaves scandalous and their practice of religion vir-tually nonexistent. Because of the poor financial condition of the Jesuits in general in the early 1820s, the living conditions of the slaves on most of the plantations were less than adequate. However, with new management the material conditions of the slaves seemed to improve by the 1830s. At St. Inigoes, the most thriving of the plantations, Father Joseph Carberry instituted a system of incentives for the slaves, which led to their economic improvement. Concerning their moral and spiritual condition, despite catech-esis and required attendance at Mass, Kenney found the slaves' lives to be a "moral wasteland and scandalous reproach to the Society" of Jesus. "Some Jesuits attributed the moral anarchy to the Society's own failure to discipline the slaves." 3 3 Some accounts about slaves owned by religious report a general affection by the slaves for their religious owners. At St. Catherine, Kentucky, this is how the ~rs~a~e laws. relationship between the Dominican sis-ters and their slaves is reported.34 When the sisters wanted to build a new chapel, some of the slaves who had come to the sisters as part of a dowry voluntarily offered to do without new clothes for a year so that the money might be donated to the chapel fund. Some slaves gave their earnings toward the project. Even after emancipation, some slaves remained with the sisters until their deaths.3s A report about the slaves owned by the Religious of the Sacred Heart indicates that they were "happy as possible in their snug little cabins" and were converted to the Catholic faith and the "love of the Sacred Heart that was the reason for Grand Coteau's existence.''36 An historian of the earlier Jesuit mission in the United States claims that dur-ing the Revolutionary War the slaves of the Jesuits could have abandoned the Jesuit plantations when British ships raided the plantations. The priests' slaves, unlike neighboring slaves, did not do so. The historian takes this as a sign of the slaves' devotion to their masters.37 There are, however, no accounts from the slaves themselves to confirm these impressions. Religious orders treated their slaves more humanely than other slave holders and generally saw to their religious education-- even in the defiance Ju~-dugltst 1999 Fitz * U.S. Catholic Religious and Slaver~ Ministry by Religious to Slaves Before the Civil War the Catholic Church in the South was small, poor, and understaffed. "Catholicism, in short, could not ade-quately minister to either the slave or the free blacks in the South ([whether] Catholic or non-Catholic), nor could Catholicism prac-tically enforce its own teaching on the proper treatment of slaves."3s The church was hesitant and ambivalent in most of its efforts to work among African Americans, whether slave or free.39 John Carroll was concerned about "a general lack of care in instructing their children and especially the Negro slaves in their religion.''4° Although local parish records indicate a high rate of baptisms among slaves throughout the antebellum period, "there is little evidence of high rates of slave identification with Catholicism in terms of attendance at Mass, marriage in the church, or other signs of Catholic activity and devotion.''4~ Despite this general lack of ade, quate ministry, religious provided some ministry to slaves. Most commonly, it was religious-order priests who provided for the slaves the celebration of the Sunday and holy day Eucharists and the celebration of baptism and marriage. The Vincentians and Capuchins ministered to slaves on the plantations in the Louisiana Territory.42 As noted earlier, the Jesuits provided sacramental min-istry for their slaves, both in Louisiana and Maryland, and for the slaves of Catholic masters in Maryland.43 A Jesuit mission band giving revivals on southern Maryland farms in the Jubilee Year 1851 also served slaves.44 Some religious priests tried to protect slaves from abuse. In 1791, for example, Capuchin Father Joaquin de Portillo ordered slaves to stop working on a holy day of obligation and reported the incident to the Louisiana Eovernor because work on a holy day was a violation of the slave code in the colony.~s In general, religious catechized their slaves and sometimes provided them basic education. As mentioned earlier, the Jesuits taught catechism to their slaves. Religious women catechized and educated black slaves, especially children.In a letter of 1856, Mother Hyacinth indicates that they educated their slave named Simon.46 There is evidence that the Visitation Sisters educated free black girls, and this tradition may have "its origins in the instruction given to their slaves.''47 Bishop England founded the Sisters of Our Lady of Mercy in Charleston, South Carolina, for the purpose of establishing a school for "free colored girls, and to give religious instruction to female slaves.''~s A letter of St. Elizabeth Ann Seton provides evidence of catechetical work among African American children.49 The Daughters of Charity organized classes to teach religion to their slaves,s° The Ursulines in New Orleans also catechized slaves,s| Two religious orders of African American women were founded to educate and catechize African American children. "To work for the Christian education of colored children," four Haitian refugees founded the Oblate Sisters of Divine Providence, "a Religious Society of virgins and widows of color." They provided education for African American children who had no other possi-bilities. Some children they educated may have been slave chil-dren, although that is not clear from the sources,s2 Supported at first by the Sulpicians in the person of Father James Joubert and later by the Redemptorists under the direction of Father Thaddeus Anwander, who was influenced by Father John Neumann, the sis-ters went about their mission under difficult circumstances includ-ing years of neglect and hardship. They continued a school in Baltimore that several of the sisters had started before ~their orga-nization as a religious congregation in 1829. The other religious community of African American sisters, the Sisters of the Holy Family, was founded in New Orleans for the purpose of serving and educating the poor. Before she founded the community, Henriette DeLille had entered into the work of teaching religion to slaves,s3 Although much of their educational work and service ministry was with poor free African Americans, they also did catechetical work among the slaves,s4 Care of slaves was also part of the outreach ministry of women religious. The Sisters of the Holy Family, prompted by the wretched condition of old, abandoned slaves; opened a home for the aged.ss The Hotel Dieu, run by the Daughters of Charity in New Orleans, had a slave department that had special rates and "superior advantages" for members of this class,s6 Attitude of Religious toward the Institution of Slavery and toward Slaves Slavery The attitude of religious in the United States toward slavery tended to mirror the attitude of United States Catholics in general. No religious and no Catholic occupied the' forefront of the aboli-tionist movement. ~uly-August 1999 Fitz ¯ U.S. Catholic Religious and Slavery There are, however, records of individual religious who were opposed to slavery. A Sulpician, Father Louis-Regis Deluol, and a Vincentian, Father John Timon, are two examples. In a letter to Charles Carroll's granddaughter, Deluol wrote that his feelings were most violently opposed to slavery. In the same letter, though, he indicated that he did not see slavery as opposed to divine or ecclesiastical law.57 Timon, the Vincentian superior of the American mission who was responsible for ending Vincentian involvement in slavery, accepted the bishopric of Buffalo, New York, because he feared he might be named coadjutor of Bardstown. Timon "would have intensely disliked that appointment because Negro slavery obtains in the state of Kentucky."58 Opposition to slavery did not, in general, lead religious to participate in the abolitionist move-ment or to the manumission of slaves. There were religious who supported slavery. Father John Ryder SJ, of Georgetown University, addressing an audience in Richmond in 183 5, defended slavery "as a positive benefit to the slav.e, while arguing that abolitionism was incompatible with Catholicism."59 One of the most prominent Catholic figures of the 19th cen-tury was Isaac Thomas Hecker, a convert to Roman Catholicism, a religious, and the founder of the Paulists. Oversimplifying, one can say that Hecker saw as his task the adaptation of the Roman Catholic Church to America, "proving to Catholics that their coun-try was not Protestant at its ideological roots, .and to Protestants that Catholics were not inherendy anti-democratic." Like his men-tor Orestes Brownson, Hecker saw Roman Catholic natural-law theory as a stronger grounding for democracy than Protestantism or Lockean liberalism. Hecker's dream of America's conversion to Catholicism never materialized.6° At the time of the Civil War, Hecker was laying the founda-tions of the Paulist community. In his writings and letters he hardly mentions the raging political issues of slavery and expansion.6~ In a sermon written in April 1861 b~t apparently never delivered, Hecker was convinced that the "root of the problem between the states was a lack of common religion.62 In a series of articles before the war, Hecker had written that the Catholic Church was friend of both master and slave. He had cohtrasted the Catholic Church, which supported union and reconciliation, with the fanatic and divisive Protestant abolitionists. I-Iecker saw the war as a perfect example of how the Catholic Church would have prevented hos- Review for Religious tility. "Slavery, under the benign influence of Catholic principles and legislation, voluntarily and insensibly disappears, just as serf-dom was made to give way to modern society without violence or bloodshed." Hecker hoped that the Civil War would lead the coun-try to see the value of Catholicism.63 On the issue of slavery itself, Hecker held views conventional for a Roman Catholic of his day. There is evidence of his views in correspondence with Jane Sedgwick, a convert and friend in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, in the spring of 1861. Hecker's letter to Sedgwick no longer exists, but her response indicates her dis-agreement with his defense of servitude under certain conditions. We have no record of Hecker's response to her questions and argu-ments. "Once the war came, Hecker told friends he had always been opposed to slavery; he even told Bishop Lynch of Charleston that he regarded the war as a punishment of the South for its evils.''64 One of his biographers, David O'Brien, quotes a passage from a letter of September 1861 : The sentiment of loyal Americans whether Catholic or not is getting always [more] and more strong and united every day against slavery and without any change of principle. We have always taken the ground that it is an evil and a disgrace which might be tolerated for a time, but ought to be grad-ually abolished. The Constitutional rights of the states for-bade, however, any direct meddling and made it our duty to protect the institution of slavery against unjust aggression. Now, however, since slavery is so destructive of national prosperity, and the South by its rebellion has forfeited all claim to the forbearance of the North, we think the time will soon come to expel slavery from our entire country.65 Slaves Attitudes toward slaves among religious are similar to those held by other white Catholic Americans. Although some English Protestants held the view that Negroes were incapable of baptism because they were not strictly human, Catholics did baptize slaves when the occasion presented itself, especially when the slaves were their own.6. Father George Hunter, a Jesuit, reminded masters of their duty to treat slaves with charity. "As they are members of Jesus Christ, redeemed by his precious blood, they are to be dealt with in a charitable, Christian, paternal manner; which is at the same time a great means to bring them to do their duty to God, and therefore to gain their souls.".7 Although seen as human, slaves were often treated and described in condescending and paternal- July-August 1999 Fitz * U.S. Catholic Religious and Slavery istic terms. The treatment of slaves as property (moving them from one place to another) manifests the failure of religious to treat slaves as fully human. The language of religious also por-trayed their condescending attitudes toward slaves. Father Joseph Mosley SJ, who came to Maryland at the time of the Jesuit sup-pression in 1773, wrote to his sister the following year: "They ['the Negroes'] are naturally inclined to thieving, lying, and much lechery. I believe want [poverty] makes them worse thieves and liars, and the innate heat .of the climate of Africa and their natu-ral temper of constitution gives them a bent to lechery.''6s Another Jesuit, Brother Mobberly, who managed St. Inigoes from 1806 to 1820, felt that a lack of discipline was the root of the slaves' prob-lems. He developed a racial theory of African subservience.69 Mobberly wrote in his diary: "The better a Negro is treated, the worse he becomes." With this attitude, there is little wonder that Mobberly was removed a month after the visit of Father Kenney in 1820.70 Against the background of slavery, Vincentian lay brothers felt and caused some difficulty within their congregation. "The broth-ers resented the implicit identification of their work with that of slaves and were increasingly reluctant to do certain types of labor, perhaps under the influence of American attitudes." Like many white laborers, the lay brothers disliked doing the kind of work slaves did, considering it degradation. Father Rosati, one of the Vincentian superiors, struggled with the duplicity he saw in the lay brothers: they did not want slaves, but refused to do the work that the slaves were hired or bought to do.71 Some religious felt compassion for the slaves, although this compassion did not always lead to action. Mother Theodore Guerin, who founded the Sisters of Providence of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods in Indiana, wrote the following in her journal about her trip to New Orleans: The most painful sight I saw in New Orleans was the selling of slaves. Every day in the streets at appointed places, Negroes and Negresses in holiday attire are exposed for this shameful traffic, like the meanest of animals at our fairs. This spectacle oppressed my heart. Lo! I said to myself, these Americans, so proud of their liberty, thus make game of the liberty of others. Poor Negroes! I would have wished to buy them all that I might say to them, "Go! Bless Providence. You are free." But such feelings must be concealed from the Louisianians, as this is a point on which they are very sensio tire.72 Review for Religious The Vincentian Father DeAndreis also felt compassion toward the slaves. In a letter of 1819 to the Vincentian community at Monte Citoria, he wrote: .With regard to the situation of the blacks and mulattoes, these are for the most part slaves, who are condemned to eat the bread of sorrow and to bear pondus diei et aestus [the burden of the day and the scorching heat (Mt 20:12)] and, what is worse, in their harsh condition to serve the passions of others and to be in the moral impossibility of knowing and practicing religion. They are commonly forbidden to contract marriage because of the loss that their masters would suffer as a result, something that exposes them to a thou-sand dangers. For the rest these natives of Africa are for the most part simple and disposed to profit by the labors that are undertaken for their salvation. They are moved at seeing a white priest interested in them since they are regarded as the offscouring and refuse of the human race. How many subjects of consolation do not these poor creatures offer me! They are instructed, they make their first communion, and then they frequent the sacraments.73 DeAndreis's writing flowed from personal experience. After arriving in St. Louis in 1818, he made the African Americans of the city an object of his special ministry. His friend Joseph Rosati, who became the first bishop of St. Louis, recollected that people were astonished at seeing a scholar applying himself to this min-istry with special ardor and dedication.74 Conclusion Several general trends can be drawn from this study of American religious and slavery. Like their fellow Catholics, some American religious owned and sold slaves and became entangled in the control and supervision of slaves. Although some commenta-tors indicate that, in general, religious treated their slaves better than .other slave masters, there are few slave witnesses to verify this perception. Religious provided sacramental ministry and edu-cation (mostly catechetical) to their slaves and to the slaves of other Catholic masters. Religious also provided limited social ser-vices to slaves. With regard to the institution of slavery, American religious mirrored American Catholics in general. They did not see slav-ery as intrinsically wrong. If they opposed slavery, they were for gradual emancipation. Although they saw slaves as human, slaves 3%dy-August 1999 Fitz ¯ U.S. Catholic Religious and Slavery were often described in condescending and racist terms. Some compassion was shown, but this did not often lead to action or a desire to eliminate the institution. As an historical account, this article could end at this point. But should more be said? Is there anything we, as religious living near the end of the 20th century, might learn from our forebears in the faith as we grapple with social-justice and social-transformation issues in the world today? There are several important lessons. A first lesson might be a challenge for us as religious to exam-ine more critically our relationship to culture. As religious, we are called to be prophetic. Hopefully, our words, actions, and lives will perform at least two prophetic functions: criticize the existing sinful and unjust social consciousness and energize the world by embodying an alternative way to live that brings hope.7s This prophetic witness can be greatly compromised if we live com-pletely apart from the culture. Conversely, if we are so immersed in the culture that we do not see injustices, and in fact participate in them, our actions become a source of scandal. American reli-gious quickly adapted to the American experience of slavery. Was this an example of being too immersed in the culture to be truly prophetic to it? Were some religious so much outsiders (for exam-ple, Catholic, French extraction, unmarried women) that criticism was muted in order not too offend? The experience of slavery of American religious in the 19th century can challenge religious today to look at our present culture. Are there structures in which we are so immersed that we fail to see injustice present? Are there unjust structures that we are afraid to challenge because the chal-lenge might cost us personally or communally? Are we alert and attentive to the structures of culture that may need prophetic chal-lenge and a witness to :an alternative way? For international institutes, these same questions may be asked concerning new implantations in other cultures. What aspects of the new culture should be accepted as compatible with and expres~ sive of gospel values? What aspects are unjust and need to be opposed? As the first religious in America quickly adapted to the institution of slavery, are there aspects of other cultures to which we are easily adapting without critical thought? These are not easy questions, but they are important if we are to be faithful to our prophetic witness. Second, the slavery issue can be a lesson in listening to and evaluating the message of another. Catholics, including religious, Review for Religqous did not listen to the abolitionists because a significant group of abolitionists was anti-Catholic as well (though this was not true of all of them). Although abolitionists may have been wrong in their anti,Catholicism, they were prophetic in their respect for the dignity of African Americans. In our own day the truth may be proclaimed by someone with whom we have little in common or with whom we disagree on significant issues. Truth can come from anywhere, and we need to hear the truth whether it comes from friend or foe, compan-ion or opponent. Are we today open to the truth, from whatever source? Have we stopped listening to some group where the truth may be present, even in the midst of error? A third lesson concerns the development of doctrine in the history of the Catholic Church. In the area of social justice and trans-formation, there are significant examples of this development. The institution of slavery, once considered a moral way to treat individuals, is now considered immoral. Reflection over the years has helped the church come to a new understanding of the implications of the reign of God as Jesus proclaimed it. As the early church struggled with the issue of accepting Gentiles into the church, so American Christians of the 19th century grappled with the implications of the gospel in terms of slavery. Statements made by bishops over a hun-dred and fifty years ago have been reversed by bishops in our own day. What was once considered not intrinsically wrong is now con-sidered a crime against human dignity. This development of doc-trine, therefore, can be a source of hope as we grapple with new justice issues today. As we deal with right-to-life issues (think of abortion and capital punishment), dignity-of-women issues, and other such issues, what appears as a small glimmer of light (even a light from outside the church) may be the source of new insight and a new living of the reign of God in future generations. A call for change, for which there may be little'support now, may gain considerable support as time passes. Religious in the United States have been called by the church to commit themselves to social justice and social transformation. We have chosen to commit ourselves to these values. Although the story of American religious involvement in and response to Are there structures in which we are so immersed that we fail to see injustice present ? ~uly-August 1999 Fitz * U.S. Catholic Religious and Slavery the institution of slavery in this country is not one of the glorious moments in our history, we can hope that the experience of our forebears in dealing with this issue may bring light and insight to our present-day struggle to discern the call of the Spirit in our world. Notes ~ I am using Austin Flannery's translation of the tide of this document, which has elsewhere been called "Religious and Human Promotion." The document was issued by the congregation in January 1981. See Origins 10, no. 34 (5 February 1981): 529-541. 2 House Concurrent Resolution 96, Congressional Record, 1997, H3890-3891. 3 A term I have borrowed from Kenneth M. Stamp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (New York: Vintage Books, 1956). 4 R. Emmett Curran, "'Splendid Poverty': Jesuit Slaveholding in Maryland, 1805-1838," in Randall M. Miller and John L. Wakelyn, eds., Catholics in the Old South: Essays on Church and Culture (Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press, 1983); Stafford Poole CM and Douglas J. Slawson CM, Church and Slave in Perry Country, Missouri, 1818-1865 (Lewistown, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1986). s Kenneth J. Zanca, ed., Amen'can Catholics and Slavery, 1789-1866: An Anthology of Primary Documents (Latham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1994), pp. xxxi and 37-39. 6 Madeleine Hooke Rice, American Catholic Opinion in the Slavery Controversy (Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1964), p. 21. 7 John Francis Maxwell, Slavery and the Catholic Church: The History of Catholic Teaching concerning the Moral Legitimacy of the Institution of Slavery (London: Barry Rose Publishers, 1975), pp. 101-110. 8 David J. O'Brien, Public Catholicism, 2nd ed. (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1996), p. 65. See also Rice, American Catholic Opinion, pp. 80-85. 90'Brien, Public Catholicism, p. 53. ,0 Rice, American Catholic Opinion, p. 85. ii Zanca, American Catholics, pp. 134-139. This is an article from Brownson 's Quarterly Review. 12 Zanca, American Catholics, p. 200. See also Joseph D. Brokhage, Francis Patrick Kenrick's Opinion on Slavery (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1955), pp. 122-124. 13 Zanca, American Catholics, pp. 201-209. This is a sermon preached by Verot in 1861. ~ Zanca, American Catholics, p. 136. ts Cyprian Davis, The History of Black Catholics in the United States (New York: Crossroad, 1990), p. 35. Review for Religious ,6 Curran, "Splendid Poverty," p. 126. 17 Poole and Slawson, Church and Slave, pp. 180-181. ~8 Christopher J. Kauffmar~, Tradition and Transformation in Catholic Culture: The Priests of Saint Sulpice in the United States from 1791 to the Present (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1988), p. 146. See also Poole and Slawson, Church and Slave, p. 143. 19 Poole and Slawson, Church and Slave, pp. 144-158 and 162. 20 Barbara Misner, Highly Respectable and Accomplished Ladies: Catholic Women Religious in America, 1790-18~0, Vol. 22 of The Heritage of American Catholicism, ed. Timothy Walch (New York: Garland Publishing, 1988), pp. 75 and 76. See also Mary Ewens OP, "The Role of the Nun in Nineteenth-Century America: Variations on the International Theme" (Doctoral diss., University of Minnesota, 1971), p. 38. 2t Roger Baudier, The Catholic Church in Louisiana (New Orleans, 1939), pp. 89, 108-109, 115-116, 131-132,139, 202. 22 Sister Frances Jerome Woods, "Congregations of Religious Women in the Old South," in Catholics in the Old South: Essays on Church and Culture, ed. Randall M. Miller and Jon L. Wakelyn (Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press, 1983), p. 112. 23 Woods, "Congregations,,' p. 113. See also Ewens, "Role of the Nun," p. 22. 24 Woods, "Congregations," p. 114. See also Ewens, p. 64, and Davis, History, p. 39. 2s Poole and Slawson, Church andSlave, pp. 171 and 172. 26Misner, Highly Respectable, p. 82, quoting from an archival record. 27Misner, Highly Respectable, p. 77. 28Poole and Slawson, Church and Slave, pp. 186-189. 29Curran, "Splendid Poverty," pp. 134-135. 30Curran, "Splendid Poverty," pp. 138, 140, 141. ~ Curran, "Splendid Poverty," p. 142. 32 Zanca, American Catholics, p. 111. ~3 Curran, "Splendid Poverty," pp. 129, 130, 132. 34 V~Zoods, "Congregations," p. 114. ~5 Misner, Highly Respectable, p. 84, and Woods, "Congregations," p. 114. The two authors seem to be using a common source, Commemorative booklet for American Bicentennial (St. Catherine, 1976). 36 Woods, "Congregations," p. 114, quoting from Margaret Williams, Second Sowing: The Life of Mary Aloysia Hardey (New York, 1942), p. 103. 37 Thomas Hughes SJ, History of the Society of ffesus in North America, Colonial and Federak Text, From 164Y till 1773, Vol. 2 (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1917), p. 565. ~8 Michael McNally, "A Minority of a Minority: The Witness of Black July-August 1999 Fitz ¯ U.S. Catholic Religious ~nd Slavery Women Religious in the Antebellum South," Review for Religious 40, no. 2 (March 1981): 261. 39 Margaret Susan Thompson, "Philemon's Dilemma: Nuns and the Black Community in Nineteenth-Century America: Some Findings," in The American Catholic Religious Life: Selected Historical Essays, ed. Joseph M. White (New York: Garland Publishing, 1988), p. 83. 40 John Carroll, "The First American Report to Propaganda on Catholicism in the United States, March 1, 1785," in Documents of American Catholic History, Vol. 1, 1493 to 186~, ed. John Tracy Ellis (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1987), p. 149. 4~ Randall M. Miller, "The Failed Mission: The Catholic Church and Black Catholics in the Old South," in Miller and Wakelyn, Catholics in the Old South, p. 152. 42 Baudier, Catholic Church, pp. 76-77. 43 Baudier, Catholic Church, pp. 139, 161. The Capuchins provided ministry to slaves in Louisiana. A dispute arouse between the Jesuits and the Capuchins over whether the Jesuits, who were assigned to the Indian missions, had jurisdiction and could minister to their own slaves (see Baudier, pp. 115-116). ~4 Edward E Beckett SJ, "Listening to Our History: Inculturation and Jesuit Slaveholding," Studies in the Spirituality of Jesuits 28, no. 5 (November 1996): 15. 4s Baudier, p. 213. 4~ Woods, "Congregations," p. 113. 47 Misner, Highly Respectable, p. 203 48 Misner, Highly Respectable, pp. 204-205. 49 Zanca, American Catholics, p. 143. ' 50 Woods, "Congregations," p. 112. s~ Baudier, Catholic Church, p. 183. 52 Sister M. Reginald Gerdes OSP, "To Educate and Evangelize: Black Catholic Schools of the Oblate Sisters of Providence (1828-1880)," U.S. Catholic Historian 7, nos. 2 and 3 (Spring/Summer 1988): 183-199. s3 Woods, "Congregations," p. 115. 54 Davis, History, pp. 105-I10. See also Woods, "Congregations," p. 116, and Baudier, Catholic Church, p. 397. 55 McNally, "Minority," p. 264. ~6 Woods, "Congregations," p. 113, and Baudier, p. 396. Baudier is quoting from the silver-jubilee booklet of the Hotel Dieu School of Nursing in 1927. 57Kauffman, Tradition and Transfomnation, p. 146. 58 Poole and Slawson, Church and Slave, p. 179. 59 Beckett, "Listening to Our History," p. 45, fn. 186. 60 Edward J. Langlois, "Isaac Hecker's Political Thought," in Hecker Review for Religions Studies: Essays on the Thought of Isaac Hecker, ed. John Farina (New York: Paulist Press, 1983), pp. 51 and 66. 6, David J. O'Brien, Isaac Hecker: An American Catholic (New York: Paulist Press, 1992), p. 191. 62 Langlois, "Isaac Hecker's Political Thought," p. 68. See also p. 85, fn. 36. 63 Hecker's sermon, quoted in Langlois, p. 69. 64 O'Brien, lsaac Hecker, p. 192. 6s O'Brien, Isaac Hecko; p. 192. 66Zanca, American Catholics, p. 113 67Hughes,.History, Vol. 2, p. 559. 68Zanca, American Catholics, pp. 1 I3-114. 69Beckett, "Listening to Our History," p. 2 I. 70Curran, "Splendid Poverty," p. 133. 7~ Poole and Slawson, Church and Slave, pp. 156-157. 72 Zanca, American Catholics, p. 117. 73Poole and Slawson, Church and Slave, pp. 145-146. ~4 Poole and Slawson, Church and Slave, p. 147. 75 For further development of the concept of religious life as acted prophecy, see my article "Religious Life as~Acted Prophecy," Review for Religious 41, no. 6 (November-December 1982): 923-927. I Will I will survive even though I have doubts and fears, I will survive when my eyes are full of tears, I will go on with faith in God's hands I will trust my Jesus for I know he understands. Janice Barham July-August 1999 RITA E. GOLDMAN Edith Stein: St. Teresa Benedicta of the Cross OCD witness We might begin by asking ourselves, who is Edith Stein? First and foremost, she is a woman, a Jewish woman, student, nurse, scholar/philosopher, teacher, Carmelite nun, and confessor/martyr saint. She was inscribed in the calendar of saints on 11 October 1998, having been beatified at Cologne, Germany, on 1 May 1987. On the last few pages of her work On the Problem of Empathy, she has left us a short biographic sketch. She writes: "I, Edith Stein, was born on 12 October 1891 in Breslau, the daughter of the deceased merchant Siegfried Stein and his wife, Auguste, n~e Courant. I am a Prussian citizen and Jewish." She tells us that, in the year she was born, 12 October was the greatest Jewish holy day, Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. Her mother, a devout Jew, always considered this a great blessing, having her last child on the Day of Atonement. Edith was the youngest of eleven children, of whom only seven sur-vived. Her mother was widowed twenty-one months after Edith was born. She tells of where she went to school and then of beginning the study of philosophy, to be interrupted in 1916 when she served with the Red Cross during the Rita E. Goldman wrote "Frances Cabrini: A Woman for Today" for our November-December 1996 issue, Her address is 3041 North Country Club Road, Apartment 220; Tucson, Arizona 85716. Revie~v for Religious First World War. After the war she became a teacher at a girls' secondary school in Breslau. Later she began work on her doc-torate in phenomenology, becoming an assistant to Edmund Husserl. In 1917 she was asked by the widow of her former teacher Adolf Reinach, who had died at the front, to help put her hus-band's papers in order. Frau Reinach was a devout Christian; and it was from her influence that Edith began to move toward the Christian faith. In the summer of 1921 she read the autobiography of St. Teresa of Avila, the great Carmelite mystic of the 16th cen-tury. "This," she concluded, "is the truth." She was baptized on New Year's Day 1922. After her baptism Edith spent the next eight years teaching German and literature at St. Magdalena's, a teacher training insti-tute run by the Dominican Sisters at Speyer. During this time she continued her philosophic interests, writing a two-volume study of the philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas. She tried to obtain a pro-fessorship at Freiburg, but was refused because she was a woman. Though she was later to be barred from publishing and lecturing because of being Jewish, at this time she traveled extensively to give lectures in places as varied as Munich, Vienna, Prague, Juvisy (near Paris), and Zurich. In 1932 she accepted a teaching post at the German Institute for Scientific Pedagogy in MOnster. The following year she was denied her lectureship under a Nazi decree aimed at Jews. In October 1933, on the Feast of St. Teresa of Avila, Edith entered the Carmel at Cologne. When the situation in Germany became very bad for Jews, Edith was transferred to the Carmel at Echt, in Holland. But this move did not save her, and in August 1942 she and her sister Rosa were arrested and deported. She died at Auschwitz, on or near 9 August 1942. What I have said above is a general outline of Edith Stein's life, but I think we are more concerned with her thought, what led her to become a Catholic, what called her to become a Carmelite nun, than with the externals of her life. At the age of fifteen, Edith decided she did not believe in God. When she was twenty-four, during her study of phenomenology, a flicker of faith began to catch her ey.e. Then came her contact with Frau Reinach and her reading of the life of St. Teresa of Avila. In St. Teresa's response to Christ's love, Edith found the answer she had sought. She decided to follow Christ's invitation and enter July-Augtlst 1999 GoMman ¯ Edith Stein the Catholic Church. (Even at that time Edith was strongly aware that an attraction to live out her baptismal commitment as a mem-ber of the Discalced Carmelite Order and as a daughter of St. Teresa was inseparable from her resolve to enter the church.) Edith bought a catechism and a missal, studied them thor-oughly, then went to her first Mass in the parish church of Bergzabern, celebrated by the pastor, Monsignor Breitling. Finding that she had no difficulty in following the Mass, she approached Monsignor Breitling afterwards and asked for baptism. The sur-prised pastor told her that there is usually an extended period of preparation before someone is received into the church. But Edith would not relent and asked that he examine her right then on the truths of the faith. The "examination" went so well that her bap-tism was set for the coming New Year's Day. Edith began attend-ing Mass daily--it became the center of her spiritual life. During the years she taught at St. Magdalena's, she was remembered as a teacher who was "modest and unassuming., she went about her work pretty much unseen and unheard, always friendly and ready to be of help." As one student wrote of her rec-ollections of Edith Stein: "Actually, she gave us everything. Though we were all very young at the time, none of us has ever been able to forget the spell that her personality exerted. Her manner alone made her a model for us at that critical time. There's not a single remark of hers that I can repeat--and it isn't that her comments were not memorable, but that she was a quiet, untalkative person who could influence us simply by who she was." These words reflect what Edith herself said of her teaching. She regarded edu-cation as a form of apostolate and generously devoted herself to all the needs of her students. When in 1932-1933 Edith could no longer teach or publish because of the situation in Germany, she at last received permis-sion to enter the Cologne Carmel. This was something she had wanted to do since the day she was baptized, and now it was to be fulfilled. From 16 July to 15 August 1933, she lived in the extern guest quarters at the C.ologne convent while getting acquainted with the sisters. After" that she spent several months in Breslau doing all she could to make her leave-taking easier on her family before her entrance into Carmel on 15 October, the feast of St. Teresa. For six months she was a postulant, being admitted to the novitiate on 15 April 1934. At this time she received her name in religion, Sister Teresa .Benedicta of the Cross. She had taken the Review for Religious name of Teresa at the time of her baptism and took the name Benedicta of the Cross--blessed by the cross--which was her great devotion. She took the name Benedicta also in honor of St. Benedict, since she had been the spiritual child of Archabbot Walzer, who was the abbot at Beuron, the monastery where she had spent much time. In 1935 on Easter Sunday she pronounced her first vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience and three years later, on 21 April 1938, she made her final solemn profession. Life in the monastery was for Edith very different from what she had experienced in the world. She was forty-two years old, and the other novices were in their twenties. She was not accus-tomed to housework and made all kinds of mistakes. The novice mistress had been a bit worried at first when she heard she would have to teach a scholar, but Edith was so amiable and eager to learn that the novice mistress forgot her nervousness. Another thing, her time was not her own--and was very much regulated by bells. After the novitiate, however, much of her assigned work was of an intellectual nature. She revised some of the things she had written while at Speyer. Some of her writings during this period are published in The Hidden Life. At times she also served as receptionist (at the "turn" and on the telephone) and as infirmarian. On 31 December 1938 she was driven across the border to the Carmelite monastery at Echt in Holland. Since Kristallnacht (8 November 1938), Edith had thought it best not to endanger the Cologne Carmel any longer with her presence. Sister Teresa Benedicta spent only a little over three years in the Echt Carmel. During this time she suffered greatly, not know-ing what was happening to her family. Some of her brothers and sisters were able to emigrate to America, but several were not per-mitted to go. Her sister Rosa was with her, having become a Catholic after the death of their mother in 1936. Edith's letters at this time express a central theme: Do everything you can to give joy to others; let God guide you without resistance; fill up She had taken the name of Teresa at the time of her baptism and took the name Benedicta of the Cross-blessed by the cross - which was her great devotion. July-Augv~st 1999 Goldman ¯ Edith Stein the emptiness of your heart with love of God and neighbor. In 1939 she composed her final testament. It reveals more than anything else her conscious acceptance of her particular mis-sion. I quote from the concluding lines: I joyfully accept in advance the death God has appointed for me, in perfect submission to his most holy will. May the Lord accept my life and death for the honor and glory of his name, for the needs of his holy Church (especially the preservation, sanctification, and final perfecting, of our holy order, and in particular for the Carmels of Cologne and Echt), for the Jewish people, that the Lord may be received by his own and his kingdom come in glory, for the deliverance of Germany and peace throughout the world, and finally for all my relatives living and dead and all whom God has given me: may none of them be lost. In late July 1942 the Dutch bishops issued a pastoral letter that was read in all the Catholic parishes of the Netherlands con-demning the deportation of Jews. One week after the bishops' pas-toral letter, on 2 August 1942, the Nazis in a single sweeping operation rounded up all Jewish Catholics, among them Edith and Rosa Stein. On 6 August Edith and Rosa and many other Jewish Catholics were at Westerbork awaiting deportation to the "east." The destination was Auschwitz, where it is believed both Edith and Rosa were executed on 9 August. When the church canonizes someone, it is in essence saying that it is safe to imitate this person. In putting its final approval on Edith Stein by declaring her a saint, the church says to us that we cannot go wrong if we incorporate into our lives the ideals that she professed. Edith Stein gave much to our world by her life and death, and now that she is ranked among the saints in heaven, she is still able to give to us by her example and prayers. I think Edith Stein could easily be the patron saint of academics, school teach-ers, and certainly single people living in the world, since this was her life before she entered Carmel. We may not be called upon to give our lives for our faith, but there are endless possibilities of our practicing virtue as exemplified in Edith Stein's life. First of all, she was a modern woman, one who lived in the world, made her living, and when time permitted spent many hours at home with her family--remember she came from a large fam-ily and her mother died in her eighty-seventh year in 1936. She is a 20th-century woman, one who had a deep regard for the voca-tion of women in our world. I point out her book on woman, Review for Religions where she brings out the vocation of women, their education and professionalism, their life not only in the church, but in civic and national life as well. She had experienced exclusion from a pro-fessorship because she was a'woman--Edith Stein could easily be the patron saint of the feminist movement of our day. Edith Stein is a model for our prayer life. Even from the time before her baptism, daily Mass was on her agenda, and she was very familiar with the other official prayer of the church, the Divine Office, the Breviary, now called the Liturgy of the Hours. She often went to the Benedictine abbey at Beuron and participated in the choral praying of the Liturgy of the Hours. Being there for Holy Week services was something she anticipated yearly. Besides Mass and Office, she was accustomed to spending several hours daily in private prayer before the Blessed Sacrament. She had a great familiarity with Scripture and quotes it often in her letters. Before she entered Carmel, she would accompany her mother to the synagogue and pray the psalms in Latin that her mother was praying in Hebrew. Even in her busy life of teaching, writing, counseling students, giving lectures, and so forth~ she always found time for prayer. I hope that this brief sketch provides some insight into this new saint of ours, one who is very aware of our times. Edith Stein is being proclaimed a martyr and a confessor. At the homily of her beatification, Pope John Paul II declared: "In the extermina-tion camp She died as a daughter of Israel 'for the glory of the Most Holy Name' and, at the same time, as Sister Teresa Benedicta of the Cross, literally, 'blessed b~ the cross.'" The "cause" of her martyrdom, the pope said, was the Dutch bishops' letter of protest against the deportation 6f the Jews. But, he added, because of her great desire to unite with the sufferings of Christ on the cross, she "offered herself to God as a 'sacrifice for genuine peace' and above all for her threatened and humiliated Jewish people." Prudently he left unmentioned her desire to atone for Jewish "unbelief." To many Jewish people the canonization of Edith Stein is an affront. What about the six million Jews who were exterminated and are not saints in the Catholic sense? In my opinion Edith Stein is a Catholic saint who iust happened to have Jewish origins, some-thing she was especially proud of after she came into the church. Edith Stein is a model for our prayer life. July-August 1999 Goldman ¯ Edith Stein Perhaps it is also a mystery. In my own life, being Jewish and Catholic has been a great grace. I have always said that I did not really convert, but just kept going on. Judaism is the beginnings of Christianity, and my own beginnings have been fulfilled in my life. I am sure Edith Stein looked at this in the same way. I close this brief essay with the prayer from the Mass of St. Edith Stein, whose feast will be celebrated.on 9 August: Lord God of our ancestors, you brought St. Teresa Benedicta to the fullness of the science of the cro~s at the hour of her martyrdom. Fill us with that same knowledge; and, through her intercession, allow us always to seek after you, the supreme truth, and to remain faithftil until death to the covenant of love ratified in the blood of your Son for the salvation of all. Grant this through Christ our Lord. Amen. Select Bibliography Works by Edith Stein: Collected Works of Edith Stein. Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications¯ Vol. I: Life in a Jewish Family. Trans. Josephihe Koeppel OCD. Vol. 2: Essays on Woman. Trans. Freda M. Oben PhD. Vol. 3: The Problem of Empathy. Tians. Waltraut Stein PhD. Vol. 4: The Hidden Life. Trans. Waltraut Stein PhD Vol. 5: Self-Portrait in Letters 1916-1942. Trans. Josephine Koeppel OCD. Edith Stein: Selected Writings, ed. Susanne M. Batzdorff. Springfield, Illinois: Templegate Publishers, 1990. On the Problem of Empathy (Zum Problem der Einfiihlung). Trans¯ Waltraut Stein. The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1964. The Science of the Cross (Kreuzewissenschaf~). Trans. Hilda Graef. Chicago: Regnery, 1960. "Ways to Know God" (Wege der Gotteserkenntnis). Trans. M. Rudolf Mlers. The Thomist, July 1946. Works about Edith Stein: Batzdorff, Susanne M. Aunt Edith: The Jewish Heritage of a Catholic Saint. ~Springfield, Illinois: Templegate Publishers, 1998. Graef, Hilda. Writings of Edith Stein. Westminster, Maryland: Newman Press, 1956. Herbstrith, Waltraud. Edith Stein: A Biography. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1985¯ ¯ Never Forget¯ Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications, 1998. Oben, Freda Mary, PhD. Edith Stein: Scholar, Feminist, Saint¯ Staten Island: Review for Religious Alba House, 1988). Oesterreicher, John M. Walls Are Crumbling. London: Hollis and Carter, 1953. Pp. 288-329. Woodward, Kenneth L. Making Saints: How the Catholic Church Determines Who Becomes a Saint, Who Doesn't, and Why. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990. Pp. 135-144. Also articles in various periodicals such as America, London Tablet, Spiritual Life, and Carmelite Digest. In Passing In the morning when Jesus walked with the disciples by his side, he encountered the wildflowers, the grains of wheat caught by the breeze, and the songbirds that greeted him with their unending hosannas. Now as I stroll past the flowers , their colors brightening my path and the trees 'beckoning to me to partake of the lilting songs of birds hidden in their branches, I recall all Jesus said and did as he walked the roads of this life, and I try to keep his great love, compassion and zest for life in the tabernacle of my heart. Neil C. Fitzgerald ~dy-August 1999 C. WALKER GOLLAR At Home by the Sea: Isabel Green SCN and the House of Prayer Experience Teponymous hero of Richard Bach's 1970 book Jonathan ingston Seagull at one point employs a rare maneuver in order to test two other seagulls that caught his eye. Jonathan pre-viously has been obsessed with speed, but, upon seeing these two unusual birds, Jonathan "twisted his wings land] .slowed to a sin-gle mile per hour above stall, [but then, much to his surprise, the] two radiant birds slowed with him, smoothly, locked in position. They knew about slow flying.''1 Like Jonathan Livingston Seagull, the Catholic female reli-gious orders of the 1940s and '50s could demonstrate great skill along with an increasing level of professionalism. As institutions they flew at top speeds, even though their abundance of ritual, order, and bureaucracy often seemed to stray far from their sim-ple beginnings. In the 1960s the Second Vatican Council chal-lenged communities of religious not only to get in touch with their roots, but also to recultivate the equivalent of slow flying, that is, prayer and contemplation. One directive that accompanied this challenge called for the creation of houses of prayer. Several men, including Bernard H~iring, Thomas Merton, and David Steindl- Rast, promoted the idea, but religious women effectively saw to its realization. The House of Prayer Movement grew, not out of a set of theological concepts, but rather out of the very real efforts C. Walker Gollar, an assistant professor of church history, writes from the Department of Theology; Xavier University; 3800 Victory Parkway; Cincinnati, Ohio 45207. Review for Religious of women looking to be regrafted onto their ministry's spiritual roots. The progress made by one woman will illustrate how this prayer initiative enriched not only her life, but also the lives of thousands of other religious women heeding the call of the Second Vatican Council. Eleanor Isabel Green was born on 19 June 1921 in Lebanon, Kentucky, the third child and first daughter of Nell Churchill Putnam Green. Nell's husband, a local dentist named William Spalding Green, died in 1926 of a rare heart condition at the age of forty-three, when Isabel was only five. Isabel's mother never remarried; she raised her five children largely by herself. On Sunday evening, 3 November 1935, when only fourteen, Isabel was in a car accident that resulted in the amputation of her right leg below the knee. By all accounts she quickly accepted this hand-icap as part of God's plan and then got on with her life. She grad-uated from St. Augustine High School in Lebanon in June 1938 and then enrolled at Nazareth College, nineteen miles away, at the Motherhouse of the Sisters of Charity of Nazareth, Kentucky, just north of Bardstown. Sister Catherine Spalding After her second year, the school's chaplain, Father James McGee, persuaded Isabel to become a novice with the Sisters of Charity of Nazareth. She professed vows on 19 July 1941. Her ancestors included the Spalding family of old Kentucky. Archbishop Martin John Spalding of Baltimore and Bishop John Lancaster Spalding of Peoria, Illinois, were her uncles from two different generations. Because of these connections, Isabel was the first sister in the order allowed to assume the name of their foundress, Mother Catherine Spalding, a cousin of Archbishop Spalding. As Sister Catherine Spalding, Isabel immediately fell into the busyness of religious life. Heeding an older nun's advice that "it's better to wear out than to rust out," over the next quar-ter of a century Isabel served the college as registrar, treasurer, dean, financial-aid advisor, director of admissions, and alumnae and public-relations director.2 She recalled that all these skills, and many others as well, were learned "on the.job.''3 During these years, by her own account, she "worked with and dealt with all kinds of people in all kinds of situations--young and old, reli-gious and lay, foreigners and American, black, white, yellow, and July-August 1999 Gollar ¯ /It Home by the Sea red, rich and poor, socially elite and simple, professionals, etc.''4 Into the 1960s she served, in effect, as president of the college even though she did not hold the title. As tireless service to others began to take its toll on Isabel, she listened intently to the admonitions of her neighbor, the Trappist monk Thomas Merton of Gethsemani, which is located just a few miles from Nazareth. "We have to learn to commune with our-selves," he explained, "before we can communicate with other men [and women] and with God.''s At the same time, however, Merton insisted that we become our true selves only through identification with God as the reason and fulfillment of our exis-tence. This identification emerged out of what Merton called "active contemplation."6 Like countless other religious women at this time, Isabel had become highly professional; to use Merton's terminology, she gained her identity primarily through the actions of her external or false self. She soon came to realize, as Merton had written, that there are "times when in order to keep ourselves in existence at all we simply have to sit back for a while and do nothing.''7 As did many though certainly not all religious, Isabel wel-comed the directives of the Second Vatican Council (1961-1965), which called not only for adaptation to the times; but also for fundamental renewal in the religious life. The Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of the Religious Life (Perfectae caritatis) indi-cated that religious should be thoroughly prepared for their min-istry and also be afforded the opportunity and time for ongoing spiritual, doctrinal, and professional development. Such growth must include a "continuous return to the sources of all Christian life," including Scripture and the Eucharist. As Merton had already argued~ this decree likewise maintained that religious communi-ties should make a genuine commitment not only to apostolic love, but also to contemplation aimed at an "intimate union" with Jesus Christ.8 In response to this conciliar exhortation, theologian Bernard Hiiring CSSR suggested that female orders set aside specific places at each convent that would be devoted to prayer. He had been inspired by Isaiah 56:7: "I will make them joyful in my house of prayer." On 12 March 1967 Marie Goldstein RSHM and Ruth Caspar OP convened a spontaneous workshop at Notre Dame University in order to discuss the feasibility of establishing houses of prayer. Several other sisters, two priests, and one layman Review for Religious attended. The group suggested that these houses should seek to balance the pervasive "thrust towards hyperactivism" with "a cor-responding thrust towards radical prayer." Each house should become a center for the study of mysticism and ascetic theology, including the practice of Yoga and Zen. The spirit of poverty and simplicity should reign, with the houses providing a place for divine energy and peace as well as psychological serenity. With these aims, houses of prayer could constitute, the group said, "one of the greatest hopes for an authentic understanding of church renewal." In the September 1967 issue of Review for Religious, the group published under H~iring's name a report on their meet-ing. H~iring had not attended the gathering at Notre Dame, though he was supportive of the proceedings. His name certainly added weight to the report.9 A New Apostolate Thomas Merton's death at Bangkok on 10 December 1968 accelerated Isabel's own movement away from the convent into a house of prayer. Almost exactly one year earlier, Isabel's mother had passed away. With a heavy heart Isabel attended Merton's funeral in Kentucky, then~reevaluated the course of her own life. After twenty-three years of service to the college, Isabel concluded that she had given all she wan~ed to give to the field of'education. Following the directives of Merton, she asked her community for time to pray. In her late forties, she was overworked and, as she said, was "tired." She knew that the college was going to close anyway, but.also sensed a growing need to care for her own spirit. Completely of her own accord she resigned from the position at Nazareth College in Januai'y 1969. The school closed two years later. ~0 From January to June she lived with a group of Sisters of Charity of Nazareth at the Cardinal Cushing Hospital in Brockton, Massachusetts, where, besides praying, she studied what some were calling HOPE, which stood for House of Prayer Experience. At the end of this time she spent seven weeks in a House of Prayer program sponsored by the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary in Monroe, Michigan. Under the direction of Margaret Brennan and Ann Chester, the IHM sisters had taken the lead in this move-ment. The seven-week program, called HOPE '69, terminated with a retreat under Bernard H~iring. He considered his presence at July-Augv~st 1999 Gollar ¯ At Home by the Sea the end to be providential. After the 136 participants had been living in fourteen different locations for seven weeks, H~iring cel-ebrated the fact that these women had brought to life houses of prayer on their own. During the concluding retreat, one woman suggested that a priest should h'ave been part of each house. To this, H~iring emphatically answered: No-o-o. You are too prone to rely on a priest. This House of Prayer is your charism. Use your own ingenuity to develop it. The best way to produce something new is to trust the charism of those involved, as they are open to the Spirit and to one another. The Holy Spirit does not work through inflexible people.'ll Some men did get involved in the movement, certainly~contributed excellent work, and provided important insights. Ann Chester nonetheless contended "that the leadership in the movement and the main development have been the work of women religious."12 After the experience in Monroe, Isabel ct)nvinced the' Sisters of Charity of Nazareth to offer their support. The 1969 chapter commissioned her to introduce, over six months beginning in September, the House of Prayer Movement to all 110 communi-ties in the order. She stirred up great interest and then, from February to June 1970, while residing back at St. Joseph's Infirmary in Louisville, continued extensive planning. That sum-mer she coordinated the running of~ fourteen houses of. prayer open to various religious communities in the Archdiocese of Louisville. In September 1970 she accepted a two-year grant from the Center for Spiritual Studies at Mount Saviour Benedictine Monastery in Elmira, New York, to assist Brother David Steindl- Rast in the House of Prayer Movement. She lived at the monastery for three months. Gloucester During this time Isabel and Brother David searched for a suit-able place0.for another house of prayer that might s.erve a range of active orders beyond the Sisters of Charity. Since 1957 'the Jesuits had offered high school retreats for boys at Gonzaga, a revamped turn-of-the-century stone mansion that overlooked Brace Cove and the Atlantic Ocean at Eastern Point: in Gloucester, Massachusetts. Next to the retreat house Isabel and Brother David spied a five-bedroom servants' outbuilding that had stood virtually Review for Religious unused for many years. In December 1970 they secured permission from the Jesuits to rent this space for a house of prayer. Isabel and Brother David invited two religious women not of the Sisters of Charity, a Catholic layman, and a Jewish expert in Hatha Yoga, Ravi Baumann, to be a part of the first core group. Over the next few months this team gradually established prayerful routines, while they also cleaned and rearranged the house. Then in late May 1971 Isabel bade adieu to Brother David and the initial core team, which by this time not only had readied the place for its first real guests, but also had begun to discuss what the permanent thrust of the house should be. They had agreed that the door would be open to anyone who wished to come anytime throughout the year, though special emphasis would be placed on the summer, when presum-ably more people could get away from their jobs. Individuals who could stay for up to a year might be asked to become part of new core teams that would take special responsibility for run-ning the house. No 'set fees were charged, though guests would be invited to make donations to help cover operating expenses. In the summer of 1971, for the first time at Gloucester, Isabel sponsored two five-week summer experiences. Seven sisters from at least four different orders con-stituted the first group; several religious men joined other sisters during the second session. They came from all over North America. After this time Isabel decided upon the four essential aspects of her house: simplicity, silence, prayer, and hospitality. Isabel decided upon the four essential aspects of her house: simplicity, silence, prayer, and hospitality. Essential Aspects of the House of Prayer Simplicity was apparent in the furnishing and the free atmo-sphere. The house had no frills, no bedspreads, and no curtains other than fishnet draped across curtain rods. Lobster traps served as tables, while carpet samples donated by a local store decorated the floors of the upstairg hallway and chapel. Since many of the guests who would visit over the next fifteen years left incredibly busy schedules to come to Gloucester, Isabel tried her best to ~u~-August1999 Gollar * At Home by the Sea uncomplicate things for them. "Of intent purpose," she once explained, "not much 'busyness' or 'business' goes on here.''~3 Freed from their jobs and left without much to do, many guests eventually discovered new freedom. Sisters, brothers, priests, and an increasing number of laypersons often found their inner selves again at Gloucester. One woman wrote, "For the first time in my life, I feel free--free to be me.''~4 The simplicity of Gloucester encouraged persons to uncover their true selves in an environ-ment that sanctioned doing nothing. Beyond the simple environment, for Isabel the key to the House of Prayer was the pervasiveness of what she called "life-giv-ing silence." ~s This was not, as a core member once explained, a matter of waiting for what was going to happen next, but rather "a happening in itself."'6 Such silence was rarely found in bustling convents, even though in Isabel's mind silence constituted every-one's "birthright." Conversation at the House of Prayer was lim-ited to the noon meal, while TVs and typewriters were nowhere to be found. One telephone was available, though out of sight in a closet underneath the main stairwell. "If you're going to talk to God," Isabel insisted, "then it's easier when you're not talking to someone else at the same time." ~v The house provided quiet space and time for theological reflection and prayerful discernment, so that visitors might, in Isabel's words, "look at and attempt to answer the questions we all are asking ourselves.''~8 Silence at Gloucester effectively b~came a means to communication both with yourself and with others. One priest, for example, while at the House of Prayer faced for the first time what he called his "shat-tered self." Out on the rocks he discovered "that I was deeply afraid of death and very angry at a 'god' who took my parents in the prime of their lives." He voiced this anger, then in faith began to see that death was not the end he had so desperately feared?9 Other guests often emerged out of their silence, needing to talk to Isabel, and she gladly lent her ear. The group conversations at the noon meal were especially enriching. The Eastern Point House of Prayer never had a name, though, after reading Trina Paulus's Hope for the Flowers,. Isabel once considered calling the place the "Cocoon House.'! Many visitors left Gloucester like beautiful butterflies, reinvigorated and sometimes transformed. Temporary retreat from life's incessant demands encouraged more spirit-filled worldly work.2° In a simple and silent environment, the Eastern Point House Review for Religious of Prayer became, in Isabel's words, primarily "a community of praying people who live in praise of the Lord all day, every day.''2~ In contrast to the complicated, impersonal rote prayers of the con-vent, Isabel encouraged simple encounters with God. Brother David had helped her distinguish between the "prayers" that often get in the way of prayer, and "prayer" as the "total confrontation of the human heart with God.''22 During her months of prepara-tion, Isabel had searched the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures for every name that could be attributed to Jesus and then arranged these titles with a Hare Krishna chant used by Eastern yogis. At Gloucester, with the gong of a melodious bowl, Isabel called guests to gather in the chapel to greet the sunrise, bless the water, and invite God into their hearts with the chanting of this Jesus prayer. This ritual was repeated at noon and often at compline around the living-room fireplace. Each session of prayer ended with the chant "Om shanti," a cry for peace. One core member spoke for many others when she explained that, before her year at Gloucester, prayer "was something I had to do and did, but it seemed never to mean much." After her visit the Jesus prayer became a vital part of her life.23 Many religious traditions met at Gloucester. A small menorah burned in the chapel during Hanukkah, while yoga was adapted to Christianity in order to enrich experiences of prayer. Isabel explained that yoga could be practiced by anyone regardless of his or her faith, for yoga simply encourages relaxation and emotional integration. At this time a Congregational minister and frequent visitor to the House of Prayer, R. Cameron Borton from nearby Rockport, Massachusetts, was happy to note that, while many young persons were leaving Christianity in pursuit of Eastern reli-gions, the House of Prayer demonstrated a way in which both tra-ditions could be integrated. Catholic liturgies were celebrated on most afternoons; these liturgies were, in Isabel's words. "really different.''24 A small group of participants gathered on pillows around a squared piece of drift-wood used as the altar. Gifts from~the sea, as well as a portrait of Robert Kennedy, decorated the walls. The celebrant, wearing only minimal vestments, encouraged everyone to participate especially in the shared homilies. Openly expressing individual concerns kept participants in touch with the larger world community. During these services Reverend Borton witnessed what he called "the Catholic Church in a way free from the overpowering structures, July-August 1999 Gollar ¯ At Home by the Sea massive institudonalism, and impersonalism I had come to associate with the Catholic Church." He saw the House of Prayer as "a very crucial ecumenical bridge for these reasons.''2s To foster reconciliation within the Catholic community, Isabel still insisted that the Eucharist be available for perpetual adoration. For the alarming number of Catholics who had grown alienated from the church during or after the Second Vatican Council, the Eastern Point House of Prayer was a safe place to come. Broken individuals, as well as those simply searching for something more, came to Gloucester. Often, in the chapel before the Eucharist, new direction was found among sisters who might otherwise have lost their vocation, lay people whose only thread of contact with the church was provided at the House of Prayer, and priests in search of the contemplative roots of their ministry. Everyone was welcome at Gloucester. Rooted in Isaiah 55, -Ish_.bel extended her hospitality: "Oh, come to the water, all you who are thirsty; though you have no money, come!. Listen, lis-ten to me, and you will have good things to eat and rich food to enjoy. Pay attention, come to me; listen, and your soul will live." A wide range of persons visited the House of Prayer, including, according to Isabel's ~ecollection, "blacks, Jews, orientals, hus-bands and wives, [the divorced, widowed, and alcoholic], children, married deacons, ministers (both men and women), priests, reli-gious, [seminarians, Pax Christi groups, and Catholic Worker peo-ple].'' 26 As one outsider observed, coming to Eastern Point seemed easy--it was the leaving that was hard.27 Most visitors agreed with one woman who remarked that at Gloucester "I was home.''2~ Wider Significance , With this spirit of simplicity, silence, prayer, and hospitality, the Eastdrn Point House of Prayer quickly became known all .around the country. Brother David had gone on to inspire many other houses of prayer, yet still acclaimed Gloucester as "one of the most successful realizations of the House of Prayer idea.''29 Like most observers, Brother D~vid attributed much of the success of Eastern Point to Isabel's own unique gifts. She was able to inspire many persons who had ~received their "basic training" at Gloucester to start other houses of prayer across the United States and in Canada, Chile, and Ireland as well. Though the House of Prayer Movement lost some steam by the early 1980s, with many houses Review for Relig'ious closing or changing focus, Isabel reported to the Jesuits that over the years very little had changed at Gloucester. She had always been able to maintain the original purpose of the house. The House of Prayer breathed new life into the Jesuit Retreat House next door and also supported other communities like the Wellspring House, started in Gloucester in 1981 by several persons including lay theologian Rosemary Haughton. Occasionally Wellspring did not have enough room to put up some homeless men. Wellspring's director, Nancy Schworer, asked Isabel to help out; Despite her suspi-cion that the Jesuits would not approve, Isabel told Schworer to bring them over, but to cut her lights when she pulled up to the House of Prayer. "I did," Schworer said.3° The Jesuits still grew suspicious of Isabel. Over the years the Jesuits periodically challenged Isabel's use of the property, but despite some battles her days at Eastern Point remained vibrant until she was diag-nosed with terminal cancer in 1985. That summer her family brought her back to Kentucky, to the Nazareth Home in Louisville, where she spent her last days. Once the Jesuits realized she would never return to Gloucester, they began to reno-vate the House of Prayer, eventually mak-ing it an extension of the retreat house, which is what it remains to this day. The Jesuits defended this readaptation, explaining that no one could replace Isabel. Still, the decision to close the House of Prayer must have been linked to periodic suspicions regarding the creative community that existed on their property but was effectively out of their control. Because of its radical openness to God, the House of Prayer invited renewal in ways that undoubt-edly seemed threatening to certain entrenched church str~ctures. Isabel passed away on Wednesday, 15 January 1986. Order was restored at Gloucester, but a certain creativity was lost. In his 1977 novel, Illusions, Richard Bach tells of a creature that dared to let go of the twigs and rocks on the river bottom to which all other creatures previously had clung. The current lifted him free. Thomas Merton, Bernard H~ring, David Steindl-Rast, and the fathers of the Second Vatican Council called for change, To foster reconciliation within the Catholic community, Isabel insisted that the Eucharist be available for perpetual adoration. July-August 1999 Gollar ¯ At Home by the Sea but people in houses of prayer, especially women like Isabel Green, realized the anticipated renewal. Many guests let go of their busy-ness, put behind the patriarchal structures of the past, and tran-scended traditional Catholic boundaries in search of deeper knowledge of themselves. Visitors to houses of prayer replaced detached, regulated prayers with intimate encounters with God, and with all of creation too, especially those who were struggling for personal and social integrity. In. so doing these guests discov-ered new possibilities for their ministries. Like Richard, Bach's courageous river creature, Isabel Green sounded the good news of the Second Vatican Council when, in the silence of the. Eastern Point House of Prayer, she announced: "The [water] delights to lift us free, if only we dare let go.''3~ Notes ~ Richard Bach, Jonathan Livingston Seagull, A Story (New York: Macmillan, 1970), p. 46. 2 Isabel Green papers (hereafter IGP), Isabel Green to Katie Pumam, 10 February 1948, Nazareth, Kentucky. Isabel Green is the aunt of the author of this article; he inherited her papers. 3 IGP, Talk to Jesuits, 7 February 1983 (hereafter Talk), p. 1. 4 IGP, 1974 Resum~ for Brian Duffy SJ, p. 1. 5 Thomas Merton, No Man Is an Island (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1955), p. 120. 6 Thomas Merton, Woods, Shore, Desert: A Notebook, May 1960 (Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press, 1982), 6 May, p. 10. 7 Thomas Merton, No Man lsan Island, p. 122. 8 Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of the Religious Life (Perfectae caritatis), §§2 and 8. 9 Bernard H~iring, "A Contemplative House: Notes from a Discussion Held at Notre Dame," Review for Religious 26, no. 5 (September 1967): 772; and H~iring, Acting on the Word: The Challenge to Religious Communities in an Age of Renewal (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1968), p. 204. H~ring's book reprinted part of the article and added a few new insights. 10 IGP, Talk, p. 1. " Quoted in Ann Chester, My Journey in the House of Prayer (Monroe, Michigan: Pathways Press, 1991), p. 42. ~2 Chester, MyJourney~ p. 16. ~3 IGP, Open letter of solicitation for "testimonials," by Isabel Green SCN, November 1973, Gloucester, Massachusetts. Review for Religious ~4 IGP, Ann to Isabel Green SCN, 22 January 1975, no place. ~3 IGP, General Statement by Isabel Green SCN directed to Sisters of Charity of Nazareth, 26 February 1984 (hereafter General Statement). ~6 IGP, Michael van der Peer SCJ to Isabel Green SCN, 7 January 1975, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. ~7 Quoted in Gloucester Community News, "Nuns Rise at Dawn for Daily Yoga," 21 November 1975. ~8 IGP, General Statement. 19 IGP, Sister Darlene Kern to Isabel Green SCN, 3 January 1975, St. Pius X Convent, Billings, Montana. 20 IGP, Michael Guimon OSM to Isabel Green SCN, 20 January 1975, Detroit, Michigan. 2~ IGP, Janet L. SSJ to Isabel Green SCN, 11 January 1975, Providence, Rhode Island. 22 IGP, Janine to Isabel Green SCN, undated (c. 1 January 1975). 23 Isabel Green, "Eastern Shoreside House of Prayer," SCNews (April 1973), p. 4; Tina Paulus, Hope for the Flowers (New York: Paulist Press, 1972). 24 IGP, Talk, p. 4 zs Steindl-Rast, "Prayer in the Twenty-first Century," Audiotape by Credence Cassettes, AA2566, 1992. 26 IGP, Jean Kilvin to Isabel Green SCN, 2 February 1975, Halifax, Nova Scotia. 27 IGP, Talk, p. 8. 2.8 IGP, Reverend R. Camer~)n Borton to Isabel Green SCN, 20 January 1975, Rockport, Massachusetts. 29 IGP, Talk, p. 9. Some well-known theologians including Avery Dulles visited the Eastern Point House of Prayer. 30 "At Home by the Sea: Intercommunity Prayer, Often Interfaith Too," Crux of Prayer, February 1976. 3~ IGP, Sheila Ford SCN to Isabel GreenSCN, January 1975, Eastern Point House of Prayer, Gloucester. 32 IGP, David Steindl-Ra~t OSB to Isabel G~'een SCN, 5 January 1975, West Tremont, Maine. 33 Phone interview with Nancy Schworer, 3 March 1998. 34 Richard Bach, Illusions: The Adventures of a Reluctant Messiah (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1977), p. 17. 57uly-August 1999 consecrated lile DENNIS J. BILLY Vita Consecrata and the Anthropology of the Vows In Vita consecrata (1996), his postsynodal apostolic exhor-tatioff on the consecrated life, Pope John Paul II writes of "the profound anthropological significance of the coun-sels" (§87). He does so while treating the prophetic stance of the consecrated life before some of the difficult chal-lenges facing the church today. This explicit statement of the intricate connection between the theology of the counsels and the character of human existence makes the phrase one of the most important in the entire docu-ment. In it the pope bids us to note not only how the vows relate to our self-understanding, but also how, through them, human understanding itself can be transz formed. My purpose in this essay is to draw out some of the implications of this key anthropological statement. The Right Question What we think about the vows and how we live them tells us something about how we view ourselves and the world we live in. This has always been the case, even long ago in the church's .past when philosophical and theological justifications of the counsels thrived that now seem somewhat dubious and even embarrassing. At one Dennis J. Billy CSSR, a frequent contributor, writes again from Rome, where his address is Accademia Alfonsiana; C.P. 2458; 00100 Roma, Italy. Review for Religio us time, for example, the counsels were seen as a way of rising above the material dimension of human existence and escaping the bonds that the physical world placed on us--including our own sexuality. Lives of perfect chastity, poverty, and obedience were thought to lead religious to a higher plane of existence where they could over-come'bodily passions and be free of attachments to family, pos-sessions, and self-will. Such a conception of the counsels was supported by an ethi-cal dualism in the church's understanding of human existence that manifested itself in a deep distrust of the body and bodily pas-sions. This deep-seated suspicion predated but was galvanized by Augustine's doctrine of original sin, which affirmed its orthodoxy, on the one hand, by condemning the Gnostic equation of matter with evil and Gnostic ascetic rigor and, on the other, by main-taining a close association between sin and sexual intercourse. Traces of this pessimistic estimation of the body and bodily passion (what Augustine called "concupiscence") have filtered through the church's historical memory and continue to exert a subtle influence on our reception and understanding of the counsels. This is so even though many of the anthropological assumptions that presently guide our theological understanding of the vows (and of the doctrine of original sin) are decidedly different. We lack the space to go into any of these assumptions in detail. My point, however, is very simple. In the church's past, every the-ology of the counsels has made certain anthropological assump-tions. The more we are aware of them, the better we can examine them and discern whether they are appropriate expressions of our own self-understanding. The counsels have had and will always have a deep anthropological significance. The question we need to pose is: Which anthropology and what significance? We need to ask these questions today. Vita Consecrata In his apostolic exhortation, the pope describes the anthro-pological significance of the vows in this way: The decision to follow the counsels, far from involving an impoverishment o~ truly human values, leads instead to their transformation. The evangelical counsels should not be considered as a denial of the values inherent in sexual° ity, in the legitimate desire to possess material goods or July-August 1999 Billy * Vita Consecrata and the Anthropology of the Vows to make decisions for oneself. Insofar as these inclinations are based on nature, they are good in themselves. Human beings, however, weakened as they are by original sin, run the risk of acting on them in a way which transgresses the moral norms. The profession of chastity, poverty, and obe-dience is a warning not to underestimate the wound of original sin and, while affirming the value of created goods, it relativizes them by pointing to God as the absolute good. Thus, while those who follow the evangelical counsels seek holiness for themselves, they propose, so to speak, a spir-itual "therapy" for humanity, because they reject the idol-atry of anything created and in a certain way they make visible the living God. The consecrated life, especially in difficult times, is a blessing for human life and for the life of the church. (§87) In this passage John Paul affirms the fundamental goodness of human sexuality, material possessions, and human freedom. At the same time he recognizes the capacity each of us has by reason of our weakened state to abuse these basic human goods and even to idolize them. VChat the evangelical counsels do.is "cut them down to size" by referring them to God, the absolute good of human life, and thus diminishing the exaggerated worth we may be tempted to place in them. This process offers humanity a "spiritual therapy" which, through the operation of grace, promises to heal its wounds and bring about the transformation of all human values. Unfortunately, the pope does not go into detail about how this treatment or ther-apy might function. Nor does he tell us the extent to which this rel-ativizing process takes place. By invoking God as the absolute good to which the counsels point, he simply reminds us that human existence is not an end in itself, but is actually oriented beyond itself. It is precisely by looking beyond itself that humanity is able to discover its truest, deepest meaning. In this presentation of the counsels, the pope affirms (1) the fundamental goodness of all creation, (2) the weakness (and not total corruption) of human nature due to original sin, (3) the abso-lute goodness of God, who alone is worthy of our praise and ado-ration, (4) the eschatological orientation of the vows, which relativize human existence by pointing beyond it and by empha-sizing its inherent creaturely status, and (5) the specific anthro-pological orientation of the vows by virtue of their therapeutic (that is, healing) and transformative (that is, elevating) effect on Review for Religious people's lives. Each of these affirmations is both theological and anthropological in orientation. Together they draw the parame-ters within which the counsels are to be understood and assimilated in our lives. Together they remind us that we are wounded crea-tures capable of being healed and elevated by the grace of a truly plentiful redemption. Within this context the pope speaks about three major chal-lenges facing the church today and how the consecrated life has a prophetic role to play in responding to each of them. The first challenge is "that of a hedonistic culture which separates sexuality from all objective norms, often treating it as a mere diversion and a consumer good and, with the complicity of the means of social communication, justifying a kind of idolatry of the sexual instinct" (§88). Consecrated persons, he states, respond to such values by showing through their lives of chastity that it is possible "to love God with all one's heart, putting him above every other love, and thus to love every creature with the freedom of God" (§88). The second challenge is "that of a materialism which cravespos-sessions, heedless of the needs and sufferings of the weakest, and lacking any concern for the balance of natural resources" (§89). Here again, consecrated persons respond by a life of evangelical poverty, which attests "that God is the true wealth of the human heart" and which "forcefully challenges the idolatry of money, making a prophetic appeal as it were to society, which in so many parts of the developed world risks losing the sense of proportion and the very meaning of things" (§90). The third challenge "comes from those notions of freedom which separate this fundamental human good from its essential relationship to the truth and to moral norms" (§91). To this, con-secrated persons respond th.rough a life which "reproposes the obedience of Christ to the Father and., testifies that there is no contradiction between obedience and freedom" (§91). Consecrated per-sons, in other words, respond to the challenges facing the church in today's world through lives dedicated to the evangelical coun-sels. They do so not alone, but through life in community. This is especially important, since community is "the particular sign, before church and society, of the bond which comes from the same call and the common desire--notwithstanding differences of race and origin, language and culture--to be obedient to that call" (§92). Life in community is nbt only an aid to living the counsels, but also a sign of that toward which both church and July-August 1999 Billy ¯ Vita Consecrata and the Anthropology of the Vows society are tending. It forges the vows into an eschatological sign of the kingdom that is, at one and the same time, already here and yet to come. Further Integration Although the pope provides many fine insights into the anthro-pological dimensions of the consecrated life and the prophetic response it makes to the challenges facing the church today, I can-not help feeling that even further development of his fundamen-tal insights is possible and even necessary for a more thorough understanding of the vows. I would see this development taking place in five basic anthropological dimensions of human existence: the physical, the emotional, the mental, the spiritual, and the social. The Physical. The counsels make sense only if they have a con-crete, physical expression in the world. If they do not, then con-secrated persons need to ask themselves if they are only pretending to lead lives of chastity, poverty, and obedience. It is very easy to talk about the counsels. It is much more difficult to live them and to insure that they have repercussions in the concrete circum-stances of one's life. I am not going into what these concrete expressions might be. They are probably clearer for some counsels (chastity) than others (poverty and obedience)--although not nec-essarily. My point is that we need to take the physical, bodily expressions of the vows seriously. Consecrated persons are called to be chaste, to be poor, to be obedient; and this should be obvi-ous to other people by the lives we lead. We need to be careful not to fall into the trap of self-deception. It is easy for us to ratio-nalize the compromises we make with the counsels. If we are not careful, we can end up being chaste, poor, and obedient in name only. We are called to much more than that. The Emotional. The physical expression of the counsels, how-ever, would be cold and void of meaning if our hearts were not in it. The emotional side of human existence is very complex and, to many, extremely threatening. It too needs to be integrated in a life dedicated to the counsels. If it is not, then there is a strong possibility that we will end up leading double lives, where our out-ward actions do not correspond with our deepest feelings and emo-tions. Integrating our emotions is a lifelong process. One of the mistakes that institutes of consecrated life have made in the past and which, sad to say, some continue to make is to repress or (per- Review for Religious haps worse) completely ignore this dimension of human existence. Like others, consecrated persons need to be taught how to deal with their emotions--those which help them deepen their com-mitment, as well as those which could weaken it--and integrate them into their life commitments. If they are not taught this, they run the risk of just going through the motions or perhaps not even bothering with them. Consecrated persons who have not learned how to integrate their emotions with the rest of their lives are usually very unhappy people who do a good job of making other people unhappy. They can be difficult to get along with in community. The Intellectual. It is important also that we reflect on the counsels regularly--both individually and as a group. Consecrated persons need to keep abreast of the latest developments in the psychological and social sciences with a view to understand-ing more profoundly their own charism within the church. The theology of the counsels has undergone a great deal of change down through the years, especially since the end of the Second Vatican Council. It shall continue to change. If we fail to reflect upon the meaning the counsels have for us, if we fail to read what theologians and spiritual writers are saying about them, if we fail to talk about them among ourselves, then we run the risk of isolating our vowed commitments from the rest of life. When this happens, we can easily get stuck in old patterns of expression that do not help us meet the challenges of the day. Consecrated persons need to be creative in the way they give witness in the world through the counsels. Theological reading, reflection, and conversation are ways of insuring that such ideas will come to us and find expression in our lives and ministry. It is a mistake to think, for example, that religious learn everything they need to know about the vows during the novitiate. In these matters there needs to be lifelong growth; the intellectual component of that growth should not be overlooked. The Spiritual. Consecrated persons also need to be still and let their spirits yearn for God. It is in the deepest dimension of the self that the Spirit of God communes with consecrated persons' own spirits; it is there that they can find strength for living their Consecrated persons need to be creative in the way they give witness in the world through the counsels. ~uly-August 1999 Billy ¯ Vita Consecrata and the Anthropology of the Vows We are social beings by nature. We become who we are called to be through our interaction with others. vowed life. By professing the evangelical counsels, consecrated per-sons seek to follow in the footsteps of Jesus. This life of imitation is not meant to be a cold, external effort.'We are much too weak for that. Rather, it involves an intimate relationship with the Spirit of Jesus, which propels us to live the way he did and to do so with all our heart, mind, soul, and strength. For this to happen, conse-crated people need to be men and women of contemplation. Surely there are many forms of prayer; both as individuals and as communities, we favor certain ones. Among these forms we should not forget the contemplative dimension of our lives. On the contrary, we should give it priority of place. If we do not allow ourselves to be still and to listen, if we do not know how to allow our spirits to yearn, to groan, to breathe, then we are overlooking in our prayer a tremendous help in living the counsels. It is through contemplation that we gradually tame, and integrate into the rest of our lives, the deep, inordi-nate passions that affect us by reason of our weakened state. Through contemplation our spirits gradually become chaste, poor, and obedient to the movements of the Holy Spirit in our lives. Without it, it will become all the more difficult for us to live "in the Spirit" and to see how our vows fit into such a life. The Social. We live the vows individually, but also in community. Consecrated persons cannot go it alone. They need the support of others to help them along. They should be encouraged to have close, intimate friends with whom they feel free and secure enough to share their problems and difficulties. They also need the support of a wider circle of friends and acquaintances. Most of all, they need community. We are social beings by nature. We learn about ourselves and we become who we are called to be through our interaction with others. It is through our interaction with others that we learn the meaning of the counsels and receive help to live them. Consecrated persons are oriented toward community life because the counsels themselves are rooted in a communal under-standing of human existence. If we overlook the social dimensions of our lives as consecrated persons, it is almost certain that we will be overlooking in our lives some aspect of what it means to be chaste, poor, and obedient. Living the counsels and living in com-munity are closely tied. This holds true even for the hermit, who Review for Religious lives alone, but whose life and actions lie hidden in the contem-plative heart of the church. These dimensions are important for living the counsels. That is not to say, however, that they will be understood and incorpo-rated in the same degree in every life dedicated to living them. Differences in personality, family background, and cultural prove-nance all come into play, as do such other factors as level of edu-cation, religious training, and long-standing community traditions. The goal for consecrated persons should be to try to integrate all of these elements into their lives, adverting to them and giving them appropriate expression. To overlook some of them or, worse, simply to refuse to take them into account reveals a severe defi-ciency in living the life of the counsels. Counsels and Challenges All of this helps us to view John Paul's emphasis on the anthro-pological dimensions of the counsels and the challenges facing the church today in a slightly different light. For one thing, it helps us to see the challenge beneath the challenges that face consecrated persons in the church today. The counsels must penetrate every part of our lives, not simply those we find most convenient or accommodating to our needs. We will not be able to give a true prophetic response to the hedonism, materialism, and individual-ism in the world today if we exclude the counsels from any of the dimensions I have mentioned--the physical, the emotional, the intellectual, the spiritual, and the social. If we do, we compart-mentalize the counsels, allowing them to take shape in one or more areas of our lives, but not in all of them. When this hap-pens, we wind up with only a halfhearted commitment to the life of chastity, poverty, and obedience. The result is a diminution of our prophetic call. People will refuse to take us seriously because we do not take ourselves seriously. They will only half-believe the words we say, because they will be convinced that we only half-believe them ourselves. John Paul's reflection on the anthropological significance of the counsels can be applied in a reflective and consistent manner to each of these five dimensions. When this is done, an even deeper sense of the anthropological (ignificance of the counsels results. The goodness of creation, foi" example, extends not only to our physical well-being but to the emotional, the intellectual, the spir- July-August 1999 Billy ¯ Vita Consecrata and the Anthropology of the Vows itual, and the social as well. All of these dimensions, though they are weakened by the results of humanity's primordial fall and seem insignificant in comparison with God the Absolute Good, never-theless have an eschatological significance and hold promise of being both healed and elevated by God's plentiful redeeming grace. It is in these contexts that the counsels deepen our understand-ing of human existence and help us see the whole of life as radically dependent on God. This is what consecrated persons give witness to, live their lives for, and die for. Tidal Wave - Papua New Guinea 7 July 1998 Deadly as a cobra, hooded wide The tidal wave lifts ten meters And sweeps across the Bay Swallowing tall pandanus palms, Crossed timbers of the villages, Once the necklace of the North. Midst the flotsam and jetsam A woman, one foot torn away, grasps a tree top And suddenly gives birth. A scream. And a small brown babe Is lifted above the swirl. "Oh God[ Where are You?" and the wood replies: "He has known the waves of sin His feet were spiked with pain And He, too, died upon a tree." Mary O'Neil RSM Review for Religious NIHAL ABEYASINGHA Authority among Religious in South Asia T[superior general of a male international religious con-gation, after visiting several units of the insftute in South Asia, said he found it difficult to understand the defiance of author-ity and the backbiting that go on in this area. He added that his lack of understanding of this phenomenon was perhaps due to his own foreign cultural perspective. Such an observation from a man of wide experience should at least pose a question to Asian religious. Every culture functions on certain assumptions. They are sel-dom clearly articulated, but they are real and they are operative. For example, in a culture that links equality with freedom, there is a growing awareness that men have, in fact, been afforded greater freedom than women. In order to repair the imbalance, people seek to equalize the position of the sexes by using equality as their criterion. It is not difficult to generate enthusiasm in the public forum for a movement towards equality. Another culture, however, could work from a different assumption. It could consider women to be worthy of much esteem as members of society because of their special role to give birth to and nurture new life in that society. This culture would express that esteem by providing the security of a stable mar-riage and home and by linking this to a limited set of achieve-ments expected of every woman. VChat we tend to forget is that Nihal Abeyasingha CSSR wrote about an approach to refounding in our July-August 1998 issue. Hi

Introducción¿Es necesario apartar a Dios del debate público? ¿Cuál es el lugar de la religión y de las Iglesias en las esferas pública e institucional? ¿Cómo debemos concebir la relación entre Estado, sociedad y religión en el siglo XXI?Desde el 11 de setiembre, una lectura parcial del mundo (que sea política, académica o popular) parece presentar una división irreconciliable entre Occidente y Oriente (próximo, medio o muy lejano) sobre el fondo de guerras de religión. Esta tesis, propuesta algunas décadas atrás por Samuel Huntington -de manera casi profética dirán sus defensores-, ilustra la existencia de "líneas de fractura" entre civilizaciones o culturas en diferentes puntos del orbe, siendo la más explosiva la división entre el Occidente democrático y cristiano y el mundo musulmán, teocrático y autoritario. Habría entonces, supuestamente, un vínculo entre el Islam como religión y el Islam como vector de violencia política (Cesari, 2005: 39). Este vínculo, sin embargo, no sería proporcionalmente menos importante (o nocivo) que la influencia que poseen ciertos sectores conservadores protestantes en la determinación de la (belicosa) política exterior estadounidense. Más allá de estas consideraciones por demás maniqueas, fruto a menudo de la propaganda o de agendas particulares, resulta difícil negar el rebrote del debate religioso en la esfera pública e internacional. Luego de años durante los cuales el paradigma dominante se centró en el equilibrio de poder entre las dos superpotencias, el debate religioso parece querer estructurar una nueva visión del mundo.En este sentido, resulta interesante desarrollar dos conceptos que a menudo articulan el debate entre religión, Estado y esfera pública, pero que suelen ser pobremente explicados: laicidad y secularismo. Frecuentemente asociados o utilizados como términos intercambiables, representan una visión, que algunos calificarán de etnocéntrica y occidental, de un tipo de sociedad particular. Precisamente en la actualidad, cuando estos conceptos sufren las críticas provenientes de los círculos religiosos o pluralistas, es que conviene entonces interrogarse sobre su validez.Este trabajo se estructurará en 4 partes. La primera y segunda parte versarán sobre el desarrollo teórico y la distinción entre secularismo y laicidad y trataré más en detalle la concepción republicana y francesa de esta última. En tercer lugar se desarrollará la idea detrás del "mito de la laicidad o del secularismo" en las sociedades modernas. Por último, y a modo de conclusión, se presentará una visión alternativa a estas dos nociones, la de pluralismo.El secularismoEl secularismo pareció imponerse, a lo largo del siglo XX, como la nueva "religión" de las democracias liberales, apuntalando tanto la autonomía individual como la independencia del Estado frente a otra forma alternativa (y rival) de control, de organización y de lealtad social: la religión y la iglesia.En su acepción más simple, el término secular hace referencia a aquello que está desconectado de las cuestiones religiosas y espirituales. Derivado del latín "saeculum", que significa temporalidad, el secularismo sería entonces un proceso de distanciación entre las esferas religiosas y temporales. Esto no debe conducir, necesariamente, a una exclusión de la esfera religiosa del plano temporal, sino más bien a una valorización de las realidades humanas y sociales en una época determinada. El Hombre, centrado y anclado en su temporalidad, no es más una entidad ausente en su propia determinación. La secularización no rechaza obligatoriamente la religión, mas produce un cambio y un ajuste de la fe religiosa a las experiencias y realidades provocadas por el cambio histórico y temporal. Esta "temporalización" es conocida en nuestra época como modernización (Dallmayr, 1999: 720). El secularismo busca promover la libre elección y la autonomía individual. El hombre debe ser capaz de debatir con su conciencia, sin otra intervención que la suya propia. En este sentido, la creencia y la fe emanarían sencilla y únicamente de la libertad individual, y no de la sumisión a un poder terrenal.El origen del secularismo remonta a la transición entre la edad media y el renacimiento. Si el medioevo es antes que nada percibido como "l´age d´or" de la cristiandad, con la fe como motor y cimento de la sociedad, tanto en Oriente como en Occidente, los cuestionamientos que emergerán durante el renacimiento, amplificados posteriormente por los aportes filosóficos de la ilustración, provocarán el declive progresivo de la Iglesia en Occidente y el desarrollo de ideas y concepciones que posicionan al hombre en el centro del mundo y del universo, nociones en gran medida incompatibles con la subordinación del hombre a una potencia divina. Para Smith (2007:8), la Ilustración será responsable de socavar a lo religioso en sus fundamentos divinos y temporales, promoviendo un ateísmo y un anticlericalismo que emergerán como las nuevas referencias sociales y culturales. "L´age de la raison" cantonará progresivamente a la Iglesia al ámbito privado pero, argumenta el autor, la división entre Iglesia y sociedad, entre temporal y sagrado, será menos incuestionable que lo que los defensores de la tesis de la modernidad han pretendido. En efecto, las sociedades occidentales han construido sus sistemas de valores, sistemas que perduran hasta hoy en día, sobre los valores propios a la fe judeo-cristiana. Pero, podríamos argumentar, la valorización y aceptación de ciertos principios comunes, necesarios a la cohabitación pacífica, al respeto o al mantenimiento del orden social es una cosa, la creencia en una entidad superior, omnisciente y todo poderosa, es otra muy diferente. Ciertos teólogos argumentarán que la aceptación de los principios cristianos resulta indisociable de la creencia divina ya que los primeros carecen de sentido sin la última. Independientemente de dicha cuestión, los principios religiosos han fuertemente influenciado el sistema de valores de las sociedades modernas, sean estas seculares o, con más justa razón, religiosas.El siglo XIX reforzará la fractura entre religión y esfera pública, y bajo la égida de pensadores, positivistas en su gran mayoría, como Spencer, Comte, Durkheim, Webber o Marx, se promoverá la idea que las sociedades industriales debían quebrar sus cadenas y conducir al individuo hacia la libertad y la autonomía. En esta época nueva, que se abrirá a los albores del siglo XX "«…theological superstitions, symbolic liturgical rituals, and sacred practices are the product of the past that will be outgrown in the modern era. The death of religion was the conventional wisdom in the social sciences during most of the twentieth century." (Norris y Inglehart, 2004: 3). Esta idea de un vínculo casi mecánico entre progreso científico y secularización fue largamente defendida y articulada bajo la "tesis de la secularización".Uno de los primeros en explorar esta cuestión fue Peter Berger en The Sacred Canopy (1967), argumentando que la secularización y la modernización son dos fenómenos altamente correlacionados, uno no existe sin el otro, o más específicamente, la modernización conduce a la secularización de la sociedad (Berger renegará posteriormente, al menos en parte, este argumento). Para Berger, el racionalismo, así como el capitalismo, contribuyeron a la secularización a través de la diversificación productiva y el cuestionamiento de los dogmas y valores de la iglesia católica. En este sentido, la Reforma, como bien muestra Webber en su Ética Protestante, permitió limar progresivamente los límites de la libertad individual. Según la tesis de la secularización, el proceso evolutivo de las sociedades modernas transitaría desde un modelo holístico y tradicional, penetrado y dominado por la religión, hacia una sociedad con una creciente diversificación de las funciones sociales, provocando la marginalización y hasta la obsolescencia de la religión (Dallmayr, 1997: 718).Los defensores del liberalismo político consideran que la separación del Estado de la Iglesia es inevitable. La separación institucional entre estas dos entidades debe realizarse según tres principios liberales y democráticos (Audi, 1997: 38): un primer principio libertario, donde el Estado debe permitir el libre ejercicio de la religión; un segundo principio igualitario donde el Estado no debe permitir o expresar preferencia alguna de una religión sobre otra; por último, un principio de neutralidad donde el Estado no debe tampoco desfavorecer ninguna religión. Sin embargo, la aplicación de estos principios puede resultar más fácil en la teoría que en la práctica. Así lo expone Bader (1999: 599): "Liberal political philosophy excels in the construction of ideal models of well-ordered states and societies and ideally reasonable citizens ; it does not tell us how to judge or act under conditions of not so well ordered actual states and societies. Quite often, the link between the ideal world and the real one is missing, and yet the real world is treated as if it approximates or resembles the ideal world". Esta fractura entre un mundo teórico-ideal y el mundo real será aún más flagrante cuando tratemos de la laicidad, donde la rigidez y la generalidad de la ley se confrontan a las singularidades y complicaciones de una sociedad multicultural.En este esfuerzo de separación de las esferas pública y privada, conviene sin embargo aportar cierta precisión sobre dos términos cercanos y a menudo utilizados como sustitutos: secularismo y secularización. Algunas formas de secularización serían más tolerantes y abiertas que otras a la heterogeneidad religiosa. Para Mayer (1998: 33), la distinción entre secularismo y secularización reside en que el primero es un término con connotación negativa y doctrinaria mientras que el segundo sería un término más tolerante. La secularización implica una apertura al mundo y a su propia época (en detrimento de lo sobrenatural). El secularismo, por el contrario, perseguiría una agenda militante negando la existencia de cualquier elemento trascendental. La secularización sería entones un proceso natural, casi orgánico de cambio social y cultural, una evolución progresiva de las actitudes y de los valores dominantes en una sociedad, mientas que el secularismo se inscribiría dentro de una lucha por el poder terrenal entre dos entidades con agendas políticas discordantes: la Iglesia y el Estado. El secularismo sería así un arma política en el esfuerzo del naciente Estado de emanciparse de la tutela moral y política de la Iglesia. Si este debate puede quizá limitarse al rango de las disputas semánticas, no es menos cierto que subraya la importancia de la tolerancia, de la comprensión y la aceptación del otro en todo proceso de secularización, particularmente si ese otro es nada menos que lo divino o lo trascendental. Resulta claro entonces que el secularismo puede estar tentado de caer en las mismas derivas fanáticas que la más fundamentalista de las religiones, erigiendo sus propios principios al rango de dogmas sagrados (en particular si adoptamos la dicotomía negativa/positiva entre secularización y secularismo). Algunos estarían tentados de afirmar que el problema del racionalismo científico es su intransigencia frente a toda forma no racional de construcción del significado.La tesis de la secularización no se desarrolló sin generar un número importante de críticas y de visiones alternativas o contendientes. Algunas de estas tesis o teorías merecen un breve apartado (para un enfoque más detallado, ver Norris e Ingleheart, 2004, Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide, cap. 1). La tesis de la pérdida de fe propone la idea que el advenimiento de "l´age de la raison" y su enfoque empirista progresivamente minó los fundamentos dogmáticos y culturales de la religión, conduciendo a una erosión de la fe y de las prácticas religiosas en las sociedades más desarrolladas. Otra tesis, basada en un enfoque funcionalista e inspirada en los trabajos de Durkheim (Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse) es la de pérdida de significado o sentido social, donde la religión es entendida no únicamente como un sistema de valores, sino también como un conjunto coherente de ritos y acciones que regulan la actividad humana y aseguran la cohesión social. Según esta tesis, la diferenciación estructural de las sociedades modernas, generada a través de la creación de instituciones (de protección, de asistencia o de educación) estatales (al menos en sus inicios), conduciría a la pérdida del sentido social de las instituciones religiosas. El Estado desplazaría entonces a la Iglesia en su dominio terrenal, relegándola casi exclusivamente al ámbito espiritual y privado.Norris e Inglehart presentan, ellos, una tesis de la secularización revisitada (2004:13), basándose en la noción de seguridad existencial. Dos axiomas son fundamentales a esta teoría. El axioma de seguridad propone que las condiciones de seguridad (en el más lato sentido desde una perspectiva socio-económica y de desarrollo humano) varían en función de las sociedades y que las características dadas de cada sociedad impactarán sobre el nivel de religiosidad: "the experiences of growing up in less secure societies will heighten the importance of religious values, while conversely experience of more secure conditions will lessen it " (2004 :18). El segundo axioma, de las tradiciones culturales, considera que las diferentes visiones del mundo (world views) originalmente asociadas con la religión, moldearon los diferentes sistemas de valores sociales. En la actualidad, estos valores no serían transmitidos y vehiculados a través de la iglesia, sino que serían el sistema educativo y los medios de comunicación los encargados de transmitir los valores relevantes.Conviene resaltar que si en Europa el secularismo tiene tanta importancia, es sobre todo porque ha sido reconocido por la mayoría de los Estados como un principio fundacional. Según Ferrari (2005: 12), las características principales , tanto políticas como legales del secularismo en Europa son: la libertad individual de culto, que conduce a la no-discriminación y a la irrelevancia de la religión en el usufructo de los derechos cívicos y políticos; la distinción entre Estado e Iglesia, asegurando por un lado la autonomía de las organizaciones religiosas y la ausencia de intervención estatal en sus doctrinas y organizaciones, y por otro lado, la independencia del Estado de toda forma de legitimación religiosa del poder Estatal, fundado pura y exclusivamente en la voluntad ciudadana. Sin embargo, debemos interrogarnos sobre la perspectiva o idea que el secularismo pueda "exportarse" sencillamente. Hemos visto que el secularismo fue un proceso histórico y político que acompañó en la mayoría de los países europeos la creación del Estado y de la Nación. El secularismo "a la europea" no puede por lo tanto disociarse de esa lucha intestina por el poder entre, por un lado, las fuerzas centralizadoras (y normativas) del naciente poder político, y por el otro, las fuerzas eclesiásticas, divinas quizá, pero temporales con total certeza. La construcción y legitimación del poder estatal (y ciudadano a posteriori) debió realizarse "a expensas" de su competidor directo por el control de las almas (y los recursos) terrenales. El Estado y la Iglesia no podían coexistir en el mismo plano político, económico y jurídico, y esta no-cohabitación se saldó ya sea en la exclusión de la Iglesia de la esfera temporal (como en el caso de Francia) o en la subordinación del poder religioso al poder estatal (como en el caso de Inglaterra). ¿En qué medida este proceso tan específico a Europa no creó condiciones particulares difícilmente exportables a otros contextos. ¿Cómo explicar el secularismo en países donde Estado e Iglesia no son más que uno? Antes de intentar responder a esta pregunta, conviene desarrollar la noción de laicidad.La laicidad¿Es acaso necesario introducir una distinción entre secularismo y laicidad? La laicidad, ese concepto "tellement français" que pena a atravesar las fronteras latinas, es a menudo traducido en Inglés como secularismo (Laborde, 2002: 168), pero permanecerá por siempre fuertemente asociado al proceso republicano francés. Si es posible remontar su génesis hasta la revolución francesa y la separación radical entre la Iglesia católica y el nuevo poder civil revolucionario, habrá que esperar hasta el fin del siglo XIX para asistir a las primeras tentativas de definición y aplicación institucional (los "interludios" de la Restauración, de la Monarquía de Julio y del III Imperio no son del todo ajenos al freno de las fuerzas laicas y republicanas). Hacia 1880, Ferdinand Buisson -uno de los primeros en teorizar sobre la laicidad-, se rebelaba contra "cet état des choses qui consistait essentiellement dans la confusion de tous les pouvoirs et de tous les domaines et la subordination de toutes les autorités à une autorité unique, celle de la religion" (en Bauberot, 2004 :14). La laicización, a imagen del secularismo, se construye sobre la conquista progresiva de esferas de influencia en el ejército, en la función administrativa, en la justicia y, lugar de batalla estratégico entre Estado e Iglesia, en la escuela. Pero hasta aquí nada nuevo o radicalmente diferente con respecto al secularismo. Sin entrar en un pormenorizado detalle del recorrido histórico de la laicidad, destaquemos que transita un proceso similar al del secularismo, aunque es posterior en el tiempo, con el progreso y aumento de la influencia de las fuerzas anticlericales y libre-pensadoras. Jean Bauberot (2007:48) identifica tres características distintas de la laicización en sus inicios. La primera es la fractura institucional de la religión y el retroceso de su influencia social, conducente a la autonomía creciente de otras instituciones sociales. La segunda característica es que, no obstante su deterioro institucional, la religión mantiene una importante legitimidad social. La última característica de este proceso inicial de laicización sería la aceptación del pluralismo religioso.Podemos ahora introducir una primera distinción entre laicidad y secularización, basándonos en el aporte de Claude Langlois, que distingue entre una laicidad de combate y una laicidad de Estado (Langlois, 2005: 11). La primera, llamada laicidad de combate o de convicción, puede ser asimilada a la secularización en el sentido que se trata, para las fuerzas laicas, de ganar terreno y de afirmar la primacía de sus principios y de recuperar las esferas de influencias otrora dominadas por las fuerzas religiosas. La segunda forma de laicidad, de Estado, hace referencia a la incorporación de los principios laicos al orden constitucional. Esta forma es característica de Francia y de su República y consagrada en el primero artículo de su constitución (La laicidad del Estado en Francia quedó legalmente consagrada en la ley de 1905 de "Separación de las Iglesias y del Estado"): "La France est une République indivisible, laïque, démocratique et sociale. Elle assure l'égalité devant la loi de tous les citoyens sans distinction d'origine, de race ou de religion. Elle respecte toutes les croyances", y ha sido emulada por numerosos países, en particular los de tradición y convicción republicana, como el Uruguay1. La laicidad "a la francesa" articula dos principios, si bien no directamente antinómicos, a menuda problemáticamente conciliables, a saber la igualdad ante la ley y el reconocimiento de la libertad religiosa. La religión, o la pluralidad de religiones, no puede socavar el principio de igualdad de tratamiento ante la ley y no debe constituir una barrera a la igualdad de oportunidades. El segundo principio estipula que la república respeta todas las creencias. Como ha sido dicho, la cohabitación de estos principios puede ser problemática.Si el principio de igualdad ante la ley se opone a todo aquello que es singular o distintivo (siendo la religión parte de esa singularidad), el principio de libertad debe asegurar el respeto de todas las creencias y asegurarles la libertad de expresión. Esta cohabitación entre ambos principios es expresada por Langlois (2005: 14): "Con vistas a la igualdad, la religión no puede ser legítima, ya que no es más que una diferencia entre tantas otras, con vistas a la libertad, las religiones deben ser respetadas, con sus respectivas diferencias". Una de las críticas a esta forma particular de laicidad es justamente ese "tire y afloje" entre igualdad y libertad. Las tensiones comunitarias a menudo son el resultado de la incomprensión de este marco de aplicación de las libertades individuales. La laicidad implica que las libertades individuales son aseguradas en el ámbito privado, y que el Estado hará nula distinción, ni favorecerá una religión sobre otra, pero, desde el momento en que penetramos en el dominio público (ya sea en la escuela, en el juzgado e inclusive en una agitada calle comercial del centro Parisino), la libertad de creencias queda subordinada a la única "religión oficial", es decir a la aceptación y la lealtad hacia los principios republicanos y hacia la República, siendo la laicidad uno de sus puntos centrales. No puede existir, en una república laica, principio superior al de igualdad, ya que la igualdad de los ciudadanos es la razón de ser de todo gobierno republicano, fundado en la pertenencia de los ciudadanos a un proyecto común, único e indivisible (y democrático en el caso francés o uruguayo). Para asegurar este ideal, la religión, tal como la raza o el género, no puede ser tomada como un polo de diferenciación, ya que crearía diferentes categorías de ciudadanos. A riesgo de ser repetitivo, la laicidad no tiene sentido si la igualdad no se transforma en la base fundacional de la sociedad o, invirtiendo el orden de los factores, la laicidad es una condición necesaria para asegurar la igualdad ciudadana.Un enfoque innovador es propuesto por Cecile Laborde (2002), que no describe la laicidad únicamente como la separación entre Iglesia y Estado, sino que reconoce un fenómeno de naturaleza compleja, sujeto a interpretaciones alternativas y hasta por momentos contradictorias. La primera variante, llamada de neutralidad, hace referencia a la neutralidad entre la esfera política y la religiosa, a la separación de poderes y al compromiso por parte del Estado de no intervenir en el ámbito de las creencias privadas ni de privilegiar una forma de creencia sobre otra. La segunda variante presentada por el autor, calificada como de autonomía (2002: 171) requiere esta vez un rol activo por parte de las instituciones públicas como promotores de la laicidad como "filosofía de la emancipación humana". El Estado no sería ya el garante de la neutralidad, sino una fuerza liberal encargada de forjar y promover la autonomía (la libre elección) de sus ciudadanos. Esta lógica, inspirada del liberalismo político, choca contra las fuerzas conservadoras que ven en este esfuerzo de "conversión" una violación del principio de neutralidad del Estado e inclusive del principio de libertad ya que, argumentan, la promoción de la laicidad no es nada menos que la difusión ideológica de preceptos morales y políticos destinados a alienar y alejar al individuo de la religión. La misión activa de la instrucción pública de inculcar los principios laicos se asemejaría al catequismo religioso del siglo XIX. Una respuesta a favor de la tesis de la autonomía argumentaría que la laicidad contribuye a formar ciudadanos responsables y democráticos, ya que la autonomía alejaría al individuo de concepciones dogmáticas y arbitrarias y conduciría hacia procesos pluralistas donde la critica y los cuestionamientos racionales son perfectamente admitidos. No obstante, conviene resaltar que nada prueba que las democracias laicas sean mas pluralistas y abiertas al debate que las democracias no laicas.La tercera forma de laicidad propuesta por Laborde (2002: 176), que ya hemos evocado parcialmente, es la laicidad como comunidad, es decir la aceptación del principio laico como vector central y constitutivo de la identidad común de una sociedad. En Francia, entonces, ser republicano implica ser laico (lo que no significa que uno no pueda ser ferviente creyente), y ser laico es admitir la primacía de los principios republicanos sobre otras formas de construcción de significado, por lo menos en lo relacionado al funcionamiento político y social. Pero esto no hubiese sido posible sin la voluntad de las instituciones públicas de buscar suplantar la lealtad hacia la Iglesia y promover principios liberales. Esta cultura cívica republicana promueve antes que nada la fraternidad entre los miembros de la comunidad. Es, en ese sentido, ya que fomenta la fraternidad del grupo, discriminatoria con respecto al exterior, al extranjeroEstos tres enfoques son difícilmente reconciliables y cada uno intenta sintetizar uno de los tres puntos cardinales del republicanismo francés. La primera forma de laicidad (de neutralidad) intenta asegurar la igualdad a través de la neutralidad del Estado, mientras que la segunda busca promover la libertad del individuo gracias a su autonomía sobre otras formas de dominación ideológicas o espirituales. Por último, la tercer forma de laicidad refuerza la fraternidad de los individuos al interior de una comunidad. La crítica que podemos realizar a este enfoque es que sólo funciona en "circuito cerrado", en el sentido que estas formas de laicidad sólo son válidas si aceptamos los principios republicanos, y es en particular por esta razón que la laicidad a la francesa es difícilmente exportable y comprensible para otros sistemas políticos. La libertad y la fraternidad son antes que nada nociones intra-comunitarias subordinadas a la aceptación previa de los principios republicanos.Otro ataque contra la laicidad, bastante común entre los adversarios de esta idea, propone que la laicidad no sería más que un concepto negativo, ya que expresaría lo que no está permitido en el funcionamiento y la estructura de las instituciones públicas (en este caso la religión y la Iglesia), contrariamente a la secularización que sería un concepto positivo que determina lo que si está permitido2 (Kucuradi, 1998: 72). Esta visión refleja perfectamente la incomprensión o desconocimiento de la laicidad a la francesa, percibida más como parte de una agenda política propia al Estado Francés que como un movimiento de emancipación similar a la secularización presente en otros países.Resulta por lo tanto difícil diferenciar estas dos nociones y podemos justamente preguntarnos si no estamos ya en presencia de un debate más semántico que ontológico. En la medida en que la laicidad sea percibida como una excepción "francesa", un tanto revolucionaria y anticlerical, y sobre todo muy republicana, entonces sí contiene singularidades difícilmente asimilables a otros movimientos seculares. Sin embargo, Francia no es el único país a declararse constitucionalmente laico ni a realizar una clara demarcación entre esfera pública y privada. No obstante, no es menos cierto que la laicidad puede ser considerada como la "evolución definitiva" del secularismo ya que, en la práctica, el secularismo es más tolerante en la incorporación de la religión en la esfera pública, llegando hasta a reconocer una religión de Estado o a impartir cursos de religión en las escuelas públicas, como es el caso en Inglaterra o Dinamarca. Si la secularización es antes que nada un proceso cultural e histórico de emancipación con respecto a lo sagrado y divino, la laicización concierne a los arreglos institucionales y políticos con respecto a la relación entre Estado, religión y sociedad. Puede existir secularización sin laicización, pero no puede existir laicización sin secularización. 1- El artículo 5 de la Constitución de la República Oriental del Uruguay reconoce la laicidad de Estado "El Estado no sostiene religión alguna", así como el pluralismo y la tolerancia religiosa: "Todos los cultos religiosos son libres en el Uruguay", mientras que el artículo 8 reconoce la igualdad de los ciudadanos y la no- discriminación : "Todas las personas son iguales ante la ley no reconociéndose otra distinción entre ellas sino la de los talentos o las virtudes". La laicidad de Estado en el Uruguay fue introducida en la constitución de 1918. En la constitución de 1830 (vigente hasta la entrada en vigor de la constitución de 1918), se establecía como religión de Estado la Católica Apostólica Romana (art 5).2- Vimos previamente la distinción realizada por Mayer entre secularismo (negativo ya que provisto de una "agenda política") y secularización (positiva ya que sería un proceso de evolución social "orgánico"). Si aceptamos esta distinción, entonces en este caso la laicidad podría asemejarse a la secularización. *Este artículo fue presentado en la 5° sesión el Seminario Interno de Discusión Teórica 2014, organizado por el Departamento de Estudios Internacionales de la Universidad ORT Uruguay.Germán Clulow es Licenciado en Estudios Internacionales por la Universidad ORT –Uruguay, Master en Ciencia Política por la Université de Genève – Suiza, y Master en Estudios de Desarrollo por el Instituto de Altos Estudios Internacionales y de Desarrollo (IHEID-The Graduate Institute) Ginebra, Suiza

THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY The Literary Journal of Pennsylvania College Entered at the Postofice at Gettysburg as second-class matter VOL. X GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1901 No. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Nature's Chain, . 137 The Survival of the Fittest, . . . .138 Man Was Not Made to Mourn, . . . 143 Some Important Deductions from a Comparative Study of My-thologies, . . . . . . 147 The Thunder Storm, . 1SS Editorial, . . 157 Resolutions of Respect, . . . . 158 Oration: The Character of Our Early American Forefathers, . 159 James Russell Eowell, . 165 Exchanges, . . . . . 170 NATURE'S CHAIN [From the "Essay on Man"] Look 'round our world; behold the chain of love Combining- all below and all above, See plastic nature working- to this end, The single atoms each to other tend, Attract, attracted to, the next in place, Formed and impelled its neighbor to embrace. See matter next, with various life endued, Press to one center still, the general good. See dying vegetables life sustain, See life dissolving, vegetate again; All forms that perish other forms supply (By turns we catch the vital breath, and die); Eike bubbles on the sea of matter borne, They rise, they break, and to that sea return. Nothing is foreign; parts relate to whole; One all-extending, all-preserving Soul Connects each being, greatest with the least; Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast; All served, all serving; nothing stands alone ; The chain holds on, and where it ends, unknown. —POPE. ^•jataut HHOMIHIHHBBHHHmBIBH 138 77/^ GETTYSBURG MERCURY THE SURVIVAL OF TME FITTEST D. C. BURNITE, '01 [dies Prize Essay—First Prize] "Ivives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime." —Longfellow. TV/fANKIND is like the face of a mountainous country. As we -*■'*■ view the human landscape, here and there, like peaks which rise above the plain and rear their snow-crowned heads among the clouds, appear, in bold contrast to the ordinary level of their fel-lows, the mighty men whose lives are the pages of history. And as we contemplate these epoch makers, there wells up in us, and quite naturally, too, a strong spirit of emulation. We admire them and would be like them. Of course, not every one of us can be a Napoleon, or a Wash-ington, or a Franklin, or a Grant; but each has abundant chances of becoming a less conspicuous, but yet quite prominent, feature in the plane of humanity. And it is the existence of such chances that prompts the youth of today to ask himself and others how best to pursue success. Geologists tell us that peaks owe their existence to their dur-able qualities. The surrounding material, by the action of aqueous erosion, has been carried away, leaving these tall projections which have been able to resist for ages the frictional action of water. Upon this same principle rests the success of the "makers of his-tory." Certain things in their make-up have enabled them to stand firm against the attrition of such circumstances as have swept their less sturdy fellows into the "realm of innocuous des-uetude." Their success is the result of the operation of the prin-ciple of the survival of the fittest. Ever since the world began, the principles and causes which have resulted in such changes as have been mentioned have al-ways been the same, and are the same, as those in operation to-day. And this is true of human affairs; so that the young man must realize that the same principles and causes which determined the success of great men, still operate. Ere he can resist the downward pressure of the busy, indifferent world about him, and, as Greely says, "bulge out over the top, where he is sure to be seen," it is necessary that he follows the same plan to secure suc-cess as that which has enabled others before him to become emi- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 139 nent. Just as they have survived innumerable discouragements and scaled the heights of fame because they have made themselves the fittest, so must the youth, in order to reach a high place, develop in himself those things which will render him, too, fit to combat opposing forces. And what are the elements of that fitness which has led to the success of men? Rvery person expects to be or do something, some day; that is, all have purposes. Yet most of these are more or less vague. But what we who would get on in the world must have, are defi-nite purposes. A race without a fixed goal is nothing. Without a definite end to strive for, life is a mere "struggle for existence," and existence is all we get. But life is more than this. The fu-ture holds out many prizes to each of us, to be won only by those who decide definitely for what prize they shall strive. The trav-eller must know, if not to what distance he desires to go, at least what is the bearing of the course he wants to pursue, or he may travel in a circle. If we want to move from our present positions, we must have purposes which, though they are not necessarily limited in extent, yet in direction must be definite. Napoleon, at the very outstart of his brilliant career, aimed at the rulership of the French nation. Lincoln had a definite intention, formed early in life, to do good to others. And how signally he suc-ceeded when he liberated those millions of sufferers! And to rise as these men did, we too must adopt this important element of their fitness,—a definiteness of purpose. Besides the fact that great men have had definite intentions, we observe that they all show elements of fitness in the characters they possessed. All the truly great—and we mean by truly great, not a Nero or Lord Byron, but those whom the good admire,— have been men of high morality. And the more elevated their moral traits, the more we admire them. High moral qualities are a part of the equipment which has bsought them, and will bring us, success. As a possessor of such characteristics, "Old Abe" stands pre-eminent,— a veritable personification of honesty; an honesty which did not allow him to support the unjust, though legal, side of a question; an honesty which made him lose in purse, but gain in esteem, till as a result of this quality he attained a world-wide re-spect, which will last as long as man and memory exist. Lincoln's is real fame, and the young man can do nothing better than adopt 140 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY \ I in his character the prime element which brought renown to "Honest Old Abe." True courtesy is a moral quality, based upon thoughtfulness and consideration for others. Men must be gentlemen, if they want to make progress. Great men are not always polished models ot etiquette, but courtesy has always been a mark of their fitness to occupy the positions at which they have aimed. ' 'Jeffersonian simplicity" did not hinder the third President from reaching the place to which he was helped by Jeffersonian courtesy. Eet us avoid error, and imitate in ourselves this essential quality of fit-ness to advance. Impure and intemperate habits invariably destroy all chances of complete success. Neither Burns nor Poe have secured all the glory which steadier lives would have brought. Irregular habits undermine and weaken all the qualities of body, mind, and spirit, and under their influence complete triumph is impossible. Better adopt the kind of habits which rendered long and useful the lives of Greely, Bismarck, and Gladstone. Their temperate lives are models from which men may safely mould their conduct and there-by place themselves among the fittest to survive. Morality is admirable, but when heightened by the influence of Christian principles, it becomes sublime. Men like Luther and Washington, who have worked under the rule of Christianity, stand at the very summit of human esteem. Elijah Morse once said: "Young man, a good character; yes, and a clean, religious life, are the foundation stones for success." But the moral and religious traits we have spoken of are not all that bring success. It is true that they are the "foundation stones," but upon these there has always been built a structure of other materials, which have made their possessors able to sur-vive opposing forces. The extremely pious are not always re-membered, but those whomwe admire most and shall never for-get have linked their piety, as we should do, with other things essential to render them fittest to endure. L,et us speak also of these. Josh Billings says- "Energy is what wins. Many men fail to reach the mark because the powder in them is not proportional to the bullet." Men must have "vim," or they fail to remove what to them seem insurmountable obstacles. The Alps were no barrier to the vigor of Bonaparte. Neither must the young man THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 141 of to-day lack this same sort of energy. It will enable him to sur-vive in the conflict with whatever comes between him and victory. The life of the man who would "fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer," testifies that the aspirant must try to imitate that in Grant which, in vulgar parlance, we call' 'sticktoitiveness.'' He must have a spirit of assiduity. Pluck cannot get along with-out Plod. Those who have become eminent have done so because they have hung to their purpose till triumph has crowned their persistence. Sir Isaac Newton, although met by what would seem to most men an impassable barrier, worked on for thirteen years before he was able to give the world the correct theory of gravity. The pursuit of success is up-hill work and a halt on the slope is fatal. Not one of the world's great men would have been able to survive the friction of ever-appearing hindrances, without this quality of persistency. Neither can any others who lack it hope to appear among the fittest. "Eternal vigilance is the price of success." It was on this principle that Mark Twain worked while becoming famous as a Mississippi River pilot, and later, while rising to his present lit-erary status. He himself testifies to the importance of this trait, when he gives this advice: "I say, young man, put all your eggs in one basket, and then watch that basket \" We must "Stop, look and listen !" for the multifarious dangers we are liable to en-counter. It was the "Father of the New York Tribune" who turned failure into success by following the principle he himself puts forth in these words: "Do the very best you can where you are!" Concentration and thoroughness have marked the lives of those we desire to emulate. We have all made a practice of doing one thing at a time, and doing that well. It was John Wanamaker who once wheeled the delivery barrow of a dry-goods firm through the streets of Philadelphia; and he did it well, too. Concentrated effort in one direction led him finally to make for us an excellent Post-Master-General. And we also can follow his plan and rise. Close attention to little things enabled Watt to notice and use the principle he saw in the movement of his mother's tea-kettle as the means whereby his steam-engine could be impelled. It is of little things the big are made. Nothing we see or experience is too small to receive attention. Andrew Carnegie knows all the details of his immense business,—none too small to be important \ i ■ I i 142 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY to him. Nor must the youth who would succeed act differently from those whose fitness to rise included attention to little things. The best recommendation for the importance of a good educa-tion comes from those who have never had this advantage. Lin-coln's life-long regret was that he had not had a college education, and it limited his powers in many directions. However, self-taught men like he was have managed to climb the steep and reach the level of greatness without it. But just as one member of the body becomes stronger when its mate is injured, so such men, in the absence of higher education, have developed a substitute in the shape of great common sense. This we must have, or our fit-ness to survive the impositions of more shrewd men is impaired All these principles, and many, many others under which great men have worked, we must adopt if we want to aim at true great-ness. However, all cannot reach the topmost places. But an honest attempt to make the conditions in our lives conform to those manifested in the lives of successful men, will, at least, en-able us to rise far above mediocrity. Just as mountain peaks are formed of material most suitable to stand the wear and tear of ages, so must we young men be made of such stuff as will help us to throw off, without injury, those things which would keep us down, and rise till we attract the no-tice and elicit the worthy commendation of our fellows. Yet, let us not forget that the principle of the survival of the fittest extends farther than we have mentioned. For, away back, twenty centuries ago, there appeared a Great Man, a Model such as we find nowhere among the thousands of earthly great. He is the fittest and His survival is everlasting. Would we survive all the ills of this life, would we be classed among the truly fit, would we attain to higher praise than men can give,—heavenly praise ? Ifso, let us emulate him, the Model of all models, the Ideal! Then can we be like Him and join Him in the eternal survival of the fittest. "How void of reason are our hopes and fears 1 What in the conduct of our life appears So well designed, so luckily begun, But when we have our wish, we wish undone." DRYDHN. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 143 MAN WAS NOT MADE TO MOURN J. B. BAKER, '01 [Gies Prize Essay—Second Prize] OOBERT BURNS is the author of a varied and numerous array A * of beautiful poems. As a song writer he is the world's greatest. As rusticity's artist he ranks well with Shakespeare. His heart was great and his genius commensurate, winging its way to loftiest heights and recognizing the meanest things. He has been called the most directly inspired of all the poets. While the fame of other immortals rests upon the matured product of a life study, his finds its basis in the product of an hour. He goes out into the couutr)', disturbs a field mouse and ad-dresses it on the spot in quaint poetic style. A limping hare, a bank of flowers, a winding brook, a chilly blast, a neighbor's weal, a neighbor's woe, all appealed to his sensitive nature and won immediate response in verse. Such an one, however great he be, is in danger. Second thoughts, even in a Shakespeare, are preferable and it is neither a reflection upon the author nor a mark of conceit upon anyone to deferentially differ from him in a passing thought or hastily written verse. Burns said, "Man was made to Mourn.'.' The poem is sub-lime in its pathos but false, we believe, in sentiment. It shows the leaden sky but not the bow of promise. To study the end to which man was made we must ask time to turn backward in her flight for a moment or two and bring up the past. Oliver Wendell Holmes said we ought to begin a man's biog-raphy one hundred years before he is born. We would begin with generic man already when the idea of his creation was first formulated in the Divine Mind, for the idea of creation and the object of existence must have been coeval. They are concomitant notions and of a twin birth. What then was the mood of that pregnant mind at the event-ful date ? That question answered and our query is practically solved, for created things invariably bear the marks of their Creator. The readers of the world know the character and object of a literary production of a known author, before they open the book. They would not expect the sweet placid flow of an Irving from I I 144 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY the rough and rugged Cooper. Nor would they hope to hear the strains of Whittier coming from Virgil's lyre. Neither could have produced the works of the other. Their gems, in prose and song, were merely the externalization of their own minds and they could not have written otherwise because they could not have externalized that which had not already had an anterior internal existence. Precisely so, in our crude, fragmentary, symbolic fashion must we conceive of the Alpha of all reality. We are wooed to believe that everything in this central universe bears marks of kinship with Him, and particularly do we believe it to be true of man. We are like Him. Is He glad or is He sad? Does He mourn? That is the question upon the solution of which depends the pur-posed end of man's existence. To attempt an answer to a question like that, however, involv-ing as it does, eons of time and a Being unfathomable, might ap-pear a bit presumptuous, but a little reflection will prove the con-trary. We cannot escape it. The question abides with us through every period of our rational life. It presses upon us as atmos-pheric air upon our frames. It fills the human mind as star dust fills the sky. We must think of God, but without attributes that is impossible. What then are the qualities discoverable in his na-ture to give us an antecedent probability that man was made to mourn? Those qualities discoverable by us and those recognized by ages before us are wisdom, power and goodness and these in an unlimited degree. The gradual unfolding of orderly arrangement, hitherto unknown, reveals the wisdom. The spangled robe of night reveals the power. While the goodness, as for it, it shines from His very nature as light from the noon-day sun. How One possessed at once of Omniscience, Omnipotence and Infinite Benevolence could ever be sad and in mourning is beyond the grasp of human reason. Mourning implies regret at something that has happened and surely nothing could grieve Him who had the ability and fore-sight to avert the offending cause. Mourning is incompatible with the idea of Divinity as held by the majority of men to-day. But some are disposed to call these qualities into question. Not a few thinkers of eminent ability and indubitable integrity find themselves unable to predicate them of Him. I | El l SOME IMPORTANT DEDUCTIONS FROM A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MYTHOLOGIES C M. A. STINE, '01 [Gies Prize Essay—Third Prize] THE meaning of the word mythology is, literally, a treatise of *■ myths, or a writing composed of a number of fables. The term is applicable to the writings descriptive of ancient systems of religious beliefs, their various deities, and the attributes and the relations of these deities. Just as the child peoples the world about it with fairies both good and evil in their intentions toward human beings, so in a somewhat similar manner, the early races personified the phenom-ena of nature and sought to render intelligible the workings of nature thrust upon them for explanation, and which were to them otherwise inexplicable. Out of these explanations arose the vast bodies of legends descriptive of the various deities, their origin, adventures, attributes and relations. These personifications of nature with their body of attendant prerogatives arose from two principal causes: the necessity of pro-viding a cause for an observed effect, and the necessity of supply-ing a want felt in every human soul. Every human soul feels the need of a deity upon which to rest its faith and to whom it may look for aid. Whether the production is evolved by the human soul without a divine revelation does not concern us at present. To arrive at some explanation of the nature of the world, and the operation of those natural laws otherwise unintelligible, as well as of his own genesis, man invented the host of gods and demi-gods. The higher attributes ascribed to the divinities—their more purely spiritual qualities, arose out of man's need. Man is con- 148 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY scious of those forces which we call good and evil. He realizes the constant antagonism between the two, and the ethical super-iority of the former. He feels that according to his sense of jus-tice good should be rewarded and evil punished; yet his experience teaches him that such is not always the case. Hence there arises a feeling of the need of some force which may be supernatural, and which will reconcile the apparent contradictions, and fill the hiatus which is felt to exist. Thus there is the necessity of a god and a future existence. The study of ancient mythology with a comparison of the dif-ferent systems, serves a number of purposes. We gain a knowl-edge of the varying degrees of complexity of the different systems of belief, the height of their spiritual conceptions, and their degree of knowledge of the true God—that is their relation to Monothe-ism, the resemblance of the different creeds in the attributes as-cribed to the different divinities, and the similarity in their names. First. We may judge of the character and location of the people—whether agricultural, pastoral, commercial, peaceful or warlike, inland or maritime; and as to the climatic conditions, and natural features of the territory occupied. Secondly. We may judge as to the degree of civilization at-tained. An enumeration of what is included in the term civil-ization may be in place. By civilization we mean the knowledge of the arts and sciences, mechanical and political; also the degree of purity of religious conception. Upon the true or erroneous ideas of God depends man's treatment of his fellow-man, his real-ization of the principles of universal brotherhood, and divine fatherhood, and all the altruistic impulses. There is certainly but little civilization where these latter are lacking, and upon the extent of the realization and adoption of these principles depends the greater or less degree of excellence to which a civilization may lay claim. Thirdly. A comparison of these systems affords a means whereby the knowledge of the common origin of various branches of the human family may be gained. In our consideration of ancient mythology, the chief form of belief to which we wish to devote our attention is that held by the Indo-Germanic family. The systems of mythology which we shall briefly study, are those of the Greeks, latins, Norse and THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 149 Old Germans, Hindoos and Egyptians, as affording the best illus-tration of the principles enumerated. The system of mythology held and constructed by the Greeks is the one of which the most complete knowledge is attainable, excepting perhaps that of the Latins. But the resemblance be-tween these two is close, and the Greek may be taken as typical. Upon these, therefore, we shall base our conclusions. A study of Greek mythology reveals the following as to the character of the people, their location, and the climatic conditions of the territory occupied. The Greeks were an imaginative people, judging from the vast collection of myths relating to their deities, their doings among men. Every tree, blade of grass, fountain, streamlet and river; every breeze that blew and every raging storm, had its own particular presiding spirit. Gods, demigods, nymphs, satyrs, dryads and hamadryads are multiplied without number. The stories of the gods based upon nature, are given a vast body of detail, and an amount of local coloring which displays the workings of a national imagination of great activity and scope. The race seems also to have been somewhat mercurial in tem-perament. All of the earlier races are susceptible to changes in the seasons, and to the alternations of day and night, but the Greeks were particularly so. The approach of spring was heralded with the most extravagant rejoicings and sacrifices to various gods, especially to Dionysos. From the character of the deities worshiped they must have been a people engaged in pastoral, agricultural and commercial pursuits. We arrive at this conclusion because the people wor-shiped deities who were presumed to have the care of shepherds and their flocks, of farmers and their harvests, and of sailors. Some of the gods are themselves shepherds. Apollo is so repre-sented, although his flock is made up of the clouds in the fields of ether. Demeter is the goddess of the harvests. Hermes is the guardian of the sailor. The Greeks were extremely careful to preserve the favor of their gods, and maintained their sanctity to the last of their na-tional existence. They are extremely afraid of offending their deities, and must have been an exceedingly pious people. But all their piety did little for their morals. In all their business trans-actions we have evidence that they were a lying and a tricky I ; 'f. 150 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY i people. Hermes, the god of liars, the protector of the knave, was greatly venerated. From what we have already said we would infer that the land of the Greeks was suitable for the pasturing of flocks and for the cultivation of the vine. Wewouldalso infer thatit was contiguous to the ocean. It must also have been alandsubject to the change of the seasons, for we have already seen that the festivals com-memorating the change of times and seasons, formed a part of his worship. That he made much of physical excellence is evident from the fact that he prayed often to a god whose chiefprerogativewasthe care of the athlete. Mythology and history are heartily agreed upon this point. He was evidently highly intellectual and capable of abstract thought; for he worshiped a goddess who was the personification of mind and intellectuality. Her attributes are those of mind and she is above the physical desires and passions that enslave. From this recounting of the physical enviroment and the in-tellectual attainment of the Greek we can readily determine the degree of civilization attained. We admit right here that myth-ology is not our only source of information, but we do maintain that we can determine the degree of civilization from the mythol-ogy of the people. Because the Greek engaged in commerce he came in contact with other nations, and thus acquired a knowledge of their arts and sciences. The Greek had his organized household, and was far in ad-vance of the wandering tribe; but not one of his deities is repre-sented as presiding over domestic life. The L,atins with their Lares and Penates, seem to come much nearer to the conception of our modern home. The number of muses presiding over the various forms of lit-erary composition, and the completeness of attributes, together with the veneration in which they were held, indicate literature to have been one of the chief pursuits of the people. The high degree of excellence attained in this respect confirms our position. The degree of his intellectuality is evinced in his conception of the goddess Athene. Then, too, if there had been no artists and sculptors there would have been no deities to inspire that class of men. The same may be said of government and the deities that preside over magistrates. ta THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 151 The worship of a deity supposed to aid in the right government of a state, and to have the oversight of the fulfillment of the ends of justice presupposes a well organized system of government. All this is indicative of the degree of civilization of a people. But all these things are the mere externalities, the polish of civilization rather than the vital principle. Civilization of the heart, that is purity of life and worship, are the fundamental prin-ciples of civilization, and these are attained or not attained accord-ing to the character of the conception of the one true God. It is uncertain in how far the Greek attained to the idea of one God. Very high attributes and lofty conceptions were had by the Greeks, of divinity. This is plainly shown by attributes assigned to their different divinites. In a few cases Zeus is represented as exercis-ing a sort of supreme power over the other gods, which somewhat approaches the conception of the Bible of God and the angels as ministering spirits. As already stated, the Greek was pious in the extreme. His life was one of constant anxiety lest he offend, voluntary or involuntary, some one ofhis numerous deities. The names he applies to his deities are not those which would be ap-plied by a loving creature to a gracious Creator. In Aeschylus we find the words: "Zeus, wherever thou art, by whatever name it please thee to be named, I call on thee and pray." The Greeks made a constant effort to flatter and propitiate the gods, who were regarded as enemies of human happiness. Prob-ably the only god whom the Greeks truly loved was Dionysos. He was thought to rejoice in the happiness of men, and to his worship, in the festivals, the Greek surrendered himself with de-light. He was probably the only deity whom they worshipped from motives of affection rather than fear. Whilst many of the stories related of the various deities are incompatible with our conception of God; it must nevertheless be remembered that many of these stories are mere allegories created to typify and explain analogous happenings in nature. Thus they lose their revolting character. For a long time this was remem-bered by the worshipper himself, but it is feared that in later national history the Greek often gave himself up to excesses under the impression of divine sanction. Whilst many of the stories of the deities are revolting, many are very beautiful, and come close to the Christian conception of right conduct. Therefore there must i 152 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 1 i have existed a high ethical conception in the souls of many. But these conceptions are, after all, the exception and not the rule. The Greek's conception of life was largely fatalistic. Ananka, Necessity, loomed as a vast incontrovertible force from whose decrees there could be no escape. When a crime of any sort was committed the Erynys dogged the unhappy perpetrator with an awful insistence, and at some time, sooner or later, the crime was avenged. The conception of the hereafter as imagined by the Greek was gloom}' in the extreme. The spirit of the ordinary mortal passed at death to a domain of dimmest twilight, to the land of Hades. Here the shadow of the body lived an existence surrounded by in-tangible spectres, in the gloom of the mighty underworld. Only the souls of heroes and those semi-divine beings who were espe-cially, favored of the gods attained the happiness of the sunlit Elysian fields. The soul of the criminal passed to a region beneath Hades, to Tartaros, a place of torment and woe. The immortality of the soul held no joy to the mind of the Greek. His mythology gives us no reason to believe that he had the slightest conception of a hereafter portrayed in the bible. This affords us a complete understanding of the Greek mind. Polished in intellect, beautiful in body, in many ways possessing a refined nature, yet in this one essential the civilization of the Greek fell short. Self-sacrifice and unselfish devotion, whilst here and there in his mythology dimly hinted at, yet to the mass of the nation unknown, never animated the every-day life of the Greek. Thus in this cursory glance at the Greek nature we have pointed out the application of the first two principles enunciated at the beginning of this paper; but these same principles are equally well illustrated in the mythology of other peoples. Whilst our knowledge of the Norse and old German Mythol-ogies is much less complete, since the people were not literary, and preserved their traditions largely in memory and not in books, yet this mythology upon examination, is found to yield the same results as the Grecian. The conception of the god Odin for in-stance, shows the same conformity and coloring which that of the Greek Zeus exhibits. We cannot in this article enter into a de-tailed description of the mythology of the Latins, the Norse and old German, the Hindoo and the Egyptian, yet they all equally THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 153 well serve to show the condition of the peoples who originated them. Let us now pass to the third fact, namely, that by a considera-tion of the mythologies of the peoples a knowledge of their common origin is obtained. No student of mythology will deny that in all the religious beliefs of the different nations there is a certain similarity. The Aztec system with the great god at the head and with its crowd of lesser deities, the North American Indians' conception of the Great Spirit with the host of lesser deities, in common with the nations of the Indo-Germanic family, had a degree of resemblance in the wider facts of their mythologies. The consideration of the conceptions of belief and worship of all the peoples and nations we have studied drives us to the conclusion that these peoples had a common origin. Let us glance at a few of the more marked resemblances which appear. Odin of the Norse, Zeus of the Greeks, Jupiter of the Latins, and Atmer of the Hin-doo- Brahmin systems are all alike personifications of the life-giv-ing properties of the air of heaven. The Egyptian system seems to be much farther advanced at the period with which our record begins, than the other systems enumerated. In fact it had reached a more metaphysical development. Consequently there is greater difficulty in the comparison of the Egyptian conception with the others, but in this system we notice the same overlapping of the attributes of one deity with those of another, and in some degree, an identity of attributes. Zeus is the father of the muses and Odin is the father of Saga, the goddess of poetry. Thor or Donar, another Norse divinity, is the god of thunder. As the god of thunder he resembles Zeus, and as the thunder bolts of Zeus were forged by the smith-god Hephaestus, who dwelt below ground, so the hammer of Thor was forged by the dwarves (Zwerge), or black elves who dwelt within the earth. Thor and Odin are identified with one another much the same as Vishnu and Indra in the Hindoo system. Thor and Vishnu go on foot to the councils of the gods. Vishnu is represented as traversing heaven in three strides. The Norse god, Tyr, is a personification of the brightness of the heavens. He is also named Zui and Saxuot. Here there appears a striking resemblance in names. Zui is iden-tical with the root meaning to shine. Sanscrit, Dyaus, the Greek Zeus, the Latin, Deus. Among the Vedic gods, Dyaus is the god of the shining heavens in the same way as Zeus of the Greeks. 154 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Dyaus-pater is the same as Jupiter, the dy being displaced by the J in the L,atin. Indra, of the Hindoos, who hurls the thunder-bolts, and is "the cloud compeller," corresponds in these func-tions with Zeus and Thor. His beard of lightning is the red beard of Thor. The goddess Ushas is the goddess of dawn among the Vedic deities. She corresponds to the Greek Eos. We notice the striking similarity between the two words, indicating deriva-tion from a common root. Thus we might go on multiplying in-stances and giving examples of this similarity. The attributes of the Egyptian deities are to a large extent interchangeable with those of the Greeks and the Norse. The Egyptian conceptions are arrived at by the same personifications of the powers of nature, and in their attributes represent the same mingling of the mater-ial with the spiritual, as do the Grecian, I,atin, Norse and Hindoo. They all represent the occurrences of nature under similar anal-ogies of deeds performed by the divinities. Their names have similar physical meanings. For in the resemblance thus illus-trated and existing to a much greater degree than we can stop to point out, we derived unquestionable proof of identity in the origin of these peoples. It is probable from the very close simil-arity of the I^atin and the Greek systems, that these two nations were less widely separated after the first division than were the other nations, or else that the separation of these two branches took place at some time after the original body had divided and migrated to different points of the compass. From this hasty glance at a few of the ancient systems ot mythology and a review of a number of their points ofresemblance, we obtain an idea of the vast importance which this study may assume. In conclusion we must remark what is palpable to every stu-dent of mythology, that the Christian religion could never have been evolved out of these systems. In its sweet simplicity, its purity and truth, it over-reaches all others in their utmost stretch. Of a truth there is no god but God, and no revelation but the bible. There is a majesty in simplicity which is far above the quaint-ness of wit.—Pope. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 155 THE THUNDER STORM C. W. WEISER, '01 [Gies Prize Essay—Honorable Mention] Upon a sultry August noon The scorching sun came beating down, And all was wrapt in smoky haze Swelt'ring 'neath the withering rays. Above the rugged mountain brink Arose a cloud as black as ink; Dark and motionless it loomed, As if the peak itself were doomed To bear the threat'ning, murky mass, Towering o'er the narrow pass. Then arose a sullen roar, A sudden rush and down it bore Along its path, As tho' in wrath It meant to take, To bend, or break; Destruction carry, Doom, or harry. Now on its course, In mutterings hoarse, It came with rumble Loud, and grumble. A peal, a mutter, A flash and flutter, And on it swept with dire confusion, And in its wake in swift profusion Came other clouds as swift, now dark, Then livid with old Vulcan's spark. Thro' the whirling and the roar Now the rain began to pour In torrents loud upon the roof, And the pine-tree tops aloof, Dashing 'gainst the shanty walls In a way that most appalls, Beating loudly oh the pane Were the dashing drops of rain. Flash of lightning Heavens bright'ning, Peals of thunder Fill with wonder. Crash ! we hear the loud report, Crash ! returns the dread retort. Heavens lighten, splinters flying 156 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY From the mighty trees outlying ! Crash ! Flash ! Flash ! Crash I Rumble ! Roar! Crash ! Flash ! Hurling death and doom, destruction— Crash ! Flash ! in loud convulsion— Upon the forest, peaks disheveled, Rain-tossed, sighing, lowly leveled; Filling all with consternation At this freak of old creation. Flash !—growing dimmer its existence. Crash !—a pealing now in distance. Rumble, rumble, roar and rumble, Mutterings dull and muffled grumble; Rumble, rumble, rumble, roar, Down the dell, the mountains o'er. Gently now the rain is pattering, On the roof and windows clattering, While below the brook is gushing, Muddy wild and roaring, rushing. Clouds are flying, sky is clearing, The storm has passed, and sun appearing Smiles upon the world again Thro' the crystal drops of rain. i A populous solitude of bees and birds, And fairy-form'd and many colored things, Who worship him with notes more sweet than words, And innocently open their glad wings. Fearless and full of life, the gushing springs And fall of lofty fountains, and the bend Of stirring branches, and the bud which brings The swiftest thought of beauty, here extend, Mingling and made by love unto one mighty end. —BYRON. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter Voi,. X GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1901 No. 5 E. C. RUBY, '02, Editor-in- Chief R. ST. CLAIR POFFENBARGER,' 02, Business Manager J. F. NEWMAN, '02, Exchange Editor Assistant Editors Miss ANNIE M. SWARTZ, '02 A. B. RICHARD, '02 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, A. M., LIT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D. D. Assistant Business Manager CURTIS E. COOK, '03 Published eacli month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, One Dollar a year in advance; single copies Fifteen Cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors, and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIAL '"pHIS issue of the MERCURY is made up largely of essaj's which *■ were in the Gies Prize Contest last year. Had it not been for this supply the editor might have had considerable difficulty in finding enough material for this number. We are looking for-ward to the future of our literary publication with a great deal of hope and firmly believe that our hope can be realized. We cer-tainly have among our fellow-students many who possess consid-erable literary talent, and others who desire the opportunity for development in the literary field. To such we would suggest that they should not neglect the opportunity which the MERCURY ex-tends to them. We shall be glad to have all who are interested in literary work place into our hands any manuscripts for publi-cation. We shall carefully examine them and always exercise 158 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY I i our best judgment in the selections we make for presentation to the public. Fellow-students, it will depend largely upon the in-terest which you take in this work whether our hopes for the suc-cess of the MERCURY shall be realized or not. Let us not forget that this is a matter which pertains to the institution and not to any particular individual. By doing our duty towards this pub-lication we are making it a true index of the work that is being done in the literary departments ot our Alma Mater. RESOLUTIONS OP RESPECT CLASS VV7HEREAS, God in his divine wisdom has seen fit to sum- " mon from our midst to his eternal home one whom we most highly esteemed as a classmate and companion, Theodore Frank McAllister, Therefore, at a meeting of the class of '03, Pennsylvania Col-lege, September 7th, 1901, be it unanimously Resolved, That by this untimely visitation of Divine Providence we have lost one of the most worthy members of the class, one whose Christian character was such as to call forth universal ad-miration, whose amiable disposition gained the friendship of all whom he met, whose abilities as a student pointed to a most use-ful career; and also Resolved, That though we be saddened by this bereavement in the midst of our collegiate course, we humbly submit to the will of Him, who knoweth and doeth better than we, believing that our loss is his gain; and also Resolved, That by his death, by its great effect upon us, we have been led to a greater seriousness in the work of life; and also Resolved, That we extend to the family in its bereavement our sincere sympathy, and pray that God and Saviour, who has borne our griefs and carried our sorrows, to comfort them in their afflic-tion, and also Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be sent to the sorrow-ing family, and to the college journals and town papers. DAVID S. WEIMER, ROSE E. PLANK, EDWARD B. HAY. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Y. M. C. A. 159 WHEREAS, it has pleased Almighty God in his all-wise provi-dence to remove from our association our friend and faithful co-worker, T. Frank McAllister, be it Resolved, That in his death the association has lost a member whose manly virtue and consistent Christian life were a help and inspiration to all, and be it Resolved, That the college has lost a faithful student and an en-thusiastic man in all college affairs, one who lived for the better-ment of his fellows and was happiest when promoting their wel-fare, and be it Resolved, That these resolutions be published in the town and college papers. WILBUR H. FLECK, FRANK DAYMAN, F. GARMAN MASTERS, Committee. nMHMWMHIWiill^HflUllil IHl|i|IMBillililll|H|IH 1v t jj 1 111 J GQgj ORATION: THE CHARACTER OP OUR EARLY AMERICAN FOREFATHERS P. H. R. MULLEN, '01 "PAR from me and my friends be such frigid philosophy as may ■*• conduct us indifferent, and unmoved, over any ground which has been dignified by wisdom, bravery or virtue. That man is little to be admired whose patriotism would not gain force on the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow warmer among the ruins of Ionia." These noble words from the pen of Dr. Johnson express a sen-timent that ought to find a response in the heart of every Ameri-can citizen. We cannot visit the spots forever hallowed by the valorous deeds of enduring worth, wrought by the makers of our early history, without a sense of gratitude and profound reverence. To dwell upon such a theme without a thrill of emotion, would augur a spirit undeserving of the great legacy bequeathed to us by those venerable personages of the past. If the Greek could boast of an illustrious ancestry we can boast more; if the Roman could linger at the forum to hear the orators lavish their loftiest flights of eloquence upon the rising glory of the "eternal city," we may declare with great emphasis that its ■ 160 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY splendor grows dim before the rising sun of our national glory, as the moon pales with the advancing day. No other nation has had such a beginning. The early history of every other great nation has a vague outline that marks its transition from lawlessness and barbarism to civilization, but America, comparatively speaking, sprung into being full grown, as "Athena from the brow of Zeus." We are alone among the nations of the earth in having such colossal founders. We need only mention the Pilgrim Fathers, and there is suggested a host of associations. At what a critical period in the world's history did they appear! They shattered the power of a dominant ecclesiasticism and gave to the world re-ligious freedom. We see them committing themselves in a frail bark to a "cruel, crawling sea," uncertain whether they should not all begin their long sleep, and fill a "wandering grave" beneath its restless bil-lows, before they should set foot on American soil. But, guided by their adored Jehovah, through the trackless waters, they at length disembark upon a rock on a desolate shore, and we hear their com-mingled prayers of gratitude break the monotonous voice of the sea. From this rock they go forth to sow the seeds of a mighty nation. We hear the blows of their axes against the primeval forest, ringing out on the frosty air like the pealing of liberty bells. In the light of their burning villages we see a band of savages danc-ing in taunting glee. With unabated zeal they resurrect another village from the ashes. From a miserly soil is forced, by untiring energy, a comfortable livelihood, and the "wilderness blossoms as the rose." A noted statesman has fittingly said: "We shall not stand unmoved on the shore of Plymouth while the sea con-tinues to wash it, nor will our brethren in future time forget the place of the nation's establishment till their river shall cease to flow by it. No vigor of youth, no maturity of age will lead the nation to forget the spots where its infancy was cradled and de-fended." The years of our nation's infancy were truly the most "sad and sublime'' in history. We have dwelt at some length upon the achievements of the Pilgrim Fathers because their deeds are the best interpreters of their character. It is a noteworthy fact, much to the credit of the Pilgrims, that they were the first colonists with sufficient "staying power" THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 161 to establish a permanent colony in North America. Repeated efforts had been made in Mexico and in Florida, by the Spaniards, but those colonists had as often retreated in the face of unexpected difficulties, without accomplishing anything except the squander-ing of the resources of the borne government. France, likewise, had been unsuccessful for several reasons, chiefly because of the temper of her colonists. Several companies of English colonists also had attempted to take up land in the New World, but had repeatedly failed. It remained for the Pilgrims to be the honored founders of our great Republic, and their final success is fraught with great significance. They were constituted of ' 'sterner stuff'' than their predecessors and had an unchangeable purpose to prod their spirits in the presence of discouragement. To them physical pain was decidedly preferable to spiritual bondage, and they suffered on, unflinchingly, uncomplainingly, to the bitter end. "Religious Liberty" were the two words emblazoned upon the banner of the Pilgrims, and many times were those words des-tined to be written in blood before that banner was to be free from assault. They had, however, one harbor to which they repaired in every time of storm, one fortress in time of danger, one harbinger of hope in time of gloom, one source of truth amid the duplicity of oppressive and corrupt governors—the Bible, from which they received iron into their blood. This book was the Pilgrim's hope, his song, his prayer, his guide. The Old Testament, with its honor roll of immortal heroes, furnished the Pilgrims an ideal for their conduct in persecution and trial. The New Testament was the eternal pledge of final victory, an unfailing reward, an un-fading crown. The Puritans were characterized by a total lack of effeminacy. Their character was sturdy and masculine. No amusements were tolerated that had a tendency to destroy the severity and intensity of life. Severely religious, strict to a degree of intolerance, sternly resolute, stubbornly persistent, implicitly obedient to the dictates of conscience, the Puritans exhibit a massiveness and rugged grandeur of character that has never been surpassed. They were men of unblemished integrity, as distinguished for private pur-ity as for public virtue.'' We have never contemplated a group of men whose faults were so few, whose virtues so many, whose honor was so stainless, whose characters were so untarnished, as Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. BALTIMORE ST. R. fi. GULP PAPER HANGER, Second Square, York Street. COLLEGE EMBLEMS. EMIL ZOTHE, ENGRAVER. DESIGNER AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER. 19 S. NINTH ST. PHILADELPHIA SPECIALTIES: Masonic Marks, Society- Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through A. N. Beau. A. G Miller Job Printer Students' Trade Solicited Best of Work Guaranteed Meneely Bell Co. TROY, N. Y. MANUFACTURERS OF SUPERIOR BELLS The 2000 pound bell now ringing-in the tower of Pennsylvania Col-lege was manufactured at this foundry. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. The Pleased Customer Is not a stranger in our establish-ment— he's right at home, you'll see him -when you call. We have the materials to please fastidious men. Jf. D. LIPPY, Merchant Tailor 39 Chambersburg- St., Gettysburg, Pa. L Try My Choice Line of , High-Grade Chocolates ¥¥ at 40c per lb. Always fresh at CHAS. H. McCLEARY Carlisle St., Opposite W. M. R. R. ^ Also Foreign and Domestic Fruits p Always on Hand. L. D. Miller, GROCER Confectioner and Fruiterer. Ice Cream and Oysters in Season. 19 Main St. GETTYSBURG City Hotel Main St. Gettysburg. Free 'Bus to and from all Trains Thirty seconds' walk from either depot Dinner with drive over field with four or more, $1.35 Rates $1.50 to $2.00 per day John E. Hughes, Prop. Capitol Cits Cafe Cor. Fourth and Market Sts. HARRISBURG, PA. First-Class Rooms Furnished. Special Rates to Private Parties. Open Day and Nig-ht. European Plan. Lunch of All Kinds to Order at the Restaurant. ALDINQER'S CAPITOL CITY CAFE. POPULAR PRICES F. Mark Bream, Dealer in Fancy and Staple Groceries Telephone 29 Carlisle St., QETTYSBURQ, PA. .Photographer. No. 3 Main St., GETTYSBURG, PENNA. Our new effects in Portraiture are equal to photos made anywhere, and at any price. - J PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS Manufacturers of High Grade Fraternity Emblems Fraternity Jewelry Fraternity Novelties Fraternity Stationery Fraternity Invitations Fraternity Announcements Fraternity Programs . Special Designs on Application. 140-142 Woodward Avenue DETROIT, MICH. Send for Catalogue and Price List MOTEL GETTYSBURG LIVERY GETTYSBURG, PA. LOING & HOLTZWORTM, Proprietors Apply at Office in the Motel for First-Class Guides and Teams THE BATTLEFIELD A SPECIALTY Qhe Bolton Market Square Ibarttsbura, ff>a. Large and Convenient Sample Rooms. Passenger and Baggage Elevator. Electric Cars to and from Depot. Electric Light and Steam Heat. J. M. & M. S. BUTTERWORTH, Proprietors Special Rates for Commer-cial Men "EZ 1ST IMMER CUT ET WAS ZU WISSEIN." These are the words of Goethe, the great German poet, and are as true in our day as when uttered. In these times of defective vision it is good to know something- about eyes. A great deal has been learned about the value of glasses and their application since Goethe lived. Spectacle wearers have increased by thousands, while at the same time, persons losing their eyesight have been greatly diminished. If your eyes trouble you in any way let me tell you the cause. Examination free and prices reasonable. We grind all our own lenses and fit the best lenses (no matter what anyone else has charged you) for $2.50 per pair and as cheap as SO cents per pair, or duplicate a broken lens if we have one-half or more of the old one, at a reasonable charge, returning same day received. .E. L. EGOLf. 807 and 809 INorth Third Street, MARRISBURG, PA. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. II ^entpol }4otel, ELIAS FISSEL, Prop. (Formerly of Globe Hotel) Baltimore Street, Gettysburg, Pa. Two doors from Court House. MODERN IMPROVEMENTS. Steam Heat, Electric Light and Call Bells all through the House. Closets and Bath Rooms on Every Floor. Sefton & Flem-ming's Livery is connected with this Hotel. Good Teams and Competent Guides for the Battlefield. Charges Moderate, Satisfaction Guaranteed. Rates $1.50 Per Day. GET A SKATE ON And send all your Soiled Linen to the Gettysburg Steam Laundry R. R. LONG, Prop. Horace Partridge & Co., BOSTON, MASS. Fine Athletic Goods Headquarters for Foot Ball, Gym-nasium, Fencing and Track Supplies. Send for Illustrated Catalog-. 84 and 86 Franklin Street R.W. LENKER, Agent at Penna. College. JOHN M. MINNIGH, Confectionery, lee, .andlee Gream:o>^j Oysters Stewed and Fried. No. 17 BALTIMORE ST. The Leading Barber >Sf)op (Successor to C. C. Sefton) Having thoroughly remodeled the place is now ready to accommodate the public Barber Supplies a Specialty. .Baltimore Street. GETT*I5§IIIU}, PA. ESTABLISHED 1876 PENROSE MYERS, Watchmaker and Jeweler Gettysburg Souvenir Spoons, Col-lege Souvenir Spoons. NO. lO BALTIMORE ST., GETTYSBURG, PENNA. L. 1\. ALLEAVAH Manufacturers* Agent and Jobber of Hardware, Oils, Paints and Queensware. GETTYSBURG, PA. The Only Jobbing House in Adams County.

Issue 8.6 of the Review for Religious, 1949. ; ¯ A.M. D~G. Reviewfor Relig°ions NOVEMBER 15, 1949 Roman Con.grecjations :. ¯ ¯ ¯ . JosephCreusen How Often Must We Pray? . Gerald Kelly Acjes of the Interior Life .". G. Augustine Ellard "We Are His Members!" . M. Raymond Questions Answered Books' Reviewed Annual Index :h VOLUME VIII NUMBEk 6 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS VOLUME VIII NOVEMBER, 1949 NUMBER 6 CONTENTS THE ROMAN CONGREGATIONS-~3oseph Creusen, 8.3. . . . 281 HOW OFTEN MUST WE PRAY?--Gerald Kelly, S.J . 289 THE THREE AGES OF T'HE INTERIOR LIFE-- G. Augustine Ellard, S.J . 297 "WE ARE HIS MEMBERS!"--M. Raymond, O.C.S.O . 317 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 40. "Reform" of Cloistered Communities . 323 41. Religious Wears Graduation Pin . 324 42. Sister as Organist in Parish Church ." . 325 43. "Class Money" for Personal Needs . ' . 325 BOOK REVIEWS-- The Day with Jesus and Mary; She Who Lived Her name; The Happi-ness of Heaven . 326 BOOK NOTICES . : . . 328 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 331 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 332 ANNUAL INDEX . . . ." . " . 333 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, .November 1949, Vol. VIII, No. 6. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July. September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street. Topeka, Kansas,. by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: Alfred F. Schneider, S.J. Copyright, 1949, by Adam C. Ellis. Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U. S. A. Before writing to us, please consult notice on inside back cover. The Roman Congregat:ions Joseph Creusen, S.J. gO,~ religious who, have not made a study of canon law the terms Roman Curia' and "Sacred Congregation" will not suggest a clear picture or ide~. Superiors, of course, know that recourse "to Rome" is necessary in order to obtain certain permissions or dispensations and that their petition will be forwarded to the Sacred Congregation of Religious by their local ordinary o~. by the Apostolic Delegate. Eventually an answer will arrive from the Sacred Con-gregation through the same channel, signed by a cardinal prefect or by the secretary, and there will be a fee to pay. And that is about the extent of their knowledge. Hence the purpose of the following pages is to introduce our readers to this ancient and important institution. Name and Oflfce of Cardinals The early popes like other bishops had their particular clergy, consisting of clerics of both lower and higher rank, among whom priests and deacons held a special place. They were attached to the principal churches of the diocese of Rome, and therefore to the "title" of the church, being attached to it as :it were by a "'cardo'" or hinge. Hence, they were said to be "'intitulati'" or "'incardinatL'" On account of their higher rank the deacons and priests of the Roman diocese so connected with a special church were called "'cardinales'" (cardinal priest, cardinal deacon). Little by little the term "'card[nalis'" (cardinal) was restricted to designate the first priest or deacon of the main churches of Rome. When freedom was granted to the Church by the conversion of the Emperor Constantine, the popes began to call the bishops of the " neighboring dioceses to assist them in certain solemn ceremonies and to ask their advice in more important matters. This was done par-ticularly in provincial Roman councils. Thus it happened that the bishops of the nearby dioceses, who were summoned more frequently to assist the pope, were also called cardinals, or "cardinal bishops." The evolution of this institution of ca~rdinals took a long time. By the end of the fifth century the city of Rome had been divided into seven districts each under the authority of'a "cardinal deacon" 281 JOSHPH CRHUSHN Reeiew ~or Religious who cared for the economic condition of that district and especially for the welfare of the poor. The "cardinal priests" were at the head of the great basilicas and the other principal churches of Rome. From the twelfth century on the "cardinal bishops," called "'suburbicadi'" or "suburban" .(of the cities adjacent to Rome), numbered six. Plus V. (Const. Feb. 17, 1568) for the first time reserved the tide "cardinals" to" his councillors. During the early centuries of the Church the right to choose the new pope was exercised exclusively, or at least partially, by the clergy of Rome, by the citizens of that city, by the noble families, and by the Emperor. Finally, when it became possibIe for the popes to reserve this important right to the cardinals, their dignity and influence were much increased. They were then entrusted with the most important offices of the Roman curia. Those who resided in Rome were more or less frequently gathered in a "consistoriurn'" and became, as it were, the senate of the pope. The legates sent to vari-ous parts of the world by the Holy Father were chosen from among the resident cardinals. With greater centralization of Church government, the number and the difficulty of matters submitted to the Holy See became con-siderably increased. In imitation of civil governments, the pope was obliged to establish "offices" (boards of cardinals, councillors, and clerks) to assist in making new laws and in governing the extensive organization which was required to handle the great volume of business relating to such things as financial affairs, faculties of bishops and their relation to regulars, the struggle against heresy, the interpretation and the introduction of the decrees of the Council of Trent--~to m~ntion only the more important ones. Sixtus V is regarded as the real founder of the Roman congrega-tions. He fixed the number of cardinals at seventy--six cardinal bishops, fifty cardinal priests, and fourteen cardinal deacons1. He also reorganized the sacred congregations, incre.asing their number to fifteen (January 22, 1588). Reform of Pius X From the very beginning of his reign Dius X determined to revise the law of the Church. He made a start with the constitution 1A cardinal deacon is, of course, at least a priest, but his "title" is a church which in early ages belonged to a deacon. Many. of the cardinal priests are bishops, but they have a °'presbyteral ~itle." 282 Nouember, 1949 THE ROMAN CONGREGATIONS Sapienti consilio, dated June 29, 1908, by which he reformed the Roman Curia. This legislation was incorporated latei: on, almost without change, into the new Code of Canon Lau), which was promulgated in 1917. According to the. reform of Plus X the Roman Curia now consists of fifteen sacred congregations, three papal tribunals or courts, and five offices, such as that of the secretarg of state.In this article, however, we shall confine ourselves to the sacred congregations and make practical applications of what is said to the Sacred Congregation of Religious. Roman Congregations A Roman congregation is a board of ~ardinals who have a very accurately defined part in the government of the Church. They are assisted by a group of major and minor officers, and by a body of councillors called consultors. At the head of every congregation we find a cardinal prefect, except in the cases of the Holy Office, the Congregation for the F~astern Church, and the Consistorial Congre-gation. The pope himself is the head of these three congregations, and the cardinal who would otherwise be the prefect takes the place of the secretary and is called assessor. All the other congregations have a secretary and a subsecretary. The secretary of a congregation plays a very important part in transacting its business. Consultors To assist in the study of difficult questions proposed to the con-gregations, each one of them has a board of councillors who are called consultors. They are chosen from among the diocesan clergy and from among religious, are specialists in their field, come from various countries of the world, and most of them reside in Rome where they are engaged as professors or hold a post in.the curia of their order or congregation. Some of these consultors are Roman prelates. Minor Ot~cials To help the secretary and the subsecretary in the solution of the ordinary problems and cases which are presented to a congregation, we find a group of monsignori and priests who are called "'aiutanti di studio." These are internal councillors as contrasted with the consultors mentioned above, who may be termed external councillors since they do not ordinarily meet for consultation in the congrega-tion. Then another group called "'minutanti'" are in charge of 283 JOSEPH CREUSEN Review for Religious summing up the petition.s, while the "'protocolist'" (one or more~ takes care of the documents and puts them in order. Finally, each congregation.has a bursar, an archivist, and a group of lay helpers who are called ushers. The Sacred Congregation of Religious Let us now pay a visit to the Sacred Congregation of Religious. This will be the best way of explaining what a Roman congregation is and what it does. Pius XI built a modern office building to house the Sacred Con-gregations. It is called the Palazzo delle Congregazioni (palazzo meaning any large, ornate building),, and it is situated in the Piazza San Callisto near the old church of S. Maria Trasteoere (across the Tiber). Nearly all the congregations have their quarters in this modern building, and the two upper floors afford lodging for many officers of the congregations. Entering a courtyard we have an immediate view of this imposing edifice. On the right, as we pass along we see a beautiful fountain flanked by a statue of Plus XI, a memorial to the founder of this new home of the congregations. In the driveway immedi-ately in front of the building, we may see several autos with the legend "S C V" (Servizio Cittd Vaticano) in lieu of license plates. This indicates that one or more cardinals are already in their offices. We enter the building at a door marked "Congregation of Religious'" and find ourselves in a long corridor with high windows and ceilings. Going to the end of this corridor, on the left we find a large assembly room where various committees and consultors meet under the chairmanship of the cardinal prefect or the secretary of the con-gregation; then comes a series of smaller waiting rooms for visitors. On the right we find a waiting room and the office of the cardinal prefect and that of the secretary of the congregation. Smaller offices house the roinutanti, protocolist, bursar, and archivist. This latter is the antechamber to a very large room which has a balcony all around, and is used to keep all the documents of the Sacred Congre-gation. These are contained in steel files, in alphabetical order of the diocese in wh.ich the mother house of an institute is situated. To the right of the entrance we find another series of offices-- subsecretary, various business offices for religious men, for teaching and nursing sisters, and for the past two years an office for the secretary and committee in charge of secular institutes. 284 Nooember, 1949 THE ROMAN CONGREGATIONS The offices of the congregation are open to the public for business from 9:00 A.i~, to 1:00 P.M. During these hours the waiting rooms are filled'with religious priests, Brothers, and Sisters, who wear various habits, some ~f which would appear strange to us. Some are dressed in civilian clothes and have no religious habit. These are members of the recently established secular institutes. During office hours the officers and employees are kept very busy, and during an interview with the secretary one will ordinarily be interrupted two or three times in twenty minutes by an usher who brings a document to be signed. The Congregation of Religious is competent to handle almost any matter which concerns religious. When necessary, the secretary will send a petition to another congre-gation or ask for special faculties from the Holy Father. The subject matter of petitions sent to the Sacred Congregation of Religious covers a great variety of things of greater or less importance. For ordinary dispensations the cardinal prefect or the secretary have habitual faculties, and they will grant directly the dispensation requested. Thus, by way of example, we may mention: permission to change a last will and testament, to remain outside the religious house for more than six months, to leave papal cloister in order ~o undergo a surgical operation. For all petitions which require some discussion, a meeting called a congresso is held at least once a week. At this meeting the car-dinal prefect, the secretary, and the subsecretary are present. Som~- times one or more consultors are asked to be present to give their opinions or to discuss the report ("ootum") they have written on the subject. According to an ancient practice all questions of some importance were submitted to the "congregation," that is, to the cardinals who form the Congregation of Religious; but Pius XII has enlarged the competence of the "'cor~gresso pieno'" (full meetings)', that is, when some consultors are called to discuss questions with the cardinal prefect, the secretary, and the subsecretary, and sometimes one or other members of the congregation. The cardinals who are members of the Congregation of Religious gather in the Vatican Palace every Friday for a meeting which is called "'plenaria.'" There are twenty-three cardinals who are mem-bers of the Congregation of Religious at present, but only eleven of them reside in Rome. The others may sit in at a meeting when they happen to be in Rome for their "'ad limina'" visit, or on some other occasion. The cardinals who live in Rome are called "Cardinals in 285 ¯ .JOSEPH CREUSEN Revieto [or Religious Curia." A week before the meeting, each one receives a copy of printed documents regarding the case or cases to be ~.iscussed. These will ordinarily consist of a copy of the petition to be heard, the ,doubt to be solved, and the report (called "'votum") of one or more consultors. One of the cardinals is designated to explain the case to the assembly. He is called the Cardinal Ponens. Instructions or decrees to be issued by the Sacred Congregation, the approval of new religious institutes, difficult juridical questions, are examples of mat-ters discussed in the plenary session of the congregation. Every second and fourth Monday of the month, the cardinal prefect is received in private audience by the Holy Father who makes the final decision-~either approving the results of the plenary session or requesting a further study of the question. In the Congregation of Religious there are five boards or "com-missions" made up of various consultors according to their special competence. Among the more difficult tasks of the congregation is the preparation of instructions and decrees. These require long and arduous study on the part of the higher officials and of certain con-suitors. Our readers may be familiar with some of th~ more recent ones such as the following: the decree on military service for religious (January 1, 1911) ; the instruction on the second year of novitiate (Noyember 5, 1921); on the papal cloister 6f nuns (February 5, 1924); on secular institutes (March 19, 1948). Only canonists can. appreciate how much time and work are consumed in the preparation of such documents. Usually the preparatory work is entrusted to a board of consultors tinder the direction.of the secretary or subsecretary. The final meetings will be presided over by the cardinal pre.fect himself. Ordinarily one or two consultors prepare a draft which will then be discussed by the entire board. Being canonists themselves, many of the consultors realize how accurately terms must be chosen to avoid criticisms of the text and doubts which might arise as to the meaning of this or that word. Even the,non-canonists contribute useful suggestions. Since the consultors come from various 'countries, they look at the matter in the light of the special conditions in their own countries. Hence no one will be surprised to learn that some instructions are discussed for one, or two, or even three years before they are ready for publication. 286 Nouember, 1949 THE ROMAN CONGREGATIONS Procedure in the Congregation A simple example will give us an idea of how ordinary routine business is conducted by the Congregation of Religious. A superior general with the approval of his council decides to ask the Sacred Congregation for permission to contract a debt of $100,000 to enlarge or to equip a school or hospital. The petition must be writ-ten in Latin, Italian, or French. The petition is usually addressed to The Holy Father according tO a well-known form: "Most Holy Father: The undersigned N.N., superior general of the congregation of N.N. (mother house in the diocese of X), pros-trate at the feet of Your Holiness, sets forth the following." ' Then come~ the petition itself: "With the approval of my gen-eral council I ask for permission to contract a debt of :;100,000 to equip on a more modern scale, a hospital, school . . ." ~ Then the need for the improvement will be briefly and clearly exposed. If the congregation has other debts the superior is obliged to mention them also. It is very important to assure the Sacred Congregation that the religious institute will be able to pay the interest regularly fiom ordinary income and, after not too long a time, to retire the capital debt. The petition ends with the form: "And may God, etc." without finishing the clause. Then a final "Your Holiness' most humble servant in Christ," followed by the signatures of the superior gen-eral and his general councillors. If the approval of the general coun-cil is not required, the councillors do not sign the petition. If the congregation has a cardinal protector, the petition may be sent to him, and he will forward it to the congregation with his recommendation. For less important matters it will be sufficient to have the document signed and sealed by the local ordinary and by tbe religious major superior. It should be addressed directly to: ."His Eminence, Cardinal Lavitrano, Prefect of the S. Congregation of Religious, Piazza S. Calli~to, Rome, Italy." According to the importance of the matter, the favor will be granted immediately by the cardinal prefect or by the secretary, with or without having been examined by a consuhor. Certain matters are frequently discussed in the congresso; and if it be something still more important or difficult, it will go through a "plenary session" of the cardinals and will finally be submitted to the pope in private 287 ,JOSEPH CREUSEN audience by the cardinal prefect. For many indults a printed form is used, and the clerk has only to fill in the name of the petitioner and perhaps add a brief remark. If the petition was not presented by the cardinal protector, the indult will have to be claimed at the treasurer's office by an agent. Small religious congregations which have no agent of their own in Rome usually send in their petitions through the diocesan chancery of the mother house, and then the local ordinary's agent will take care of them. In such cases the favor is frequently not granted directly but faculties are given to the local ordinary of the mother house (general or provincial) to grant the favor "if he finds the motives and the circumstances alleged to be true." On the back of the indult are.indicated the various fees to be paid. The first is an alms to be given the Sacred Congregation on the occasion of the granting of the favors; the second is a tax in compensation for the expenses involved (work of the clerks, report of the consultor, and so forth); the third is an alms for whoever executes the indult; the fourth fixes the sum the agent may ask for his work and expenses. Conclusion Perhaps one of my readers will ask me in a low voice, "Why does it occasionally take such a long time to get an answer back from the congregation?" I could igive many reasons. It is not always the fault of the officers of the congregation. Let me remind my readers of what I said above, that the Sacred Congregation has general com-petency for practically all matters concerning religious. Now, according to very incotnplete statistics, published in 1942, the reli-gious congregations with papal approval number about 111,000 religious men and 587,000 religious women. These figures do not include the numerous members of diocesan congregations, nor the r~ligious orders; hence, no mention at all of the hundreds of monas-teries of religious nuns. To give but one small example of the num-bers of diocesan religious, a Belgian bishop once told me that he had ii/:ty (yes, I mean i/fry) smaller or larger mother houses in his dio-cese. This being so, it will not be useless to have a friend in Rome who can go to the Sacred Congregation and inquire of some employee about your business. 288 l-low Orq:en Must We Pray? Gerald Kelly, S.J. DURING the years I have.been teaching religious, particularly Sisters, I have often been presented with this problem: "Exam-inations of conscience sometimes contain the.question, 'Did I miss my morning and even!ng prayers, and my grace before and after meals?' Does this question mean that such daily prayers are obliga-tory? And if they are not obligatory, how are we to explain the question to children?" The problem, be it noted, concerns obligation. It pertains there-fore to moral, not to ascetical, theology; and it is as a moral problem that I intend to treat it. But before I touch upon the actual ques-tion, I should like to make some preliminary observations that may prevent misuntterstandings. Preliminary Observations I lay claim to no special knowledge, acquired or infused, natural or supernatural, concerning the teaching of catechism to children. In fact, I may state quite frankly that at the end of the one year of my Jesuit life in which I had the duty (or privilege) of teaching cate-chism to third-graders I was thoroughly convinced that I had not reached their minds with a single idea. As a fellow Jesuit once put it to me when we were returning home after a catechism session, "Every time I leave that class, it's with a feeling of having been thwarted." Despite that year of frustration, I still retain certain notions concerning what ought and what ought not to be taught to children. For one thing, I believe it is much better to show children (and per-haps adults, too) the fittingness, the loveliness, and the beauty of the various acts of prayer than to try to make precise distinctions con-cerning their obligation to pray) If they love prayer, they will pray; and thus they will fulfill these obligations even though they cannot define them. This seems to be in keeping with the common opinion of theologians to th~ effect that Catholics who lead a devout lFor material on the fittingness and beauty of some of the acts of prayer mentioned in this article confer, among other things, these articles in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS: Moral Beautg in Our Duties toward God (I, 244-52) ; The Life of Faith (II, 41- 51); and Are You Sorrg for Your Sins? (III, 335-48). 289 GERALD KELLY Reoiew /~or Religious life need never worry about failing to fulfill their various duties to pray. Nevertheless, it is not right, merely in order to encourage children to do good, to foster an erroneous notion concerning their obliga-tions. Consequently, when any book or statement gives them the impression that they have a strict obligation though in reality they do not, that impression should be tactfully corrected. As regards daily prayers in particular, I might observe before discussing the main question that, even if there should be an obliga-tion to pray every day, there is certainly no duty to pray at definite times of the day, for example, in the morning or evening. Evidently these are fitting times. Yet pious Catholics who humbly confess that they did not say (heir morning prayers but said them later in the day surely have a false conscience if they think that in so acting they sin. Moreover, even if there should be an obligation to pray daily, there is clearly no obligation to say the prayers in some definite posi-tion. Some people seem to think that if they do not kneel when they pray they are doing wrong. A notion of this kind should be ~orrected--or, better still, prevented. Now for the question: is it obligatory, at least under pain of venial sin, to pray every day? Official pronouncements of the Churcl'i do not answer this question. A casual reading of Sacred Scripture seems to answer it in the affirmative. For instance, we are told: "Pray without ceasing" (I Thess. 5:17); "We ought always to pray" (Lk. 18 : 1) ; and "Be instant in prayer" (Col. 4:2). Texts like these appear to demand at least daily prayer; yet we know, from the traditional teaching of approved theologians, that such texts need not be taken in their full literal force. In part, at least, they express a counsel, not a command. To know the extent of the Obligation we have to turn to the writings of the moral theologians. Meaning of Prayer What do theologians mean by prayer? In general they distin-guish between prayer in the strict sense and prayer in the wide sense. In the strict sense prayer refers to petition, and it is defined as the "asking for becoming things from God." In the wide sense itmeans "any lifting of the soul to God," or any attual "communion with God." In this latter sense prayer includes acts. of faith, hope, love, adoration, petition, thanksgiving, praise, contrition, and so forth. It seems unquestionable that when we consider the problem of 290 November, 1949 HOW OFTEN MUST WE PRAY? daily prayers we are referring not merely to the prayer of petition but to prayer in the wide sense. To determine the exact obligation of praying, therefore, we ought to study what theologians have to say about the necessity of each of the acts mentioned in the previous paragraph. As a matter of fact, with reference to the necessity of prayer, moralists do not treat all these acts; but they do treat the principal ones: faith, hope, charity, contrition, and petition. These five acts, as treated by theologians, are primarily considered as inter-nal acts; though at times, of course, as when we speak of the neces-sity of certain acts with reference to confession, some external expres-sion is understood. Besides these various internal acts, theologians also treat of the necessity of social worship, which might include in some way many of the prayers not specifically treated elsewhere. A brief survey of these various sections of moral theology will give us all the background we need for a correct answer to th~ question: are daily prayers of obligation? Various Acts The Catholic life is a supernatural life: and faith is the founda-tion of supernatural living. It is evident, therefore, that faith must play an important part in the Catholic life. In fact, a truly devout life undoubtedly includes many acts of faith, at least implicitly, every day. But the fervent life is not the measure of obligation. Obligation refers to the minimum. And. when tbey speak of the obligation of making acts of faith, theologians are very conservative in estimating the required frequency. Treating of the necessity of making acts of faith, moralists first consider the nature of faith itself and its importance in the Christian life. From this consideration they conclude that every Catholic must make an act of faith at the beginning of his conscious moral life when he first realizes ~hat God has revealed certain truths to be believed. Another occasion that calls for an act of faith is had when the Church solemnly defines a certain doctrine and thus imposes upon us the duty of accepting it as divinely revealed. Besides specifying these two occasions, the most that theologians can say about the precept of faith in itself is that we must make acts of faith "at times" during life. Some have tried to define this obligation more accur-ately in terms of years, months, or weeks. These opinions are der-tainly worth reading; but they are merely opinions, not binding on anyone. 291 GERALD KELLY Review for Religious In the preceding paragraph I have indicated duties imposed on all Catholics by the precept of faith itself. Besides these, there are certain occasions when some other precept or special circumstance includes at least implicitly the necessity of making an act of faith. For instance, the duties of making acts of hope, charity, and contri-tion include the duty of making implicit acts of faith because such acts are impossible without faith. So, too, the duty of making a good confession or a good Communion. But in all these cases faith is not necessarily a separate act. Also, if one is facing a strong temptation which he cannot overcome without an act of faith, this act is obligatory. And if one has denied his faith by the sin of heresy or by apostasy from the true religion, he must, in reparation, make a new act of acceptance of the revealed truths he bad denied. The theol6gy on the necessity of acts of hope follows much the same pattern as I have outlined with regard to faith. From the dog-matic and ascetical points of view it would be difficult to e~aggerate the importance of hope. It must be present in the repentance of the sinner, in the heroism of the saint, and in the salutary perseverance of all the just. But concerning its prescribed frequency one must be cautious. Like faith, an act of hope is required at the beginning of one's moral life and "at times" during life. And like faith., it is at least implicitly required in certain other acts, for example, in an act of contrition, in a good confession, and in any effective prayer for grace. Also, an act of hope is required in reparation for a sin. of desperation. We next consider the best of all prayers, the act of love of God. That there are certain special occasions when an act of charity is imperative, is evident. For example, if a man is dying in the state of mortal sin and cannot receive a ~acrament, he can save his soul only by making an act of perfect contrition, which includes an act of charity. Also, if a person is in the state of mortal sin and must receive one of the sacraments of the living but cannot go to confes-sion, he is bound to regain the state of grace by means of perfect contrition. Even apart from these special occasions, one must at least occa-sionally during life make explicit acts of charity. This is the con-stant and universal teaching of eminent theologians, and the only teaching that the Church wilI'tolerat~. Absurd opinions such as these: it is enough to make an act of charity once in a life time, or once every five years--have been condemned. How anyone cc~uld* 292 Nooember, .I 9 4 9 HOW OFTEN MUST WE PRAY? hold opinions of this nature in view of the facts that the very ~ssence of the New Law is ~harity and that Sacred Scripture. urges us again and again to love God is somewhat of a mystery. Yet it is one thing to say that we must make acts of charity occa-sionally or even frequently; it is quite another to say how often they must be made. There is nothing defined on this point; and the theologians cannot determine it. All that can be said with certainty is that acts of charity should be made occasionally, or perhaps rather often, during life. In the preceding paragraphs I have made some references to the act of contrition. These were merely passing references. A sum-mary of the approved teaching concerning the necessity of this par-ticular act would run somewhat as follows. It is a conditional obli-gation; it depends on the fact that one has sinned. The Blessed" Virgin, for instance, could not make an act of contrition--and therefore could have no obligation to do so--because she never sinned. But for one who has sinned, contrition of some kind is an absolute requirement for forgiveness. For one who has committed a mortal sin, this clearly means that he has a serious obligation to make an act of contrition (perfect or imperfect, according to circum-stances) on the following occasions: when he is in danger of death; when he makes his yearly confession; when he is 'obliged for some special reason to 'acquire the state of grace (for example, when he receives a sacrament of the living). Venial sin does not require con-fession and is not an obstacle to the fruitful reception of the sacra-ments of the living; hence it seems that there is no definite occasion when contrition for venial sin is absolutely called for. Confession. of course, would make it conditionally necessary: that is, if one who has only venial sins wishes to go to confession, he is obliged to make an act of contrition. We come now to prayer in its strictest theological meaning, peti-tion. This kind of prayer may be considered under a twofold aspect: it is an act of worship of God, and it is a means of helping ourselves. As an act of worship, petition expresses our reverence for and dependence on God. Understood in this sense, prayer is certainly of obligation for all men, independently of their personal sanctity and of their special personal needs. Yet, if we limit our consideration of prayer to this sense, we can say no more about the frequency of the obligation than we said about the necessity of making acts of" faith. hope, and charity. We can simply say that every man, even the least 293 GERALD KELLY Review ?or Religious tempted, even the most perfect, even one confirmed in grace must pray occasionally. His very nature demands that he express his dependence on God in this way; but neither reason nor revelation tells clearly just how often he must so express himself. Prayer, however, is not merely a means of honoring God; it is also a personal necessity. In the providence of God, humble petition is the ordinary means of obtaining His blessings, particularly His grace, and grace is a necessity both for salvation and ~anctification. Since man is obliged to do at least what is required for his salvation, he is certainly obliged to pray. But how often must we direct our petitions to God? Must it be every day, or every time we need help? Theologians, having care-fully considered the data afforded by Scripture and Tradition, do not feel justified in giving an unqualified "yes" to such questions. The most that they can give as a general rule is that we must pray "very often." Beyond this, the answer is~ relative; some need to pray more frequently than others. As regards the prayers we have considered in the preceding para-graphs, one difficulty in estimating the obligations is that this must be done almost entirely without the help of definite statements by the Church. The case is different with reference to social worship; hence we need but mention this ~opic very briefly. The Mass is our principal form of social worship; and the Church.has stated quite definitely that we must assist at Mass on all Sundays and on clearly determined feasts of obligation. Conclusions I suppose that up to this point my discussion sounds m?re mathematical than religious. If it does, it is unintentional; I have not been inspired by any love of mathematics. I have no desire to urge people to count their prayers or their obligations. And I earnestly recommend for the comfort of all the common opinion of theologians to which I referred earlier in this article: namely, that those who lead a good Catholic life need not be concerned about any possible failure to fulfill their various duties to pray. Nevertheless, mathematics has its place; and one place is right here, in this conclusion. We have to ask ourselves whether all the duties to pray that have been outlined in this article add up to an obligation to say daily prayers. The answer is negative. If we prescind for a moment from the relative duty of praying for the 294 November, 1949 HOW OFTEN MUST WE PRAY ? graces we need, it seems that all the other duties can generally be fulfilled by the devout attendance at Mass at the prescribed times. The necessity of prayer for personal needs might increase this some-what, but there is no evidence that it is a daily duty for everyone. Do all moral theologians agree with the conclusion that daily prayer is not of strict obligation? The answer seems to be "yes, and no." They agree with,the conclusion ir~ theor~t; but many prefer to give a qualified answer for practice. These moralists would answer the questi6n concerning the duty of saying daily prayers somewhat as follows: "Theoretically, there is no obligation to pray every day. But in practice there is usually a sin in the omission of these prayers, because when daily prayers are omitted without a sufficient reason this is often due to a small fault of laziness, sensuality, or human respect." This formula, or one somewhat similar, is sponsored by eminent theologians; and catechists who wish to follow it in explaining the duty of praying are certainly justified in doing so. But I would not recommend it. I find it confusing. It says, on the one hand, that daily prayers are not of obligation; yet, on the other, it demands a sufficient reason under pain of sin for omitting them. This seems to beg the entire question. For if there is no obligation to say daily prayers, why should a reason be required under pain of sit~ for omitting them? As for the statement that failure to say these prayers could be a sin of laziness, this seems to ignore completely the distinction between imperfection and venial sin.2 For laziness is not a sin in the strict sense; it is an inordinate disposition or tendency, and it becomes sinful only when it leads to the neglect of some duty binding under pain of sin. In other words, laziness is an imperfec-tion when it induces one to'act against a counsel (e.g., to break a rule which does not bind under pain of sin), and it is a sin when it leads one to violate a precept (e.g., to miss Sunday Mass in whole or in part).8 And what I have said of laziness is similarly true of such things as sensuality and human respect. 2Some authors hold that a positive imperfection is a venial sin. These men might logically defend.the formula I am here criticizing. But many moralists who pro-pose this kind of formula also hold firmly to the distinction between positive imperfections and venial sins. aEven here, when we speak of the "sin of laziness," it is not a specific kind of sin, but merely the source of sin. This is obvious from the fact that when ones misses Mass through laziness, all that he is obliged to confess is the fact that he missed Mass. 295 GERALD KELLY Because of these difficulties, I would not personally recommend the formula. I prefer the practical explanation given by Father Tan-querey m his moral theology, which may be roughly translated as follows: "The faithful are to be urged to pray daily, especially in the morning to ask the graces they need for the day, and in the evening to thank God for benefits received, to make .an act of contrition for their sins, and to commend their souls to God before going to sleep. Those who omit their morning and evening prayers do not sin directly by this omission; but experience proves that, all other things being equal, those who do not say these prayers fall into sin more frequently than those who. do.TM One final point. In view of all that has been said, what is a catechism teacher to do when the examination of conscience for children includes the question: ':Did I miss my morning and evening prayers, and my grace before and after meals?" Before I answer, let me recall my own experience in teaching third-graders. With this experience in mind, I have not the temerity to suggest the precise method of illuminating young minds. All that I dare suggest is that the teacher try in some way to convey the following ideas to the children : "This question does not mean that you would commit a sin every time you omit these prayers. The question is put there to remind you that all of us must often p~ay and that those times are especially fitting times for prayer. If you do not pray at these times, there is a good chance that you won't pray at other times, either; and this would mean that you do not pray even when you really need it, and that would be a sin. So, keep the habit of saying these daily prayers, and when you go to confession check up on yourselves to see whether you have been saying them. If you find that you often miss your daily prayers, you will know that you are getting a bad habit, and you ought to correct it." 4Cf. A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Tbeologiae Moralis et Pastoraiis, II (1936), n. 861. 296 The Three Ages of the Interior Life G. Augustine Ellard, S.J. WITH the publication of the second volume of T~e Three Ages of the Interior Life1 the work is now. complete in English. The first volume was considered in this REVIEW, VI (July, 1947), 249. In what follows the work as a whole is discussed. I. Content As the title suggests, spiritual development is conceived and pre-sented after the analogy of organic growth. Corresponding to the periods of childhood, adolescence, and maturity in natural human life, there are in the supernatural life also three stages of spiritual evolution, namely, progress along the purgative, illuminative, and unitive ways. Moreover in both the natural and the supernatural orders each of the three periods is ushered in by a crisis. Of these the first is birth for one's physical life; corresponding to it there is justifi-cation, or the beginning of one's interior life. Adolescence is intro-duced by the second crisis, puberty; and, analogously to it, with "the night of sense" a person enters upon the illuminative way. Finally, the third natural crisis consists in attaining one's majority or reaching maturity; the spiritual correlate is "the night of the spirit," which is followed by the transforming union, the state of full super-natural maturation. It will be noticed that two of the three ages are mystical. In case one should fail to make sufficient progress, or grow up, one would become a dwarf or midget. In an elaborate arrange-ment, summarized diagrammatically on page 245 of volume I, degrees of the virtues, the functions of the gifts of the Holy Spirit, various purifications, and the grades of prayer are assigned to each of the three ages. So much for the general idea indicated by the title. The second volume covers the second and third ages, that is, the illuminative way of proficients and the unitive way Of the perfect. Treatment of the illuminative way is introduced with a discus-sion of "the second conversion" and the necessity for it. Here, 1THE THREE AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE, Prelude of Eternal Life. B~ The Rev. R. Gattigou-Lagrartge, O.P. Translated by Sister M. Timothea Doyle, O.P., Rosary College, River Forest, Illinois. Volume Two. Pp. xiv -b 668. B. Herder Book Co., St. Louis 2, Missouri, 1948. $7.50. 297 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review for Religious besides Father Lallemant, who originated the expression, St. Cath-erine of Siena, Suso, and Tauler are drawn upon. Then the passive purification of the senses is handled; for this the great authority is St. John of the Cross. The principal characteristics of proficients are pointed out. After a chapter in which with the aid of a drawing the virtues and gifts of persons in this stage are fitted together into an imposing "spiritual edifice," the virtues, both moral and theo-logical, are taken up separately. There follows a section on docility to the Holy Spirit, ohe of the supernatural traits peculiarly empha-sized in this' work. Next the discernment of spirits, the Sacrifice of the Mass, Holy Communion, and devotion to Mary are dealt with inasmuch as they pertain specifically to this second age. After some pages on "the universal accessibility of the mysticism of The Imita-tion," we come to what in all this matter seems to be the author's leading preoccupation, namely, a series of chapters on contemplation. The author professes-to describe the passage from acquired prayer to initial infused contemplation in accordance with the teaching of St. Francis de Sales, St. Thomas, St. Teresa, and St. John ot: the Cross. In the official condemnation by the Church of the errors of the Quietists Father Garrigou-Lagrange finds a confirmation of his doctrine on the beginnings of infused prayer. Then there follows a more cbntroversial discussion of certain questions ~elative to infused contemplation; how, for instance, it should be defined, what its intimate nature is, what forms its progress takes, what it does not require, what the call to it is, and so on. Finally, the treatment of the illuminative way and of the third part of The Three Ages is concluded with a consideration of the agreements and disagreements between St. Teresa and St. John. The one is not a theologian and the other is. Part Four is concerned with the mature age and the unitive way of the perfect. In particular, it describes the passive purification .of the spirit, the habitual union of perfect souls with God, "the way of spiritual childhood" constituting a special form of the perfect life, the heroic degree of the virtues, and lastly different forms and degrees of the unitive life. Under this general heading come the perfect apostolic life, advanced reparation, the influence of the Holy Spirit in those who have reached this period, arid mystical union and ecstatic union according to St. Teresa, and then at last the trans-forming union, prelude to the union of heaven. At this point by way of appendix the author does a most unusual thing: he inserts a whole article by another writer who shares the same opinions on the 298 Not~ember, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE mystical problems that have been much debated in recent years. The fifth part deals briefly with extraordinary graces, that is, those miraculous favors which sometimes accompany high sanctity. The differences between facts of divine origin and morbid phenomena are pointed out. The diabolical manifestations of possession and obsession are also considered. The "Epilogue" returns again tb controversy. The first part is on "the axis of the spiritual life and its unity," the axis being faith, hope, and charity, and is made up mostly of a discussion about the distinction between ascetical and mystical theology. The second part deals with "the beatific vision and its normal prelude." One might think that this prelude, mentioned so often, would be a high degree of purity or virtue. Rather it is infused contemplation, especially as it occurs in the transforming union. The great raison d'etre of this whole large work, treating the spiritual life from beginning to end, seems to be to propound the thesis that infused contemplation comes within the normal develop-ment of the interior life and is morally necessary for the full perfec-tion of Christian life. Everything appears to be centered around that thesis. Over and over again it is indefatigably reiterated. On this more than on anything else will probably depend the permanent value and importance of the work. According to the author beginners meditate, that is, practice a discursive method of prayer, though their meditation may become simplified. Of course they receive help from the gifts of the Holy Spirit, present in all just souls, but this influence is latent and is not characteristic of their kind of prayer. If they advance as they should and if no special obstacles intervene, they will be given the grace of. infused contemplation. All contemplation practically, or at least contemplation as "the great masters" understood it, is infused. It is so called because it is due to a special inspiration coming through the gifts and is not at our disposal, like, for example, the ability to meditate, It proceeds from living faith illumined by the gifts of wisdom and understanding. Ordinarily the first form of infused contemplation granted by , the Holy Spirit is that described by St. dohn of the Cross as "the night of sense.". Then, if one be faithful and continue to make sufficient progress, one will also go through all the mystic ascensions as set forth by St. Teresa and St. 3ohn and finally come to rest in the transforming union or mystic marriage. Here the full perfection both of contemplation and of the Christian life are attained. More- 299 G.AUGUSTINE F~LLARD for Religious over, to this happy state all are called. As a matterof fact it is rare, but that is only because men are not generous enough in accepting the graces that would bring them to it. Thus a magnificent prospect is opened out before one who undertakes to pursue the spiritual life in earnest. I[. Merits Among the special values of The Three Ages would be included, I should say, these points: it is the latest and best expression of a very eminent theologian's doctrine; it is an excellent presentation of the spirituality of the present-day Dominican School; one can learn a considerable amount of theology from it; and, most of all, it has great inspirational power and force. Father Garrigou-Lagrange has long been a theologian of great distinction. In the Thomist school he has been among the first and foremost for a generation. To his credit there stands a long list of learned works in philosophy and dogmatic theology. For a number of years he has also taken a very keen interest in ascetical and mysti-cal theology and here too he has written very much. Altogether he is said to have published more than two hundred articles or books. His influence, in spiritual matters and ideas is very great, and any-thing that he proposes is apt to be taken up and propagated by numerous lesser authorities. The Three Ages sums up, completes, and puts in convenient form most of the ideas which be has pre-viously taught in his other spiritual writings. Hence it is now, and very probably will remain, the definitive expression of his thought in ascetical and mystical matters. It is also an admirable presentation of the general spiritual doc-trine of a group of Dominican Fathers, and in varying degrees also of others who agree with them. In other words, it gives the teaching of a certain school of spirituality within the Church, and one, too, which in our time enjoys special favor and exerts great influence. The simplest way now to indicate the substance of their doctrine is to say that it is just that which is set forth in The Three Ages. No other work synthesizes it so well. One could also say that it is that sys-tem of spirituality which is proposed in France by La Vie Spirituelle, in Spain by La Vida Sobrenatural, and now in this country by the new Cross and Crown. Now that several of Father Garrigou- Lagrange's spiritual books have been translated into English, he is by all means the chief representative of this school in our language as well as in his own. 3OO November, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE From what has been said it will surprise nobody that from n careful reading of The Three Ages one could learn much theology. The author is nothing if not a theologian; not, for instance, a psy-chologist. But one would have to remember carefully that it is the-ology of the Thomist school, not always simply Catholic theology. Throughout this work, from the first page to the last, St. Thomas is quoted over and over again; consequently one can learn much of the Saint's doctrine from it. An example of how theology enters into this second volume: the first chapter is concerned mostly with the language of spiritual writers as compared with that of the theo-logians. It is concluded that the language of the mystics, expressing infused contemplation, is the loftier of the two. Naturally those parts of theology are drawn upon most which relate to the practical living and development of the supernatural life: ~he inhabitation of the Blessed Trinity, sanctifying grace, the virtues, both moral and theological, the gifts of the Holy Spirit, the nature ot? Christian perfection, the Sacrifice of the Mass, Holy Com-munion, prayer, and contemplation. There is a chapter on the errors of the Quietists about contemplation and pure love. On this latter Father Garrigou-Lagrange wrote at great length in L'Amour de Dieu et la Croix de des.us. Of all the excellences of this work, the principal one, I should say, is its inspirational value. Eminent theologian that he is, the author keeps reminding his readers of the grand dogmas of Chris-tianity, their "infinite elevation," their implications for our affective and practical lives, and the supreme motive power that they could and should have for our wills. One who is looking for something on a favorite minor devotion will not find it in The Three Ages; but one will be treated therein to a wealth o1: dogmatic material that makes an unsurpassed background for the spiritual life and subject matter for ennobling reflection and mental prayer. From the way and manner in which Father Garrigou-Lagrange handles such important doctrines as the inhabitation of the Blessed Trinity, the worth of sanctifying grace, the superiority of the infused virtues, the humility and magnanimity of Christ, the values of faith, hope, and charity, the Sacrifice of the Mass, reception of the Holy Eucharist, the fruits of devotion to the Blessed Virgin, and so on, a reader feels his heart warmed and his enthusiasm enkindled for these great truths. III. Demerits On the debit side some deficiences are observable in The Three 301 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Reoieto for Religious Ages. It is all the more necessary and important to point them out-- and this is the reason for these criticisms--inasmuch as the work will most likely be read very widely and exert a very great influence. To many readers, less conversant with modern mystical controversies or less critical in accepting what a noted theologian writes, the book could easily be misleading in certain matters. The greater an author's reputation and the more excellent his work, the worse may be the consequences of its defects. The Three Ages is theoretical rather than practical; it is one-sided and narrow; an essential part of it, namely, its doctrine on the gifts of the hoIy Spirit, is uncertain; and its main thesis is not after all really so significant. 1. For a work that is directed to interior souls generally and has the professed aim of inviting them "to become more interior and to tend to union with God" (II, p. 8), The Three Ages has overmuch that is speculative and controversial. It inclines rather to stress the-ory than practice, metaphysics than psychology, contemplation than life, and the gifts of the Holy Spirit rather than the virtues. From the practical point of view, there are some surprising omissions. The particular examination of conscience seems not even to be mentioned, although surely it is one of the major techniques in modern Catholic asceticism. For the general examination no precise method is sug-gested. What is more strange, for all those who do not as yet enjoy infused contemplation--and surely, they would, be-numerous-- only 19 of the 1162 pages are given to mental prayer. Those who" struggle with the difficulties of meditation will not find much help or consolation. No definite method of: meditation or of any other form of mental prayer is offered. The well-known methods used in the Church are not even named. Of the little written on method a con-siderable part is rather in disparagement of it or against the abuses of it. A beginner might well ask what he is to do until.the time comes --and that may be in the distant future--when he is favored with mystical contemplation. In another and more general way The Three Ages does not seem to be as practical a work on spirituality as most people could rightly desire. Throughout, the emphasis is on the gifts of the Holy Spirit in contrast to the virtues. The "special inspirations" of the gifts are quite beyond our reach, except that indirectly by co-operating with previous graces we can dispose ourselves to receive .them. A practical-minded person bent on applying what he reads to his life might ask: "What can I do about the gifts that I am not doing anyway in culti- 302 November, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE vating the virtues? Wait for their, inspirations? Then, when they come, how shall I recognize them?" It would appear, both on theoretical and practical grounds, much better to emphasize the vir-tues, at least the theological virtues, faith, hope, and charity. The gifts are supposed to be subordinated to these latter. In general it is true of the whole work that it does not get down, except by way of inspiration and motivation, to the everyday details of actually living the good life. 2. The Three Ages is a very splendid exposition of one concep-tion of the spiritual life, but it is only one, and not simply the Cath-olic view. Nor does it make this fact sufficiently clear in its text. Consider, for example, the division of three ways, fundamental in this work. A leading contemporary spiritual author, whose doc-trine is on the whole very much like that of Father Garrigou- Lagrange and to whom this latter seems to be much indebted, is Msgr. Saudreau, the author of The Degrees of the Spiritual Life and other books. Saudreau, who also makes much use of St. John of the Cross, assigns infused contemplation to the unitive way (see the whole second volume of The Degrees) ; Garrlgou-Lagrange assigns it to both the illuminative and unitive ways--a great difference indeed. The manual now most widely used in ascetical and mystical matters is the Sulpician Tanquerey's The Spiritual Life. He has the three ways without any necessary inclusion of infused contemplation at all; it may or may not come within the unitive way (pp. 301, 461, 606, 736). The last Carmelite to write a full systematic treatise on ascetical and mystical theology is Crisogono del Jesus Sacramentado, Compendio de Ascetica ~1 Mistica (1933). He provides for a double set of three ways: one without infused contemplation, the other with it (pp. 53, 156). So does Naval, of the Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart, in Tbeologiae Asceticae et M~tsticae Cursus (p. 32). On contemplation also there is a difference. Among all the schools of spirituality in the Church, the one which has, so to speak, specialized most on contemplation is that of the Carmelites, and of course they glory in presenting the teaching of St. Teresa and St. John of the Cross. Their doctrine, or at least the expression of it, is not the same as what we find in The Three Ages. The leading representative now of the Carmelites is Father Gabriel of St. Mary Magdalen, professor of spiritual theology in the International Col-lege of-St. Teresa, Rome. He has written much on acquired contem-plation. Half of his work, St. John of the Cross, recently published 303 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review for Religious in English, is devoted to it. Besides, in Ecole Teresiene et Problems M~lstiques Contemporains, he writes: "By their doctrine on the con-templation that belongs to beginners, the Carmelite authors of the first generation gave the first indication of the doctrine of acquired contemplation that soon became one of the characteristics of the Carmelite School. They teach in fact the existence of a contempla-tion that follows meditation, that proceeds from it, though one may easily find in it some infusion of celestial light. Does not a con-templation which is the fruit of our activity in meditation merit the name 'acquired'? (p. 79) . It is certain . . . that this teaching on acquired contemplation is one of the characteristics of the Carmelite School" (p. 86). Very recently, at the end of a study on Thomas of Jesus and acquired contemplation, Father Gabriel writes: "Nothing that we have found contradicts, rather on the contrary everything favors, the traditional teaching of the Teresian school which sees in the doctrine of St. John of the Cross on the transition from meditation to contemplation the origin of the doctrine of acquired contempla-tion, and we need not fear to give to him whom that school names its Mystical Doctor the title also, more humble indeed but still impor-tant, of 'the Master of active contemplation' " (Revue d'Ascetique et Mystique, 1949, 17). In Father Garrigou-Lagrange's view of how mental prayer develops there is hardly any place for acquired contemplation. Con-templation, as "the great spiritual writers, especially St. John of the Cross and St. Teresa" understood it, is infused, and "ordinarily" (II, p. 337) it follows meditation. Quite fundamental to The Three Ages is the general interpreta-tion which it takes of the whole system of St. John of the Cross. According to one of the foremost contemporary Benedictine authori-ties on mysticism, it is not at all the right one. In commenting upon Garrigou-Lagrange's previous book, Christian Perfection and Con-templation, identical in this matter with the present work, and after saying that he presents in an incomparable way the doctrine of St. Thomas on Christian perfection, he adds: "but the conception that St. John of the Cross had of mysticism and contemplation entirely escaped him" (Mayer, M~stik als Lehre und Leben, p. 225). Other scholars also who have specialized in mystical studies take a very different view of St. John; for example, Marechal (Etudes sur la Ps~lcbologie des Mttstiques, v. II, especially pp. 321-359), and 304 November, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE Crisogono del ,)esus Sacramentado, San Juan de Ia Cruz, su Obra Cientitica g Literaria. 3. Next we come to the gravest defect that I find in The Three Ages, namely the uncertaintg of much of it, and the fact that this uncertainty is not sufficiently acknowledged by the author. Making a clear-cut distinction between recognized Catholic dogma or doc-trine and the conclusions or theological speculations that he shares is surely not one of Father Garrigou-Lagrange's excellences. This has been true of his writings in general. The whole vast construction presented in these two large volumes stands or falls with the special doctrine on the gifts of the Holy Spirit which forms as it were the supporting framework of it. How fully it enters into the whol~ system can be seen at a glance by consulting the diagrammatic outline on page 245 of volume I. And still this particular theory is proposed without any adequate indidation of its speculative and uncertain character. As a matter of fact there is very little in the theology of the gifts that is certain and commonly acknowledged as such. After quoting Leo XIII, Father Garrigou-Lagrange himself thus summarizes the papal teaching: "Encyclical Divinum illud munus (May 9, 1897), circa iinem. This text shows: (1) the necessity of the gifts ('has need of') ; (2) their nature: they make us docile to the Holy Ghost; (3) their effects: they can lead us to the summit of sanctity." (Vol. I, p. 70.) There is a great difference between these three simple points and the whole theory that forms the skeleton, so to speak, of The Three Ages. There never has been and is not now any consensus among theo-logians as to how the gifts of the Holy Spirit are to be conceived." Scotus denied the very existence of the gifts as distinct entities. Apparently his whole school, especially the Franciscan theologians, still does. From a recent Franciscan publication: "The doctrine of the Franciscan school and especially that of Scotus, tends to a simpli-fication of the spiritual life. The supereminence of charity and its effectiveness in the Christian life as stressed by our school show the unity of that life very clearly. This same trait in the teaching of Scotus is seen in his doctrine on the nature of the gifts of the Holy Spirit . Here again Scotus insist~ that entities must not be multi-plied without necessity. And once more we are impressed with the marvelous synthesis and unity in these various phases of the spiritual life as explained by the Subtle Doctor .Scotus maintains that the 305 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Reoieto for Religious gifts are not distinct from the virtues. He points out that there is no necessity for distinct habits, since the three theological virtues and the four cardinal virtues perfect man sufficiently for even the most heroic and very highest action." (The Virtues according to Franciscan School, Franciscan Clerics, Old Mission Santa Barbara, 1946.) In this denial Scotus was followed by the great doctor of the Church and master in spirituality, St.' Francis de Sales, who also is one of Father Garrigou-Lagrange!s preferred authorities. On the gifts St. Francis says: "Now they are not only inseparable from charity, but, all things well considered, and speaking precisely, they are the principal virtues, properties and qualities of charity. For (1) Wisdom is in fact no other thing than the love which relishes, tastes and experiences, how sweet and delicious God is; (2) Under-standing is nothing else than love attentive to consider and penetrate the beauty of the truths of faith, to know thereby.God in Himself, and then descending from this to consider Him in creatures; (3) Science, on the other hand, is but the same love, keeping us attentive to the knowledge of ourselves and creatures, to make us reascend to a more perfect knowledge of the service which we owe to God"; and so on, through the other four gifts. (The Lot~e ot: God, XI, 15.) Again, in a later chapter: "So that, Theotimus, most holy charity is a virtue, a gift [in the context clearly a gift of the Holy Spirit], a fruit and a beatitude . As being a gift, charity makes us docile and tractable to interior inspirations, which are, as it were, God's secret commandments and counsels, in the execution of which the.seven gifts of the Holy Ghost are employed, so that charity is the gift of gifts." (XI, 19.) One of the few works in English on dogmatic theology has the following to say on the gifts: "Thesis III: The seven gifts of the Holy Ghost are also infused with sanctifying grace. This proposi-tion may be qualified as "probabilis' . . . . Are these seven gifts (or some of them) really distinct from the infused moral virtues? Are they habits or habitual dispositions, or merely transient~ impulses or inspirations? What are their mutual relations and how can they be divided off from one another? These and similar questions are in dispute among theologians." (Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual and Habitual, p. 369.) In the Catholic Encyclopedia, over the signature of Forget, pro-fessor of dogmatic theolqgy in the University of Louvain, we find: 306 November, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE "As to the inner nature of these gifts of the Holy Ghost, theologians consider them to be supernatural and .perinanent qualities, which make us attenti,~e to the voice of God, which render us susceptible to the workings of actual grace, which make us love the things of God, and, consequently, render us more obedient and docile to the inspira-tions of the Holy Ghost. But holy do they differ from the virtues? Some writers think they are not really distinct from them, that they are the virtues inasmuch as the latter are free gifts of God, and that they are identified essentially with grace, charity, and the virtues. That opinion has the particular merit of avoiding a multiplication of the entities infused into the soul. Other writers look upon the gifts as perfections of a higher order than the virtues; the latter, the.y say, dispose us to follow the impulse and guidance of rehson; the former are functionally intended to render the will obedient and docile to the inspirations of the Holy Ghost." (Vol. vii, p. 413.) Among contemporary dogmatic theologians who propose the basic doctrine on the gifts as only probable or more probable one could cite the following: Van der Meersch, De Gratia, p. 215; Parente, De Gratia, pp. 26.7, 283: Diekamp-Hoffmann, O.P., Tbeologiae Dogmaticae Manuate III, 19, 155; Van Noort, De Gratia, (brd ed.), p. 155. Father De Guibert gave much attention to a stu~iy.of the gifts, and in particular he made a special effort to determine what is certain and what probable concerning them. His conclusion was that we could hold with certainty, or at least very great probability, that there exist in the souls of the just habitual infused dispositions of docility toward the inspirations of the Holy Spirit. This appears to him to be the basis upon which rest the speculative conclusions of theologians about the gifts (Revue d'Ascetique et Mgstique, 1933, 1-26). Father De Guibert's finding is indeed a long.~ay from Father Garrigou-Lagrange's coflception of the gifts. Among the best and most important studies on the gifts pub-lished in recent years seems to be a long article by Father De Blic, Pour l'Historie de la Tbeotogie des Dons. He judges that Father De Guibert went too far and that still less even can be said in favor of the prevailing theory of the gifts (Revue d'Ascetique et Mystique, 1946, 117-179). Of the theologians of this century who are special authorities on the gifts the outstanding one by far is the Dominican Father A. Gardeil. In the Dictionnaire de Theologie Catbolique he writes: 307 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Reoieto for Religious "In our days the debate still goes on among theologians over the dis-tinction between the infused virtues and the g!fts. If the distinction is debated, much more are other and" lesser points in the doctrines" (IV-2, 1778.) The Dominican Joret, in a good-sized work on the mystical theology of St. Thomas, points .out that it was .not until the thir-teenth century that the distinction between the gifts and the infused virtues was well worked out. "St, Thomas seems to have made .pre-cise and definitive the theory of the gifts of the Holy Spirit." Then, after a brief passage in which he gives St: Thomas's general idea of the gifts (divine inspirations as opposed to human, reflections), he writes: "In speaking thus we leave altogether the domain of faith to enter theological speculation. And we are going to remain there in the course of the following'paragraphs which will only set forth the teaching of St. Thomas." (La Contemplation M~tstique d'a~r~s Saint Thomas d'Aquin, 1927, p. 39,) ~ Among the most eminent Dominican theologians of the twen= tieth century is Hugon. On the gifts he writes: "There is a dispute as to whether the gifts differ from the infused virtues objectively and essentially or only after a fashion (secundum quid). This last is defended by a number of theologians, following the leadership of Scotus; but the Angelic ,Doctor and the Thomists teach that the gifts are specifically distinguished from the virtues as perfections of a superi-or and higher order by which a man is easily moved by, the Holy Spir-it." (Italics in the original: Tractatus Dogmatici, Ed. 10, II, 4~8.) Father Garrigou~Lagrange himself, in the, epil~gue to his French work,2 Perfection Cbretienne et Contemplgtion (Vol.II, [89]), after discussing "the minimizing conceptions of the gifts of the Holy, Spirit and the oscillations of theological eclecticism" and then "the superiority of the doctrine of St. Thomas o'n the gifts," concludes: "Thus there are four notably different theories of the gifts. Two are manifestly minimizing, but opposed to each other; one is eclectic and tends to rise higher; and finally the one which seems to us to be at the culminating point of truth. These four theories can be summed up as follows [italics as in the original French] : "The gifts, distinct from the virtues, are something normal and eminent and grow With charity. 2This epilogue does not appear in the English Christian Perfection and Contemplation. 308 Not~ember, 1949 AGES OF: THE INTERIOR LIFE "The acts of the gifts take place sometimes according to an ordinary human mbde; sometimes they are extraordinary. "'The gifts are distinct from the virtues and are principles of extraQrdinary acts. "'The gifts are not distinct from the oirtues.'" In The Three Ages there is little indication of any,other "the-ory" of the gifts than the one which the author himself adopts. So much for the existence and distinction of the gifts. . If now one should inquire into the number of them. there is much .less cer-tainty. To quote the Dominican Joret again: "The Septuagint version followed by the Vulgate gave seven characteristics to the Spirit of God resting upon the Messias: the spirit of wisdom . Thus one obtained seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, just as there are seven virtues, theological and moral¯ But neither in the one case nor the'other should we regard this number as limitative. For the sacred writers, as we know,.it rather designates the pleriitude of the divine operations. The single light of the sun divides into seven principal colors which can then have an infinite variety of shades. So it is with the Holy Spirit and His gifts." (Op. cir., p. 36.) Less certain than the number is the general function of the gifts, that is, the kind of work that they perform in the process of sancti-fying a person. A glance at the relevant places in different theo- .logians would readily convince one of this fact¯ Much less certain still are the functions of~, the particular gifts. Consider for a moment the case of St. Thomas. In a recent scholarly work devoted entirely to his mystical theology and wholebeartedly in sympathy with it, the author points out four ways in which at successive times St. Thomas endeavored to classify the workings of the different gifts, and then he conclude~: "The question, taken up four times, has resulted in four different constructions; once even with an explicit disavowal of what St. Thomas bad previously estab-lished. Who will assure us that the last is perfect?" (L. Roy, Lumiere et Sagesse. La Gra~e Mystique dans la Theologie de Saint Tho'mas d'Aquin, p. 185.) Father Garrigou-Lagrange's.conception of the various function~ of the gifts seems to have been developed from a combination of elements in three of St. Thomas's ways (The Three ~Ages, I, 76; III, 68, 4 and II II, 8, 4; 3 D. 34 q. 1 a. 2) His correlation of the virtues and gifts (I, pp. 51, 76) is ¯ 309 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Retffew for Religious criticized by De Guibert as not being quite in accord with St. Thom- ¯ as's (Theologia Spiritualis, 1937, p. 135). Of all these ways, and others too which could be cited, of assigning specific functions to each of the gifts, not one seems to agree :with the exegetes when they comment on and explain the original Scripture text (Isaias 11:2-3) that is the first foundation for all the doctrine on the gifts. Moreover there are two different forms of the modern Thomistic theory of the gifts. Besides the one which Father Garrigou- Lagrange espouses (that with the virtues one acts in a human way and with the gifts in a superhuman way), there is another one, defended in our time especially by Cardinal Billot. "The gifts have two modes, that is, an ordinary and an extraordinary one according to the differences in the many operations of the Holy Spirit, who freely breathes where He wills and apportions to all as He wishes . There is another way and one that is quite extraordinary; although it is not td be said to be at all necessary, even for high sanctity, it is'nevertheless as a rule found in those whom the grace of God calls to the supreme heights of perfection. Moreover this mode i~ concerned mostly with extraordinary contemplation, that is, with the prayer of quietude, simple union, ecstatic union, and consummate union." (De Virtutibus Infusis, Ed. 4, pp. 169, 173.) A contemporary mystical theologian in whose system this idea of two modes, ordinary and extraordinary, is most important is the Carmelite Father Crisogono. de Jesus Sacramentado. For him this is the true thought of St. Thomas himself, and also of some at least of his best commentators (La Perfection et La Mystique selon Led Prin-cipes de Saint Thomas, p. 44). Another point about the present-day Thomistic hypothesis of the gifts that will make many people pause is this: it appears to be indissolubly bound up with the contention that grace is intrinsi-cally efficacious. "We do not find anything in his system [Suarez's] corresponding to the idea, dear to St. Thomas, of actual operating grace, understood in the sense of instrumental prevenient and pre-determining motion, by which the Angelic .Doctor characterized the special nature of the gifts of the Holy Spirit" (Dictionnaire de The-ologie Catholique, in thd article Dons du Saint Esprit, A. Gardeil, 1778). "This interpretation [the doctrine of St. Thomas on grace and the gifts as understood by the great interpreters Cajetan, Bannez, John ~f St. Thomas, and the Carmelites of Salamanca] is for us the 310 November, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE only true one, the only one which safeguards the two great, prin-ciples of the intrinsic efficacy of grace and the specification of habitus by their formal object" (Garrigou-Lagrange, Perfection Chretienne etContemplation, II, [99]; see also [54], [59-62], [95]). From ail that has been said, especially in the form of quotations from leading Thomist theologians, on the uncertainties attaching to our knowledge of the gifts ot: the Holy Spirit, it would seem abun-dantly clear that no elaborate, doctrine about them should be pro-. posed as more than a theory or hypothesis. Nor should any major practical norm based on such a doctrine be set up as more than prob-able. I have made a special effort to find indications of these uncer-tainties in The Three Ages, I found very little indeed. The princi-pal' one seems to be implicit in this sentence: "The great majority of theologians hold with St. Thomas that the gifts are really and spe-cifically distinct from the infused virtues" (I, p. 73). Therefore it ¯ .is admitted that not all theologians agree on this particular funda-mental point. On the other hand a reader might expect that he is being treated to something that is especially reliable. Under the heading, "The Aim of This Work," the author announces that he will try to avoid the danger of "many pious books that lack a solid doctrinal foun-dation" (I, p. 9). In the Preface he writes: "We insist far more on the principles ge.nerall~ accepted in. theology!, by showing their value and their radiation, than on the variety of opinions on one particular point or another proposed by often quite secondary authors . The complexity of certain questions ought not to make us lose sight of tb~ certitude of the great directive principles that illuminate all spirituality" (I, p. xi; italics inserted). "For a clear understanding of the nature of the mystical union, we must treat of the influence of the Holy Ghost in the perfect, soul by recalling the most indisputable and lofty principles commonly taught on this subject" (II, p. 511) ,, The fact remai.ns, unfortunately, that much of The Three Ages is uncertain and questioned by perfectly orthodox Catholic authori- .ties. 4. To come now to the great central thesis of The Three Ages, namely, that infused contemplation comes within the normal devel-opment of the supernatural life. It is after all much less significant than one might at first think. (1) It embodies no great new dis-covery nor corrects any old error; (2) the attenuated-infused con- 311 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review for Religious templa.tlon which it holds out in prospect for all whose supernatural life evolves normally is not, considered as a form of human action or experience, very different from mental prayer that is acquirable; (3) the thesis suffers from being so closely associated with a ques-tionable theory of the gifts; and lastly, (4) various e~ceptions to it are admitted. (1) Father Garrigou-Lagrange writes: "In contradistinction to acquired prayer, infused contemplation is generally defined as a simple and loving knowledge of God and His works, whicFi is the fruit, not of human activity aided by grace, but of a special inspiration of the Holy Ghost" (p. 310). Contemplation "proceeds . . . from living faith enlightened by the gifts of the Holy Ghost, especially by those of understanding and wisdom, which render faith penetrating and sweet. "Supernatural contemplation thus conceived, supposes the special inspiration of the Holy Ghost, which His gifts dispose us to receive with promptness and docility, as the widespread sails on a boat receive the impulsion of a favorable wind; then the boat advances more easily than by the labor of the rowers, a symbol of discursive meditation united to the practice of the virtues. From this point of view, contemplation, because of the special inspiration which it supposes, deserves to be called, not acquired but infused, although at the beginning it may quite frequently be prepared for. by reading, affective meditation, and the" prayer of petition. The soul thus actively prepares itself to receive the special inspiration of the Holy Spirit, which will at times be strong enough so that discursive medi-tation will no longer be necessary . These acts of love and 6f penetrating .and sweet faith are said to be infused not only because they proceed from infused virtues, in this case from the theological virtues, but because they suppose a special inspiration of the Holy Ghost, and because we cannot move ourselves to them with the help of common actual grace. In this case God mov.es us, not by inclining us to deliberate, but to acts above all discursive deliberation." (II, 281--2.) If this is all that is meant by infused contemplation, wh~ would deny the thesis, and what has all the argument been about?. Some. would quegtion what is said about the gifts, but hardly anybody would directly and categorically contradict the thesis itself. Since all acknowledge some sort of doctrine, at least as probable, about the gifts, who would not admit that in accordance with the providence and designs of God the mental prayer of all should be enlightened 312 No~emb~r, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE and enhanced as much as possible by special inspirations coming from the Holy Spirit through the gifts? Certainly this is not the essential analysis which certain theo-logians have had in mind in denying that infused contemplation comes within the regular development of the interior life. For Father Poulain mystical contemplation consists essentially in an experimental perception of God's presence (The Graces of Interior Pra~ter, chapters V and VI) ;and for Farges, in "an experimental sen-sation of the divine, that is, in an immediate intuition by the con-sciousness, more or less clear o~ obscure, of the presence in our souls of' God or a supernaturai object, the essence whereof remains unknown, which produces a sentiment of admiration and love, suspending more or less the powers of the soul" (Mgstical Pheno-mena, p. 57). According to Father Crisogono del Jesus Sacramen-tado, "infused contemplation is an affective intuition of divine things, resulting from a special influence of God in the soul . This actual grace is received in the habits of the gifts of understanding, knowledge and wisddm, which, at receiving it, are actuated according to their extraordinary operation . This operation of the gifts, which takes place in a superhuman way, is the act itself of infused ¯ contemplation." (Compendio de Ascetica g Mistica, pp. 164-5.) Father Crisogono holds that all are called to the perfection of the gifts working in their ordinary, but not in their extraordinary, mode. The two great doctors of the Church, St. Francis de Sales and St. Alphonsus de' Liguori, specialists also in spirituality, and, one would presume, cognizant of tradition, surely would have advocated for all a form of mental prayer that is full of inspirations from the Holy Spirit. If highly developed gifts and the resulting graces had been sufficient in their opinion to entail infused contemplation, they could hardly have written as they did. Thus St. Francis wrote: "Blessed are they who live a superhuman and ecstatic life, raised above themselves, though they may not be ravished above themselves in prayer. There are many saints in heaven who were never in ecstasy or rapture of contemplation. For how many martyrs and great saints do we see in history never to have had any other privi-lege in prayer than that of devotion and fervor." (The Love of God, VII, 7.) And St. Alphonsus: "The aim of the soul here ought to be single, namely, union with God; but that the soul should attain to perfection, there is no necessity of passive union. It is sufficient for 313 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Reuiew for Religious it to arrive at active union . Active union is perfect conformity with the divine will, and in this certainly the whole perfection of divine love consists. 'Perfection,' St. Teresa says, 'does not consist in ecstasy; on the contrary, true union of soul with God is union of will with the divine will.' This union is necessary, but not the pas-sive; and those souls that have only the active, the same saint says, 'can have far greater merit; because they suffer greater toil, and the Lord directs them like strong men, and the consolations which they do not have in this life are reserved for them by God and will be given by Him in the next life.' Cardinal Petrucci says that without infused contemplation the soul can indeed well arrive, with the benefit ¯ of ordinary grace, at a~nnihilation of its own will and at transforming it into God's, willing nothing else than the will of God . Whence he adds that since in this is the whole of sanctity, nobody ought to desire and seek from God anything else than to be directed by Him and with His help to accomplish His will."(Praxis Confessarii, Num. 136 ; italics as in the original.) , .Similarly, Pope Benedict XIV in writing his famous standard work De Servorum Dei Beati~icatione attributes infused contempla-tion to "a special favor of God" (XXVI, 7). Moreover he observes that a number of perfect persons have been canonized although in their processes nothing was said about infused contemplation (Op. cir., XXVI, 8). From the foregoing we may safely conclude that besides infused contemplation understood as prayer characterized by the gifts of the Holy Spirit there has also evidently been another concept of it in quite orthodox Catholic authorities. If in interpreting the thesis it be added also that prayer consti-tuted by the influence of the gifts (II, 313) is essentially just what the mystics and in particular what Saints Teresa and John describe, a critical reader might interpose: "Do you propose this analysis of fact and this theory of the gifts as certain or as probable? If prob-able, .very well; no objection. But if certain, on what grounds? What is the evidence?" (2) The infused contemplation proposed as coming within the normal development of the spiritual life is not, in terms of what is humanly noticeable, very different from the highest form of acquired prayer. Neither at its inception nor in the course of its progress nor at its culmination does it appear to be a strikingly different phenome-non in consciousness. Whatever is to be said metaphysically about 314 November, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE the nature, formal objects, and so forth of the virtues, the gifts, the various kinds of mental prayer, and so on, psychologically and morally and practically there may be no observable difference oetween this infused contemplation and the prayer which just pre-cedes it. Into the two forms both the virtues and the gifts enter. If it be (according to the theory) the influence of the gifts which "constitutes" (II, 313) infused contemplation, the change need not be great enough to be discernible in consciousness. The author fully admits "that the transition from the last acquired prayer to initial infused prayer is not so clearly distinguished" (II, 328-330). Repeatedly he suggests that it may take "an experienced director" to notice that the one has succeeded the other. "A simple and loving.attention to God . . . cannot, in fact, be prolonged without a rather manifest intervention of the gifts" (Christian Perfection and Contemplation, 329). In this case it would seem that nothing but the prolongation calls for infusion. This quotation is taken from a context in which "the nature of the mystical state" is being explained. Moreover even in the course of the acquired prayer of recollec-tion the~e will be isolated acts of infused contemplation (I, 245). So much for the beginning of infused contemplation considered as a conscious experience. If now in the ulterior stages of it, espe-cially as they are described by St. Teresa, one separate the accidentals from the essential, surprisingly little will be left. "The degrees of contemplative prayer are chiefly those of the growing intensity of living faith, of charity, and of the gifts of the Holy Ghost which correspond to them" (II, 299). It seems that nothing is essential~ beyond "only an infused light: the special illumination of the gifts of understanding and wisdom" (II, 317). It even appears that ecstasy is not essential t(~ the stage called "ecstatic union" (II, 344). By what criterion the distinction between essence and accidents is made does not stand out very clearly. Not even the supreme and rare state of the mystical marriage is very marvelous as an experience. "According to St. John of the Cross, the essential basis of this wholly eminent state is in no way miraculous; it is, says the Saint, 'the perfect state of the spiritual life,' being here on earth the culminating point of the development of the life of grace and of the love of God . In the transforming union the higher faculties are drawn to the innermost center of the soul where the Blessed Trinity dwells." (II, 529.) The gift of 315 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE Review for Religious wisdom, which exists also in the most stupid soul possessing grace, is, when fully developed, sufficient to account for it. One might well wonder whether the great mystics who vehe-mently lamented their utter inability to describe (heir absolutely ineffable experiences would recognize them in the results of Father Garrigou-Lagrange's analysis. (3) Nor are the force and significance of the central thesis 'increased by having it lean so heavily for support upon the author's uncertain theory of the gifts of the Holy Spirit. In itself the thesis is quite independent of that particular doctrine and need not stand or fall with it. But as a matter of fact it is proposed as in part a consequence of the theory and from this point of view it cannot lay claim to greater probability than the theory upon which it is based. (4) Lastly, the doctrine that infused contemplation comes within the normal development of the spiritual life is rendered still less significant by a rather liberal admission of exceptions: "Infused contemplation is,. in principle or in theory, in the normal way of sanctity, although there are exceptions arising from the individual temperament or from absorbing occupations or from less favorable surroundings, and so on" (I, x). If, therefore, to return again to the general import of the central thesis of The Three Ages, it be taken to mean merely that contempla-tion marked or constituted by the "special inspirations" of the gifts comes within the evolution of the supernatural life, hardly anybody will simply deny it, but some careful thinkers will have doubts about the theory of the gifts, and some may ask: "But what does it mean in terms of human experience or action? What noteworthy difference does it make in one's substantive kn6wledge and love of God?" If the thesis be interpreted also to signify that these effects of the gifts and what is essential in the experiences, say, of St. Teresa and St. John of the Cross are one and the same reality, then there is the problem of determining what in empirical terms that essential is (the conclusions of others differ very widely from Father Garrigou- Lagrange's), of adequately accounting for it with the uncertain theory of the gifts, and thirdly of showing that it is in store for everyone whose spiritual life evolves as it should. The thesis is not that St. Weresa's or St. John's experiences in their integrity are part of the regular spiritual growth. Whether the principal contention of the work be true or not, 316 November, 1949 "WE ARE HIS MEMBERS !" it will, I think, because of the way in which it is presented, be mis-understood by many devout people and lead to much disillusionment and discouragement. Thus it seems, to conclude very briefly, that The Three Ages of the Interior Life is a great work, great in its faults as well as in its excellences. "We His Members!" M. Raymond, O.C.S.O. When men shall say to you: "'Lo, Christ is bete! Lo, Christ is there!'" Belieue them! And know that thou art seer When all thy crging clear Is but: "'Lo, here! Lo, tberet. Ah, me. Lo, everywheret."" --- ~RANCIS THOMPSON. IWANT every priest of God and every religious vowed to Him to be unalterably happy.I i know that they can be so if they will become rightly self-conscious and consequently acutely Christ-conscious. There is the ~vord that spells beatitude here as well as hereafter; for there is the ~vord that means sanctity. It was the great St. Francis de Sales, I believe, who said that one motto lived is enough to make a saint.IrvMay I suggest as a life-line and as a saint-making motto the thrilling truth that "We are His members!" To see any baptized person sad has always given me pain, but when that person wears the livery of Jesus Christ that pain becomes acutely agonizing; for it is so simple a matter to develop a Christ-consciousness that will preclude forever all possibility of real sadness entering the center of our souls! Now do understand me. I am not saying that there is a short cut to sanctity. There isn't. The road winds up hill all the way. But there are means of simplifying life, of unifying our efforts, of integrating our personalities ,~0 that the uphill climb is less difficult, our complex existences become intelligible wholes, and our every act or omission conspires to our grand objective. One such means is that 3!7 M. RAYMOND Review [or Religious offered in our day by Divine Providence--the doctrine of the Mysti-cal Body; or, as I put it above: living conscious of the fact that "We are His members." What happiness does not this consciousness bring to self! It tells you your dignity as an individual in a d;iy when individual dig-nity in every sphere of life from the economic and political to the military and social is utterly denied. It tells you, you are a member of Him who is Might and Majesty, Meekness and Marvel,' true God and true man. It tells you that you have been lifted from the insig-nificant to a position wherein you mean much to the all-independent Divinity. It tells you that you have a work to do for the Almighty, which, if not done by you, will remain undone forever. In letters that shine like gold against black velvet Plus XII made this truth real in his Mgstici Corport's when he wrote: "The Head needs His members." How can you be unhappy when you realize you mean so much to God and have so important a work to do for Him? The Cur~ of Ars once said: "Even if there were no hereafter, ' it is Heaven enough to work for God on earth." No religious, conscious of his calling, will question the Cur~'s statement. But that does not mean that you will not know difficulty. That does not mean that humiliations will not come your way; that you will not fail in many an enterprise; know shame, ignominy, defeat. That does not mean that you will not suffer both physically and mentally. It does mean that you will know what to do with all these things when they do come your way. It means that you will be happy not only in the midst of sufferings but precisely because you are suffering. For you will ever live conscious of the fact that you are to "fill up what is wanting to His Passion," as St. Paul so joyously states it; conscious of the fact that you can now "rejoice that you, in some slight degree, resemble your Lord and Master," as St. Ignatius so pointedly puts it; conscious of the fact that it ill becomes you to be a "weak member under a Thorn-crowned Head," as St. Bernard so boldly and beautifully expressed it. Let the "slings and arrows of outrageous fortune" batter and pierce you through and through, you can't be unhappy so long as you are con-scious of the fact that you are His member. And oh! how your attitudes toward all others change once you have this truth in your blood and being. How you love every human being just because he or she is an actual or a potential member of 318 Nooember, 1949 "WE ARE HIS MEMBERS !" your Christ; has a part to play in the Great Drama of the Redeem-ing; can complete the Passion of your Savior; has a work to do that no one but be or she can do; is dear to your Father, God; beloved of your.Mother, Mary; is, further, part of the same Body as you! How can jealousy, envy, bitterness, enmit3~, antipathy enter your soul? "The eye cannot say to the hand: I need not thy help; nor again the head to the feet'" (I Cot. 12:21). Your hand does not envy your eye because it caffnot see. Your. ear is not jealous of your tongue because it cannot taste. Then why should you be jealous or envious of some other member of Christ because he or she can do things you cannot do? You won't be. You can't be. Rather you will rejoice if this one has ten talents and you only one. You will exult over such a one's ability to do so much more for your Head than you are capable of doing. Yes, all smallness leaves your life as soon as you live the truth that "We are His members." And how kind you become! The great Flemish mystic, Ruysbroeck, once said: "Be kind. Be kind. Be kind. And you'll be a saint." Here's a motto that makes kindness not only easy but an urge. In times past, some of us have been unhappy because of the work assigned us. Had we been living the doctrine of the Mystical Body we should never have known anything but blessed content-ment, even exul~ant joy; for we would have realized that our every act done "through Him, and with Him, and in Him" was powerful beyond all expression! "Actions," philosophers tell us, "belong to the person," not to the members. We pay the typist, not the typist's fingers. We honor the hero, not his eyes, hands, or feet. For we know actions belong to the person, not to his members. Think, then, of your every act when you act as a member of Christ's Mysti-cal Body. Think of your tiniest deed: sweeping a floor, making a bed, washing a dish, dusting a chair--they are acts of.the Mystical Christ! Can any assignment, then, be a cause of unhappiness? Do you see how this doctrine covers everything: Yourself, others, your works, your sufferings, your triumphs and defeats. Will you allow me one short example of how it works? Last 2anuary I was out of my monastery for the first time in thirteen years. 2ust what such a strange experience would mean to others, I do not know, but I do know that for me it was something in the nature of a "vision." I saw Christ. For over a month I saw Him suffer, agonize, and die in a hospital called St. Joseph's Infirmary. 319 M. RAYMOND "Review t:or Religious I saw Christ in old Brother Hugh whose sight was dim, hearing gone, and power of speech paralyzed. In him I saw Christ agonize as cancer gnawed his vitals away. I saw Jesus even more clearly in an infant of two months whose rapidly growing brain tumor would soon bow that head in death, and Innocence would once again have "given up the ghost" because of sin. I saw our suffering, sacrificing Savior in two nurses, one just about to graduate, the other a gradu-ate of two years, who, standing star-eyed and eager, ready for life, learned that they had better make ready for death, since creeping paralysis had made its first appearance in one and cancer of the lymph had doomed the other. From dawn to dusk and from dusk to dawn that hospital breathed for me, and it was the breath of Jesus Christ. For over a month I was witness to the Great Drama of the Redeeming as I saw Christ paying for sin in bodies that were His by right of baptism. I saw Salvation being won for the world; for that hospital appeared to me as a chalice and every pang of pain as so much blood being poured into it. How could I view it otherwise when I know that we are the "pIeroma of Christ" who are to fill up what is wanting to His Passion? (Cf. Col. ~:24.) . How could I or anyone else fail to see the crucifixion when I stood staring at bap-tized human beings on the cross? Yes, I saw Christ; for "we are His members'!" Do you see how easy it is? Do you see what a different outlook it gives, on life and all things in lif~, The late Archbishop Goodier, S.J., gave a formula for happiness in his brochure A More Excellent Wa~1. It is to "crawl in through the wound on Christ's side, go down deep into His Heart, then look out on the world and all things in the world with His eyes." Had we not the doctrine of the Mystical Body that formula might se~m impossible of fulfill-ment. How does Jesus look upon human beings? Does He not see them as either actual or potential members of His Body? Can't we see them in the same light? How does Christ see the "feeble" and "less honorable members"? St. Paul tells us. "Those that seem to be the more feeble members of the body, are more necessary" (I Cor. 12:22). Don't you see the utter impossibility of ever looking dgwn on anyone? of ever despising a single human being? of ever having a low or mean opinion of anyone who breathes? So long as I am Christ-conscious, I love; so long as I love, I am like God. The Archbishop's formula is possible of fulfillment, else God the 320 November, 1949 "WE ARE Ills MEMBERS !" Holy Ghost would never have commanded us through St. Paul: "Put ye on the Lord, Jesus Christ" (Rom. 13:14). Nor would He have told us to "Let this mind be in you which was also in Christ Jesus" (Phil. 2:5). Hilaire Belloc has rightly said, "A man is his mind." If we would be what God made us to be and our deepest instinct craves to be, we will acquire the mind of Jesus; for Dietrich yon Hildebrand stated truth truthfully when he said, "The essence of sanctity is transformation into Christ." Sanctity is made relatively easy, then, by the development of Christ-consciousness: for nothing is better calculated to work this transfo.rmation than the constant appreciation of the fact that "We are His members." There is not a true religious who does not long to "radiate Christ" pedectt~l. But that longing will be like the barren fig tree--a thing Of beautiful foliage but bare of fruit--until the Light of the World glows in the very core of our beings, until the last feature of.the Face iaf Christ is sealed into our souls, until every beat of our hearts synchronizes with the pulse of His great Heart. Baptism sufficed for incorporation in Christ, but it does not suffice for transformation into Him. No. For that we need to be im-mersed, absorbed, lost in Christ Jesus. All of which is possible by living the truth of the Mystical Body. But by living I mean living. Look!. There is not one of us who does not know that the life of Christ pulsates in the person of every-one who is in the state of grace; that down in the depths of those souls the Holy Trinity dwells; that thelight in their eyes tells the same tremendous truth as does the flickering flame of the Sanctuary Lamp: God is here. Yes, we all know that. .But how many of us live conscious of those facts? Which of us does not know that the Holy Ghost is the soul of the Mystical Body? that, being the soul, He is present "'totus in toto, et totus in qualibet parte'" ("entire in the whole, and entire in every part of the whole")? Who does not know that the soul elevates, unifies, identifies, and vivifies? But bow many of us make the appli-cations and draw the consequences? My fellow priest, my brother or sister in religion has been elevated to a dignity that astounds. He or she can not only be defined as a "creature composed of body and soul," but also may be described as "body, soul, and Holy Ghost!" He or she is more than human; has been made so by God the Holy Ghost. What respect, reverence, awe, and admiration I should have 321 M. RAYMOND ~evieu~ [or Religious for my fellow! But besides elevating, the soul identifies and unifies. The Holy Ghost unites all the cells of the Mystical Body to the Person whose Body it is. How close my fellow is to God! How close he or she is to me!. We know these mind-staggering truths. We even teach these marvels and mysteries to others. But how often do we live conscious of these facts? The rod of Aaron is in our hands. It is in beautiful flower. But we . May I suggest a plan whereby you can become wide awake to these joy-filled and joy-producing realities? Why not integrate your life by-means of this marvelous doctrine? Let your meditations for an entire year be on nothing but this wondrous truth. You know, M. Anger has proved in a masterly thesis that this doctrine is the white heart of the Kohinoor which is Dogmatic Theology. He shows that every light that leaps from those mahy facets has its origin in Christ who is the Light of the World. Our meditations should be on nothing that is not ioundly dogmatic. - But to make these meditations fruitful we needs must read. Thanks be to God, whole shelves can now be devoted to literature on the Mystical Body. After Anger-Burke one could read Emile Mersch, S.2., then John Gruden, and Edward Leen, C.S.Sp. Fol-low'these with Fulton Sheen, Raoul Plus, S.J., Daniel Lord, S.d., Carl Adam, and William McGarry, S.d.,--to name but a few. There is more than a year's reading matter for any religious, and reading that will make meditations throb. To integrate our lives we must add examen to our readings and meditations. Couldn't we spend a year--or even two--with this doctrine as our particular examen? The development of this Christ-consciousness would be a main objective. We could practice it in so many different ways: conscious of my own membership; of my neighbors; of all men; conscious of the soul of the Mystical Body throbbing in me--in others; conscious of the dignity and worth of my actions when done "through, with, and in Hfm." Variety would not be wanting and unity would be assured. If reading, meditation, and examen go together for a year promise a consciousness that will have you "looking out on the world and all things in the world with the eyes of Christ." I promise you an integration that will effect a transformation. I promise a happiness the world canfiot give"or take away. I am sure that most of you will see how this simplifies the spit- 322 Noaernber, 1949 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS itual life since it is a system that includes all other systems. In it abandonment, trust, detachment, purity of intention, presence of God, union with the Divine Will are all contained. I cannot be Christ-conscious without being or having all the others. It is a system that will unify one's entire existence; for there is nothing that I can think, do, or say legitimately that cannot be thought, done, and said "through Him, with Him, and in Him." It is a system from which all movements derive and to which they'all lead; for what is the Liturgical Movement if it is not centered in the Mass; and what is the Mass if not the Sacrifice of the Mystical Body, as Pius XII has so insistently proved in his Mediator Dei. What is Catholic Action if not begun, continued, and ended through, with, and in Christ 3esus? That is why I have dared to offer the motto and to say: "Try it and see if it doesn't simplify, unify, integrate your life, and make you what God made you to be and what I long for you to be--verd happy!'" The rod is in your hand. It is flowerin!! Ques Jons and Answers What is to be thought about the followlncj statement which appeared in the pubffe press last August: "Plans for a profound reform . . . likely the most drastic the cloistered monasteries and nunneries have undergone since the Council of Trent ended in 1563 . . . are in an advanced stage ¯ . . and are planned for promulgation in 19S0. The reform is designed in large part to make inmates of cloistered convents more effective as agents of the Church in its current world-wide struggle." Lik~ so many newspaper reports concerning religious events, this one, while having a foundation in fact, is grossly exaggerated. For-tunately an answer to the above statement was given by Father Arcadio Larraona, undersecretary of the Sacred Congregation of Reli-gious, on August 22, 1949. He explained that there is no question of a vast reform of cloistered orders, but of certain mitigations, required by the ~xigencies of modern times. He mentions two such mitigations. Modern conditions require that a mitigation in. the rule of cloister be made to allow nuns to leave the enclosure for medical and dental treatment, and for similar purposes. Again,.in the after- 323 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Revieu~ [or Religious math of the war, some monasteries of nuns are literally starving because they can no longer support themselves aft they did before the war. In such cases the Holy See has advised a modification of the rule of enclosure to permit the nuns to engage in activities providing an income for the communities, such as conducting schools, orphan-ages, and the like. However, in such cases, the essentials of the con-templative life must always be maintained. Father Larraona also indicated that there exists a tendency toward confederating cloistered communities of religious women in countries where economic reasons or a reduction in the number of cloistered nuns indicate the need for such a trend. There is however, no ques-tion of any imposed reform, but the spirit of the autonomous insti-tutions is always considered and preserved. Such federations are on a purely voluntary and very limited basis. In conclusion Father Larraona explained that papal directives to religious institutes, urging them to organize their activities in accord-ance with the changes in the social conditions of the world, do not signify any impending reforms to be imposed by the Holy Father. May a Sister on nursing duty in a hospital wear a gold and silver graduation pin on the religious habit? Is this contrary fo article 67 of the Normae of 1901 which forbids ornaments of gold or silver to be included in the rel~glous dress? Let us first quote article 67 of the Normae in full before answer-ing our question. It reads as follows: "With the possible exception of a small and simple cross or medal of silver, no gold or silver orna-ments should be worn. In those ornaments which are allowed new images or inscriptions not as yet approved by the Church are not to be tolerated. Silk garments are not allowed, nor silk ornaments or others which betray vanity and cause complaints or laughter." Generally speaking, graduation pins are not to be worn by reli-gious women except on special Occasions such as alumnae reunions and the like, provided superiors think it well to let the Sisters iden-tify themselves as alumnae. It can happen in a hospital that graduate nurses are required to carry on their person some sign of identification. In that case the superior could allow the Sisters to wear their graduation pins. But no Sister should take it upon herself to wear such a pin without the permission of her superior. What was forbidden by the Norroae was 324 Nooember, 1949 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS the wearing of ornaments as sucli, f~)r vanity's sake. The wearingof a graduation pin for purposes of identificationwould not come under that head. It may not be out of place Norrnae of 1901 were not laws a set of ideal constitutions for Sacred Congregation set up for constitutions submitted to it for article 67 of the Norrnae found tions during the course of the article 67 of the Norrnae, but as approved by the Holy See. here to remind our readers that the binding religious directly, but rather a religious congregation which the itself as a guide in approving new the approval of the Holy See. Thus its way into many sets of constitu-years. It obliges religious, not as an article of their own constitutions ~2-- Is there any ecclesiastical regulation that prohibits Sisters from holding the position of organist in parish choirs that have both men and women members.'; While there is no express prohibition to be found in the Code ot? Canon Law nor in the Councils of Baltimore, still anumber of diocesan statutes forbid Sisters to function as .organists in parish churches. To give but one example, Statute 184 of the Fourth Pro-vincial Council of Portland in Oregon (1934) reads as follows: "We forbid religious women to act as organists or choir directors, except in the case in which boys and girls still attending school make up the choir." Moreover, we think it is not in conformity with the general spirit of the religious life for a Sister to act as organist for a mixed adult choir and it may be a source of disedification to the faithful. In practice, no Sister should undertake to play the organ for a mixed choir of men and women without theexpress permission of the local ordinary and of her own higher superior. ---43-- May a religious teacher who has "class money" in his keeping, or extra-curricular funds, use these in whole or in part for personal reasons? Is his superior at liberty to give him such a permission? Or must such funds be used for the purpose for which they were collected, or for things to be used by the students for their betterment, such as charts, reference-books, and the I~ke? If we understand this question correctly, the "class money" 325 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious referred to is money that actually belongs to the class: not to the school as such, nor to the religious community. In o~her words, it is a common fund to which individual students have contributed with the understanding that the money be used for certain specific pur-poses. A religious superior has no power to give.permission to use such money for personal reasons; and neither the superior nor the teacher should use the money for any but the specified purposes unless the class freely consents to this. 1 oo1 Reviews THE DAY WITH JESUS AND MARY. By the Dominican Sisfers. Pp. 143. The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1949. $2.50. This book seeks to help one develop a consciousness of God's presence during the day through recalling the fifteen mysteries of the Rosary. The hour from five to six is dedicated to the Annunciation, from six to seven to the Visitation, and so forth. At the beginning of each hour one offers his own work bf that hour in union with the work of Jesus and Mary suggested by the mystery of that hour. And with the discussion of each mystery, this book gives'a few biographi-cal facts about two saints (one Dominican and one other) who were outstanding in the virtue suggested by this mystery. For instance, upon awakening in the morning, one recalls the Annunciation and offers the coming hour in union with the joy of all the saints, espe-cially St. Dominic or St. Philip Neri, in the blessings of the Incarna-tion. The moral reflections are the standard ones, the saints chosen are appropriate enough, the style of writing very plain. The value of the book will lie in the appeal of the idea of dedicating each hour of the day to a mystery of the Rosary. For those to whom it does appeal it has a double advantage; it makes the Rosary a living thing, and it gives one a clear center or focus for his spiritual thought~ of that hour. For how many would such a plan work? The Holy Spirit has many ways of aiding our growth; one way of finding out whether any plan will suit me is to give it an honest trial. That God wishes us to recall His presence habitually, that He wishes us to model our lives upon the mysteries of the Incarnation, that the hourly recollec-tion method has worked for some--all this is clear. It: the number 326 Not~ember, 1949 BOOK REVIEWS is comparatively small, I think the chief reason is that the number of those who have made persevering effort to live in God's presence is also comparatively small. God certainly wishes all religious to have a spirit of recollection through the day; theref6re He wishes us to use what natural means we find at hand to develop this spirit. The end is valuable enough to urge us to try various means until we find one suitable to us. This book could help many in this searching. --2T. N. JORGENSEN, S.d. SHE WHO LIVED HER NAME. By Marie Rene-Bazln. Pp. 208. The Newman Press, Wesfm~nsfer, Maryland, 1949. $3.00. "The ways of Providence are, as a rule, of a marvelous sim-plicity, but they are made intricate by man's timidity and blindness. When, however, God finds a soul childlike enough to trust Him unflinchingly and eager to follow wherever He leads, He enfolds it in the unity of His plan and mirrors in its depths something of His unique simplicity." Thus opens the biography of the Foundress of the Helpers of the Holy Souls. Mary of Providence, or as she was known in the world, Eugenie Marie Joseph Smet, was born on March 25, 1825, at Lille, France. Reared in a good Catholic home, she was struck by two important teachings of the Church: Divine Providence and purgatory. A woman of action, an enthusiast and organizer, she was driven by a spiritual life dominated by these two truths to found a congregation which by prayer and suffering would make its principal aim the release of the suffering souls from purgatory. Fearful of illusion on her part, Eugenie set up several "signs" by which she would know that her plan was pleasing to God. Among them was that the Holy Father would send her his blessing on the venture, prior to the sanction of the bishop of the diocese. All the "signs" were fulfilled. The Cur~ of Ars, when asked his advice, told her to found the order whenever she pleased. On July 1, 1856, the Helpers of the Holy Souls had their motto, "Pray, Suffer, Labor" (for the souls in purgatory), their name, their motherhouse, and not much else. By" 1867, they .were landing in China to establish the Seng-Mou-Yeu house near Shang-hai. At the same time in Paris, Mary of Providence was suffering much. The Helper of the Holy Souls felt that she was being con-sumed by fire herself. While Prussian shells whistled over the house-tops during the siege of Paris, she lay dying of malignant cancer. ,327 BOOK NOTICES She had always had a dread of five things: leaving her family, founding a community, seeing her daughters in want, getting into debt, having cancer. "Well, by the grace of God," she said, "all five happened to me." The heroic foundress died February 7, 1871, at the age of 46. The author of the biography, daughter of the late novelist Ren~ Francois Bazin, has written the work carefully enough, quoting heavily from the d, iary and writings of Mary of Providence. One could wish, however, for the personality traits, the telling touches which make a holy person flesh and blood.-~R. A. RUDOLF, S.J. THE HAPPINESS OF HEAVEN. By a Father of the Soclefy of Jesus. Pp. 372. The Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland, 1949. $2.50. After. having been hidden aw~y nearly eighty years in convents, monasteries, and novitiates, this gem is now dusted off and presented once more for the enjoyment of the Catholic reader. The author, Father Isidore Boudreaux, was a master of novices in the Jesuit novitiate at Florissant, Missouri, but his name was withheld from most of the early editions. The present edition is planographed and is presented without revision of the original. Besides. discussing the essence of heavenly happiness, namely, the beatific vision, Father Boudreaux also answers many little questions of interest to the earthbound. Is there a social life in heaven? What will our bodies be like? Will all be equally happy? Answering these and many other queries, the author has covered practically all that we can know about the next life. The subject matter, due to the its very sublimity, is quite diffi-cult. Father Boudreaux witl~out abandoning sound theology has treated heaven in.a way that should make The Happiness of Heaveb required reading for all priests and religious, and a source of great comfort and courage to Catholic laymen.--M. HAGhN, S.J. BOOK NOTICES Fatima is truly of great importance to us today. The passage of the "Pilgrim Virgin" through our country has led many hundreds o.f thousands to a deeper consideration and understanding of this importance. Wherever the statue went, great crowds flocked to venerate it and to fulfill Mary's desires by confessions, Communions, Masses, and rosaries., One of the highlights of the trip was the. week at St. Meinrad's Abbey, Indiana. A detailed history of the careful 328 Noeember, 1949 BOOK NOTICES preparation for the week and of the complete success of the celebra-tion is given in the book FATIMA WEEK SERMONS. A sixteen page introduction by. the Abbot (Rt. Rev. Ignatius Esser, O.S.B.) tells of the pre!barations, of the handling of the crowd of 125,000 that attended, and of that crowd's devout spirit. The thirty-eight sermons given in the book are the Marian talks delivered during the week. They treat of Fatima and of the Marian virtues most closely associated with the Fatima message. These talks were given by thirty-eight different priests and naturally vary in value, but a judicious assigning of topics to the speakers kept repetition of thought to a minimum. This is a valuable book for one studying the history of the Fatima devotion and for one who plans any big Marian celebration. (St. Meinrad, Indiana: The Grail, 1949. Pp. 170. $1.00 [paper].) THE MYSTICAL ROSE, by Father Hubert, O.F.M.Cap., is a small book of scarcely more than pamphlet size treating of Mary's hidden beai~ty and love through a discussion of her fullness of grace, her virginity, and her divine maternity. The style is fluent and poetic, but the book is often repetitious and verbose with a wordi-ness that hinders rather than heightens clarity. Despite this fault of style, the book has merits which lead one to a meditative reading and rereading of many passages which tease one to further thought. (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Bookshop, 1948. Pp. 79. $1.75.) FAITH AND A FISHHOOK, by Sr. M. Charitas, S.S.N.D., is a book of thirteen chapters presenting in chatty style selected anecdotes from the lives of our Lgrd, eleven saints, and the Archangel Raphael. "It is unfortunate that the author attempts to attract youthful readers to the religious life by telling them that this life "asks far less sacrifices than any other state"! In fact, the religious life is so easy that "it takes huge courage not to become a religious" (p. 122). Not only are such statements false, but they are apt to dissuade, rather than to encourage prospective postulants. (Milwaukee: ~Fhe Bruce Pub-lishing Company, 1949. Pp: ix q- 164. $2.50.) HOT EMBERS, by Sister M. Charitas, I.H.M., devotes most of its short twenty-eight chapters to narrating and devoutly commenting on various episodes of our Lord's Infancy, Passion, and Resurrection. A special section makes observations on the lives of St. Theresa of .329 Book NOTICES Review for Religious Lisieux, St. Theresa of Avila, St. John of the Cross, St. Angelus, Simon Stock, Elias. The remaining chapters treat of the Scapular Feast, the Good Shepherd, the Blessed Sacrament, the Sacred Heart, and the Feast of the Immaculate Hea.rt of Mary. (New York: The Scapular Press, 1948. Pp. 205. $2.75.) LITURGICAL ~VIEDITATIONS (Volume I: From Advent to the Ascension; Volume II: From Ascension to Advent), by the Sisters of Saint Dominic, Adrian, Michigan, provides daily meditations for an entire year. Each is in some way connected with the liturgy of the day. Three short points tie Scripture, meditations, and Mass together. The Sanctoral Cycle is naturally devoted to the Saints and. Blessed of the Order of Preachers, as. the work was originally intended by the anonymous writers for the members of their own Order. (St. Louis: B. Herder Book Company, 1949. Pp. viii + 533: 479. $10.00 [set].) THE CURE D'ARS, by Abb~ Francis Trochu, is a reprint of the "standard" life of the great Cur~. The author drew upon the volu-minous records of the process of canonization for his. material. The life was done into English by Dora Ernest Gra.f, O.S.B., and was first published in 1927. As hagiography it is in the older analytical style with the saint's every virtue described in its own chapter. This is "bad" for the plot--but the wh6le plot here is the boundless love of God. (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Press, 1949. Pp. xxiii -ff 586. $5.50.) TRANSFORMATION IN CHRIST, by Dietrich yon Hildebrand, will give many a new self-knowledge, a new surehess, and some "know-how" in their efforts at Christlikeness. The book has a solid, earnest, inspiring message for all who admit that "before all else, it is necessary for us to grasp the 'height, breadth, and depth' of our vocation, and fully to comprehend the message of the" Gospel which invites us not merely to become disciples of Chris't and children of God, but to enter into a.process of transformation in Christ." The somewhat technical vocabulary of the book will at times make heavy reading for those who have not enjoyed the opportunity of a classicaI education or philosopical training; but

JUNE, J899 ooTlhe, Qettysbur ercury CONTENTS. Our College Home 117 The 1900 Spectrum 119 Tick-tack-to 120 A Hero's Reward 123 An Art Fad 125 Retrieved 128 Editor's Desk, 131 Hypnotism 131 " The Influence of Christianity on Roman Jurisprudence ". 134 The Conflict of the Ag-es 139 The Philomathaean Society 144 Monotony of Life 147 Athletics 149 YMMUM FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. wmomrn For Fine Printing GO TO The J. E. WIBLE .Printing Rouee Carlisle Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. C. B. Kitzmiller, Dealer in Hats, Caps, Boots and . Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, PA. J. H. Myers, Fashionable Tailor, Clothier and Gents' Furnisher. The best place in town to have your Cloth-ing made to order. All workmanship and Trimmings guaranteed. No charge for re-pairs and pressing for one year. Dyeing and Repairing a specialty. Ready-made Clothing the largest stock in town. Up-to-date styles. Bicycle Suits and Breeches Headquarters. 11 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. R. A. WONDERS, Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, Etc. Scott's Corner, Opp. Eagle Hotel. GETTYSBURG, A. Have you an assured livelihood? "Would you try for a government posi-tion, if you knew just how to apply, and the kinds of positions from which you can choose, and what to do to insure your getting on the list after you have applied! The Government of the United States is the best of employers. Fair compen-sation, regularity of payment, reason-ably Bure tenure, tasks not too difficult, | ana hours not too I ong, offer strong at-tractions to young persons of both sexes whohavenosettledinuome. Manyenter Government employ, spend their spare i hours in studying law or medicine, or finance, and save enough from their salaries to start in a professional or business career. We have just published a book from whichanj/candidate maylearnjustwhat is necesaary and what unnecessary in brushing up his studies for an examina-tion ; and what his chances are, all things considered, for making bis way into the Civil Service, and staying there. The title of this book is " How to Prepnre for a Civil Service Examination; With Recent Questions and An-swers." It contains all Information which any candidate would require to firepare for any competitive office under ' he Government, and includes a "Ten Weeks' Course of 8tudy,"ln the form of questions actually asked at recent ex-aminations, with the correct answers to i them. Besides the technical require- ' mentSjitalso covers all the elementary branches, like arithmetic, spelling, pen- , manship, geography, letter writing, civil government, etc., etc., so that one who masters this course of study would not only pass well an examination for a gov- , ernment position, but would be sure of I preferment over other applicants for a clerkship in a business house. CLOTH—$2.00 Postpaid—560 PAGES Anotherbookfree(Quickat Figures)if you mention this paper when ordering. HINDS A NOBLE, Publishers 4-5-13-14 Cooper Institute, N. Y. City Schoolbooks ofallpublishers at one store .THE. GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter. Voi,. VIII. GETTYSBURG, PA., JUNE, 1899. No. 4 Editor-in- Chief. J. FRANK EEILMAN, '00. Alumni Editor. REV. F. D. GARLAND. Assistant Editors. LUTHER A. WEIGLE, '00. S. A. VAN ORMER, '01. Business Manager. Assistant Business Manager. JOHN K. HAMACHER, '00. CLARENCE MOORE, '02. Advisory Board. PROF. J. A. HIMES, L,IT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D. D. Published monthly by the students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price One Dollar a year in advance, single copies Fifteen Cents. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. OUR COLLEGE HOME. Oh bright for us the sunbeams rest On tower and town with rosier glow, On sentry Round Top's rugged crest And on the immortal Ridge below, Where marble Victory's fadeless bays The patriot soldier crown, And History graves for future days The deeds of his renown. CHORUS—Then ring we clear a loyal cheer, Wnere'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our famous College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! O fair for us the moonlight falls, To brighten with its silver flame At once the stately College halls wmm 118 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. And the memorials of fame That peer from every grove and grange, And in their silence tell That here heroic spirits range O'er meads of asphodel. CHORUS—Then ring we clear a loyal cheer, Where'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our honored College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! O soft for us the shadows play Among the Campus elms, and woo To merry converse and delay From tasks we busily pursue. Ah Youth and Friendship, how ye charm In Learning's calm abode,— True Graces, twining arm in arm On sweet Arcadian sod ! CHORUS—Then ring we clear a loyal cheer, Where'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our glorious College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah! At morn the duty-call of bells Rings clear and urgent, near and far, At eve a gentler music swells From gleeful viol or guitar. O jolly is the life we lead In study, song or games ! O fortunate the fate indeed That here inscribes our names ! CHORUS—Then ring- we clear a loyal cheer, . Where'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our dear old College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! Energy will do anything that can be done in this world; and no talents, no circumstances, no opportunities will make a two-legged animal a man without it. —Goethe. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 119 THE J900 SPECTRUM. THE most recent claimant, in our midst, to literary and ar-tistic honors, is the class of 1900. Its Spectrum, just is-sued, challenges our admiration from start to finish, and we heartily accord to it equal rank with the best of our college annuals, thus far issued. The form of the book, and the general arrangement of its con-tents, show a pleasing appreciation of responsibility in the plac-ing of details to secure good effects. There has been an evident purpose on the part of the printers, publishers, managers, artists and editors, to produce a work which should be alike creditable to themselves, as well as to the college which this publication represents. The volume is fittingly dedicated to Prof. Klinger, who is justly characterized as "both teacher and fellow student." The various classes and associations are given due recogni-tion by verbal statement, cut, pencil and photograph. The latter are unusually good throughout and constitute an attractive fea-ture. The sketches, are, as a rule, very clearly executed, and are amusing without being either vulgar or rude. The "Literary Record of Gettysburg Alumni," is an import-ant feature and will add permanency to the value of this publication. It will be interesting and profitable for our alumni and friends to have a record of this sort for handy reference. The "Spanish War Record" is not less interesting and valu-able. It is something for us to be proud of, that when our coun-try needed men to prosecute a war in the interests of humanity, against a cruel oppressor, that twenty-eight men, from our grad-uate and undergraduate ranks, cheerfully enlisted and did honor-able service. The humorous thoughts and aspects of college life, receive literary embodiment in the concluding pages of the volume. These show a commendable degree of appreciation of humor, in both possible and impossible, but easily imagined situations. It is a pity that so much of this kind of literature, must necessarily go unappreciated, for it requires an acquaintance with the dramatis personae and the conditions under which described events happen, in order to extract all the flavor of humor which makes them en-joyable. ■MMtimp mum. 120 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. This volume is certainly deserving of hearty recognition, and it is hoped that many of our alumni and friends of the college, will show their appreciation of the arduous labors of the class by acquiring a copy. Reader,—it will add permanent value to your library. Send for a copy at once. —G. D. S. TICK-TACK-TO. THERE is scarcely a conversation indulged in with a greater relish, by persons of a maturer age, than that relating to bygone games and pastimes. The children love to linger by the hearth and will listen with rapt attention, as their father relates to them the strange and antiquated games of his boyhood days. There are, perhaps, few things that brighten the eyes of our sires more readily than mere mention of puerile games. They love to cast away the titles of Rev., Dr., or Mr. and think of the time " when you were Bill and I was Joe " and, if one is in their presence when they are exchanging reminiscences he may be both instructed and agreeably entertained. Nor is the relish for this peculiar sort of conversation peculiar to those who have already passed the meridian of life and can no more win for themselves the eclat of the beholding multitude, or the more modest commendation of a few admiring friends, or even the laudatory look of defeated opponents. It belongs also to us. What conversation can be introduced into our college boudoirs that will be more highly appreciated and rejuvenate happier reminiscences than that relating to the games we used to play. The occasional rehearsing of them forms a condiment whose pungency quickens our appetites for more solid and substantial forms of mental food. As such, however, they tend only to excite pleasure and enter-tain, and are evanescent in their effects. If, on the other hand, we view them in a more serious manner and forget them as prolific of. an almost boundless store of sport and hilarity, we may not only become instructed but learn, to our amazement perhaps, that we are playing the same old games to-day. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 121 To demonstrate this we might choose almost any one of the limited number of juvenile games as an example. Since they all bring forth some phase of life and all contain some suggestion for reflection. Blind-man's-buff for instance, teaches us how gro-tesquely we often grope after the fleeing prizes of life. Leap-frog portrays to us the use to which we are sometimes put by men of ulterior motives and the humility connected therewith, but there are some, however, whose peculiarities stand out in bolder relief than in others ; some whose lessons are more drastic than others, and in few is this more obvious than in the triplicate game of tick-tack-to. It is very simple and probably the most universally known game of childhood. As a palladium against the captiousness of the nursery its charm is talismanic. In point of economy there are few games that excel it: a pencil, a slate or a small slip of paper with two parallel lines drawn perpendicularly upon it and two similar ones crossing them horizontally constitute all that there is of a material outlay. A series of three marks occupying three successive spaces in any direction brings to a proper conclusion the course of the game and suggests to us now, what in childhood's happy hours were arcanums unraveled. One of them is contained in the nature of the game. Unlike many other of our juvenile pastimes tick-tack-to is not a game of luck nor chance but a game of skill and intelligence. Were it a game of luck we would be at a loss to derive any lessons from it and could certainly not compare it to life; since those who have attained to the highest success in life cherish little hope for the man who depends on luck. One of our beloved martyred Presidents, the lamented Jas. A. Garfield, once said, "Luck is an ignis fatuus. It leads to ruin but never to success." The idea that certain men are rich, or prosperous, or popular, because they were born under such circumstances under which it would be impossible for them to be otherwise, finds little credence among successful men. It is not the man who is born at a certain time, in a certain place and under certain environments who attains to success but he who works; he who is active; he who is alive to every oppor-tunity; he whose every mark is prompted by an intelligent judgment. 122 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Another deduction that we can 333ke from the game and apply to life is the mode of procedure. "We used to play7 it under dif-ficulties. Our advance was retarded by opposition. This of course is a common condition to all games and would not distinguish this particular one from any other; but the unique-ness of it lies in the fact that the opposition is created by one op-ponent and only one. Thus in the game of life we proceed against hindrances and against hindrances of but one opponent. Who is that opponent? Who is he, or what is it, that barricades our onward march every time we take a stride toward success ? Who is he who with rude hand dashes a cross before our line of progress every time our success is partially and almost entirely accomplished ? Is he to be found in the personality of some one other than ourselves ? May we detect him among the multitudes that pass before us from day to day ? May we discover him among those with whom we are continually associated ? No, prospection will never reveal him, introspection may. We have but one opponent to contend with, and that oppo-nent is self, the lower self; the material as opposed to the spiritual self. We sometimes suppose that our embarrassments in life, are traceable to external circumstances, to some person or company of persons, or to some combination of circumstances. But they are only the marks used by ourselves against our-selves. They form the media through which our lower nature reacts upon the higher and thus continues the dualisdc game of life. St. Bernard appreciating this fact once said "Nothing can do me damage but myself," and if we wish to reject authority can we not by a little self-examination verify this statement within the scope of our own experience ? Does not the soul in becoming cognizant of the virtue of a certain act urge us to do it ? Does it not in the language of the game place its mark in one of the spaces ? What follows ? The body shrinks from the performance of the act. It opposes the impulse of the soul. It places its mark directly before the one already made. No sooner has this taken place than the conscience comes into prominence. Not willing to acquiesce with one repulse it incites us to a redoubled effort. It places its mark before the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 123 original one in another direction. This being done up swell the passions and endeavor with vehemence to thwart the noble im-pulse and crush all that is holy and pure in man. So the game proceeds with vacillating fortunes until the lower or the higher na-ture is conqueror. A contest it is trying and severe, unheard by mortal ear, un-seen by mortal eye. Revealed only to Him under whose dispen-sation it is possible and under whose guidance only, success is at-tainable. —MARKS. A HERO'S REWARD. IN the spring of 1825, Mr. Perry decided to sell his plantation, very reluctantly however, for it was here that he was born, and then with his family, which consisted of his wife, a son, Philip, and a daughter, Mabel, to go North. It was at Mr. Hall's suggestion that he located in a small town in the northern part of New Jersey and went into business with him. These two families had known each other for years and naturally at once there sprung up a friendship between Philip Perry and Mr. Hall's only son and child, Tom; but from the start Tom seemed to have an especial regard for Mabel, which grew into an affection as they grew in years. The Perrys belonged to one of the old, aristocratic, south-ern families, and were, as most such families were, wealthy. The Halls were also quite independent, though not in such affluent circumstances. The two boys were sent to a small military academy near New York and graduated in the same class. A short time after this Mr. Hall was taken ill and died very suddenly, and a year later Mrs. Hall died through grief for her dead husband. Mr. Perry was also affected by his partner's death and having closed out the business, moved South and located in Richmond, Va. He in-sisted that Tom should go along and make his home with them, and Tom, with a little persuasion from Mabel, did so. The boys went to a southern college, where they stood high both in their class and in the esteem of their fellow students, for they were good, jolly boys. During this time the affection be-tween Mabel and Tom ripened into love and Tom often wished in-wardly that some day he might win Mabel for his wife. y—^——™—™——— miyiiyi 124 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. After their college days both young men had entered Mr. Perry's employ and held positions of trust and responsibility in his cotton mill. So well, indeed, did they manage their work, that Mr. Perry was about to entrust the entire management to them when that dreadful war, which so nearly resulted in the division of our Union, was declared. Recognizing his duty, Philip Perry at once left home and enlisted in the 9th Virginia Regiment. Tom Hall hesitated. He was undecided as to what to do. He knew full well that his duty was to go North and join a Northern regiment, and yet—if he went, it meant, as Mabel had said, that all would end between them, for Mabel was a Southern girl. What was he to do ? On the one side he could hear the call to duty, on the other Mabel wanted him, if he went at all, to go with "Phil." At last his love for his country conquered even his love for Mabel and as a true patriot he secretly made his way north and enlisted in the 1st New Jersey, which was mustered in at his old home. It is needless to follow these two soldiers through the entire campaign, but suffice it to say that they soon rose to high positions in their respective regiments on account of their bravery. On the evening of July 2, 1863, General Dee, who was in command of the Confederate forces at Gettysburg, realizing his perilous position and possibly expecting defeat, decided to make one final, desperate attempt to break through the Union line. That evening he had been reinforced by Stuart's Cavalry and was therefore hopeful of success. His plan was to pierce the Union line at a point now called the "High Water Mark," for that was the turning point of the greatest battle of the Civil War. Everyone has heard of Pickett's famous charge and how the men of the two armies fought hand to hand over the old stone wall. The 9th Virginia belonged to Armistead's brigade, which was almost annihilated in this charge; yet many were not killed outright, but after suffering untold agony, gave up their lives for the cause they thought right. During this battle, a number of regiments were held in reserve and among this number was the 1st New Jersey. On the evening of July 3d, the news of the famous charge of Pickett's Division and the successful repulse was reported among the various Union regiments, and of course reached the 1st New Jersey. \THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 125 Colonel Tom Hall recalled the fact that Philip Perry had en-listed in the 9th Virginia, and he imagined he heard some one say that he was dying on the field. Before dawn he had mounted his faithful horse and galloped off in the direction of the "clump of trees." For some time he searched, but all in vain, and he was about to leave when he heard a terrible groan a short dis-tance beyond the wall on the Union side. It startled him and he drew up his horse, dismounted and stooped over the half-dead body of a Confederate officer. Imagine his surprise to find his old friend, Philip Perry! He gently bound up his wounds and raising him, placed him on his horse and rode slowly back to his regiment. Major Perry remained in a semi-conscious state for several days and when he came to, he found himself in Colonel Hall's tent and over him was stooping his dear sister, washing off the blood stains and dressing his wounds. As soon as Major Perry was strong enough to be moved, Colonel Hall had him exchanged for a Northern officer, who was confined in one of the Southern prisons. However, before Major Perry was taken to his home in Rich-mond, the old love between Mabel and Colonel Hall had over-come all difficulties between them and under a tree not far from where Major Perry had fallen, he witnessed a short ceremony, performed by the Chaplain of the 1st New Jersey, in which Colo-nel Hall received "A Hero's Reward," the long desired hand of Mabel in marriage. —W. G. L. '01. «**£> AN ART FAD. IN these days when fads in almost every line of trade and pro-fession are so prominent, one is not surprised to find that there is such a thing as a fad in art also. The particular one selected for the subject of this essay is that style so prominent at this time in the art. of painting—the poster. The poster occu-pies the same place in the art of painting as do dialect stories in literature or syncopated rhythm, i. e. the so-called "rag-time" in music. Not any of these is a recent creation but rather a recent craze. For instance, considered from a scientific standpoint, "rag-time" has been co-eval with the history of music. 126 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Beethoven and Mozart wrote it and even in the incomparable fugures of Bach we encounter it. And in literature, dialect did certainly not originate with James Whitcomb Riley. The possibilities of the colored poster were first made known to English and French artists when the great flaming advertise-ments of Barnum were first placed upon the exposed places of London and Paris. The influence of these American advertising posters became prominent and at once both England and France began to contribute colored products in poster art, which, while far more artistic than the pictures of Wild West performers, were not after all so widely different in outline, color and other quali-ties. Between that day when vivid and crude design was pre-dominant, and to-day when the artistic poster is so much in evi-dence, there is a considerable advance apparent. Simultaneous with the growth of the poster and practically very beneficial was the adoption of it by the up-to-date theatre for advertising purposes. And it lends itself admirably for this pur-pose. It has also been a favorite mode of advertising in the com-mercial world, but one sees less of its use in this manner now than formerly. In the literary advertising department, the poster still is very prominent and is the usual way of calling the attention of the public to the merits of some special edition of a publication. With the rise of the poster came collectors of posters ; in America alone, there are said to be over 6000 persons who devote themselves to this pursuit. Poster literature and expositions too have come into existence. Of the different nations and in point of art, France, as usual, leads. The "father of the modern poster," as he has been called, M. Cheret, however, says that he owes his first inspiration to the Barnum lithographs. America is greatly indebted to France in this line of art. One of the foremost poster artists who, before he studied in Paris, used to draw the gorgeous theatre lithographs, came back to America and completely transformed the coarse ex-aggerated travesties. For this reason Matt. Morgan stands high among the American poster artists. Of the English school, Aubrey Beardsley is probably the best known. He is said to be always "scholarly" and while "char-acteristic," yet he never loses sight of the fundamental principles of the art in his work. The purchase of a celebrated art-poster called "Bubbles" by the proprietors of a certain soap, seemed to THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 127 give a new impetus to the poster art in England, and many artists no longer hesitated to enter the ranks of poster painters. In Germany, the poster has not developed very rapidly or sat-isfactorily. German artists in every line of art work seem to ad-here strongly to allegorical symbols and types. This is evident in the tonal art as well as in painting. Probably the best known of the German school is Heine, who creates posters for several humorous periodicals. Austria seems to have paid little or no attention to the art; one can find no mention of Austrians who won a reputation for them-selves except in the line of music. All other arts seem to be con-sidered unworthy any attention. There is a poster art school in Belgium which has won a prominent position in this line of art. Though it requires a considerable amount of education on cer-tain lines to enable one to understand correctly any art—such a training, for instance as a good art-critic possesses—yet it is pos-sible for almost any one to appreciate, to some extent, at least, the art of poster painting. Tolstoi .says, "When I call up an emotion which I have ex-perienced, arid by signs, words, colors, sounds, transfer this emo-tion to another, that is art." Bearing this definition in mind and using it as a test, attention is called to a few examples of posters, each peculiarly distinctive in one manner or other. Probably one of the most striking and unique of the products of American artists was the poster announcing a special issue of the New York Sun. A woman with a trailing purple mantle walks through a green meadow, one hand uplifted with a warning ges-ture as if to command silence. The graceful though striking de-sign indicates a fertile imagination as the originator of it. That the creator—~L,. I. Rhead—is not only highly imaginative and fanciful but even verging upon the eccentric is evidenced by others of his productions, in one of which he has painted a woman with a cloak of dark green, outlined boldly against an orange back-ground. Among the posters published by Harpers Bros., was one en-titled "The Letter Box," which, though simple in ideas yet proved very effective. A little Cupid standing on tip-toe, drops a valentine in the slot of the corner letter-box. The entire pic-ture is not at all pretentious, but entirely characteristic and well adapted. ■pJMfiM 128 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Another poster published by the same firm in 1892 is worthy of noting because of the manner in which the lettering is incor-porated in the picture. "The Wooly Horse" representing Napoleon I. on horseback overlooking the battlefield,—with a fiery sky for background, was a very successful poster published by the Century Co. A famous American artist in this line is W. H. Bradley, whose work resem-bles somewhat that of Aubrey Beardsley. His posters seem to have a peculiar melancholy in their expression. Among the prominent advertisements of merchandise, that of Pears' Soap—a humorous sketch of a ragged tramp—is, with its forcible inscription, one of the most prominent. An original idea was brought out by an English artist in the use of the "Silhouette"—a black figure outlined in white stand-ing out against a black background. The manufacturers of a certain blueing, first used this style of poster for an advertise-ment. An advance in poster drawing was made after the several ex-positions of posters which have been held lately. One of these, held in Belgium in 1894, served to propagate extensively the new ideas of the French and the Belgian schools. How long this fad will last, is difficult to predict. It is highly probable, however, that the art will advance with such strides in some particular direction that the new development will com-pletely swallow up the present popular poster style,—a style, which has been characterized as a "phantasy most horrid and de-testable." —W. W. F. '00. RETRIEVED. JIM HAL,Iy, an inhabitant of the village of Alberton, had the reputation of being the most cowardly man to be found in ten counties. He was known to sleep at night with his room door double-barred and the windows tightly fastened, for fear of being killed in his bed by some wandering burglar. He believed in ghosts and witches ; and the small boys often took advantage of this superstitious fear and belief by placing a white sheet over a stick and when Jim came along, waving it wildly. Jim ran like THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 129 a deer for home and next day was made the butt of innumerable jokes. This fear of Jim's was to be accounted for only by the fact that from his birth his mother had shielded him from all dan-ger and taught him to look to her as his natural protector. So when he had come to manhood he had not learned to rely upon himself. He often tried to overcome his cowardice but could not do so when the critical moment came. Affairs were in this state up to the year 1862 when the report was circulated in Alberton that Jim Hall had disappeared from the village. No one had seen him go away, so all the villagers could do was to make suppositions as to his whereabouts. Some thought he had run away for fear of being drafted into the service. A large number of the able-bodied men of the village had already joined as volunteers and now it was reported that additional men were needed and that these would be taken by drafting through-out the whole North. Just the day before Jim Hall's disappear-ance the report was brought that the drafting of Alberton men would take place in four days. So there were some grounds for the common belief that Jim had run away to escape the war. One can easily imagine their surprise when the next day they heard that he had gone to the camp of the Army of the Potomac and had been enlisted as a private soldier. The people treated it as a great joke and many were the jests at poor Jim's expense about his long legs standing him in good stead when a time of great danger should come. However Jim had realty joined the army and was by a lucky chance placed in the same company with the other Alberton men who had gone out long before as volunteers. And as another piece of good fortune the man who was now captain of the com-pany— the former captain having been killed shortly before—had been the only man in the village of Alberton who had not jeered and laughed at his cowardice. This gentleman, a Mr. Leonard, had been a friend of both of Jim's parents and when Jim's father died had been appointed guardian to Jim. He now encouraged Jim to make a man of himself and was the instrument of Jim's doing so. Soon under their gallant leaders they were fighting the rebels with varying success about the swamps and morasses of the Chickahominy. In the battle of Chancellorsville, lost though dearly sold, our hero was in the thick of the fight. At the first mmmw 130 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. shock, however, he turned as if to flee, but at the word of his commander he turned and fought so bravely and so well that he was commended by his captain. Nearly two months later he found himself marching north-ward with his companions to try to check the invasion which the victorious Lee was making upon the North. On July 1st they found themselves on the peaceful fields of Gettysburg so soon to be turned into a veritable slaughter pen. In the first day's fight their regiment was stationed at Seminary Ridge with several other regiments to check the advance of the so far victorious rebels until further reinforcements should come up. Soon the overwhelming numbers of the Confederates forced the greater part to fall back and one lone battered and torn regi-ment was left to face the storm. It was too late to retreat now and almost useless to fight longer, but the blood of the Halls who had fought in the Revolution suddenly came coursing through the veins of Jim, and seizing the colors from the color bearer who had just been shot down Jim waved them aloft and shouted, "Come on boys, don't run, only cowards run." As he uttered the words a volley from the enemy, who had now almost sur-rounded the gallant man and his little band, laid poor Jim low and silenced forever the heart which had just learned that it still had brave blood to force through a manly body. Now indeed had Jim retrieved his name from the most disgraceful blot which can be put on any man's name. The rest of the command were captured and taken prisoners. Several years after they were ex-changed and when those Alberton men who had come safely through the war had returned home, they never tired of telling how nobly Jim Hall had proven that he no longer was the coward whom they had once despised. —V. FREY, '01. c®P June falls asleep upon her bier of flowers; In vain are dew drops sprinkled o'er her, In vain would fond winds fan her back to life Her hours are numbered on the floral dial. * * * June is dead, Dead, without dread or pain, her gayest "Wreaths twined with her own hands for her funeral. —Lucy Larcotn. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. EDITOR'S DESK. 131 THE '00 Spectrum is ample proof that the catalogue of special features has not been exhausted. As it is customary for the Junior class in publishing a Spectrum to make a special feature, '00 has chosen the "Literary Record of Gettysburg Alumni.'' This feature alone would make thepresent Spectrttm val-uable, as well as interesting. Few besides those who have worked upon such a feature can form any idea of the toil and care re-quired to carry it to a successful issue. Certainly it is but justice that the college paper, in the name of the students of Gettys-burg, congratulates the editor and assistant editor, by whom the "Literary Record" has been compiled and arranged, upon their useful, hard work. But not only may the individuals, on whom rested the responsibility for such a task, be congratulated; Gettys-burg may congratulate herself upon the present annual, which un-doubtedly will be regarded for years as a model of neat, original work. Articles by our alumni relating to Gettysburg, would be re-ceived eagerly by the MERCURY. Stories about college life as it was some years ago, the difference between Gettysbtirg of to-day and Gettysburg of the past, or almost any article of like kind, would find space in our pages. The MERCURY would be glad to print poems by the alumni, as well as prose. HYPNOTISM. HYPNOTISM, as best defined, is a nervous artificial sleep. The same thing was formerly called animal magnetism. Hypnotism applies to a definite nervous state and is brought about mostly in persons having a delicate nervous system. The first true inquirer into hypnotism was Dr. Baird. He saw some experiments performed by a professional maguetizer and at once decided that they were merely an arrangement to deceive the people, but after careful observation and study into the methods of producing a state of hypnotism, he decided that it was genuine. After careful study and experiment, he decided that there was no such a thing as a magnetic fluid flowing from the mind of the operator to that of the subject; but that the true cause of hypno- ■mmtnm 132 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. tism lay in the fact that the nerves of one of the senses become deadened by over exertion or constant concentration on a point, and on this account become powerless to act and the person goes into a deep sleep or lethargy. In this, his followers disagree with the other school, headed chiefly by I,afosataine. He asserted that hypnotism was produced by a fluid, known as the magnetic fluid, which passed from one person to another and by its attraction could cause a person of strong will to have complete control of a person of weaker will power, being able to compel him to do anything commanded. Baird was led to his theory by the fact that his subject, while under the influence of this power, was unable to open the eyes. He at once came to the conclusion that excessive fatigue was the only thing that could cause this strange phenomenon as he made no attempt at personal magnetism in producing the sleep. His experiment was performed in the following way. He asked his subject to sit and look steadily at the neck of a wine bottle and allow his mind to wander. The bottle was placed at such an elevation as to cause considerable fatigue to the eyes. After three minutes the subject's eyes were filled with tears, then his eyelids closed and a little later he was in a sound sleep. This experiment proved beyond doubt that a person can be hypnotized without the presence of a second person or operator; but can do it himself by an experiment made under similar circumstances as mentioned above. Baird pursued his discoveries and with the aid of numerous other experiments tried hard to have hypnotism recognized as a science. They were not successful, however, and to-day it is re-garded mostly as something for a show, or to interest the people, without much regard to its cause and the scientific qualities. The most familiar form of producing the state of hypnotism is the following : the operator directs the subject to have no par-ticular thought on his mind, but to let it wander, and gaze steadily into his eyes. After that he generally makes a few passes with the hands, gently rubbing the eyelids, etc., until his subject is in a sound sleep. In explanation of this method I would say that the gazing into the eyes of the operator for some time, is exactly the same as looking at a brilliant object, both have the same effect of fatiguing the nerves of the eye and producing sleep. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 133 This is strikingly illustrated in an experiment with a frog. If a frog is taken in the hand, having the thumb resting on the stomach, and the back gently rubbed ; the animal will go to sleep at once and can be stretched into all sorts of shapes. Another way, as has been stated before, is that of looking steadily at some object. It has also been discovered that the other senses have the same power as that of sight. Thus if you produce monotony in music sleep is produced. Sharp suspense or fright has the same effect of transfixing some people and this has been decided by students of the science ( as it is called by the disciples of hypnotism) to be hypnotism. After careful study it has been proven that the senses of taste and of smell have the same strange effect. As regards the uses of hypnotism little of importance can be said. It is used mostly by professional showmen who call up subjects from their audience or may have them with them. They compel them to do anything they command. One of the common-est ways and also the best to show the entire oblivion of the subject, is the experiment with the letter. The subject is handed a letter and told it is an orange, he immediately eats it with great relish, then if told it is sour at once spits it out with an expres-sion of disgust on his face, showing the subject believes every-thing the operator tells him and is entirely at his command. This, however, was never intended for the chief use of hypno-tism. The experimenters tried to use it in surgery, etc., but it has been found that while some people are easily influenced others give much trouble, so that it would be impracticable to use it in a case of amputation when ether or chloroform serves the same purpose more quickly and better. It has been settled, however, that strong habits can be changed. Persons who have been accus-tomed to strong habits all their lives have been entirely changed and new habits formed. Thus, while very little has been definitely decided about this strange phenomenon, there is every indication that some day in the near future, it will be taken up by experimenters and philoso-phers, thoroughly sifted, and then be proven to be of great value in many respects. It is now in its infancy. —C. J. D. '00. wmm 134 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON ROMAN JURISPRUDENCE." CHRISTIANITY and civilization in its highest degree of ex-cellence are synonomous, hand in hand like two insepara-bles we find them enthroned upon a majestic seat, ruling, guiding, influencing, and may we say carving the destiny of every great nation. If a country is civilized and christianized we need no other proof to be convinced of her pre-eminence and suprem-acy. A glance will show us also that such countries have the most admirable and thoroughly developed codes of jurisprudence. The influences, whose marks upon "Roman Law" are par-ticularly indelible and prominent, may be divided into three classes: conventional morality and usage, natural reason and justice, and Christianity. These fundamental principles in turn clearly mark off three distinct epochs in the development of Ro-man Law. According to the law of the first nearly all power was vested in the individual and that individual was the "Pater familias." The idea of a State right has scarcely begun to dawn upon the Roman mind. At the beginning of the second epoch, Rome is no longer a col-lection of separate communities : Italy, Greece, Spain, Africa, in short the whole world is in her power. Law based on such a no-tion as practically unlimited power of the pater cannot regulate such an empire. No longer is Rome divided into families, tribes and clans, each separate and distinct, but everything concentrates upon and emanates from one person—the Emperor. Something broader, something more general is demanded and, in response, came the principles of the stoic philosophy. Roman Law can-not stand still while the State is enlarging; it too must broaden, and natural equity, justice and reason furnish the soil for its spreading roots. But one link yet is necessary, one step yet is lacking ere the ultimate degree ofperfection is reached. For Christianity it remains to weld the chain and fill the gap which is to make "Roman Law" such a body of principles as to be applicable at all times and among all nations. In such principles as—"honeste vivere, alterum non laedere, suum cinque tribuere," the dawn of Christian-ity can already be seen, only time is needed until its genial rays shall burst forth with increasing intensity. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 135 Christianity had been now the established religion of the Ro-man Empire for more than two centuries; and the influence of its principles was making an untold effect upon the spirit, if not so much upon the letter, of Roman law. The complete moral, social, and political revolution, through Christianity, created a necessity for new laws adapted to the present order of things. Under it a new order of men of a peculiar character, with special privileges has grown up; churches and monasteries had been formed; certain offenses in the penal code were now looked on with a milder or more severe aspect, and vices, which formerly had been tolerated, became crimes against the new social order. It might be shown that Christianity as a system of doctrine, is peculiarity adapted to meet the secular as well as the spiritual wants of men and would naturally work its way into their codes of jurisprudence. But a direct proof is unnecessary, for after hav-ing shown its influence upon the various elements in "Roman L,aw," we can reason backward and reach the same conclusion. Roman Law may be conveniently divided into three classes:— that of Persons, Property and Crime. From time immemorial, slavery had been customary among all nations. Aristotle reasoned "that nature intended barbarians to be slaves, and among the natural and honorable means of ac-quiring wealth, he classes, making war in order to reduce to slavery such of mankind as are intended by nature for it." As an institution of custom, then, slavery received its sanction at Rome. Christianity had exalted a slave to spiritual equality and this religious elevation could not be without influence on their tem-poral and social position. They were no longer to be regarded as brute beasts and inanimate things, nor could they be destroyed by their masters with as much impunity as his other property. Our respect must here be paid the heathen sovereign, Antoniuns, who declared that the master who killed his slave without cause, was liable to the same penalty as if he had killed the slave of another. Justinian writes, "In these times, and under our Em-pire, no one must be permitted to exercise unlawful cruelty against a slave.'' Prohibition of marriage to slaves had been a deep-rooted prejudice for centuries, yet this too melted before the rays of its benign influence. The stricter forms of manumission—the vin-dicta freeing by census or testament were relieved by easier and ■VAMHtfi 136 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. more liberal ones,—for example, per epistolam, inter amicos, in ecclesiis; and whatever of legal impediments yet existed were re-moved by Justinian. Along with this the distinctions formerly made between freedmen, whereby a slave owing to certain kinds of misconduct, when manumitted, could not receive full citizen-ship, were likewise abolished so that after Justinian all libertine were cives Romani. The ancient laws regarding marriage and the legal status of women each crystallized itself in conformity with the new order of things. Marriage was no longer a civil contract but a religious sacrament and the penalties fixed upon celibacy and childlessness were removed. Divorce had been one of the greatest plagues at work in dis-solving the unity of the Roman family. Since the establishment of the XII tables, in 450 B. C, it had been legally recognized. Seneca says of Naecauss, probably satirically, that he changed his wives as he changed his dress. And it is the same writer who says '' that the noble women of Rome calculated the year not by the consuls, but by their husbands." Juvenal, in the bitterness of his satire, could not find words adequate to express his intense indignation of this evil. It is said that the sixth century of Roman greatness had begun ere the evils of a primitive conception that the wife was the property of her husband and might be dismissed at his pleasure were revealed and public feeling shocked by the re-pudiation of a virtuous but barren wife by Spurius Carvilius Ruga. Had Christianity performed no greater good for human society than the removal of this corruption, its influence would not have been in vain or useless. The rights of women over their property were made sub-stantially equal to men's as was the right of guardianship over their children. Parental power, though in theory absolute, had long fallen into disuse and was almost a theoretical nothing long before the ad-vent of Christianity, but whatever of severity yet remained was abolished. Constantine openly declared that the father, who killed his son, should be held for murder, nor was the father allowed to ex-pose his children or sell them into slavery, except in the rarest cases. The proprietary rights of the son, too, were extended from the peculium castreuse to the peculmm quasi castreuse and still later to the peculium adventitium. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 137 Milman says '' Christianity made no change in the tenure or succession to property.'' '' Seeking inheritances by undue means was prohibited and restrained by law as an ecclesiastical evil." Church property was regarded sacred and inviolate and as Milman says was "the sole proprietor, whom forfeiture or confis-cation could never reach; whose title was never antiquated and before whose hallowed boundaries violence stood rebuked." Gifts to temples could now be sold or pledged for the redemp-tion of captives, a purpose which the old Roman law would have disdained to contemplate. In the penal laws of the Roman empire, the influence of Chris-tianity was but moderately exerted. The abolition of the distinc-tions drawn between freedmen and slaves have already been re-ferred to. Crucifixion as a means of punishment was removed by Constantine, rather as an act of religious reverence than of humanity. But in the suppression of gaming and the prohibition of women being forced on the stage, traces of its influence can be seen. As is natural from the subject material under discussion, the law respecting persons has undergone the greatest change. But all these changes, whether in the penal code or in the law of proprietary rights and obligations, were but a means, which made the Roman system adapted to the regulation of all peoples and at all times. When we see that the very barbarians who conquered Rome were in turn conquered by her system of jurisprudence, we are not a little filled with surprise; but when we find it not only influenc-ing and forming the basis of, but being incorporated in the legal codes of almost all nations, we come in contact with an effect that requires an adequate and efficient cause. After paying all due re-spect to that peculiar, innate faculty of administration in the Ro-man mind, without detracting one iota from the excellent opinions of the juristconsuls or limiting in the slightest degeee the wonder-ful influence of stoicism, as a system of philosophy, we are com-pelled to admit that none of these were individually or collectively efficient to produce such an effect. To Christianity must be as-cribed the credit of basing Roman law upon principles, so univer-sal and so humane, as to be applicable not only among the Roman state but among all nations of all times. If this statement seems rather large in its exposition and sweeping in its results, a few illustrations may be necessary to establish its validity. r \UIUW 138 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Can a law, which considers certain classes of men as mere brutes or inanimate things be reconciled to our conception that by nature all men are horn equal ? Or who can reconcile the idea that a woman is but the property of her husband, capable of being dismissed at his bidding, with our conception of human society ? What place could the principle of "patri potesias have in the legal status of a nation, all the citizens of which have equal rights be-fore its laws—yet in the wisdom of the juristconsuls and in the records they have left us, these principles and many others similar to them are found embodied. Stoic philosophy left to Roman law the principles of equity and humanity, but the basis of natural law upon which they rested and by which they were judged and applied, was subjected to a complete change ere they were capable of incorporation into modern jurisprudence. Christianity recognized these same principles of equity and humanity, but substituted truth instead of natural law as their criterion. Based on this principle and judged by this standard the conceptions of equity and humanity lose their limi-tations and assert themselves with the force of universality. It is only under these conditions that we find Roman law incorpo-rated in the laws of every great nation, and only in Christianity do we find a cause adequate to such an effect. Among legal historians there is a vast diversity of opinions with regard to the influence of Christianity upon Roman legisla-tion. This variance, Morey rightly attributes to their failure to distinguish Christianity as an ethical system from the church as a corporate institution.'' It must be remembered that the church, like all institutions, even though divine in their origin, is never-theless subject to the frailties of humanity by which it is regu-lated and too often fails to cancel the limitations between the ideal and the real. The family and the matrimonial ceremony are regarded as divine in their origin and sanction, but do they ever conform to the high standard by which they should be regulated? Perfection is an attribute not of this world, and if the church as a corporate institution has failed to attain the high plane established by the principles it recognizes and enunciates we can condemn the prin-ciples with no more justice than we can reason that a college edu-cation is of no advantage because some particular individual, who has taken a college course, has made a miserable failure in life. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 139 However intolerant the church may have been against pagans, jews, and heretics, the principles of Christianity as an ethical sys-tem remain unsullied and untainted, notwithstanding the injus-tice of their application. Morey has admirably summarized the whole matter: "In spite of the fact that the church in some cases set its face against civil equity, and the fact that Roman law had already received a liberal temper from the influence of Greek philosophy, it cannot be doubted that the progress of the law, in general, kept pace with the unfolding of ethical ideas in the Roman mind; and that so far as Christianity furnished a system of ethics more just, liberal and humane than that of stoicism, it brought to bear upon the Roman law a moral power superior to that which had previously been exerted upon it through the writings of the philosophical jurists." Who then can doubt that in Christianity, Roman law reaches the summit of its greatness and the beginning of its uni-versal application ! —W. E. B. '99. M THE CONFLICT OF THE AGES. AN is a progressive being. Contentment is foreign to his very nature. He is continuously looking to something beyond, to a condition higher and better. As his intellect broadens and quickens, he invariably becomes desirous of greater freedom. This love of liberty is connate with his physical and mental constitution. But there is also another desire deeply implanted within his breast, a desire which is destructive of the liberty of others. It is the love of power, the inherent desire of man to rule over his fellow:man, an ambition, the natural outcome of which is despot-ism. These two desires tend toward opposite directions. Between them is an irrepressible conflict. This conflict is as old as society and as persistent as humanity. From the earliest times its vary-ing phases have determined the condition of the race. The history of civilization is largely the story of this conflict, the story of human liberty struggling against human despotism. The outcome of this struggle has varied in different countries. ; 140 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. As a result their states of society have been vastly different. Just in proportion as liberty has triumphed over despotism so civiliza-tion has advanced beyond barbarism. Among the nations of an-tiquity despotism prevailed everywhere. As a consequence their civilization never advanced beyond a certain point. They were marked in every case either by iunobility or by slight advances and retrogressions. In the countries of Northern Europe arose a people whose chief characteristic was their love of freedom. Here liberty found a soil peculiarly fitted for her growth and develop-ment. What has been the result? Have these people an}' ele-ments of civilization not enjoyed by the nations of antiquity? Read the story of their steady progress through the Middle Ages. L,ook upon the unequalled state of civilization among them to-day and question not the advantages of liberty over despotism. Con-trast the despotic nature of ancient Assyria with the liberal char-acter of modern England and wonder not that the latter stands to-day the first empire of the world, while the former exists only upon the pages of history. During the dark ages humanity struggled against the most terrible despotism man had ever known,—the despotism of igno-rance and superstition. The human mind neglected, uncultivated and depressed sank into the deepest ignorance. So prolonged and intense was the gloom enveloping Europe that her people seemed incapable of advancement, society seemed destined to end-less barbarism. Gradually, however, knowledge became more diffused, inventions and discoveries awakened the human intellect from its long sleep, and man began to learn the truth about him-self and the world. This truth has made him free. Freedom of intellect naturally led to a desire for religious freedom. Ecclesiastical tyranny was incompatible with intellect-ual liberty. Enlightened minds refused to submit any longer to the authority of the Pope. Contentment gave place to unrest, un-rest to action, and action to liberty. The Reformation was more than a contest between Protestant-ism and Catholicism. It was an insurrection of the human mind against pure ecclesiastical monarchy. Do you wonder that the movement was crowned with the most glowing success ? Papal authority in Northern Europe was destroyed forever. This religi-ous liberty will eventually spread over the entire world. The religions of the world are becoming more and more imbued with THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 141 the sentiment of liberality. Sectarian differences are gradually disappearing before the growing light of intelligence. Creed and dogma will be re-adjusted more and more under the light of ad-vancing truth. Formal religion is being supplanted by true Christianity—that "divine keystone in the arch of universal his-tory." With an ever increasing radiance the light of Christianity is slowly but surely penetrating the darkness of heathenism, and hastening the approach of the time when the people of all the earth, regardless of race, sect or nationality, shall bow in worship before the one true God. Turning from the religious to the political world, we behold a revolution no less wonderful, a mighty struggle between despotic and liberal principles of government. This struggle shook Europe from Scandanavia to Italy, and snatched a new world from the threatened grasp of tyranny; a revolution of which the Reign of Terror was but an incident. The ideas engendered by the Reformation inaugurated a mighty epoch of political regeneration. The great sovereigns of Europe, one after another, have been deprived of their prerogatives until to-day the last one sits trembling upou a tottering throne that threatens to fall at any instant. The day is not far distant when even the "Autocrat of all the Russias" shall see his sceptre depart into the hands of his subjects. Thus we have seen during the last three epochs three great stages of the onward march of civilization; three mighty victories for the cause of struggling humanity; victories which include in-tellectual, religious and political freedom. To-day the world has entered upon another epoch; an epoch which brings with it questions far more complicated than those of the past, and far more momentous than those that have convulsed Europe with centuries of revolution. The great struggles of the past have been, in the main, suc-cessful, and the echoes of the mighty battles for civil and religious freedom are growing fainter and fainter. But the cause of freedom is not yet won. The hosts of oppression have been driven from the fields of church and state only to return with renewed vigor to attack freedom in the field of industry. The scene of conflict has extended from the old world to the new. Society has entered upon an industrial age. Modern civilization is marked by ma-terial progress unprecedented in the history of mankind. Great 142 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. inventions have revolutionized travel, commerce and manufacture. Ocean steamers, railroads and telegraphs have practically annihi-lated time and space. By constant and easy intercourse with the world, man's views have been enlarged, his energies stimulated, and his rate of progress quickened. Yet with all this unparalleled progress in the industrial power of society, there has come no proportionate improvement in the condition of the masses. While the great industrial development of the present age has brought many blessings for mankind, the tyranny of selfish men has monopolized these blessings for the few. Capital gets the lion's share of the world's wealth, while Labor is reduced to a condition of servitude. A few monopolists amass colossal fortunes and revel in Croe-cian luxury, while thousands of wage earners, becoming more and more pauperized, sink into intellectual and moral degradation. Millions are wasted in feasting while gaunt starvation stalks the streets. Society has become a vast machine which turns out at one end milliouaries, and at the other tramps, paupers and anarch-ists. The enormous inequalities of existing conditions are creating a discontent in the minds of the laboring classes; a discontent that foreshadows an impending revolution. Profound discontent preceded the great religious upheaval in the sixteenth century. Great unrest ushered in the awful convul-sions of the French revolution. With the reappearance of the same conditions to-day, revolution is as inevitable as the laws of the universe. Human nature will not tolerate abuse forever. Labor will not always submit to the tyranny of capital. Even now the cohorts of freedom are gathering for a mighty effort. There is every indication that we are on the eve of a momen-tous struggle. The discontent of the masses is '' no longer the fretting of the waves;" it is "the roar of the rushing tide." It is to be a contest for the supremacy of wealth on the one hand or the freedom of opportunity on the other ;—a conflict that will decide whether the combined money power of the world is to per-petuate its tyranny of greed and avarice, or whether the toiling millions are at last to enjoy unmolested the products of their own labor. History teaches that there can be but one outcome to this struggle. Despotism again will fall. The indomitable forces of THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. freedom will win another victory. Economic despotism is simply fighting the same hopeless battle that was fought and lost by spiritual and political despotism in the ages that have passed. Civilization will never rest until this great barrier is removed. There are only two ways in which this can be accomplished; by the peaceful methods of education and religion, or through the instrumentalities of war. Should the latter method prevail, and should the masses be led by designing demagogues, or by reason-ing anarchists inspired only by a sense of injustice, and revenge, the innocent will perish with the guilty in the most dreadful social catastrophe that has ever darkened the pages of history. Do the conditions indicate that such will be the result ? Are we to sup-pose that the increased intelligence and morality of the present age will permit such a solution of our great sociological problem ? Have we read history in vain or profited nothing by the great lessons of the past, that we must see re-enacted on the stage of modem history the bloody scenes of the sixteenth century? Is the nineteenth century civilization so little advanced that it is about to behold a social convulsion compared with which the aw-ful horrors of the French Revolution shall sink into insignificance ? A million Christian hearts answer, "No." A million earnest workers for the triumph of right over might, filled with the belief that the signs of the times point upward, and inspired with the hope that social and economic freedom shall come as the product of better hearts and better souls, respond with a mighty " NO." The wrongs of our present industrial system shall not be righted among scenes of violence and confusion. The ceaseless unrest of the multitudes, that are to mould the destinies of the future, is the sign of an advancing civilization. It means that they are acquiring more brain force, more manhood, the raw ma-terials out of which God will shape a better future for humanity The dawn of a better day is breaking the deep clouds of sin. The heart of the world is beating more truly than ever before. Men are beginning to realize that the prosperity of society depends upon the well-being of the whole people. They are coming to see that a divine fatherhood implies an universal brotherhood. The world is moving onward toward the realization of the ideal life of human happiness; a life where manhood shall count for more than gold, where character shall outweigh the dollar ; a life free from selfishness and tyranny, abounding injustice, liberty and equality. i44 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. In this life shall the Conflict of the Ages cease and man find his highest place as he ministers to the good of all. "Then the common sense of most Shall hold a fretful realm in awe, And the kindly earth shall slumber, Lapt in universal law. And the war drum throb no longer, And the battle flags be furled In the parliament of man, The Federation of the world." —W. R. E., '99. THE PHILOMATHAEAN SOCIETY. BY PROF. L. H. CROIX. [From the Pennsylvania College Book, 1832.] MORE than a year before the charter of Pennsylvania Col-lege was granted by the legislature of the State, the Philomathaean Society had its organization, in the "Gettysburg Gymnasium," on the corner of Washington and High streets, Gettysburg, Pa. The students of the institution assembled in the west room of the second story, on the 4th of February, A. D., 1831, to form literary societies whose generous rivalry would stimulate the members to mutual, intellectual and moral improvement. It was agreed to divide the whole number of students into two equal parts, in the order in which their names stood enrolled, each division then withdrew to the "East Room," second story, becoming the founders of the Philomathaean So-ciety, with Prof. M. Jacobs as chairman. With the permission of the Professor of Theology, the meeting continued to be held in the rooms devoted to theological instruction, the corner-stone of the Theological Seminary not being laid until the following- May. A Constitution and a name were adopted, but the latter was not at first settled in its orthography, for the different secretaries give "Philomathian," "Philomathean," "Philomatheon" as the name before the present Philomathaean became confirmed. The signification of the names, "lovers of learning," implies the object of the organization, "to create and cherish a taste for learning, and to promote sentiments of mutual regard and friend- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 145 ship;" or, as afterwards modified, "to cultivate and diffuse among its members liberal principles, and to promote the great objects of social, moral, and intellectual improvements." The constitution provides for the election of all officers, for the admission and the dismissal of members, for fines and penalties, for meetings and work, for the formation and use of a library; and it emphasizes the requirement of each member to hold inviolate his duty to preserve a proper secrecy of the affairs of the society. One of the first peculiarities was the appointment of a "Room-keeper," taken in alphabetical order, to make all the arrangements necessary for holding the next meeting. He seems to have been keeper of the door, introducing any new or honorary member, but, in connection with his more dignified work, he was also "hewer of wood and drawer of water,'' polisher of lamps and factotum in general. This office was abandoned in the new college building, when a janitor become necessary on account of the increased work in hall, library and reading-rooms, and when the funds of the society allowed a consideration for services required. The meetings were first held on Friday evening, and as lamps were a necessity, with the order for their purchase was joined that of a "jug," or "bottle" for the use of the society. Now this bot-tle is evidently not the decanter held in bad repute, nor is the jug the famous "little brown jug," celebrated by the students in their later years in their rollicking glee; for the society was strongly in favor of total abstinence, as the votes on all temperance debates proved. As an illustration of the small beginnings of a society, there is an account of the purchase of a "suitable desk, or covert, for the use of the Secretary, library, lamps, etc." Some later Secretary has changed the v of covert to b, making it "cobert," having doubtless in mind the old family cupboard at home. From the day when a single desk or closet would accommodate not only the library, but the articles of the Secretary and the Janitor be-sides, to the present, when even the present library room has be-come too cramped to display all the volumes to advantage, an earnest of what may be expected in another half century is exhib-ited. Another illustration of small beginnings was the original initiation fee of fifty cents, which rose to two dollars and a half when the college obtained its charter, and not long afterwards to five dollars, at which figure it has since remained. 146 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The first original declamation, by one of the still surviving founders (1882), by permission of the society, was in the German language. From the first the debate took high rank, and seemed to claim the highest interest of the members. The subjects chosen often bore directly upon their personal relations, and the first was upon their call or right to existence as a society. Then the ques-tion of social visiting, the granting of diplomas for partial or special courses of study, and other like topics, were discussed, as well as the questions of public interest in their day. The first anniversary celebration was held February 17, 1832, and the speeches were made by two of the founders. At first these exercises were held in the Gymnasium building, and invita-tions were sent to such persons as were supposed to appreciate literary entertainment. It may seem somewhat primitive at the present day to learn that '' a few verses '' were sung between the speeches, instead of the classical instrumental music furnished at later entertainments. Another novelty was the '' privilege given to those present of making any remarks to the society that might be thought proper. Afterward the exercises were held in the German church, until 1835, when they were transferred to the Presbyterian church, in consequence of obligations being made to the introduction of in-strumental music into the church. After 1836 the public exer-cises were held in Christ (college) church, then completed. In connection with the spring examinations, by request of the Professors, each society appointed an essayist, an orator, and a debater as performers at the closing exercises of the session. The exercises were to be original, and each society was to "chal-lenge" the other alternately to select the subject of debate. Thus originated the annual "contests," which grew in interest from year to year until 1849, when a dispute with the church officers brought all public exercises ofthe societies to a close forseveral years. The customary fees for the sexton and other incidents were asked for in advance, by a regulation of the church officers, in conse-quence of the difficulty of collecting them after the interest of the occasion had passed and the officers of the societies had been changed. This action being misapprehended as a charge for the use of the church, which was free to exercise under the direction of the faculty, or as a reflection upon the integrity of the socie-ties was resisted. Not satisfied with the explanation that the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 147 sum assessed merely covered the expenses incident to the opening of the church, the societies memorialized the Board of Trustees on the question, who replied that the demand was not unreason-able; and thus ended the dispute and the contests at the same time. At the time of the earlier anniversaries, an honorary member was elected to deliver an address. From 1836 to 1853 an address was delivered each year before the societies jointly. From this time there have been annual and biennial addresses, the societies usually alternating in the choice. As a matter of history, between 1852 and 1855, with an organ-ization or union of the different literary societies of various col-leges, bearing the prae-nomen of Philo, and known as the "Philo Union," must not be omitted. It originated at Shelby College, Kentucky, and enrolled Philo Societies of more than a score of colleges, extending from New England to the West. Member-ship in any one of these societies secured admission to all the others, and a general plan of simultaneous anniversaries was pro-posed. The fraternal relations of the brotherhood were to be cul-tivated and the general interest to be promoted by a periodical es-tablished at some central institution; but the difficulties of practi-cal co-operation and the excessive labor of correspondence made the union of short duration, and a second generation of students scarcely learned of its existence. MONOTONY OF LIFE. THAT one could complain of the monotony of life, living in an age and in a nation like ours, certainly seems strange to a wide-awake person with an active mind. One certainly cannot get such an idea from nature in her ever changing forms, if one observes her. She assumes in turn every color known to us, the tender green of spring, the bounteous variety of blossoms and flowers, the splendor of the autumn foliage, the white mantles of snow and the brilliant sunsets. Instead of monotony to the observer it seems all unrest and change with hardly any continua-tion in the same line or place. There is variety in the life all around us, from the tiniest insect up to man ; there is continual change in the life of even the humblest individual. Great changes mmim 148 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. occur in all nations. Thought on different subjects changes, pub-lic opinion changes and is a mighty power worthy of a care-ful consideration. In fact everything changes with the pro-gress of civilization. Truly it is only the inactive mind and un-observant eye and the sluggish spirit that can for a moment imag-ine life to be monotonous. If we look closely we will notice certain principles running through life's changes. We see a union between the old and the new. It is the same old earth, it matters not under how many changes. The same trees are white with blossoms in the spring, green with foliage in the summer and brown and bare in the autumn. So with ourselves, a change of occupation or of resi-dence, a change in our financial circumstances, a marriage, a death, a journey, each brings a new experience for our old selves and forms a fresh union between our past and our present condi-tion. These things may bring happiness or sorrow for the time being, but they all have the power of enriching, enlarging and improving our characters and lives by making good additions to our stock of old experiences. Of course if we do not want it so, we can make it otherwise to a certain extent. We can be dull and inactive and cling to the old, see nothing in all the changing world about us, make no new friends, cling to old ideas, discuss no new methods, hold the same opinions and pride ourselves upon what we might call con-sistency, but which is really only thestubbornness of a mind which thinks that the world is becoming worse with new ideas, new methods and new experiences. We can plainly see that to lead a life like that is to cross our Maker's purpose, for his purpose was without doubt that we should grow into the full richness and value of manhood by cherishing our past experiences and learning well the lessons taught by them while we step forward into new and untried paths with vigor and hope. —R. Z. I., '00. 'Twas an evening of beauty ; the air was perfume, The earth was all greenness, the trees were all bloom And softly the delicate viol was heard, Like the murmur of love or the notes of a bird. —Whittier. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 149 ATHLETICS. BASEBALL, this year is not as successful in some senses as usual, but in others we can pride ourselves upon our team. In the beginning of the season they encountered six hard games in succession, five being away from home, and were greatly hindered by lack of sufficient practice. But in the later games they seem to have rounded well into form, and are playing pretty good ball. The greatest surprise of the year has been Roehner's pitching, he having developed wonderfully, and doing work which, with better support, would have won a number of the games which were lost. The season was opened 011 April 15th, with Franklin and Mar-shall on their grounds at Lancaster, and was won by Gettysburg by a score of 6 to 4. The game was very pretty, both sides play-ing good ball, except in one inning, when the F. and M. boys did their only scoring. The feature of the game was Lantz's home run over left field fence with two men on bases. The trip to the central part of the state was opened at Susque-hanna April 20th, when we were beaten 12 to 6, by a comedy of errors in the first three innings which netted the home team eight runs. After that the boys settled down and played well, but Sus-quehanna's lead was too great. On April 21st we beat Bucknell by a score of 12 to 7, through hard batting coupled with the best fielding of the season. The game throughout was highly interesting and exciting, being marked by a number of pretty plays. Roehner pitched a fine game, allowing Bucknell but six hits, to Gettysburg's eleven. State defeated us April 22d, by the score of 7 to 6 in a game that was very close and exciting, though marked by bad errors on both sides. Ketterman pitched a good game, receiving poor sup-port, while Farr was knocked out of the box, and Morgan sub-stituted. At Bloomsburg, March 24th, we were defeated by the Normal School by the score of 14 to 4. The Normal boys have a good team, but it is only right to say that they would not have beaten us so badly if it had not been for the umpire. The first home game was with Dickinson on April 27th, when we were beaten by a score of 15 to 6. The game was poorly played on both sides, but tight until the sixth inning, when it THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. was tied, after which our boys went to pieces, and Dickinson brought in nine more runs. We were beaten for the second time by Susquehanna Univer-sity on Nixon Field, May 5th, the score being 6 to 5. Our team did far better work in every way than the visitors, but their only two errors were costly, bringing in four runs, aud^poor judgment in base-running at a couple critical points lost a game by what can be termed nothing but hard luck. Games scheduled with the Indians and Dickinson at Carlisle were unavoidably canceled and prevented by rain respectively, and the next game was on Nixon Field with Franklin and Mar-shall, who were beaten in a very pretty game by the same score as in first game, 6-4. They were shut out until the eighth, and secured but four hits in all off Roehner. The Preps have manifested a good college spirit this year by getting up a team that is doing good work in its class. They were beaten by Dickinson Prep at Carlisle, 13-4, and returned the compliment on Nixon Field by the score of 13-9. They also played against '01's team, by whom they were beaten in a one-sided game by a score of 15-0. At the relay carnival at the University of Pennsylvania, April 29th, we were classed with Dickinson, Bucknell, Franklin and Marshall, and Ursinus, and came in fourth in one of the speediest races of the day. Dickinson won, having a clear lead, and Buck-nell, F. & M., and Gettysburg came in in the order named, bunched very close together, with Ursinus trailing some distance in the rear. Probably the most interesting and significant event in athletics of recent years was the dual meet with Dickinson held on Nixon Field, May 17. We were defeated, the score of points being 60 to 28, but can feel that the meet was a success as far as we are concerned, for it has given track athletics the impetus which it has needed so long. Dickinson won all the first places except the high hurdle, captured by Koller, '00, and the high jump a tie between Albers, '99, and Brown, of Dickinson. Our men showed however, that they could have done far better work with proper training, and we believe that they have caught the spirit now, and we can turn out a winning team next year. —W. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Flowery June, When brooks send up a cheerful tune, And groves a joyful sound. JX 151 —Bryant. And what is so rare as a day in June ? Then, if ever, come perfect days; Then heaven tries the earth if it be in time, And over it softly her warm ear lays. -Lowell. And so beside the silent sea I wait the muffled oar; No harm from Him can come to me On ocean or on shore. I know not where His islands lift Their fronded palms in air ; I only know I cannot drift Beyond His love and care. — Whittier. The last bird I ever fired at was an eaglet on the shore of the Gulf of Ir\DT Successor to W. J7. VAJLAJKl, Simon J. Codori Dealer in Beef, Pork, Lamb, Veal, Sausage. Special rates to Clubs. York St., GETTYSBURG. Davib Croxel, Dealer trt ^ine groceries anb ttottons «-x4}ork Street. .GO TO. CHAS. E. BARBEHENN, Barber, In the Eagle Hotel, Cor. Main and Washington Sts. YOHN BROS. Agents for the Keystone State, Waldo, Washburn, Groupner & Meyer. Highest Grade Mandolins, Guitars, Banjos, Mandollas and Mandocellos. Headquarters for Phonographs, G-raphophones and supplies. Trimmings of every description. All sheet music one-half off. Large discounts on Books and studies. 326 Market St., Harrisburg, Pa. FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. Baseball v>tipptie& .Spaloing's league JSall, /Iftits, jflftaelie, Etc. Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for aennf0, ©olf, Grtcftet, Gracft ano fftelo, ©Ktnnastum Equipments anD ©utfite Complete Catalogue Spring and Summer Sports Free. The Name the Guar-antee." a. ©. SpalOing SL JBros. New York .". Philadelphia Chicago ROWE, .Your Grocer. Carries Full Line of Groceries, Canned Goods, Etc, Best Coal Oil and Brooms at most Reasonable Prices. OPPOSITE COLLEGE CAMPUS. S. /. CODORI, Jr. t* Druggists Dealer in Drugs, Medicines, Toilet Articles, J> Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. .Baltimore Street. R. H. Culp, PAPER HANGER, Second Square, York St. COLLEGE EMBLEMS. EMIL ZOTHE, ENGRAVER, DESIGNER AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER. 19 S. NINTH ST. PHILADELPHIA. PA. SPECIALTIES: Masonic Marks, Society Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through C. H. Tilp. Gotrell & Leonard, 472-474 Broadway, Albany, N. Y. makers of CAPS, GOWNS and. HOODS To the leading- American Colleges. Illus-trated Manual, etc., upon application. Meneely Bell Co. TROY, N. Y. MANUFACTURERS OF SUPERIOR BELLS The 2000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania Col-lege was manufactured at this foundry. r . nmmwmmiiMMMmwimmmmmm PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. You can't expect to create the im-pression that you are well dressed unless your clothes are MADE FOR YOU. Equivocate as you may, the fact remains that ready-made garments lack that air of exclusiveness which custom work possesses. J. D. LIPPY, Merchant Tailor 39 Chambersburg St., Gettysburg, Pa. G. E. SPANGLER, ^ Dealer in Pianos, Organs, Music, Musical Instruments, Strings, Etc. YORK STREET, 1ST SQUARE. GETTYSBURG. L. D. Miller, Grocer, Confectioner and Fruiterer. Ice Cream and Oysters in Season . . . \0) lUaxn St., ©ettusburg. City Hotel, Main St. Gettysburg. Free 'Bus to and from all Trains Thirty seconds' walk from either depot Dinner with drive over field with four or more, $1.35 Rates $1.50 to $2.00 per day. John E. Hughes, Prop. WlLLlHSURE^OUR^ lfiiilnl'iil¥rii;TJH w&receipt ot SI0-0 A6AINST ILLNESS., PHYSICIANS'* PLUMBERS- ' BILLS.DUETO IMPURE AIR, ^ FROM CLOGGEDjJ^'HS flew York, Bosfo/i. P/>//dde//i/>/fr<}/7c/sco. lo/?

JUNE, J899 ooTlhe, Qettysbur ercury CONTENTS. Our College Home 117 The 1900 Spectrum 119 Tick-tack-to 120 A Hero's Reward 123 An Art Fad 125 Retrieved 128 Editor's Desk, 131 Hypnotism 131 " The Influence of Christianity on Roman Jurisprudence ". 134 The Conflict of the Ag-es 139 The Philomathaean Society 144 Monotony of Life 147 Athletics 149 YMMUM FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. wmomrn For Fine Printing GO TO The J. E. WIBLE .Printing Rouee Carlisle Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. C. B. Kitzmiller, Dealer in Hats, Caps, Boots and . Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, PA. J. H. Myers, Fashionable Tailor, Clothier and Gents' Furnisher. The best place in town to have your Cloth-ing made to order. All workmanship and Trimmings guaranteed. No charge for re-pairs and pressing for one year. Dyeing and Repairing a specialty. Ready-made Clothing the largest stock in town. Up-to-date styles. Bicycle Suits and Breeches Headquarters. 11 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. R. A. WONDERS, Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, Etc. Scott's Corner, Opp. Eagle Hotel. GETTYSBURG, A. Have you an assured livelihood? "Would you try for a government posi-tion, if you knew just how to apply, and the kinds of positions from which you can choose, and what to do to insure your getting on the list after you have applied! The Government of the United States is the best of employers. Fair compen-sation, regularity of payment, reason-ably Bure tenure, tasks not too difficult, | ana hours not too I ong, offer strong at-tractions to young persons of both sexes whohavenosettledinuome. Manyenter Government employ, spend their spare i hours in studying law or medicine, or finance, and save enough from their salaries to start in a professional or business career. We have just published a book from whichanj/candidate maylearnjustwhat is necesaary and what unnecessary in brushing up his studies for an examina-tion ; and what his chances are, all things considered, for making bis way into the Civil Service, and staying there. The title of this book is " How to Prepnre for a Civil Service Examination; With Recent Questions and An-swers." It contains all Information which any candidate would require to firepare for any competitive office under ' he Government, and includes a "Ten Weeks' Course of 8tudy,"ln the form of questions actually asked at recent ex-aminations, with the correct answers to i them. Besides the technical require- ' mentSjitalso covers all the elementary branches, like arithmetic, spelling, pen- , manship, geography, letter writing, civil government, etc., etc., so that one who masters this course of study would not only pass well an examination for a gov- , ernment position, but would be sure of I preferment over other applicants for a clerkship in a business house. CLOTH—$2.00 Postpaid—560 PAGES Anotherbookfree(Quickat Figures)if you mention this paper when ordering. HINDS A NOBLE, Publishers 4-5-13-14 Cooper Institute, N. Y. City Schoolbooks ofallpublishers at one store .THE. GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter. Voi,. VIII. GETTYSBURG, PA., JUNE, 1899. No. 4 Editor-in- Chief. J. FRANK EEILMAN, '00. Alumni Editor. REV. F. D. GARLAND. Assistant Editors. LUTHER A. WEIGLE, '00. S. A. VAN ORMER, '01. Business Manager. Assistant Business Manager. JOHN K. HAMACHER, '00. CLARENCE MOORE, '02. Advisory Board. PROF. J. A. HIMES, L,IT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D. D. Published monthly by the students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price One Dollar a year in advance, single copies Fifteen Cents. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. OUR COLLEGE HOME. Oh bright for us the sunbeams rest On tower and town with rosier glow, On sentry Round Top's rugged crest And on the immortal Ridge below, Where marble Victory's fadeless bays The patriot soldier crown, And History graves for future days The deeds of his renown. CHORUS—Then ring we clear a loyal cheer, Wnere'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our famous College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! O fair for us the moonlight falls, To brighten with its silver flame At once the stately College halls wmm 118 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. And the memorials of fame That peer from every grove and grange, And in their silence tell That here heroic spirits range O'er meads of asphodel. CHORUS—Then ring we clear a loyal cheer, Where'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our honored College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! O soft for us the shadows play Among the Campus elms, and woo To merry converse and delay From tasks we busily pursue. Ah Youth and Friendship, how ye charm In Learning's calm abode,— True Graces, twining arm in arm On sweet Arcadian sod ! CHORUS—Then ring we clear a loyal cheer, Where'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our glorious College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah! At morn the duty-call of bells Rings clear and urgent, near and far, At eve a gentler music swells From gleeful viol or guitar. O jolly is the life we lead In study, song or games ! O fortunate the fate indeed That here inscribes our names ! CHORUS—Then ring- we clear a loyal cheer, . Where'er we rest or roam, For Gettysburg, for Gettysburg, Our dear old College home,— Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! Energy will do anything that can be done in this world; and no talents, no circumstances, no opportunities will make a two-legged animal a man without it. —Goethe. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 119 THE J900 SPECTRUM. THE most recent claimant, in our midst, to literary and ar-tistic honors, is the class of 1900. Its Spectrum, just is-sued, challenges our admiration from start to finish, and we heartily accord to it equal rank with the best of our college annuals, thus far issued. The form of the book, and the general arrangement of its con-tents, show a pleasing appreciation of responsibility in the plac-ing of details to secure good effects. There has been an evident purpose on the part of the printers, publishers, managers, artists and editors, to produce a work which should be alike creditable to themselves, as well as to the college which this publication represents. The volume is fittingly dedicated to Prof. Klinger, who is justly characterized as "both teacher and fellow student." The various classes and associations are given due recogni-tion by verbal statement, cut, pencil and photograph. The latter are unusually good throughout and constitute an attractive fea-ture. The sketches, are, as a rule, very clearly executed, and are amusing without being either vulgar or rude. The "Literary Record of Gettysburg Alumni," is an import-ant feature and will add permanency to the value of this publication. It will be interesting and profitable for our alumni and friends to have a record of this sort for handy reference. The "Spanish War Record" is not less interesting and valu-able. It is something for us to be proud of, that when our coun-try needed men to prosecute a war in the interests of humanity, against a cruel oppressor, that twenty-eight men, from our grad-uate and undergraduate ranks, cheerfully enlisted and did honor-able service. The humorous thoughts and aspects of college life, receive literary embodiment in the concluding pages of the volume. These show a commendable degree of appreciation of humor, in both possible and impossible, but easily imagined situations. It is a pity that so much of this kind of literature, must necessarily go unappreciated, for it requires an acquaintance with the dramatis personae and the conditions under which described events happen, in order to extract all the flavor of humor which makes them en-joyable. ■MMtimp mum. 120 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. This volume is certainly deserving of hearty recognition, and it is hoped that many of our alumni and friends of the college, will show their appreciation of the arduous labors of the class by acquiring a copy. Reader,—it will add permanent value to your library. Send for a copy at once. —G. D. S. TICK-TACK-TO. THERE is scarcely a conversation indulged in with a greater relish, by persons of a maturer age, than that relating to bygone games and pastimes. The children love to linger by the hearth and will listen with rapt attention, as their father relates to them the strange and antiquated games of his boyhood days. There are, perhaps, few things that brighten the eyes of our sires more readily than mere mention of puerile games. They love to cast away the titles of Rev., Dr., or Mr. and think of the time " when you were Bill and I was Joe " and, if one is in their presence when they are exchanging reminiscences he may be both instructed and agreeably entertained. Nor is the relish for this peculiar sort of conversation peculiar to those who have already passed the meridian of life and can no more win for themselves the eclat of the beholding multitude, or the more modest commendation of a few admiring friends, or even the laudatory look of defeated opponents. It belongs also to us. What conversation can be introduced into our college boudoirs that will be more highly appreciated and rejuvenate happier reminiscences than that relating to the games we used to play. The occasional rehearsing of them forms a condiment whose pungency quickens our appetites for more solid and substantial forms of mental food. As such, however, they tend only to excite pleasure and enter-tain, and are evanescent in their effects. If, on the other hand, we view them in a more serious manner and forget them as prolific of. an almost boundless store of sport and hilarity, we may not only become instructed but learn, to our amazement perhaps, that we are playing the same old games to-day. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 121 To demonstrate this we might choose almost any one of the limited number of juvenile games as an example. Since they all bring forth some phase of life and all contain some suggestion for reflection. Blind-man's-buff for instance, teaches us how gro-tesquely we often grope after the fleeing prizes of life. Leap-frog portrays to us the use to which we are sometimes put by men of ulterior motives and the humility connected therewith, but there are some, however, whose peculiarities stand out in bolder relief than in others ; some whose lessons are more drastic than others, and in few is this more obvious than in the triplicate game of tick-tack-to. It is very simple and probably the most universally known game of childhood. As a palladium against the captiousness of the nursery its charm is talismanic. In point of economy there are few games that excel it: a pencil, a slate or a small slip of paper with two parallel lines drawn perpendicularly upon it and two similar ones crossing them horizontally constitute all that there is of a material outlay. A series of three marks occupying three successive spaces in any direction brings to a proper conclusion the course of the game and suggests to us now, what in childhood's happy hours were arcanums unraveled. One of them is contained in the nature of the game. Unlike many other of our juvenile pastimes tick-tack-to is not a game of luck nor chance but a game of skill and intelligence. Were it a game of luck we would be at a loss to derive any lessons from it and could certainly not compare it to life; since those who have attained to the highest success in life cherish little hope for the man who depends on luck. One of our beloved martyred Presidents, the lamented Jas. A. Garfield, once said, "Luck is an ignis fatuus. It leads to ruin but never to success." The idea that certain men are rich, or prosperous, or popular, because they were born under such circumstances under which it would be impossible for them to be otherwise, finds little credence among successful men. It is not the man who is born at a certain time, in a certain place and under certain environments who attains to success but he who works; he who is active; he who is alive to every oppor-tunity; he whose every mark is prompted by an intelligent judgment. 122 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Another deduction that we can 333ke from the game and apply to life is the mode of procedure. "We used to play7 it under dif-ficulties. Our advance was retarded by opposition. This of course is a common condition to all games and would not distinguish this particular one from any other; but the unique-ness of it lies in the fact that the opposition is created by one op-ponent and only one. Thus in the game of life we proceed against hindrances and against hindrances of but one opponent. Who is that opponent? Who is he, or what is it, that barricades our onward march every time we take a stride toward success ? Who is he who with rude hand dashes a cross before our line of progress every time our success is partially and almost entirely accomplished ? Is he to be found in the personality of some one other than ourselves ? May we detect him among the multitudes that pass before us from day to day ? May we discover him among those with whom we are continually associated ? No, prospection will never reveal him, introspection may. We have but one opponent to contend with, and that oppo-nent is self, the lower self; the material as opposed to the spiritual self. We sometimes suppose that our embarrassments in life, are traceable to external circumstances, to some person or company of persons, or to some combination of circumstances. But they are only the marks used by ourselves against our-selves. They form the media through which our lower nature reacts upon the higher and thus continues the dualisdc game of life. St. Bernard appreciating this fact once said "Nothing can do me damage but myself," and if we wish to reject authority can we not by a little self-examination verify this statement within the scope of our own experience ? Does not the soul in becoming cognizant of the virtue of a certain act urge us to do it ? Does it not in the language of the game place its mark in one of the spaces ? What follows ? The body shrinks from the performance of the act. It opposes the impulse of the soul. It places its mark directly before the one already made. No sooner has this taken place than the conscience comes into prominence. Not willing to acquiesce with one repulse it incites us to a redoubled effort. It places its mark before the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 123 original one in another direction. This being done up swell the passions and endeavor with vehemence to thwart the noble im-pulse and crush all that is holy and pure in man. So the game proceeds with vacillating fortunes until the lower or the higher na-ture is conqueror. A contest it is trying and severe, unheard by mortal ear, un-seen by mortal eye. Revealed only to Him under whose dispen-sation it is possible and under whose guidance only, success is at-tainable. —MARKS. A HERO'S REWARD. IN the spring of 1825, Mr. Perry decided to sell his plantation, very reluctantly however, for it was here that he was born, and then with his family, which consisted of his wife, a son, Philip, and a daughter, Mabel, to go North. It was at Mr. Hall's suggestion that he located in a small town in the northern part of New Jersey and went into business with him. These two families had known each other for years and naturally at once there sprung up a friendship between Philip Perry and Mr. Hall's only son and child, Tom; but from the start Tom seemed to have an especial regard for Mabel, which grew into an affection as they grew in years. The Perrys belonged to one of the old, aristocratic, south-ern families, and were, as most such families were, wealthy. The Halls were also quite independent, though not in such affluent circumstances. The two boys were sent to a small military academy near New York and graduated in the same class. A short time after this Mr. Hall was taken ill and died very suddenly, and a year later Mrs. Hall died through grief for her dead husband. Mr. Perry was also affected by his partner's death and having closed out the business, moved South and located in Richmond, Va. He in-sisted that Tom should go along and make his home with them, and Tom, with a little persuasion from Mabel, did so. The boys went to a southern college, where they stood high both in their class and in the esteem of their fellow students, for they were good, jolly boys. During this time the affection be-tween Mabel and Tom ripened into love and Tom often wished in-wardly that some day he might win Mabel for his wife. y—^——™—™——— miyiiyi 124 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. After their college days both young men had entered Mr. Perry's employ and held positions of trust and responsibility in his cotton mill. So well, indeed, did they manage their work, that Mr. Perry was about to entrust the entire management to them when that dreadful war, which so nearly resulted in the division of our Union, was declared. Recognizing his duty, Philip Perry at once left home and enlisted in the 9th Virginia Regiment. Tom Hall hesitated. He was undecided as to what to do. He knew full well that his duty was to go North and join a Northern regiment, and yet—if he went, it meant, as Mabel had said, that all would end between them, for Mabel was a Southern girl. What was he to do ? On the one side he could hear the call to duty, on the other Mabel wanted him, if he went at all, to go with "Phil." At last his love for his country conquered even his love for Mabel and as a true patriot he secretly made his way north and enlisted in the 1st New Jersey, which was mustered in at his old home. It is needless to follow these two soldiers through the entire campaign, but suffice it to say that they soon rose to high positions in their respective regiments on account of their bravery. On the evening of July 2, 1863, General Dee, who was in command of the Confederate forces at Gettysburg, realizing his perilous position and possibly expecting defeat, decided to make one final, desperate attempt to break through the Union line. That evening he had been reinforced by Stuart's Cavalry and was therefore hopeful of success. His plan was to pierce the Union line at a point now called the "High Water Mark," for that was the turning point of the greatest battle of the Civil War. Everyone has heard of Pickett's famous charge and how the men of the two armies fought hand to hand over the old stone wall. The 9th Virginia belonged to Armistead's brigade, which was almost annihilated in this charge; yet many were not killed outright, but after suffering untold agony, gave up their lives for the cause they thought right. During this battle, a number of regiments were held in reserve and among this number was the 1st New Jersey. On the evening of July 3d, the news of the famous charge of Pickett's Division and the successful repulse was reported among the various Union regiments, and of course reached the 1st New Jersey. \THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 125 Colonel Tom Hall recalled the fact that Philip Perry had en-listed in the 9th Virginia, and he imagined he heard some one say that he was dying on the field. Before dawn he had mounted his faithful horse and galloped off in the direction of the "clump of trees." For some time he searched, but all in vain, and he was about to leave when he heard a terrible groan a short dis-tance beyond the wall on the Union side. It startled him and he drew up his horse, dismounted and stooped over the half-dead body of a Confederate officer. Imagine his surprise to find his old friend, Philip Perry! He gently bound up his wounds and raising him, placed him on his horse and rode slowly back to his regiment. Major Perry remained in a semi-conscious state for several days and when he came to, he found himself in Colonel Hall's tent and over him was stooping his dear sister, washing off the blood stains and dressing his wounds. As soon as Major Perry was strong enough to be moved, Colonel Hall had him exchanged for a Northern officer, who was confined in one of the Southern prisons. However, before Major Perry was taken to his home in Rich-mond, the old love between Mabel and Colonel Hall had over-come all difficulties between them and under a tree not far from where Major Perry had fallen, he witnessed a short ceremony, performed by the Chaplain of the 1st New Jersey, in which Colo-nel Hall received "A Hero's Reward," the long desired hand of Mabel in marriage. —W. G. L. '01. «**£> AN ART FAD. IN these days when fads in almost every line of trade and pro-fession are so prominent, one is not surprised to find that there is such a thing as a fad in art also. The particular one selected for the subject of this essay is that style so prominent at this time in the art. of painting—the poster. The poster occu-pies the same place in the art of painting as do dialect stories in literature or syncopated rhythm, i. e. the so-called "rag-time" in music. Not any of these is a recent creation but rather a recent craze. For instance, considered from a scientific standpoint, "rag-time" has been co-eval with the history of music. 126 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Beethoven and Mozart wrote it and even in the incomparable fugures of Bach we encounter it. And in literature, dialect did certainly not originate with James Whitcomb Riley. The possibilities of the colored poster were first made known to English and French artists when the great flaming advertise-ments of Barnum were first placed upon the exposed places of London and Paris. The influence of these American advertising posters became prominent and at once both England and France began to contribute colored products in poster art, which, while far more artistic than the pictures of Wild West performers, were not after all so widely different in outline, color and other quali-ties. Between that day when vivid and crude design was pre-dominant, and to-day when the artistic poster is so much in evi-dence, there is a considerable advance apparent. Simultaneous with the growth of the poster and practically very beneficial was the adoption of it by the up-to-date theatre for advertising purposes. And it lends itself admirably for this pur-pose. It has also been a favorite mode of advertising in the com-mercial world, but one sees less of its use in this manner now than formerly. In the literary advertising department, the poster still is very prominent and is the usual way of calling the attention of the public to the merits of some special edition of a publication. With the rise of the poster came collectors of posters ; in America alone, there are said to be over 6000 persons who devote themselves to this pursuit. Poster literature and expositions too have come into existence. Of the different nations and in point of art, France, as usual, leads. The "father of the modern poster," as he has been called, M. Cheret, however, says that he owes his first inspiration to the Barnum lithographs. America is greatly indebted to France in this line of art. One of the foremost poster artists who, before he studied in Paris, used to draw the gorgeous theatre lithographs, came back to America and completely transformed the coarse ex-aggerated travesties. For this reason Matt. Morgan stands high among the American poster artists. Of the English school, Aubrey Beardsley is probably the best known. He is said to be always "scholarly" and while "char-acteristic," yet he never loses sight of the fundamental principles of the art in his work. The purchase of a celebrated art-poster called "Bubbles" by the proprietors of a certain soap, seemed to THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 127 give a new impetus to the poster art in England, and many artists no longer hesitated to enter the ranks of poster painters. In Germany, the poster has not developed very rapidly or sat-isfactorily. German artists in every line of art work seem to ad-here strongly to allegorical symbols and types. This is evident in the tonal art as well as in painting. Probably the best known of the German school is Heine, who creates posters for several humorous periodicals. Austria seems to have paid little or no attention to the art; one can find no mention of Austrians who won a reputation for them-selves except in the line of music. All other arts seem to be con-sidered unworthy any attention. There is a poster art school in Belgium which has won a prominent position in this line of art. Though it requires a considerable amount of education on cer-tain lines to enable one to understand correctly any art—such a training, for instance as a good art-critic possesses—yet it is pos-sible for almost any one to appreciate, to some extent, at least, the art of poster painting. Tolstoi .says, "When I call up an emotion which I have ex-perienced, arid by signs, words, colors, sounds, transfer this emo-tion to another, that is art." Bearing this definition in mind and using it as a test, attention is called to a few examples of posters, each peculiarly distinctive in one manner or other. Probably one of the most striking and unique of the products of American artists was the poster announcing a special issue of the New York Sun. A woman with a trailing purple mantle walks through a green meadow, one hand uplifted with a warning ges-ture as if to command silence. The graceful though striking de-sign indicates a fertile imagination as the originator of it. That the creator—~L,. I. Rhead—is not only highly imaginative and fanciful but even verging upon the eccentric is evidenced by others of his productions, in one of which he has painted a woman with a cloak of dark green, outlined boldly against an orange back-ground. Among the posters published by Harpers Bros., was one en-titled "The Letter Box," which, though simple in ideas yet proved very effective. A little Cupid standing on tip-toe, drops a valentine in the slot of the corner letter-box. The entire pic-ture is not at all pretentious, but entirely characteristic and well adapted. ■pJMfiM 128 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Another poster published by the same firm in 1892 is worthy of noting because of the manner in which the lettering is incor-porated in the picture. "The Wooly Horse" representing Napoleon I. on horseback overlooking the battlefield,—with a fiery sky for background, was a very successful poster published by the Century Co. A famous American artist in this line is W. H. Bradley, whose work resem-bles somewhat that of Aubrey Beardsley. His posters seem to have a peculiar melancholy in their expression. Among the prominent advertisements of merchandise, that of Pears' Soap—a humorous sketch of a ragged tramp—is, with its forcible inscription, one of the most prominent. An original idea was brought out by an English artist in the use of the "Silhouette"—a black figure outlined in white stand-ing out against a black background. The manufacturers of a certain blueing, first used this style of poster for an advertise-ment. An advance in poster drawing was made after the several ex-positions of posters which have been held lately. One of these, held in Belgium in 1894, served to propagate extensively the new ideas of the French and the Belgian schools. How long this fad will last, is difficult to predict. It is highly probable, however, that the art will advance with such strides in some particular direction that the new development will com-pletely swallow up the present popular poster style,—a style, which has been characterized as a "phantasy most horrid and de-testable." —W. W. F. '00. RETRIEVED. JIM HAL,Iy, an inhabitant of the village of Alberton, had the reputation of being the most cowardly man to be found in ten counties. He was known to sleep at night with his room door double-barred and the windows tightly fastened, for fear of being killed in his bed by some wandering burglar. He believed in ghosts and witches ; and the small boys often took advantage of this superstitious fear and belief by placing a white sheet over a stick and when Jim came along, waving it wildly. Jim ran like THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 129 a deer for home and next day was made the butt of innumerable jokes. This fear of Jim's was to be accounted for only by the fact that from his birth his mother had shielded him from all dan-ger and taught him to look to her as his natural protector. So when he had come to manhood he had not learned to rely upon himself. He often tried to overcome his cowardice but could not do so when the critical moment came. Affairs were in this state up to the year 1862 when the report was circulated in Alberton that Jim Hall had disappeared from the village. No one had seen him go away, so all the villagers could do was to make suppositions as to his whereabouts. Some thought he had run away for fear of being drafted into the service. A large number of the able-bodied men of the village had already joined as volunteers and now it was reported that additional men were needed and that these would be taken by drafting through-out the whole North. Just the day before Jim Hall's disappear-ance the report was brought that the drafting of Alberton men would take place in four days. So there were some grounds for the common belief that Jim had run away to escape the war. One can easily imagine their surprise when the next day they heard that he had gone to the camp of the Army of the Potomac and had been enlisted as a private soldier. The people treated it as a great joke and many were the jests at poor Jim's expense about his long legs standing him in good stead when a time of great danger should come. However Jim had realty joined the army and was by a lucky chance placed in the same company with the other Alberton men who had gone out long before as volunteers. And as another piece of good fortune the man who was now captain of the com-pany— the former captain having been killed shortly before—had been the only man in the village of Alberton who had not jeered and laughed at his cowardice. This gentleman, a Mr. Leonard, had been a friend of both of Jim's parents and when Jim's father died had been appointed guardian to Jim. He now encouraged Jim to make a man of himself and was the instrument of Jim's doing so. Soon under their gallant leaders they were fighting the rebels with varying success about the swamps and morasses of the Chickahominy. In the battle of Chancellorsville, lost though dearly sold, our hero was in the thick of the fight. At the first mmmw 130 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. shock, however, he turned as if to flee, but at the word of his commander he turned and fought so bravely and so well that he was commended by his captain. Nearly two months later he found himself marching north-ward with his companions to try to check the invasion which the victorious Lee was making upon the North. On July 1st they found themselves on the peaceful fields of Gettysburg so soon to be turned into a veritable slaughter pen. In the first day's fight their regiment was stationed at Seminary Ridge with several other regiments to check the advance of the so far victorious rebels until further reinforcements should come up. Soon the overwhelming numbers of the Confederates forced the greater part to fall back and one lone battered and torn regi-ment was left to face the storm. It was too late to retreat now and almost useless to fight longer, but the blood of the Halls who had fought in the Revolution suddenly came coursing through the veins of Jim, and seizing the colors from the color bearer who had just been shot down Jim waved them aloft and shouted, "Come on boys, don't run, only cowards run." As he uttered the words a volley from the enemy, who had now almost sur-rounded the gallant man and his little band, laid poor Jim low and silenced forever the heart which had just learned that it still had brave blood to force through a manly body. Now indeed had Jim retrieved his name from the most disgraceful blot which can be put on any man's name. The rest of the command were captured and taken prisoners. Several years after they were ex-changed and when those Alberton men who had come safely through the war had returned home, they never tired of telling how nobly Jim Hall had proven that he no longer was the coward whom they had once despised. —V. FREY, '01. c®P June falls asleep upon her bier of flowers; In vain are dew drops sprinkled o'er her, In vain would fond winds fan her back to life Her hours are numbered on the floral dial. * * * June is dead, Dead, without dread or pain, her gayest "Wreaths twined with her own hands for her funeral. —Lucy Larcotn. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. EDITOR'S DESK. 131 THE '00 Spectrum is ample proof that the catalogue of special features has not been exhausted. As it is customary for the Junior class in publishing a Spectrum to make a special feature, '00 has chosen the "Literary Record of Gettysburg Alumni.'' This feature alone would make thepresent Spectrttm val-uable, as well as interesting. Few besides those who have worked upon such a feature can form any idea of the toil and care re-quired to carry it to a successful issue. Certainly it is but justice that the college paper, in the name of the students of Gettys-burg, congratulates the editor and assistant editor, by whom the "Literary Record" has been compiled and arranged, upon their useful, hard work. But not only may the individuals, on whom rested the responsibility for such a task, be congratulated; Gettys-burg may congratulate herself upon the present annual, which un-doubtedly will be regarded for years as a model of neat, original work. Articles by our alumni relating to Gettysburg, would be re-ceived eagerly by the MERCURY. Stories about college life as it was some years ago, the difference between Gettysbtirg of to-day and Gettysburg of the past, or almost any article of like kind, would find space in our pages. The MERCURY would be glad to print poems by the alumni, as well as prose. HYPNOTISM. HYPNOTISM, as best defined, is a nervous artificial sleep. The same thing was formerly called animal magnetism. Hypnotism applies to a definite nervous state and is brought about mostly in persons having a delicate nervous system. The first true inquirer into hypnotism was Dr. Baird. He saw some experiments performed by a professional maguetizer and at once decided that they were merely an arrangement to deceive the people, but after careful observation and study into the methods of producing a state of hypnotism, he decided that it was genuine. After careful study and experiment, he decided that there was no such a thing as a magnetic fluid flowing from the mind of the operator to that of the subject; but that the true cause of hypno- ■mmtnm 132 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. tism lay in the fact that the nerves of one of the senses become deadened by over exertion or constant concentration on a point, and on this account become powerless to act and the person goes into a deep sleep or lethargy. In this, his followers disagree with the other school, headed chiefly by I,afosataine. He asserted that hypnotism was produced by a fluid, known as the magnetic fluid, which passed from one person to another and by its attraction could cause a person of strong will to have complete control of a person of weaker will power, being able to compel him to do anything commanded. Baird was led to his theory by the fact that his subject, while under the influence of this power, was unable to open the eyes. He at once came to the conclusion that excessive fatigue was the only thing that could cause this strange phenomenon as he made no attempt at personal magnetism in producing the sleep. His experiment was performed in the following way. He asked his subject to sit and look steadily at the neck of a wine bottle and allow his mind to wander. The bottle was placed at such an elevation as to cause considerable fatigue to the eyes. After three minutes the subject's eyes were filled with tears, then his eyelids closed and a little later he was in a sound sleep. This experiment proved beyond doubt that a person can be hypnotized without the presence of a second person or operator; but can do it himself by an experiment made under similar circumstances as mentioned above. Baird pursued his discoveries and with the aid of numerous other experiments tried hard to have hypnotism recognized as a science. They were not successful, however, and to-day it is re-garded mostly as something for a show, or to interest the people, without much regard to its cause and the scientific qualities. The most familiar form of producing the state of hypnotism is the following : the operator directs the subject to have no par-ticular thought on his mind, but to let it wander, and gaze steadily into his eyes. After that he generally makes a few passes with the hands, gently rubbing the eyelids, etc., until his subject is in a sound sleep. In explanation of this method I would say that the gazing into the eyes of the operator for some time, is exactly the same as looking at a brilliant object, both have the same effect of fatiguing the nerves of the eye and producing sleep. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 133 This is strikingly illustrated in an experiment with a frog. If a frog is taken in the hand, having the thumb resting on the stomach, and the back gently rubbed ; the animal will go to sleep at once and can be stretched into all sorts of shapes. Another way, as has been stated before, is that of looking steadily at some object. It has also been discovered that the other senses have the same power as that of sight. Thus if you produce monotony in music sleep is produced. Sharp suspense or fright has the same effect of transfixing some people and this has been decided by students of the science ( as it is called by the disciples of hypnotism) to be hypnotism. After careful study it has been proven that the senses of taste and of smell have the same strange effect. As regards the uses of hypnotism little of importance can be said. It is used mostly by professional showmen who call up subjects from their audience or may have them with them. They compel them to do anything they command. One of the common-est ways and also the best to show the entire oblivion of the subject, is the experiment with the letter. The subject is handed a letter and told it is an orange, he immediately eats it with great relish, then if told it is sour at once spits it out with an expres-sion of disgust on his face, showing the subject believes every-thing the operator tells him and is entirely at his command. This, however, was never intended for the chief use of hypno-tism. The experimenters tried to use it in surgery, etc., but it has been found that while some people are easily influenced others give much trouble, so that it would be impracticable to use it in a case of amputation when ether or chloroform serves the same purpose more quickly and better. It has been settled, however, that strong habits can be changed. Persons who have been accus-tomed to strong habits all their lives have been entirely changed and new habits formed. Thus, while very little has been definitely decided about this strange phenomenon, there is every indication that some day in the near future, it will be taken up by experimenters and philoso-phers, thoroughly sifted, and then be proven to be of great value in many respects. It is now in its infancy. —C. J. D. '00. wmm 134 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON ROMAN JURISPRUDENCE." CHRISTIANITY and civilization in its highest degree of ex-cellence are synonomous, hand in hand like two insepara-bles we find them enthroned upon a majestic seat, ruling, guiding, influencing, and may we say carving the destiny of every great nation. If a country is civilized and christianized we need no other proof to be convinced of her pre-eminence and suprem-acy. A glance will show us also that such countries have the most admirable and thoroughly developed codes of jurisprudence. The influences, whose marks upon "Roman Law" are par-ticularly indelible and prominent, may be divided into three classes: conventional morality and usage, natural reason and justice, and Christianity. These fundamental principles in turn clearly mark off three distinct epochs in the development of Ro-man Law. According to the law of the first nearly all power was vested in the individual and that individual was the "Pater familias." The idea of a State right has scarcely begun to dawn upon the Roman mind. At the beginning of the second epoch, Rome is no longer a col-lection of separate communities : Italy, Greece, Spain, Africa, in short the whole world is in her power. Law based on such a no-tion as practically unlimited power of the pater cannot regulate such an empire. No longer is Rome divided into families, tribes and clans, each separate and distinct, but everything concentrates upon and emanates from one person—the Emperor. Something broader, something more general is demanded and, in response, came the principles of the stoic philosophy. Roman Law can-not stand still while the State is enlarging; it too must broaden, and natural equity, justice and reason furnish the soil for its spreading roots. But one link yet is necessary, one step yet is lacking ere the ultimate degree ofperfection is reached. For Christianity it remains to weld the chain and fill the gap which is to make "Roman Law" such a body of principles as to be applicable at all times and among all nations. In such principles as—"honeste vivere, alterum non laedere, suum cinque tribuere," the dawn of Christian-ity can already be seen, only time is needed until its genial rays shall burst forth with increasing intensity. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 135 Christianity had been now the established religion of the Ro-man Empire for more than two centuries; and the influence of its principles was making an untold effect upon the spirit, if not so much upon the letter, of Roman law. The complete moral, social, and political revolution, through Christianity, created a necessity for new laws adapted to the present order of things. Under it a new order of men of a peculiar character, with special privileges has grown up; churches and monasteries had been formed; certain offenses in the penal code were now looked on with a milder or more severe aspect, and vices, which formerly had been tolerated, became crimes against the new social order. It might be shown that Christianity as a system of doctrine, is peculiarity adapted to meet the secular as well as the spiritual wants of men and would naturally work its way into their codes of jurisprudence. But a direct proof is unnecessary, for after hav-ing shown its influence upon the various elements in "Roman L,aw," we can reason backward and reach the same conclusion. Roman Law may be conveniently divided into three classes:— that of Persons, Property and Crime. From time immemorial, slavery had been customary among all nations. Aristotle reasoned "that nature intended barbarians to be slaves, and among the natural and honorable means of ac-quiring wealth, he classes, making war in order to reduce to slavery such of mankind as are intended by nature for it." As an institution of custom, then, slavery received its sanction at Rome. Christianity had exalted a slave to spiritual equality and this religious elevation could not be without influence on their tem-poral and social position. They were no longer to be regarded as brute beasts and inanimate things, nor could they be destroyed by their masters with as much impunity as his other property. Our respect must here be paid the heathen sovereign, Antoniuns, who declared that the master who killed his slave without cause, was liable to the same penalty as if he had killed the slave of another. Justinian writes, "In these times, and under our Em-pire, no one must be permitted to exercise unlawful cruelty against a slave.'' Prohibition of marriage to slaves had been a deep-rooted prejudice for centuries, yet this too melted before the rays of its benign influence. The stricter forms of manumission—the vin-dicta freeing by census or testament were relieved by easier and ■VAMHtfi 136 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. more liberal ones,—for example, per epistolam, inter amicos, in ecclesiis; and whatever of legal impediments yet existed were re-moved by Justinian. Along with this the distinctions formerly made between freedmen, whereby a slave owing to certain kinds of misconduct, when manumitted, could not receive full citizen-ship, were likewise abolished so that after Justinian all libertine were cives Romani. The ancient laws regarding marriage and the legal status of women each crystallized itself in conformity with the new order of things. Marriage was no longer a civil contract but a religious sacrament and the penalties fixed upon celibacy and childlessness were removed. Divorce had been one of the greatest plagues at work in dis-solving the unity of the Roman family. Since the establishment of the XII tables, in 450 B. C, it had been legally recognized. Seneca says of Naecauss, probably satirically, that he changed his wives as he changed his dress. And it is the same writer who says '' that the noble women of Rome calculated the year not by the consuls, but by their husbands." Juvenal, in the bitterness of his satire, could not find words adequate to express his intense indignation of this evil. It is said that the sixth century of Roman greatness had begun ere the evils of a primitive conception that the wife was the property of her husband and might be dismissed at his pleasure were revealed and public feeling shocked by the re-pudiation of a virtuous but barren wife by Spurius Carvilius Ruga. Had Christianity performed no greater good for human society than the removal of this corruption, its influence would not have been in vain or useless. The rights of women over their property were made sub-stantially equal to men's as was the right of guardianship over their children. Parental power, though in theory absolute, had long fallen into disuse and was almost a theoretical nothing long before the ad-vent of Christianity, but whatever of severity yet remained was abolished. Constantine openly declared that the father, who killed his son, should be held for murder, nor was the father allowed to ex-pose his children or sell them into slavery, except in the rarest cases. The proprietary rights of the son, too, were extended from the peculium castreuse to the peculmm quasi castreuse and still later to the peculium adventitium. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 137 Milman says '' Christianity made no change in the tenure or succession to property.'' '' Seeking inheritances by undue means was prohibited and restrained by law as an ecclesiastical evil." Church property was regarded sacred and inviolate and as Milman says was "the sole proprietor, whom forfeiture or confis-cation could never reach; whose title was never antiquated and before whose hallowed boundaries violence stood rebuked." Gifts to temples could now be sold or pledged for the redemp-tion of captives, a purpose which the old Roman law would have disdained to contemplate. In the penal laws of the Roman empire, the influence of Chris-tianity was but moderately exerted. The abolition of the distinc-tions drawn between freedmen and slaves have already been re-ferred to. Crucifixion as a means of punishment was removed by Constantine, rather as an act of religious reverence than of humanity. But in the suppression of gaming and the prohibition of women being forced on the stage, traces of its influence can be seen. As is natural from the subject material under discussion, the law respecting persons has undergone the greatest change. But all these changes, whether in the penal code or in the law of proprietary rights and obligations, were but a means, which made the Roman system adapted to the regulation of all peoples and at all times. When we see that the very barbarians who conquered Rome were in turn conquered by her system of jurisprudence, we are not a little filled with surprise; but when we find it not only influenc-ing and forming the basis of, but being incorporated in the legal codes of almost all nations, we come in contact with an effect that requires an adequate and efficient cause. After paying all due re-spect to that peculiar, innate faculty of administration in the Ro-man mind, without detracting one iota from the excellent opinions of the juristconsuls or limiting in the slightest degeee the wonder-ful influence of stoicism, as a system of philosophy, we are com-pelled to admit that none of these were individually or collectively efficient to produce such an effect. To Christianity must be as-cribed the credit of basing Roman law upon principles, so univer-sal and so humane, as to be applicable not only among the Roman state but among all nations of all times. If this statement seems rather large in its exposition and sweeping in its results, a few illustrations may be necessary to establish its validity. r \UIUW 138 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Can a law, which considers certain classes of men as mere brutes or inanimate things be reconciled to our conception that by nature all men are horn equal ? Or who can reconcile the idea that a woman is but the property of her husband, capable of being dismissed at his bidding, with our conception of human society ? What place could the principle of "patri potesias have in the legal status of a nation, all the citizens of which have equal rights be-fore its laws—yet in the wisdom of the juristconsuls and in the records they have left us, these principles and many others similar to them are found embodied. Stoic philosophy left to Roman law the principles of equity and humanity, but the basis of natural law upon which they rested and by which they were judged and applied, was subjected to a complete change ere they were capable of incorporation into modern jurisprudence. Christianity recognized these same principles of equity and humanity, but substituted truth instead of natural law as their criterion. Based on this principle and judged by this standard the conceptions of equity and humanity lose their limi-tations and assert themselves with the force of universality. It is only under these conditions that we find Roman law incorpo-rated in the laws of every great nation, and only in Christianity do we find a cause adequate to such an effect. Among legal historians there is a vast diversity of opinions with regard to the influence of Christianity upon Roman legisla-tion. This variance, Morey rightly attributes to their failure to distinguish Christianity as an ethical system from the church as a corporate institution.'' It must be remembered that the church, like all institutions, even though divine in their origin, is never-theless subject to the frailties of humanity by which it is regu-lated and too often fails to cancel the limitations between the ideal and the real. The family and the matrimonial ceremony are regarded as divine in their origin and sanction, but do they ever conform to the high standard by which they should be regulated? Perfection is an attribute not of this world, and if the church as a corporate institution has failed to attain the high plane established by the principles it recognizes and enunciates we can condemn the prin-ciples with no more justice than we can reason that a college edu-cation is of no advantage because some particular individual, who has taken a college course, has made a miserable failure in life. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 139 However intolerant the church may have been against pagans, jews, and heretics, the principles of Christianity as an ethical sys-tem remain unsullied and untainted, notwithstanding the injus-tice of their application. Morey has admirably summarized the whole matter: "In spite of the fact that the church in some cases set its face against civil equity, and the fact that Roman law had already received a liberal temper from the influence of Greek philosophy, it cannot be doubted that the progress of the law, in general, kept pace with the unfolding of ethical ideas in the Roman mind; and that so far as Christianity furnished a system of ethics more just, liberal and humane than that of stoicism, it brought to bear upon the Roman law a moral power superior to that which had previously been exerted upon it through the writings of the philosophical jurists." Who then can doubt that in Christianity, Roman law reaches the summit of its greatness and the beginning of its uni-versal application ! —W. E. B. '99. M THE CONFLICT OF THE AGES. AN is a progressive being. Contentment is foreign to his very nature. He is continuously looking to something beyond, to a condition higher and better. As his intellect broadens and quickens, he invariably becomes desirous of greater freedom. This love of liberty is connate with his physical and mental constitution. But there is also another desire deeply implanted within his breast, a desire which is destructive of the liberty of others. It is the love of power, the inherent desire of man to rule over his fellow:man, an ambition, the natural outcome of which is despot-ism. These two desires tend toward opposite directions. Between them is an irrepressible conflict. This conflict is as old as society and as persistent as humanity. From the earliest times its vary-ing phases have determined the condition of the race. The history of civilization is largely the story of this conflict, the story of human liberty struggling against human despotism. The outcome of this struggle has varied in different countries. ; 140 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. As a result their states of society have been vastly different. Just in proportion as liberty has triumphed over despotism so civiliza-tion has advanced beyond barbarism. Among the nations of an-tiquity despotism prevailed everywhere. As a consequence their civilization never advanced beyond a certain point. They were marked in every case either by iunobility or by slight advances and retrogressions. In the countries of Northern Europe arose a people whose chief characteristic was their love of freedom. Here liberty found a soil peculiarly fitted for her growth and develop-ment. What has been the result? Have these people an}' ele-ments of civilization not enjoyed by the nations of antiquity? Read the story of their steady progress through the Middle Ages. L,ook upon the unequalled state of civilization among them to-day and question not the advantages of liberty over despotism. Con-trast the despotic nature of ancient Assyria with the liberal char-acter of modern England and wonder not that the latter stands to-day the first empire of the world, while the former exists only upon the pages of history. During the dark ages humanity struggled against the most terrible despotism man had ever known,—the despotism of igno-rance and superstition. The human mind neglected, uncultivated and depressed sank into the deepest ignorance. So prolonged and intense was the gloom enveloping Europe that her people seemed incapable of advancement, society seemed destined to end-less barbarism. Gradually, however, knowledge became more diffused, inventions and discoveries awakened the human intellect from its long sleep, and man began to learn the truth about him-self and the world. This truth has made him free. Freedom of intellect naturally led to a desire for religious freedom. Ecclesiastical tyranny was incompatible with intellect-ual liberty. Enlightened minds refused to submit any longer to the authority of the Pope. Contentment gave place to unrest, un-rest to action, and action to liberty. The Reformation was more than a contest between Protestant-ism and Catholicism. It was an insurrection of the human mind against pure ecclesiastical monarchy. Do you wonder that the movement was crowned with the most glowing success ? Papal authority in Northern Europe was destroyed forever. This religi-ous liberty will eventually spread over the entire world. The religions of the world are becoming more and more imbued with THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 141 the sentiment of liberality. Sectarian differences are gradually disappearing before the growing light of intelligence. Creed and dogma will be re-adjusted more and more under the light of ad-vancing truth. Formal religion is being supplanted by true Christianity—that "divine keystone in the arch of universal his-tory." With an ever increasing radiance the light of Christianity is slowly but surely penetrating the darkness of heathenism, and hastening the approach of the time when the people of all the earth, regardless of race, sect or nationality, shall bow in worship before the one true God. Turning from the religious to the political world, we behold a revolution no less wonderful, a mighty struggle between despotic and liberal principles of government. This struggle shook Europe from Scandanavia to Italy, and snatched a new world from the threatened grasp of tyranny; a revolution of which the Reign of Terror was but an incident. The ideas engendered by the Reformation inaugurated a mighty epoch of political regeneration. The great sovereigns of Europe, one after another, have been deprived of their prerogatives until to-day the last one sits trembling upou a tottering throne that threatens to fall at any instant. The day is not far distant when even the "Autocrat of all the Russias" shall see his sceptre depart into the hands of his subjects. Thus we have seen during the last three epochs three great stages of the onward march of civilization; three mighty victories for the cause of struggling humanity; victories which include in-tellectual, religious and political freedom. To-day the world has entered upon another epoch; an epoch which brings with it questions far more complicated than those of the past, and far more momentous than those that have convulsed Europe with centuries of revolution. The great struggles of the past have been, in the main, suc-cessful, and the echoes of the mighty battles for civil and religious freedom are growing fainter and fainter. But the cause of freedom is not yet won. The hosts of oppression have been driven from the fields of church and state only to return with renewed vigor to attack freedom in the field of industry. The scene of conflict has extended from the old world to the new. Society has entered upon an industrial age. Modern civilization is marked by ma-terial progress unprecedented in the history of mankind. Great 142 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. inventions have revolutionized travel, commerce and manufacture. Ocean steamers, railroads and telegraphs have practically annihi-lated time and space. By constant and easy intercourse with the world, man's views have been enlarged, his energies stimulated, and his rate of progress quickened. Yet with all this unparalleled progress in the industrial power of society, there has come no proportionate improvement in the condition of the masses. While the great industrial development of the present age has brought many blessings for mankind, the tyranny of selfish men has monopolized these blessings for the few. Capital gets the lion's share of the world's wealth, while Labor is reduced to a condition of servitude. A few monopolists amass colossal fortunes and revel in Croe-cian luxury, while thousands of wage earners, becoming more and more pauperized, sink into intellectual and moral degradation. Millions are wasted in feasting while gaunt starvation stalks the streets. Society has become a vast machine which turns out at one end milliouaries, and at the other tramps, paupers and anarch-ists. The enormous inequalities of existing conditions are creating a discontent in the minds of the laboring classes; a discontent that foreshadows an impending revolution. Profound discontent preceded the great religious upheaval in the sixteenth century. Great unrest ushered in the awful convul-sions of the French revolution. With the reappearance of the same conditions to-day, revolution is as inevitable as the laws of the universe. Human nature will not tolerate abuse forever. Labor will not always submit to the tyranny of capital. Even now the cohorts of freedom are gathering for a mighty effort. There is every indication that we are on the eve of a momen-tous struggle. The discontent of the masses is '' no longer the fretting of the waves;" it is "the roar of the rushing tide." It is to be a contest for the supremacy of wealth on the one hand or the freedom of opportunity on the other ;—a conflict that will decide whether the combined money power of the world is to per-petuate its tyranny of greed and avarice, or whether the toiling millions are at last to enjoy unmolested the products of their own labor. History teaches that there can be but one outcome to this struggle. Despotism again will fall. The indomitable forces of THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. freedom will win another victory. Economic despotism is simply fighting the same hopeless battle that was fought and lost by spiritual and political despotism in the ages that have passed. Civilization will never rest until this great barrier is removed. There are only two ways in which this can be accomplished; by the peaceful methods of education and religion, or through the instrumentalities of war. Should the latter method prevail, and should the masses be led by designing demagogues, or by reason-ing anarchists inspired only by a sense of injustice, and revenge, the innocent will perish with the guilty in the most dreadful social catastrophe that has ever darkened the pages of history. Do the conditions indicate that such will be the result ? Are we to sup-pose that the increased intelligence and morality of the present age will permit such a solution of our great sociological problem ? Have we read history in vain or profited nothing by the great lessons of the past, that we must see re-enacted on the stage of modem history the bloody scenes of the sixteenth century? Is the nineteenth century civilization so little advanced that it is about to behold a social convulsion compared with which the aw-ful horrors of the French Revolution shall sink into insignificance ? A million Christian hearts answer, "No." A million earnest workers for the triumph of right over might, filled with the belief that the signs of the times point upward, and inspired with the hope that social and economic freedom shall come as the product of better hearts and better souls, respond with a mighty " NO." The wrongs of our present industrial system shall not be righted among scenes of violence and confusion. The ceaseless unrest of the multitudes, that are to mould the destinies of the future, is the sign of an advancing civilization. It means that they are acquiring more brain force, more manhood, the raw ma-terials out of which God will shape a better future for humanity The dawn of a better day is breaking the deep clouds of sin. The heart of the world is beating more truly than ever before. Men are beginning to realize that the prosperity of society depends upon the well-being of the whole people. They are coming to see that a divine fatherhood implies an universal brotherhood. The world is moving onward toward the realization of the ideal life of human happiness; a life where manhood shall count for more than gold, where character shall outweigh the dollar ; a life free from selfishness and tyranny, abounding injustice, liberty and equality. i44 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. In this life shall the Conflict of the Ages cease and man find his highest place as he ministers to the good of all. "Then the common sense of most Shall hold a fretful realm in awe, And the kindly earth shall slumber, Lapt in universal law. And the war drum throb no longer, And the battle flags be furled In the parliament of man, The Federation of the world." —W. R. E., '99. THE PHILOMATHAEAN SOCIETY. BY PROF. L. H. CROIX. [From the Pennsylvania College Book, 1832.] MORE than a year before the charter of Pennsylvania Col-lege was granted by the legislature of the State, the Philomathaean Society had its organization, in the "Gettysburg Gymnasium," on the corner of Washington and High streets, Gettysburg, Pa. The students of the institution assembled in the west room of the second story, on the 4th of February, A. D., 1831, to form literary societies whose generous rivalry would stimulate the members to mutual, intellectual and moral improvement. It was agreed to divide the whole number of students into two equal parts, in the order in which their names stood enrolled, each division then withdrew to the "East Room," second story, becoming the founders of the Philomathaean So-ciety, with Prof. M. Jacobs as chairman. With the permission of the Professor of Theology, the meeting continued to be held in the rooms devoted to theological instruction, the corner-stone of the Theological Seminary not being laid until the following- May. A Constitution and a name were adopted, but the latter was not at first settled in its orthography, for the different secretaries give "Philomathian," "Philomathean," "Philomatheon" as the name before the present Philomathaean became confirmed. The signification of the names, "lovers of learning," implies the object of the organization, "to create and cherish a taste for learning, and to promote sentiments of mutual regard and friend- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 145 ship;" or, as afterwards modified, "to cultivate and diffuse among its members liberal principles, and to promote the great objects of social, moral, and intellectual improvements." The constitution provides for the election of all officers, for the admission and the dismissal of members, for fines and penalties, for meetings and work, for the formation and use of a library; and it emphasizes the requirement of each member to hold inviolate his duty to preserve a proper secrecy of the affairs of the society. One of the first peculiarities was the appointment of a "Room-keeper," taken in alphabetical order, to make all the arrangements necessary for holding the next meeting. He seems to have been keeper of the door, introducing any new or honorary member, but, in connection with his more dignified work, he was also "hewer of wood and drawer of water,'' polisher of lamps and factotum in general. This office was abandoned in the new college building, when a janitor become necessary on account of the increased work in hall, library and reading-rooms, and when the funds of the society allowed a consideration for services required. The meetings were first held on Friday evening, and as lamps were a necessity, with the order for their purchase was joined that of a "jug," or "bottle" for the use of the society. Now this bot-tle is evidently not the decanter held in bad repute, nor is the jug the famous "little brown jug," celebrated by the students in their later years in their rollicking glee; for the society was strongly in favor of total abstinence, as the votes on all temperance debates proved. As an illustration of the small beginnings of a society, there is an account of the purchase of a "suitable desk, or covert, for the use of the Secretary, library, lamps, etc." Some later Secretary has changed the v of covert to b, making it "cobert," having doubtless in mind the old family cupboard at home. From the day when a single desk or closet would accommodate not only the library, but the articles of the Secretary and the Janitor be-sides, to the present, when even the present library room has be-come too cramped to display all the volumes to advantage, an earnest of what may be expected in another half century is exhib-ited. Another illustration of small beginnings was the original initiation fee of fifty cents, which rose to two dollars and a half when the college obtained its charter, and not long afterwards to five dollars, at which figure it has since remained. 146 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The first original declamation, by one of the still surviving founders (1882), by permission of the society, was in the German language. From the first the debate took high rank, and seemed to claim the highest interest of the members. The subjects chosen often bore directly upon their personal relations, and the first was upon their call or right to existence as a society. Then the ques-tion of social visiting, the granting of diplomas for partial or special courses of study, and other like topics, were discussed, as well as the questions of public interest in their day. The first anniversary celebration was held February 17, 1832, and the speeches were made by two of the founders. At first these exercises were held in the Gymnasium building, and invita-tions were sent to such persons as were supposed to appreciate literary entertainment. It may seem somewhat primitive at the present day to learn that '' a few verses '' were sung between the speeches, instead of the classical instrumental music furnished at later entertainments. Another novelty was the '' privilege given to those present of making any remarks to the society that might be thought proper. Afterward the exercises were held in the German church, until 1835, when they were transferred to the Presbyterian church, in consequence of obligations being made to the introduction of in-strumental music into the church. After 1836 the public exer-cises were held in Christ (college) church, then completed. In connection with the spring examinations, by request of the Professors, each society appointed an essayist, an orator, and a debater as performers at the closing exercises of the session. The exercises were to be original, and each society was to "chal-lenge" the other alternately to select the subject of debate. Thus originated the annual "contests," which grew in interest from year to year until 1849, when a dispute with the church officers brought all public exercises ofthe societies to a close forseveral years. The customary fees for the sexton and other incidents were asked for in advance, by a regulation of the church officers, in conse-quence of the difficulty of collecting them after the interest of the occasion had passed and the officers of the societies had been changed. This action being misapprehended as a charge for the use of the church, which was free to exercise under the direction of the faculty, or as a reflection upon the integrity of the socie-ties was resisted. Not satisfied with the explanation that the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 147 sum assessed merely covered the expenses incident to the opening of the church, the societies memorialized the Board of Trustees on the question, who replied that the demand was not unreason-able; and thus ended the dispute and the contests at the same time. At the time of the earlier anniversaries, an honorary member was elected to deliver an address. From 1836 to 1853 an address was delivered each year before the societies jointly. From this time there have been annual and biennial addresses, the societies usually alternating in the choice. As a matter of history, between 1852 and 1855, with an organ-ization or union of the different literary societies of various col-leges, bearing the prae-nomen of Philo, and known as the "Philo Union," must not be omitted. It originated at Shelby College, Kentucky, and enrolled Philo Societies of more than a score of colleges, extending from New England to the West. Member-ship in any one of these societies secured admission to all the others, and a general plan of simultaneous anniversaries was pro-posed. The fraternal relations of the brotherhood were to be cul-tivated and the general interest to be promoted by a periodical es-tablished at some central institution; but the difficulties of practi-cal co-operation and the excessive labor of correspondence made the union of short duration, and a second generation of students scarcely learned of its existence. MONOTONY OF LIFE. THAT one could complain of the monotony of life, living in an age and in a nation like ours, certainly seems strange to a wide-awake person with an active mind. One certainly cannot get such an idea from nature in her ever changing forms, if one observes her. She assumes in turn every color known to us, the tender green of spring, the bounteous variety of blossoms and flowers, the splendor of the autumn foliage, the white mantles of snow and the brilliant sunsets. Instead of monotony to the observer it seems all unrest and change with hardly any continua-tion in the same line or place. There is variety in the life all around us, from the tiniest insect up to man ; there is continual change in the life of even the humblest individual. Great changes mmim 148 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. occur in all nations. Thought on different subjects changes, pub-lic opinion changes and is a mighty power worthy of a care-ful consideration. In fact everything changes with the pro-gress of civilization. Truly it is only the inactive mind and un-observant eye and the sluggish spirit that can for a moment imag-ine life to be monotonous. If we look closely we will notice certain principles running through life's changes. We see a union between the old and the new. It is the same old earth, it matters not under how many changes. The same trees are white with blossoms in the spring, green with foliage in the summer and brown and bare in the autumn. So with ourselves, a change of occupation or of resi-dence, a change in our financial circumstances, a marriage, a death, a journey, each brings a new experience for our old selves and forms a fresh union between our past and our present condi-tion. These things may bring happiness or sorrow for the time being, but they all have the power of enriching, enlarging and improving our characters and lives by making good additions to our stock of old experiences. Of course if we do not want it so, we can make it otherwise to a certain extent. We can be dull and inactive and cling to the old, see nothing in all the changing world about us, make no new friends, cling to old ideas, discuss no new methods, hold the same opinions and pride ourselves upon what we might call con-sistency, but which is really only thestubbornness of a mind which thinks that the world is becoming worse with new ideas, new methods and new experiences. We can plainly see that to lead a life like that is to cross our Maker's purpose, for his purpose was without doubt that we should grow into the full richness and value of manhood by cherishing our past experiences and learning well the lessons taught by them while we step forward into new and untried paths with vigor and hope. —R. Z. I., '00. 'Twas an evening of beauty ; the air was perfume, The earth was all greenness, the trees were all bloom And softly the delicate viol was heard, Like the murmur of love or the notes of a bird. —Whittier. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 149 ATHLETICS. BASEBALL, this year is not as successful in some senses as usual, but in others we can pride ourselves upon our team. In the beginning of the season they encountered six hard games in succession, five being away from home, and were greatly hindered by lack of sufficient practice. But in the later games they seem to have rounded well into form, and are playing pretty good ball. The greatest surprise of the year has been Roehner's pitching, he having developed wonderfully, and doing work which, with better support, would have won a number of the games which were lost. The season was opened 011 April 15th, with Franklin and Mar-shall on their grounds at Lancaster, and was won by Gettysburg by a score of 6 to 4. The game was very pretty, both sides play-ing good ball, except in one inning, when the F. and M. boys did their only scoring. The feature of the game was Lantz's home run over left field fence with two men on bases. The trip to the central part of the state was opened at Susque-hanna April 20th, when we were beaten 12 to 6, by a comedy of errors in the first three innings which netted the home team eight runs. After that the boys settled down and played well, but Sus-quehanna's lead was too great. On April 21st we beat Bucknell by a score of 12 to 7, through hard batting coupled with the best fielding of the season. The game throughout was highly interesting and exciting, being marked by a number of pretty plays. Roehner pitched a fine game, allowing Bucknell but six hits, to Gettysburg's eleven. State defeated us April 22d, by the score of 7 to 6 in a game that was very close and exciting, though marked by bad errors on both sides. Ketterman pitched a good game, receiving poor sup-port, while Farr was knocked out of the box, and Morgan sub-stituted. At Bloomsburg, March 24th, we were defeated by the Normal School by the score of 14 to 4. The Normal boys have a good team, but it is only right to say that they would not have beaten us so badly if it had not been for the umpire. The first home game was with Dickinson on April 27th, when we were beaten by a score of 15 to 6. The game was poorly played on both sides, but tight until the sixth inning, when it THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. was tied, after which our boys went to pieces, and Dickinson brought in nine more runs. We were beaten for the second time by Susquehanna Univer-sity on Nixon Field, May 5th, the score being 6 to 5. Our team did far better work in every way than the visitors, but their only two errors were costly, bringing in four runs, aud^poor judgment in base-running at a couple critical points lost a game by what can be termed nothing but hard luck. Games scheduled with the Indians and Dickinson at Carlisle were unavoidably canceled and prevented by rain respectively, and the next game was on Nixon Field with Franklin and Mar-shall, who were beaten in a very pretty game by the same score as in first game, 6-4. They were shut out until the eighth, and secured but four hits in all off Roehner. The Preps have manifested a good college spirit this year by getting up a team that is doing good work in its class. They were beaten by Dickinson Prep at Carlisle, 13-4, and returned the compliment on Nixon Field by the score of 13-9. They also played against '01's team, by whom they were beaten in a one-sided game by a score of 15-0. At the relay carnival at the University of Pennsylvania, April 29th, we were classed with Dickinson, Bucknell, Franklin and Marshall, and Ursinus, and came in fourth in one of the speediest races of the day. Dickinson won, having a clear lead, and Buck-nell, F. & M., and Gettysburg came in in the order named, bunched very close together, with Ursinus trailing some distance in the rear. Probably the most interesting and significant event in athletics of recent years was the dual meet with Dickinson held on Nixon Field, May 17. We were defeated, the score of points being 60 to 28, but can feel that the meet was a success as far as we are concerned, for it has given track athletics the impetus which it has needed so long. Dickinson won all the first places except the high hurdle, captured by Koller, '00, and the high jump a tie between Albers, '99, and Brown, of Dickinson. Our men showed however, that they could have done far better work with proper training, and we believe that they have caught the spirit now, and we can turn out a winning team next year. —W. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Flowery June, When brooks send up a cheerful tune, And groves a joyful sound. JX 151 —Bryant. And what is so rare as a day in June ? Then, if ever, come perfect days; Then heaven tries the earth if it be in time, And over it softly her warm ear lays. -Lowell. And so beside the silent sea I wait the muffled oar; No harm from Him can come to me On ocean or on shore. I know not where His islands lift Their fronded palms in air ; I only know I cannot drift Beyond His love and care. — Whittier. The last bird I ever fired at was an eaglet on the shore of the Gulf of Ir\DT Successor to W. J7. VAJLAJKl, Simon J. Codori Dealer in Beef, Pork, Lamb, Veal, Sausage. Special rates to Clubs. York St., GETTYSBURG. Davib Croxel, Dealer trt ^ine groceries anb ttottons «-x4}ork Street. .GO TO. CHAS. E. BARBEHENN, Barber, In the Eagle Hotel, Cor. Main and Washington Sts. YOHN BROS. Agents for the Keystone State, Waldo, Washburn, Groupner & Meyer. Highest Grade Mandolins, Guitars, Banjos, Mandollas and Mandocellos. Headquarters for Phonographs, G-raphophones and supplies. Trimmings of every description. All sheet music one-half off. Large discounts on Books and studies. 326 Market St., Harrisburg, Pa. FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. Baseball v>tipptie& .Spaloing's league JSall, /Iftits, jflftaelie, Etc. Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for aennf0, ©olf, Grtcftet, Gracft ano fftelo, ©Ktnnastum Equipments anD ©utfite Complete Catalogue Spring and Summer Sports Free. The Name the Guar-antee." a. ©. SpalOing SL JBros. New York .". Philadelphia Chicago ROWE, .Your Grocer. Carries Full Line of Groceries, Canned Goods, Etc, Best Coal Oil and Brooms at most Reasonable Prices. OPPOSITE COLLEGE CAMPUS. S. /. CODORI, Jr. t* Druggists Dealer in Drugs, Medicines, Toilet Articles, J> Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. .Baltimore Street. R. H. Culp, PAPER HANGER, Second Square, York St. COLLEGE EMBLEMS. EMIL ZOTHE, ENGRAVER, DESIGNER AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER. 19 S. NINTH ST. PHILADELPHIA. PA. SPECIALTIES: Masonic Marks, Society Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through C. H. Tilp. Gotrell & Leonard, 472-474 Broadway, Albany, N. Y. makers of CAPS, GOWNS and. HOODS To the leading- American Colleges. Illus-trated Manual, etc., upon application. Meneely Bell Co. TROY, N. Y. MANUFACTURERS OF SUPERIOR BELLS The 2000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania Col-lege was manufactured at this foundry. r . nmmwmmiiMMMmwimmmmmm PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. You can't expect to create the im-pression that you are well dressed unless your clothes are MADE FOR YOU. Equivocate as you may, the fact remains that ready-made garments lack that air of exclusiveness which custom work possesses. J. D. LIPPY, Merchant Tailor 39 Chambersburg St., Gettysburg, Pa. G. E. SPANGLER, ^ Dealer in Pianos, Organs, Music, Musical Instruments, Strings, Etc. YORK STREET, 1ST SQUARE. GETTYSBURG. L. D. Miller, Grocer, Confectioner and Fruiterer. Ice Cream and Oysters in Season . . . \0) lUaxn St., ©ettusburg. City Hotel, Main St. Gettysburg. Free 'Bus to and from all Trains Thirty seconds' walk from either depot Dinner with drive over field with four or more, $1.35 Rates $1.50 to $2.00 per day. John E. Hughes, Prop. WlLLlHSURE^OUR^ lfiiilnl'iil¥rii;TJH w&receipt ot SI0-0 A6AINST ILLNESS., PHYSICIANS'* PLUMBERS- ' BILLS.DUETO IMPURE AIR, ^ FROM CLOGGEDjJ^'HS flew York, Bosfo/i. P/>//dde//i/>/fr<}/7c/sco. lo/?

The Mercury December, 1909 HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard ALBANY, N. Y. Makers of CAPS AND GOWNS To Gettysburg College. Lafayette, Lehigh. Dickinson. State College, Univ. of Penn sylvania, Harvard, Yale, Princeton. Wellesley, Bryn Mawrand the others. Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods of Degrees To The Class of '10. We have begun our college campaign for next Spring and Bummer. Over 25,000 employers look to Hapgoods for their men in sales, offices and technical positions in all departments. Most of these firms use college men. They arrange with us to cover the entire college world for them. We have a unique proposition o* immediate interest to any college man who will be open for a propo-sition. Let us tell you about it. Write to-day. !\\ITMOJVJMJ OttGJJVIZjlTlOJV UJf BltjiMJV ItUliKIillS. Commonwealth Trust Building, Philadelphia, Pa. THE) RIGHT TAILOR IN THE) WRONG LEGATION J. W. B^etim 2ND STORY iST NATIONAL BANK BUILDING After April ist will occupy room now occupied by Gettysburg National Bank WE RECOMMEND THESE FIRMS. Established 1867 by Allen Walton. ALLEN K. WALTON, Pres. and Treas. ROBT. J. WALTON, Supt. HUMMELSTOWN BROWN STONE COMPANY QUARRYMEN and Manufacturers of BUILDING STONE, SAWED FLAGGING and TILE. Waltonville, Duphin Co., Pa. CONTRACTORS FOR ALL KINDS OF CUT STONE WORK Telegraph and Express Address, Brownstone, Pa. Parties visiting quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station on the P. & R. R. R. HOTEL GETTYSBURG, Headquarters for BANQUETS. Electric Lights, Steam Heat, All Conveniences. Free Bus to and from station. Convenient for Commencement Visitors. RATES $2.00 PER DAY. £iver-y Qitacruecl. D. R Gqtftfo.ll, Proprietor. EXPENSES IN COLLEGE $250 cash or a 3'ear in College cau be earned by one young man or young lady in each county in the United States. Plan easy and does not interfere with other occupation. No money required. For particulars address M. H. PEMBERTON, Columbia, Missouri. IWYSSfi iMMENl[STORE Successors to the E. M. Alleman Hardware Co., Manufacturer's Agent and Jobber of HARDWARE, OILS, PAINTS AND QUEENSWARE, GETTYSBURG, PA. The only Jobbing House in Adams County. ^^M PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. «««»*«#««*«»«»«»»«»««a«4He^»#«»««««#«««««#ftftft«« i • «* • « « «««« «* » »« » »» «« » « « ««« » « »»♦ * » « *«« ***« « **« ««« ** «« * **«««« Seligrqciri ARE GETTYSBURG'S MOST RELIABLE THJLO^S *£ And show their appreciation of your patronage by giving you full value for your money, and closest attention to the wants of every customer. <& Give Them Your Patronage ««« «« »• »«« « «« «««« * »«««« « «»» »*» »« ««»»««« »« ««*« »« « »««»*»««» » *«»«»«« *ft»«ft«»«tt*««#««aftfttf»ftft«»«»tt«ft«#«ft««*«««ftft«###« TATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. * innrFHS special I ^pasSS! ' i Is open for the fir I fe^ -- ^CsJJI munity who will * MUIS^SS^&I Piano or Organ. A Special Proposition rst person in an; com-deal with us for a WEAVER ORGANS AND PIANOS have no question mark to the quality. I I11I 1 I II 1 I MAIL THIS COUPON TO US. Send me special proposition for the purchase of a Piano. Name . Address WEAVER ORGAN AND PIANO CO., MANUFACTURERS, YORK, PA , U S A. ■j- "it ■I- "it *± nt 'M "it "it 't£it. w 'i- M/ tjt Wt * '•V 3t For Artistic Photographs Prices Always Right -GO TO— TjPTOjsr T|e Lutheran The Leader in PHOTO FASHIONS Frames and Passapartouts Made to Order. Come and Have a Good Shave or Hair Cut HARRY JL SEFTON'S BARBER SHOP 35 Baltimore St. Barbers Supplies a Specialty. \lso choice line of Cigars. Pulliciitioii Society No. 1424 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything' and everything' in the way of Books for Churches. Colleges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up ami develop one of the church in-stitutions with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. THE IUI ERCURV The Literar7 Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XVII GETTYSBURG, PA., DECEMBER, 1909 No. 7 CONTENTS. THE IMPORTANCE OP HEREDITY IN DECIDING A MAN'S OCCUPATION 2 WM. A. LOGAN, '10. THE FIRST CHRISTMAS.—Poem ' 5 NEWTON D. SWANK, '11. THE MUNICIPAL BATHING BEACH AT WASHING-TON G D. E. A. K. HER REASON 8 JI. IT. KRUMRINE, '11. ART. II.—TENNYSON'S CENTENARY, AUGUST 1809- 1909 12 REV. CHARLES WILLIAM HEATHCOTE, A.M., B.D. THE HONOR SYSTEM SHOULD PREVAIL AT PENN-SYLVANIA COLLEGE 15 MARY M. BAUSCH, '11. THE AMERICAN BUSINESS MAN 17 HARVEY W. STRAYER, '10. NEITHER PESSIMISM NOR OPTIMISM 20 FLORENCE G. HEATHCOTE, '10. DOES SMOKING AND DRINKING INTERFERE WITH INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS ? 22 H. F. BAUGHMAN, '10. SPAIN'S CRIME 24 EARL S. RUDISILL, '12. THE POSSIBILITIES FOR IMPROVEMENTS IN GET-TYSBURG 26 HARVEY S. HOSIIOUR, '10. EDITORIALS 28 EXCHANGES 31 z. THE MERCURY. THE IMPORTANCE OF HEREDITY IN DECIDING A MAN'S OCCUPATION. WM. A. LOGAN, '10. jO consider the question of the importance of heredity in determining a man's occupation we must see what effect heredity has in general upon the life of a man, and since occupation is an outgrowth of imitation, we must determine the effect of heredity, in particular, upon imitation. But let us first see what heredity means in this connection. There are those who would tamper with the term "heredity" in its purity, corrupting it by making it cover its own natural ground and that-rightly belonging to "early environment." We prefer, and justifiably so, to look upon it in its own sphere and to exclude any contribution from this other factor. Hence, we define heredity as the name given to the transmission of gains or losses in organic development from parent to child. And upon this definition rests the solution of our question. Heredity, certainly, has importance, however limited, in de-termining a man's line of work—in fact it has importance as a determining factor in man's whole life. Taking our definition, we admit a transmission takes place in the generation of chil-dren, but note that it is a transmission of gains or losses in organic development, and hence, becomes a question of large or small capacity; for it is easy to understand that the parent who lias gained in organic development will transmit to the child an organism of superior development and therefore of greater ca-pacity. The reverse is also true of the parent who has lost in organic development. And now, although we admit this, at the same time we know from observation, that unless favorable con-ditions are brought to bear upon the life of that child of superior development, that superiority will be overcome, largely, by the lack of said conditions, and, by the time the person is ready for occupation the factor of superior development will be so subju-gated to the unfavorable conditions that it will be recognized as playing a very small part in determining the occupation which the person will take up. On the other hand, let the child of in-ferior organic development be surrounded by favorable condi- THE MERCURY. tions—what do we notice ? Simply this, that although it cannot exceed a certain limit of development, it can and will, by virtue of these favorable conditions, overcome its inferiority, and, again, we find it true that heredity plays a part, but a very small part, in determining the occupation the child will follow. This ex-plains the phenomenon of great, powerful men born of lowly and sometimes ignorant parents, yet by virtue of later environment they become the powers that they are. Now, that we may get the really vital factor which solves our question, we must consider the element, "conscious imitation." It is this, after all, which determines the occupation however true it is that it too, has its detriments. To be concise we shall quote Baldwin, who sets forth plainly the rise of conscious imi-tation, and heredity's part in this rise. He cites the fact of the late rise of conscious imitation: sixth or seventh month. This fact may be accounted for on the very evident ground of the distinction of congenital functions from the new accommo-dations of the individual child. The child's early months are taken up with its vegetative functions. The machinery of he-redity is working itself out in the new individual." And fur-ther: "In the main, therefore, there is instinctive tendency to functions of the imitative type, and to some direct organic imi-tations; but those clear conscious imitations which represent new accommodations and acquirement are not as such instinc-tive, but come later as individual acquirements." Here we see heredity limited to the determining of action in the early months of the individual's life, and giving way to that more potent fac-tor, conscious imitation which in turn is determined by environ-ment. But we have not said that heredity has no power in de-termining a man's occupation and it is for us to show now, how it limits environment. Tins has been indicated above, but not explained. Let us take the ease of transmission of losses. The parent is frail and weak and the child inherits a similar frame and weak-ness; then no amount of habit, custom or education will make that child capable to assume an occupation which requires a large, strong body. And so with the inheritance of weak organs of whatever name—a weak heart, brain, a diseased stomach, etc. —inheritance of any of these means that habit, custom or educa- THE MERCURY. tion, in a word, environment, can only succeed in making the individual fit for an occupation which will not involve any strains whatever upon the weak or diseased organs. On the side of the trasmission of gains environment docs not have this limiting influence, but, as was stated explicitly above, a favorable environment tends to produce further gains, while an unfavorable environment limits even the organism of su-perior development. To take a specific case, we know a man, born of strong, healthy, intellectual parents, whose life was somewhat in this order—school (where he ranked high) work, (first in a store then in a factory with his father, then at a trade); night school, college, seminary, and ministry. The observed facts show that the man was born with an organism of superior development which was favorably environed during his early years,—then a less favorable influence came to bear, and, (that he might have more money), he went to work. Here we see environment showing itself in two directions—from store down to factory, and from factory up to trade. But finally, en-vironment lets his organism work along favorable lines, giving him a continuous uplift through the stages from night school to college, to seminary, and to his occupation. To sum up briefly, then, we admit that a transmission of ca-pacity takes place in generation of children, but we contend that this capacity may be limited or increased according to the un-favorable or favorable environment of the individual. We say that heredity is replaced by conscious imitation, to a large de-gree and imitation is the performing of those things which we see being performed about us. And when it comes to the de-termination of an occupation wc, in choosing, imitate those whom we have found it pleasant to imitate in other matters, or we choose an occupation for which our habits, customs or educa-tion has made us adept. And all this leads to the truth: "Man is a creature of environment," however true it may be that lie himself determines largely, his environment. THE MERCURY. THE FIRST CHRISTMAS. NEWTON D. SWANK, '11. In snowy-white December's dreary days, There comes to mind that bright'ning tale of glory; Of how the angels chanted hymns of praise, And to the shepherds told the wondrous story. Good shepherds, keeping watch o'er flocks by night In that same country where the Christ was born, Were dazed as they beheld a glorious sight Ere they had caught a glimpse of waking morn. They, sore afraid, drew back with cries of fear From that great shining light sent by the Lord. Then God's own angel did to them appear; Above, in radiant brilliancy, he soared. The angel to the shepherds softly said: "Fear not, I bring you tidings of great joy, Which to all people shall be widely spread; For unto you the Christ, your king, is born! This new-born babe is Christ, the Lord of men; In manger lying wrapped in swaddling clothes, Him .you will find in David's Bethlehem"— Then suddenly a host of angels rose. They chanted soft in heavenly array, And then sang: "Glory be to God on high, And on earth peace, good-will toward men alway." The joyous shepherds were no longer shy. As these celestial angels went from them The shepherds spoke to one another thus: "Let us now even go to Bethlehem To see this Son that God hath sent to us." THE MEECUEY. They came with haste, and found sweet Mary mild, Good Joseph with the oxen standing by; Within the manger lay the Holy Child,— God's gift to man His Love doth verify. When they the babe had seen they spread abroad The saying, which was told to them about This child, the precious gift for man from God; And all who heard sent up a prayer devout. The shepherds, glorifying God, returned; With great rejoicing they left Bethlehem, Where they such wondrous things had seen and learned; But Mary kept these things and pondered them. THE MUNICIPAL BATHING BEACH AT WASHINGTON. D. E. A. K. |ASHIN"GT01ST, the city beautiful, home of great men and fair women, has like many other large cities come to realize that not only in the palaces of kings, but also in the homes of the poor, are brain and brawn, beauty and grace to be found, for although frequently styled, "the city of diplomats and politicians," she has within her confines many from the poorer classes to whom are denied many of the neces-sities, not to speak of the luxuries of life. The children of these poor, compelled to bear the sweltering heat of summer, suffered without any means of relief. Seaboard cities are fanned by cooling breezes and afford to the younger element all the bathing facilities the ocean allows. Country towns have woods and the inevitable swimming hole. Washington, although situated on the Potomac, is blessed with none of these natural bounties, for due to the depth of the water and the currents, the river has been shunned rather than sought. What was to be done in the face of such conditions? Action THE MERCURY. 7 followed swift on the heels of the realization of the necessity. The citizens of the district petitioned the commissioners and they readily granted to the committee appointed, the old Fish Commission pools and grounds and a money appropriation to make the necessary repairs and alterations. Thus one of the city's most beneficent charities had its beginning. It was but a beginning, and that only, for since this the labor expended has been almost herculean. Unused pools have been filled in, low ground has been graded, drainage has been put in, locker houses and office buildings have been provided and con-crete swimming pools built. Has it been worth while? For an answer I would ask you to go to the Bathing Beach grounds some afternoon about one o'clock. When one is a full half mile from the pools already the small boy with his bathing suit is in evidence. Although Wash-ington is a city of "magnificent distances," yet from the out-skirts they come, rich and poor, big and little, young and old, and all in a hurry. When they arrive at the grouds all willingly get in line to receive their free admission slips, for a record of the name, age and residence of all patrons is kept. At the small boys' hours the big fellow declares, "he's only a kid;" at the older boys' hours, the little one is a man grown, supports a family, "and has chewed tobacco for a year;" few such excuses however, are offered during the ladies' hours. If the troubled waters in the pools at Washington could work miraculous cures ,many would be the number healed, for from early morning to evening few are the minutes in which the pools are not "disturbed"—and not always by angels either. Splash! Splash! Splash ! All day long. One can see hundreds in the pools or waiting on the wharves. Here a senate page is having a game of tag with a "newsy" who for an hour has dropped his cry of "Sta'-Times- -Evenin' Pape," and is enjoying a dip; there "Tubby" Regan, winner of many races, paddles in his inevitable tub, joyfully ignorant of the fact that Johnny Shugrne is just ready to spill him from his slippery throne. There are shallow pools for waders, deep ones for swimmers,. "muddy" ones for the dusky patrons; all are accomodated, all are-happy, all are safe. Swimming instructors and life guards with 8 THE MERCURY. ceaseless vigil keep careful watch over the bathers, so accidents are few, fatalities none. And who is largely responsible for the instruction and con-tinuance of this factor which has proved to be an unspeakable blessing to many? Dr. Wm. B. Hudson, the present superin-tendent, "the swimmer's friend, looked Up to by the boys, re-spected by the men, asked for by the ladies; a "West Point man^ a University of Pennsylvania graduate who has entrusted to other hands his large profitable practice that he might for a mere pittance give his time and energy for the good of "the other man." All honor to such truly great men, who in a spirit of widest altruism forget self in their consideration for their fel-lows. ± ± HER REASON. M. H. KRUJIBIXE, '11. SJSPT this a grand night? Beyond description!" "It certainly is." "It is an ideal night to take a walk. Nothing would be quite as enjoyable to me as a walk. Will we take one?" Oh !— The t-t-ti—w-well! Let's take a walk." Such were the words exchanged between Jack Roberts, the big Sophomore class president and Miss Drew, the Freshman co-ed, respectively, as the former was leaving Miss Drew after having spent a most enjoyable evening in the company of the Fresh-man co-ed. It was at 11 o'clock and the walk came as a sur-prise to both. It was quite a novelty to these two representa-tives of hostile classes. True, Miss Drew had reflected on the time but the night was too grand to resist. Then, too, we must not forget that one was a class president and the other a class secretary and loyal Freshman co-ed. "Hustle on your wraps, Miss Drew, and we'll be out enjoying the glorious night," said Jack, his head in a whirl. The very fact that he had spent the evening with Miss Drew was enough THE MERCURY. to fluster him for a week and the walk in addition was enough to cause a brain-storm. He had eyed the Freshman co-ed with hungry eyes many a time as she appeared in chapel, on the campus, in dining hall or wherever she chanced to come within sight. Many a time had the rustle of her dress, the wave of her golden tresses or the sparkle of her beautiful, blue eyes caused his heart to take a sud-den leap and flutter beyond control. What this present occasion did we can only conjecture. Then, too, Mis Drew, the popidar and generally admired Freshman co-ed had not been entirely averse to the attentions paid her by the big Sophomore president. In fact, she had played several games of tennis with him, but never had Jack teen honored with her company as he was to-night. But the walk is not yet taken. "Oh! I am ready," was the quick reply, as Margaret, the co-ed, hastily donned her wraps. Soon they were off for a stroll in the country, under the open canopy of heaven, bestudded with countless stars. The silvery moon, too, was shedding its gor-geous light on the earth beneath. Thus they went forth to drink in the fresh air and beauties of the night. ISTor was their en-joyment of the walk unexpressed. "Isn't this evening perfectly charming. It is an ideal ni , I mean, it is an ideal evening. An evening such as poets love to describe. How grand it is and my enjoyment of it cannot be expressed." Such were the words of Margaret as they went along. "You have expressed my feelings exactly, Miss Drew," was the scant reply of Jack. He had other feelings to contend with. Feelings such as scarcely permitted him to open his mouth lest they give utterance,—to his sorrow—perhaps. He was perplexed and rather meditative. But he was well aware of all that hap-pened and was a very earnest audience to Margaret, reflecting carefully on all she said, which was much. Margaret apparently was enjoying the walk so much that she did not think of any-thing else. She was very talkative, as if for some specific pur-pose. As the walk was continued the perplexity of Jack did not cease, but rather increased. He was perturbed and it was only 10 THE MERCURY. a matter of time when it would become evident to his companion. '"Shall I say it ?—Will I tell her ?" mused the big class president. "How will she take it? No. I dare not, I must not, for when I mentioned Borneo and Juliet in connection with this night, she made a queer move and uttered an unexplainable sound. She objected to any such thought. Did she object? Perhaps she winced for another reason," mused Jack further. At this time the representatives of the two hostile classes were quite some distance from the college. It would take them about half an hour to get back and then they would have to walk briskly. Yet they kept on apparently unaware of the time and distance. All of a sudden an outrageous yell and din reached their ears. It was a din and it kept up for some time. Pres-ently Jack broke the silence caused by the din with the words, "What noise?" Margaret, innocent as a Freshman only can be, of course did not know. But all of a sudden, as if becoming suddenly aware of the time and distance from the college, she exclaimed rather excitedly, "Let's turn back. I fear the hour is growing late and we are some distance from the college—a good half hour's walk!" "Say a good hour's walk," said Jack as he turned to go back before he was aware of it. They journeyed back but the hideous noise and din marred their walk. How they did not know, but even Margaret was silent and Jack could not muse as before, with such an uproar going on. Furthermore he was afraid that he should be back at college, on the campus where the noise was made according to all indications. He was a class president and a Sophomore, too. What might not his class be doing. They were trained to "work" under him and without him they were as sheep without a shepherd. Perhaps the Freshmen are busy. He became alarmed the closer they came. His nerves were all a-tinkle. Just then they had come close enough to distinguish some words. "Sophomores! ""Sophomores!" "Freshmen!" "Freshmen!" "Freshmen!" burst upon their ears. "The Flagscrap!" burst forth Jack, as he made a sudden leap as if to run. THE MERCURY. 11 "Pardon me, Miss Drew, I—I forgot." "Merely class spirit," was the reply. The fact was only too well known to both now. The long looked for flag scrap had at last "come off." Then Jack did think. Here he was while the flag scrap was. going on, on the college campus. To him the walk ended in a tragedy, at least so he thought then. As they hastened back they wished their respective classes suc-cess as was only natural. Since the journey before them lasted about half an hour more, the former feelings of Jack came back. He had not said anything yet, but had come to the conclusion ihat Margaret was rather favorably inclined towards him. He gave that as her reason for taking a walk with him at such an hour. He could see no other reason. She surely must have had one and this to him seemed most plausible. Finally they reached their destination and in delicious pain Jack left the Freshman co-ed. He had not forgotten the class fight and so at the top of his speed he arrived on the college cam-pus. Yelling was at par now but it was all for the Freshmen for they had withstood the Sophomores for thirty-five minutes and their flag was still intact. Thus they had won the scrap since thirty minutes was the required time. The reason the Sophomores could not harm the Freshman flag-was because they lacked a leader—their president. No one knew where he was. That night Jack went to his room rather crestfallen. But then again he was happy for he had not forgotten the walk with one whom he idolized—yes that's what he really did. He still had hope, more strongly than ever, now, that he had left her and had time to reflect, that she had a good reason for taking the walk with him. "Yes, love was her reason" thought Jack. Next day one could see the Freshmen strutting about in high glee over the victory of the night before. After chapel, they all, at different times, and in small groups, congratulated Miss Drew, their secretary, on the noble part she had played in the flag scrap. Yes, the Freshman co-ed had a reason for taking a walk, at midnight, with the big, husky Sophomore president. 12 THE MERCURY. ART II.—TENNYSON CENTENARY AUGUST 1809-1909— Tennyson and In Memoriam. BY REV. CHARLES WILLIAM HEATHCOTE, A.M., Ji.U. IEOM the selections of Tennyson's poems you will notice his work is beautiful for its melody, and harmony. You notice that he possesses a true love for nature and has a noble Christian character. This is manifested in his friendship for Iiallam. There has been very few classic friendships in the history of the world that have come down to us. We know the story of the true friendship, Damon, a Pythago-rean, bore for Pythias. Pythias had been condemned to death by Dionysius I, of Syracuse. Pythias asked to be set at liberty for a short time to settle up his affairs. Damon pledged his own life for that of his friend, who he knew would return. Pythias did return before the day appointed for his execution. Diony-sius was so deeply impressed that he released Damon from his pledge and gave Pythias his freedom. Again we know the true friendship David bore toward Jona-than. In the account given in I Samuel, 23:17-18, we see this friendship manifested. "And he said unto him: Fear not for the hand of Saul my father shall not find thee; and thou shalt be king over Israel, and I shall be next unto thee; and that also Saul my father knoweth. And they two made a covenant before the Lord: and David abode in the woods, and Jonathan went to his house." Thus Tennyson had a true deep friendship founded on love for Arthur Henry Hallam. He reveals his friendship and love in "In Memoriam." Arthur Henry Hallam, the son of the historian Henry Hal-lam, was born Feb. 1, 1811, in London. At an early age he traveled with his parents in Italy and Switzerland. As a youth he was very precocious. After attending a private school, he was sent to Eton. Here he remained until 1827. In October, 1828, he matriculated at Trinity College, Cam-bridge. Here he became acquainted with Tennyson. There THE MERCURY. 13 was formed a friendship which was to iast forever and which was destined to be immortalized in literature. Thus should all friendships be made, not to be broken at will, but to last forever. Friendships should not be made with the purpose of using those friends for selfish motives, but that true communion of soul and spirit might exist here on earth and in the realms of eternal life. Thus the best friendships are made in mature years when one. understands the congenialities of human nature. Furthermore, the true friendships formed in college days last on through life. You know Cicero speaks of friendship thus: "Virtus, virtus inquam C. Fanni et tu Q Muci et conciliat amicitias et eonser-rat. C. De Amit XXVIII, 53 page. Emerson also says: "My careful heart was free again, 0 friend, my bosom said. Through thee alone the sky is arched, Through thee the rose is red; All things through thee take nobler form, And look beyond the earth, The mill—round of our fate appears A sim path in thy worth." Young Hallam did not distinguish himself in Greek, Latin or Mathematics while at college. His work in literature and essay writing was brilliant. He was an orator of strong ability, for he obtained a prize on declamation in 1831. He was well versed in history. He graduated from Trinity in 1832 and in October 1832, he took up the study of law. In August of 1833, Arthur accompanied his father on a trip to the continent from which he was not to return alive. He died at Vienna, Sept. 15, 1833, from an attack of intermittent fever. His remains were brought to England and interred on the 3rd of January, 1834, in Clevedin Church, Somersetshire. Hallam as a young man in his earlier college days wrote many poems which were graceful, and pleasing. We quote this one: 14 THE MERCURY. '"Alfred, I would that you beheld me now, Sitting beneath a mossy wild wall. On a quaint bench which to that structure old Winds an accordant curve." He also wrote several essays of a philosophic character, which show careful thought and preparation. Thus Tennyson as a tribute of honor to his beloved friend wrote "In Memoriam" which was first published in 1850. It is probable when Tennyson first wrote this poem that it was not his intention to publish it. There is no regular order in the poem. Tennyson wrote as his soul passed through its various states, conditions, and feelings. At one time Tennyson lost his note book. We can imagine the deep distress of the poet until it was recovered. Hallam had made a deep impression on Tennyson's life and character. He was a congenial, winsome fellow. Hallam's death was a double shock to Tennyson. In the first place his friendship was clear and indissoluble. In the second place Hal-lam was betrothed to the poet's sister Emily at the time of his death. Thus Tennyson depicts his sorrow, varied feelings, love, etc., in the poem. Prof. Genung says the theme of the poem is: "That love is intrinsically immortal." He also divides the poem thus: Prologue. Introductory Stage I—XXVII. First Cycle—XXVIII—LXXVI1. Second Cycle—LXXVIII—CIII. Third Cycle—CIV—CXXXI. Epilogue. Clianibersburg, Pa. THE 3IEKCU1SY. IB THE HONOR SYSTEM SHOULD PREVAIL AT PENNSYL-VANIA COLLEGE. MARY M. BAUSCH, '11. iX.tlic discussion of this subject, first it must be shown what is meant by the honor system. By this we mean that men and women are put on their honor, that they are pledged to perform all duties with truth, with hon-esty, and with, fairness. They are pledged not to cheat. When a man is put on his honor he is given an opportunity to prove himself a responsible being. The honor system should prevail at Pennsylvania College for two reasons. First, because the morality of the student body would be improved. Second, because the reputation of the institution would be raised in the eyes of the public. The question may be ashed, Is there any honor in our student body? The only way to prove that this exists is to have the honor system introduced into the college government. When once a student is placed on his honor he comes to realization of his position. He is no longer a mere high school boy. He is a man and must be responsible. If he is not responsible he must be taught to be. And the only way to teach responsibility is by placing the student in a responsible position. This in itself is Fufficient reason why the honor system should prevail. Our honor is our most highly prized possession. Can we en-trust our honor to another? Can we place it in the care of pro-fessors, while under his instructions and receive it at will when we pass through the portals of the institution? The four years passed here are to the average student the most formative period of his life. This is the time for you to learn to depend on your-self, to be a leader even if you have not acquired ability suffici-ent to do so. The honor system will help to accomplish these things. It will arouse in the student the desire to do right. The objection is raised that the honor system does not make all honest. This is true. No system can make a man do his work honestly if he is determined to cheat. But a public feeling is aroused against cheating, this public feeling has greater influ-ence than anything else in governing man's actions. 1G THE HEKCUKY. For the honor system to succeed at Pennsylvania College it is necessary for the student to be willing to undergo the conditions which the honor system demands. He must be ready to inform against anyone who cheats. The student must be wholly impar-tial. He cannot allow private friendships and claims to inter-fere with the discharge of his duty. This is one of the greatest principles in the training of the future citizens for our country. A keen sense of honor is especially in demand in piiblic and pri-vate life. It is even more important than education. The educated man who lacks high moral character is more at a disad-vantage than the honest man who is uneducated. The honor system is a stimulus to better work in general. It does not cover examinations only, but it also covers assigned tasks and private work. Besides the greatest cheating does not occur in examinations. It occurs more in written work done out of the class-room where the authority of the instructor does not extend. For example the writing of themes and in mathemati-cal problems. It has been said, "To cheat is one thing, to cheat a teacher is another." This especially applies to private work over which the instructor has no immediate authority. The only way to root out this fault is through the honor system. For only through the students themselves can any reform in this di-rection take place. I have said that the honor system would raise the reputation of the college in the eyes of the public. The most important part of the college is its student body. The student in a large sense makes the college. If he is dishonest, he causes a shadow of dishonesty to be cast over the institution from which he is graduated. The value of his diploma is lowered when the pub-lic once learns that by cheating he is able to pass his examina-tions. The standard of the college is made manifest by the standard of integrity and ability of its students and alumni. If the honor system prevailed at Pennsylvania College, the faculty, or rather the individual professors would be relieved of a very unpleasant duty. The duty of a spy. The imputation that the professor is a policeman would be removed. This is a very strong reason why the honor system should be adopted here. There are many students who have good impulses but lack moral strength. We all recognize the power, a strong personality . u THE MERCURY. 17 has over a group of minds. The boy upon entering college is most easily influenced by the older memebrs of the institution. Xow, if a high sense of honor were fostered in the college, the morals of the Freshman would be strengthened by the example of high honor existing among i\pperelassmen. The student who sees a high standard of honor in a fellow-student may in time be brought to adopt it for himself. Again, there are students who object to giving help, both in examinations and in private work from a sense of honesty to their professors and from principle. Consequently they are open to much criticism. If the honor system were established, they would be supported by the student body as a whole and freed from the charge of selfishness and stinginess. Finally the honor system would be the means for rooting out the idler, the man who will not work, the man who depends on getting through on somebody else's goods. Many of our institutions have established the honor system in all departments and a number of them in several departments. Among those institutions where the honor system has proven suc-cessful are Princeton, Cornell, Lehigh, Virginia, Washington and Jefferson, Washington and Lee, North Carolina, Williams, and Amherst. The methods of teaching at our college are simi-lar to those of the above named institutions, and since in general the character of students is much the same, there is no reason why the honor system should not be as successful here as in those institutions. The only to test its efficiency is to try it. THE AMERICAN BUSINESS MAN. HARVEY W. STRAYER, '10. HE American business man is one who makes an honest effort to earn a livelihood. He is the marvel of the world. He is the culmination of American industrial development. He is the one great, single, vital force responsible for America's supremacy in commerce and industry. To him we must bow our thanks for an hundred comforts which were but yesterday luxuries. 18 THE MERCURY. Through the energy, perseverance, imagination and ingenuity of the business man, feats can be performed undreamed of by the most optimistic ancestor. He has bound our country together by bands of steel; he has harnessed Niagara and a thousand other water-falls and lighted our cities with that indefinable something —electricity. He has laid the Atlantic cable and made Great Britain our own neighbor. He has united New York with San Francisco and made the State of the Golden Gate our door-mat to the Orient. He has braved the dangers of the subterranean depths and digs up for our use the precious stones and metals, and pipes to the surface the no less precious fluids. These things the American business man has done and more. He is no longer subject to nature's laws but defying even the power of gravity, sails through the air whither-so-ever he will. The American business man is above all a man of ingenuity. He harnesses nature and guides her in her own work of produc-tion. In our western country, the arid plains of yesterday are the gardens of to-day. By great engineering feats, water streams are coaxed from original courses and by proper care are made to make the parched and burned desert to bloom and blossom as the rose. In a word our business men have made living a pleasure when a century ago it was a positive pain. But our description of the business man lacks perfection until we see him in his home. See him there and you have the secret of his success. For it is there he receives encouragement and inspiration from that fount of American helpfulness—the American woman. To speak, further of the business man in his relation to the home is needless for an American reader. You may think my eulogy overdone, for I am painting the business man at his best in the home and in the industries. But even this superb creature has defects, the greatest of which it the utilization of ever moment of time for family and self at the expense of the State. For our business men too often neglect to give even a moment to the nation—to the State—to the city. They are pigmies in politics and state-craft and invite upon themselves the opprobium of the more patriotic citizens. Under these conditions of indifference the unscrupulous poli-tician springs up even as the mushroom in the night, but alas! his tenacity for life is a thousand times that of the tender and THE MERCURY. 19 short-lived mushroom. dies and never resigns. "The unscrupulous politician seldom This was the truism expressed by Jef-ferson and this fact makes it a double task to root out the American grafter, once he has attained his power. But let us thank Providence, the seat of the grafter is not al-ways unshaken. There are always some honest business men aware of the public dishonesties; always somebody ready to lead the people in their crusades against public evils; always some men ready with public confidence behind them to clean the legis-lative halls of their reeking political filth. Such men as Berry of Pennsylvania, Folk of Missouri, and Heney of California, are simply repaid for their herculean tasks by the public confidence—a thing not measured in dollars and cents. Yes, we want our business men to be honest and our honest business men to be politicians. Not until our business men be-come politicians and place politics on the high plane where it deserves to be, can we hope for continued good government. If our public officials are not honest and our business men not politicians enough to understand the public questions of the day, we tremble for the perpetuity of our country. But there is a better spirit abroad in the land. Politics is being cleansed and officials are learning the lesson that public office is a public trust. Slowly but surely we are evolving the American business man who finds time for his community and his country. This busi-ness man then, supreme in the commercial world; loving in the-home; and watchful in the State will be the hope of the future. Trusting in him in the days to come, we expect our offices to be filled with men of unimpeached integrity and the destiny of our country to be made secure. 20 THE SIEECURY. NEITHER PESSIMISM NOR OPTIMISM. FLORENCE G. HEATHCOTE '10. |MOJS"G the philosophers who have flourished during past ages the most varied theories of the universe have pre-vailed. Some have radically propounded the theory of optimism while others advocated that of pessimism. Schopenhauer's is a philosophy of despair. His belief was that the world, in which we live, with its social conditions, is the worst that ever could exist. Thus unhappiness was the inevi-table and moral rule of the human life. Leibniz's idea of this life was diametrically opposed to that of Schopenhauer's; for him happiness greatly overbalanced the pain of this world and the present world-order is the best possible. But these same two ideas exist among every class of men. The Europeans, as a whole, are rather pessimistic. This is probably on account of their less progressive condition. The Americans, on the other hand, are considered to be very optimistic on ac-count of being in a condition of prosperity. Yet America has to-day many "Schopenhauer's" as well as "Leibnizs" and their theories are just as radical as those of either of these philoso-phers. For the truly pessimistic man of to-day unhappiness is the prime element of life and the quicker death comes, the better for him. His religious, social, and business activities appear to him as only things of misery and torture. It is very evident that there is very little progress in anything a man undertakes when he upholds such a theory. "Despair is death," is a true saying. The pessimist can do very little, if anything, for the uplift of the human race, and especially for the progress of his country, with such a sombre view of life. His gloomy theory paralyzes effort. His theory, however, is only a misrepresentation, which is due to the magnifying of the various misfortunes and sorrows of this life which he has experienced. He sees no honor or justice in anything and thus he deliberately rales God out of his thoughts entirely. In such a state of mind no one is able to appreciate nature or to help others to see the right. On the other hand a radical optimist is just as far from real- THE MEitcuny. 21 izing what this life really is as the pessimist with his dark view of the universe. The optimist has, indeed, heen one of the main factors in the steady development of our land, but he, too often, forgets what true happiness really means. Everything is life and sunshine to him; misfortunes are immediately overlooked without affecting his character in the least, and thus he is car-ried on by the whirl of success, forgetting all and only looking for his own selfish joy and pleasure. Yet he is helping to pro-mote a rapid growth, perhaps, in the industrial world, but with no other thought in view except his own selfish end. Thus he has no sympathy for those who are his inferiors financially or socially and in the end he must discover that his is not the truly great happiness after all. "A man's lot is not really happy when all his desires are always and fully realized, but when he obtains a proper share of joy and sorrow, success and failure, plenty and want, straggle and peace, work and rest, and obtains it at the right time." But the truth is that there must be a blending of the opti-mistic and the pessimistic ideas, if life would appear to us reah There should be sufficient recognition of evil, so as not to ignore its presence, and a due appreciation of the good, to serve as an inspiration to high endeavor. "Life is hope" and what benefit can there be derived if one is continually in despair. The dangers and misunderstandings are well balanced by the numer-ous gifts in nature and the joy of good health. Our nation can advance only if its citizens have a "common-sense" view of life. It is by pain and persecution that their characters can be strengthened to fight the battles of life. Some great scholar has said, "This earth is dear to mortal men, not merely in spite of its tears and crosses, but also on account of them." It has been just through those men, who have held the "com-mon- sense" view that our nation is what it is to-day. Their foremost thought has been that the first thing to be done is to care for one's fellow-men. Through this noble thought there have been innumerable improvements along all lines. To make life pleasant and enjoyable for man, the construction of rail-roads, telephone, and telegraph lines have been accomplished. Useful arts and sciences have been inculcated; free schools and 22 I'll E .MI'.IICIJIIY. colleges have been opened; public libraries and churches have been erected all over the country. Even criminals of to-day are put into healthy and clean prisons where they are compelled :to do some work or to learn a trade. One of the great fruits of man's helping his fellow-men is very evident in the provision of free sanitoriums for curing various diseases and the preven-tion of epidemics. In a land where there is so much liberty offered to all and whose laws are so just, every citizen should endeavor to do his best for its welfare and advancement. To sit idly by and look at its darkest side or its brightest side will never be fruitful of any good, but let us be encouraged by the good and do our best in abolishing evil so that "this government of the people, for the people, and by the people may never perish from the earth." DOES SMOKING AND DRINKING INTERFERE WITH IN-TELLECTUAL PROGRESS. II. F. BAUGIIMAN, '10. NE of the most familiar terms used in athletic circles is the term "training." By it is expressed careful selec-tion of diet, early bed hours, clean morals and above all a strict abstinence from alcoholic beverages and to-bacco. The trainers and players all recognize the evil effects of these dissipations upon the physical system, so when football and track seasons at college come around, the candidates for these teams sign a pledge to "keep training." Perhaps after these di-versions have passed out of season, the same men who have trained faithfully for weeks may "break training" and drink and carouse as though attempting to make up for time lost. At least most men at college indulge in the use of tobacco, and a few in the use of intoxicants. 3Tow it is suggested that if such indulgences are not good for the physical system, are they not also detrimental to intellectual progress? From the statements given above it wovild appear that the majority of students think they are not, but we must remember that men do not always do THE MEBCUEY. 23 what is of the most advantage to them. We will consider the effects of each separately upon the mind, taking smoking first as it is most prevalent. Medical science shows us that smoking, especially cigarette smoking, is most injurious to the brain tissues. The smoker in-hales the poisonous nicotine and it is taken to the lungs where the blood is carried for purification, instead of receiving cleans-ing, it is acted upon by this freighted with poisonous matter. This blood is carried to the brain, there to feed the tissues with poison. Of course not all the poison is carried by the blood, be-cause the blood corpuscles and other scavengers act upon it to purify it, but they are taxed excessively by this extra task and sooner or later these organs lose part of their power and permit more poison to be carried to the brain to build up unhealthy tis-sues, which of course cannot perform their functions to any great degree, thus hindering intellectual progress. Men of experience have recognized the injurious effects of the poison, and legislators in many States are working for legisla-tion which will keep this cause of mental and physical degenera-tion from the boys in school; they recognize the fact that sound, healthy minds cannot develop in bodies that are poisoned by the same substance which must be carried also to the brain. Ke-cently in the "Philadelphia Press" there was an account of the case of a school boy whose excessive practice of the cigarette habit cost him his liberty. The account states that his mind was dulled and the boy was becoming incorrigible. This shows the effect of smoking upon one child, and its effects must be simi-lar, though not always to so great a degree, upon every smoker. Certainly the habit hinders greatly intellectual progress. Drinking is much more injurious and its effects are more plainly seen than the effects of smoking. Alcohol has a deaden-ing effect upon a man's mental powers which is well manifested while he is under the influence of liquor. He regains his pow-ers to a certain degree soon after the stimulant loses its power, hut he cannot forever do this. Gradually the brain must weaken, because a man cannot abuse any organ repeatedly without its having an evil effect upon that organ. I have seen performed an experiment with alcohol on the brain of a pigeon. When the alcohol came in contact with the tissues 24 THE MEIiCtfUY. the whole mass stiffened and congealed and remained so for quite a while. This is what happens to a less degree in a man's brain when he becomes subject to drink. The blood always carries the poison to the brain and there is does its harmful work. The ha-bitual drinker so impairs his mental powers that at last he loses 1hem entirely and becomes insane; there are perhaps more cases of insanity due to drink than to all other caiises combined. Now the liquor must have the same effect on every brain in propor-tion to the amount used and the strength of that organ for re-sisting, so no one can indulge in alcoholic beverages without im-paring his mind, and he must of necessity hinder his own men-tal progress. Smoking and drinking interfere most effectively with intel-lectual progress, and the man who wishes to always have a clear brain and do rational thinking to a point of supermacy must ab-stain from these indulgences. SPAIN'S CRIME. EARL S. RUDISILIi, '12. IING ALFONSO of Spain, in ten minutes rendered fruitless his country's ten-year diplomatic struggle for a place among the world powers when he permitted the execution of Professor Francisco Ferrer. Investiga-tions have shown that Ferrer was entirely innocent of the charge laid at his door and even if this had not been proven, the con-demnation of such a scholar against the will of all Europe, could not but reflect on the intelligence of the Spanish Government and impair its influence with the other powers. Professor Ferrer was a man of courage and great principles, a firm believer in democracy and the founder of the "Modern Schools" in Spain. It was his manly courage that spoke forth when he uttered his last words, "Aim straight; long live the Modern Schools." His democratic spirit was the indirect cause of his execution, for it was on account of this spirit that he was suspected of partaking in the outbreaks in Cataloma and Barce- THE MERCURY. lona. As the founder of schools, lie rendered the same service to Spain which our Thaddeus Stevens rendered to Pennsylva-nia and in both instances was it done in spite of strong opposi-tion. During the last decade Spain has been regaining much of the importance and influence which she seemed to have lost. Since she has been without colonial possessions she has been conserv-ing her resources for domestic improvements and great things have been accomplished. Railroads have been built, agriculture has become more important, commerce has increased and Span-ish influence at court has been doubled. Her relations with ■neighboring nations have become closer. The marriage of the king to the English Victoria has drawn England and Spain closer than ever while France also has become more closely con-nected with her. All this has taken place since the war with the United States and that conflict was largely responsible for it. Even Alfonso himself, has declared that the war was a blessing in disguise. ISTow in the midst of prosperity and improvement Spain has blighted her progress by a self-inflicted wound, and greatly im-paired her increasing prestige among the powers. Instead of friendly greetings she has received from all the world condemna-tion, and King Alfonso, who signed the death Avarrant, by shift-ing the blame on to his prime minister, caused the resignation of the entire cabinet. The government was demoralized. However, the king has appointed a new cabinet with Senor Moret at its head and it will act with a conciliatory policy but it cannot bring back to life the martyr.ed Ferrer, nor can it re-store the moral order of things so soon as it was broken. It will be an uphill struggle and one not soon over, for such a gross de-fiance of moral law will not soon be forgotten. May the future of Spain profit by the past. 26 THE MERCURY. THE POSSIBILITIES FOR IMPROVEMENTS IN GETTYSBURG. HARVEY S. HOSHOUR, "10. E it located where it may, there is no town in America which has been so honored and so revered, as Gettys-burg. This little village among the hills is known the world over. To the foreigner it is the scene of one of the world's most decisive battles; to the American it marks the turning point of the struggle which meant national life to our country; to the Gettysburg man it means all this and more. Four years' sojourn at Gettysburg cannot but add with a peculiar emphasis to our appreciation of the last full measure of devo-tion of those who fought here. But for us there is more than even this. Surrounded by the battlefield at the outskirts of town there is a little college which to every Gettysburg student is one of the dearest places on earth. This is our Alma Mater. It is a small college but there are those who love it. There is a certain atmosphere pervading the place, which seems to have taken the best from the ordinary college town life and happily blended it with the historical halo which surrounds all fields of battle. So far as the town is concerned there seem to be but few chances for improvements. It is not that the place is perfect, but it seems to me that development has already been made along the proper lines and that any departure from them in prin-ciple, would be detrimental. For example, the plan has been to make Gettysburg a residential place and not an industrial com-munity. Development along these lines is the thing needed, not any change in them. It may seem old-fashioned to argue in this strain and the objection would be justified in many places, but for Gettysburg there is a difference. Gettysburg may live behind the times of the modern factory community, but we live, not merely subsist, as is done in many such localities. To me it seems that residential growth is to be encouraged, the old tradi-tions preserved, and factory development discouraged, if Get-tysburg is to be really improved as a town. THE JIEKCUKY. 27 As a college the conditions are somewhat different. There are many radical improvements needed which do not seem to me to be a detriment to the spirit in which the institution has been fostered. The new science hall, the Y. M. C. A. building, the new gymnasium, and the newly arranged curriculum are all needed improvements. A better arrangement of the dormitory life should be attempted. The experience of other colleges seem to justify the efficacy of allowing the various fraternities to pro-vide their own sleeping departments. If this is not done, a new dormitory should be erected in the near future. While improvements in the college curriculum are strongly urged, a departure from the old classical standards is far from being desired. Gettysburg is first of all a school of classical traditions, which are too dear to every alumnus and undergradu-ate, to be discarded. We urge the addition of new courses, but not the abandonment of the old ones. This may seem to be an argument in favor of the life which lives behind the times and to a certain extent it is. Our traditions are dear to us and they last with a tenacity which only such a place as Gettysburg could develop. Every college man lores his Alma Mater, if he is worthy of her name, but the Gettysburg man has something more than this. With four years of such life as we live here, one forms a fabric-work of dreams so to speak, which, if it break or be shattered, was only an influence for good, and which if it lasts through one's lifetime is bound to be an acting force in every man's life. T^ ERCURV Entered fit the I'ostoffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter. VOL. XVII GETTYSBURG, PA., DECEMBER, 1909 No. 7 Editor in-Chief SAMUEL FAUSOLD, 'IO. Exchange Editor G. E. BOWERSOX, 'io Business Manager PAUL S. MILLER, 'IO Ass't Bus. Managers C. M. ALLABACH, 'II S. T. BAKER, 'II Assistant Editor RALPH E. RUDISILL, 'IO Associate Editors E. J. BOWMAN, 'II C. M. DAVIS, 'II Advisory Board PROF. G. F. SANDERS, A. M. PROF. P. M. BIKXE, FH. D. PROF. C. J. GRIMM, Pit. D. Published each month, from October to June-inclusive, by the joint literary Societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance ; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be ac-companied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. OF tilings worth while, we often consider whether it is worth the time and money for women to re-ceive a college education. When we glance at the Greeks, we find it was the disgrace and finally the ruin of their civilization that their wives were uneducated. There vir-tue and ignorance, vice and culture were hand in hand, but America has always been distinguished for judgment and justice accorded THE MERCURY. 29 to the gentler sex. Although there is great antagonism as to the co-ed idea, yet we, being thrust into the environment of them and seeing their scholarship and influence, are convinced of their ability to successfully compete with their brothers in every field of study and research. The alumni of our colleges are seeing to it that their hoys are being educated and are urging them to work for greater college facilities. It is such spirit that has created such female institutions as Barnard, Wellesley, Smith and Vassar. Glancingatthe co-ed educational training at Cornell as to their effect on young men, we find that they have cultivated the best traits and most chivalric characteristics of manhood. Their am-bition and success have stimulated every department of college and university to a more earnest effort and higher ideal. Ignorance is no longer an excuse for keeping others ignorant, and to-day college education fits the female for the field which needs her labor, and the world is made richer for her skill and fidelity and better, too, for the independence, that we can do nothing better but quote the words of Pope: "Tis education forms the common mind, Just as the twig is bent, the tree inclined." THE TRUE To-day we hear much concerning the meeaninar PERSPEC- ° TIVE. of that modest word, "success." What constitutes success? It all depends upon the viewpoint, upon the perspec-tive. Hence at one glance, we obtain a realizing sense of the im-portance of perspective. No two persons have the same perspec-tive. The educational and hereditary traits are different for each of us. Hence our perspectives are affected differently. We all see tilings through glasses more or less colored by prejudice and bias. Although our perspectives are very different, they are not necessarily wrong. The farmer boy from Illinois will have an entirely different perspective from the son of a New York millionaire, and yet the two perspectives may be legitimate in every sense. But, that these young men should have the true perspectives of life, they must have a true sense of values. 30 THE MERCURY. It is the same with us all. We must spend a great part of out-lives in attaining the right perspective. The success of one's college career depends largely upon his sense of values. Shall the college student bend his energies in one direction or shall he aim at becoming the "all around man?" Shall he be a recluse, neglecting the social life entirely? Shall he be a social butter-fly, without intellectual ambitions? Shall he strike a happy medium between these extremes? The college student who thinks of nothing but football is a pitiable spectacle. That student is narrow—narrow in every sense, and yet the student who cannot enjoy a lively energetic football game is also to be pitied. The true perspective of life as the world sees it is to work hard, play hard, and at the same time to practice the simple life. This is the aim of the small college—to give one the right per-spective ; to give him lofty ideals, and to place in his hands the means of attaining them. Let us, therefore, second the college in her efforts: let us learn what is worth while and then go after it. GOOD The contention as to what constitutes good reading READING, is an old one. The idea that "No book is so bad but that there is some good in it," has few ardent supporters to-day. There may be something of value in every book but too often that thing of value is neutralized by the baneful. Tell me, good reader, how much of good there is in a novel such as that one en-titled, "A Woman's Temptation," by Bertha Clay. To see a col-lege man read such a book would be ludicrous, were it not that the waste of profitable time has a serious side to it. We admit that the so-called light reading may sometimes be justifiable as a temporary diversion, but let that light reading be from the more admirable writers. Why not read something from Washington Irving, Dickens, or even Jules Vernes in pref-erence to the silly, contemptible, sensational novels which flood our country. To possess a taste for really good literature is a mark of cul-ture, and true appreciation of the masters of our language is not ___^^__ THE MERCURY. 31 attained by the perusal of second-rate productions. No college man can afford to be lacking in intimacy with such men as Mil-ton, Shakespeare, Burns, Emerson and all the others who form that brilliant galaxy of pensmen that has given imperishable fame to the English language. j* EXCHANGES. IHE November exchanges are especially attractive, many being special Thanksgiving numbers, and containing essays and poems suitable to the great national holiday. We notice in reading the various papers that much of the material is contributed by alumni of the various schools. In some instances the entire literary section of the papers are given to alumni productions. What does this indicate ? In one respect it shows a healthy alumni spirit which is indeed com-mendable and in many respects desired. But on the other hand it displays a lack of literary interest on the part of the present generation of students or a disposition on the part of some edi-tors to sacrifice the best interests of their fellow-students in order to fill the magazine with articles having a higher degree of polish. After all the college paper is primarily the students' pa-per, and when it once loses the interest caused by the personal touch given by student articles, its time of service to the college community is ended. We must therefore conclude that when-ever possible literary departments should be filled with good, live articles by those in direct touch with the college life. The literary department of "The Western Maryland College Monthly" is again well filled with interesting articles, the ora-tion, "The Submerged Truth," deals in a broad and clear man-ner with the great problem of the poor in our industrial divi-sions. "The American Home" pictures in a pleasing style, and with patriotic light this greatest of American institutions. "How They Changed Their minds," and "The Eeturn of the Wan-derer" are hardly equal to the usual standard of short stories found in your magazine. We consider "The Haverfordian" as among the best exchanges we receive. Its literary tone and pleasing style are necessary 32 THE MERCURY. characteristics of a good college paper. The numerous short poems always found in its pages, shows that the love and appre-ciation of poetry still exists at Haverford. "The Albright Bulletin" contains some literary productions of high order. Its leading article, "Beacon Lights of American Poetry," is of high merit. Its author pays a glowing tribute to the world-honored Bryant. Yet we believe too much praise can-not be given a poet, who has painted pictures such as has Bryant, or who has moralized as he has in his immortal "Thanatopsis." The mild and gentle Longfellow is fairly dealt with. Oft times we are inclined to think slightingly of Longfellow because he lacks that profundity of thought found in Bryant, Lowell, and Emerson, but we must never forget that "his life and work stand as a true poem." In the article, "A Crisis in Great Britain," a powerful argument in favor of our protective system is pre-sented. A GLIMPSE OF MOONLIGHT. The moon comes up with sudden light, And each star fades to a distant spark, And from the valleys, the gloom of night, And from the hills the dark. The mountains slumber against the skies, And fade in the distance far away- Arid the wind weaves beaiitiful mysteries On the mist where the moonbeams play. And far away, in the moonlight fair, Runs the thread of a silver stream; And (lie white mists float on the soft night air, As tin angel floats through dream. —From the •'•'Southern Collegian." PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. I"N this Drama of Four Year's Course, Play your part without dad's horse ; This to do is up to you With just a little tact between each yearly act, In some domain take a stroll And sell ALUMINUM for next year's Me (roll). Every summer Uuudreds of students make BIG MONEY selliug Aluminum Cooking Uteusils. For particulars address LOUIS HETZEL, Gettysburg College, GETTYSBURG, PA. THE STEWART & STEEN CO., COLLEGE ENGRAVERS, 1024 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA. MAKERS OF INVITATIONS, PROGBAMS, MENUS, VISITING CARDS, DANCE CARDS, MONOGRAMS, CLASS AND FRATERNITY STATIONERY. P. S. MILLER, 'to, Representative, Who has a full line of samples. (%;< 1 HI The times an ! the Schools demand that the best things shall be done and in the best manner. gai ±l\ accomplishes everything- that can be required of a good writing- in-strument. Made to last for years oJ service and give its owner the satisfaction which comes with owning "the best." From a31 dealers. TSie Globe trademark is our guarantee citco. 1.76 St. J«i 1 St., Monlrenl 12 I . I.0.I.1.' CRU- da Hi PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. FU^NTTl/fp Mattresses, Sed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. - Telephone No. 97. H. B. BENDER. 37 Baltimore Street, Gettysburg, Pa. EDGAR C. TAWNEY BAKER West Middle Street. J. B. WINEMAN, DEALER IN CHOICE FAMILY GROCERIES, PROVISIONS AND FRUITS, BOARDING CLUBS A SPECIALTY. L, WEIGAND, DEALER IN FRESH AND CURED MEATS OF ALL KINDS-Boarding Clubs a Specialty. Soul's f^estaupcmt, Ice (sPeaEQ. aiyiC (^uicl^ ISIAI^CII, No. 7 Chambersburg Street. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. EMIL ZOTHE, College Emblems, Engraver, Designer and Manufacturing Jeweler, 722 Chestnut St., Phildelphia. Specialti es: Masonic Marks, Society Badgs, College Buttons, Pi ns, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Atletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through E. J. Bowman. Charles S. Mumper, DEALS FURNITURE, DEALER IN PICTURE FRAMES OF ALL SORTS REPAIR WORK DONE PROMPTLY I will also BUY or EXCHANGE any SECOND-HAND FURNITURE No. 4 Charnbersburg street, Gettysburg, Pa. CULP'S RESTAURANT, First National Bank Bld'g. The place to eat the best Ice Cream. QUICK LUNCH and Oysters in season. D. J. Swartz, DEALER IN COUNTRY PRODUCE, GROCERIES, CIGARS AND TOBACCO. GETTYSBURG. —IS— J. I MUMPER Your Photographer, If not, why not? 41 Baltimore St., Gettysburg. FLEMMING X BAIR'S LIVERY, Baltimore Street, First Square, Gettysburg, Pa. Competent Guides for all parts of the Battlefield. Arrange-ments by telegram or letter. Lock Bock 257. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. WINDSOR HOTEL, Midway between Broad St. Station and Reading Terminal on Filbert St. American Plan $2.50 per day- European Plan $1.00 per day The only moderate prieed hotel of reputation and consequence in PHILADELPHIA. The Modern Steam Laundry . . OF YORK . . Offers the COLLEGE STUDENTS first-class work at Special L,ow Prices. E. C. STOUFPER, Local Agt. C. D. SMITH, Prop. The Baltimore Medical College Preliminary Fall Course begins September ist. Regular Winter Course begins September 20th. Liberal teaching facilities ; Modern college buildings ; Comfortable lecture hall and amphitheatres ; Large and complete equipped laboratories; Capacious hospital and dispensary; Lying-in department for teaching clinical obstetrics ; Large clinics. Send for catalogue. Address DAVID STREETT, M. D., Dean, N. E. Cor. Madison St., and Linden Ave., Baltimore, Md. COMPILER IMPRINT ON JOB WORI MEANS TASTY WORK CAREFULLY LONE. MENU CARDS WINDOW POSTERS LETTER HEADS ENVELOPES DANCE CARDS TICKETS Programs of all kinds. Everything the College Man wants in lJaper and Ink. Specially designed work. Latest Effects in Paper done in Colors along lines of College Men's Associations. Catalog and Book work. The Cettysbuig Compiler will keep old and new students in touch with town and college life.

Siba Grovogui on IR as Theology, Reading Kant Badly, and the
Incapacity of Western Political Theory to Travel very far in Non-Western
Contexts




0
0
1
23
137
School of Global Studies/University of Gothenburg
1
1
159
14.0





Normal
0




false
false
false

EN-US
JA
X-NONE








































































































































































/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:Calibri;}















v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);}
o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);}
w\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);}
.shape {behavior:url(#default#VML);}



0
0
1
6929
39500
School of Global Studies/University of Gothenburg
329
92
46337
14.0





Normal
0
false



false
false
false

EN-US
JA
X-NONE








































































































































































/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:Calibri;}
















The study of International Relations is founded on a
series of assumptions that originate in the monotheistic traditions of the West.
For Siba Grovogui, this realization provoked him to question not only IR but to
broaden his enquiries into a multidisciplinary endeavor that encompasses law
and anthropology, journalism and linguistics, and is informed by stories and
lessons from Guinea. In this Talk, he
discusses the importance of human encounters and the problem with the Hegelian
logic which distorts our understanding of our own intellectual development and
the trajectory of the discipline of IR.




Print version of this Talk (pdf)




What is, according to you, the biggest challenge / principal
debate in current IR? What is your position or answer to this challenge / in
this debate?



I don't want to be evasive, but I
actually don't think that International Relations as a field has an object
today. And that is the problem with International Relations since Martin Wight and Stanley Hoffmann and all of
those people debated what International Relations was, whether it was an
American discipline, etc. I believe you can look at International Relations in
multiple ways: if you think of à
la Hoffmann, as a tool of dominant power, International Relations is to this
empire what anthropology was to the last. This not only has to do with the
predicates upon which it was founded initially but with its aspirations, for International
Relations shares with Anthropology the ambition to know Man—and I am using here
a very antiquated language, but that is what it was then—to know Man in certain
capacities. In the last empire, anthropology focused on the cultural dimension
and, correspondingly separated culture from civilization in a manner that
placed other regions of the world in subsidiarity vis-à-vis Europe and European
empires. In the reigning empire, IR has focused on the management and administration
of an empire that never spoke its name, reason, or subject.



Now you can believe all the stories
about liberalism and all of that stuff, but although it was predicated upon
different assumptions, the ambition is still the same: it is actually to know
Man, the way in which society is organized, to know how the entities function,
etc. If you look at it that way, then International Relations cannot be the
extension of any country's foreign policy, however significant. This is not to
say that the foreign policies of the big countries do not matter: it would be
foolish not to study them and take them into account, because they have greater
impact than smaller countries obviously. But International Relations is not—or
should not be—the extension of any country's foreign policy, nor should it be
seen as the agglomeration of a certain restricted number of foreign policies.
International Relations suggests, again, interest in the configurations of
material, moral, and symbolic spaces as well as dynamics resulting from the
relations of moral and social entities presumed to be of equal moral standings
and capacities.



If one sees it that way then we must
reimagine what International Relations should be. Foreign policy would be an
important dimension of it, but the field of foreign policy must be understood primarily
in terms of its explanations and justifications—regardless of whether these are
bundled up as realism, liberalism, or other. Today, these fields provide different
ways of explaining to the West, for itself, as a rational decision, or a
justification to the rest, that what it has done over the past five centuries,
from conquest to colonization and slavery and colonialism, is 'natural' and
that any political entities similarly situated would have done it in that same
manner. It follows therefore that this is how things should be. Those justifications,
explanations, and rationalizations of foreign policy decisions and events are
important to understand as windows into the manners in which certain regions
and political entities have construed value, interest, and ethics. But they still
belong, in some significant way, to a different domain than what is implied by
the concept of IR.



I am therefore curious about the
so-called debates about the nature of politics and the proper applicable
science or approach to historical foreign policy realms and domains, particularly
those of the West: I don't consider those debates to be 'big debates' in
International Relations, because they are really about how the West sees itself
and justifies itself and how it wants to be seen, and thus as rational. For the
West (as assumed by so-called Western scholars), these debates extend the
tradition of exculpating the West and seeing the West as the regenerative,
redemptive, and progressive force in the world. All of that language is about
that. So when you say to me, what are the debates, I don't know what they are,
so far, really, in International Relations. The constitution of the
'international', the contours and effects of the imaginaries of its
constituents, and the actualized and attainable material and symbolic spaces
within it to realize justice, peace, and a sustainable order have thus far
eluded the authoritative disciplinary traditions.



Consider the question of China today, as
it is posed in the West. The China question, too, emerges from a particular
foreign policy rationale, which may be important and particular ways to some
people or constituencies in the West but not in the same way to others, for
instance in Africa. The narrowness of the framing of the China question is why in
the West many are baffled about how Africa has been receiving China, and
China's entry into Latin America, etc. In relation to aid, for instance, if you
are an African of a certain age, or you know some history, you will know that
China formulated its foreign aid policy in 1964 and that nothing has changed.
And there are other elements, such as foreign intervention and responsibility
to self and others where China has had a distinct trajectory in Africa.



In
some regard, China may even be closer in outlook to postcolonial African states
than the former colonial powers. For instance, neither China nor African states
consider the responsibility to protect, to be essentially Western. In this
regard, it is worth bearing in mind for instance that Tanzania intervened in Uganda to depose Idi Amin in
1979; Vietnam ended the Khmer Rouge tyranny in Cambodia in 1979; India
intervened in Bangladesh in 1971—it wasn't the West. So those kinds of
understandings of responsibility, in the way they are framed today in the post-Cold
War period, superimposes ideas of responsibility that were already there and
were formulated in Bandung in 1955: differences between intervention and
interference, the latter of which today comes coded as regime change, were
actually hardly debated. So our imaginaries of the world and how it works, of responsibility,
of ethics, etc., have always had to compete with those that were formulated
since the seventeenth century in Europe, as "international ethics",
"international law", "international theory". And in fact that long history full
of sliding concepts and similar meanings may be one of the problems for
understanding how the world came into being as we know it today. And this is
why actually my classes here always begin with a semester-long discussion of
hermeneutics, of historiography, and of ethnography in IR and how they have
been incorporated.





How
did you arrive at where you currently are in IR?



I came to where I am now essentially
because of a sense of frustration, that we have a discipline that calls itself
"international" and yet seemed to be speaking either univocally or
unidirectionally: univocally in imagining the world and unidirectionally in the
way it addresses the rest of the world, and a lot of problems result from that.




I had trained as a lawyer in Guinea, and
when I came to the US I imagined that International Relations would be taught
at law school, which is the case in France, most of the time, and also in some
places in Germany in the past, because it is considered a normative science
there. But when I came here I was shocked to discover that it was going to be
in a field called Political Science, but I went along with it anyway. In the
end I did a double major: in law, at the law school in Madison, Wisconsin, and
in political science. When I came to America and went the University of
Wisconsin, I first took a class called "Nuclear Weapons and World Politics" or
something of the sort, it was more theology and less science. It was basically
articulated around chosen people and non-chosen people, those who deserve to
have weapons and those who don't. There was no rationale, no discussion of
which countries respected the Non-Proliferation Treaty, no reasoning in terms of which
countries had been wiser than others in using weapons of mass destruction,
etc.: there was nothing to it except the underlying, intuitive belief that if
something has to be done, we do it and other people don't. I'm being crass
here, but let's face it: this was a course I took in the 1980s and it is still
the same today! So I began to feel that this is really more theology and less
science. Yes, it was all neatly wrapped in rationalism, in game theory, all of
these things. So I began to ask myself deeper questions, outside of the ones
they were asking, so my Nuclear Weapons and World Politics class was really
what bothered me, or you could say it was some kind of trigger.



This way of seeing IR is related to the
fact that I don't share the implicit monotheist underpinnings of the
discipline. That translates into my perhaps unorthodox teaching style,
unorthodox within American academia anyway. Teaching all too often tends to be
less about understanding the world and more about proselytizing. In order to
try to explore this understanding I like to bring my students to consider the
world that has existed, to imagine that sovereignty and politics can be
structured differently, especially outside of monotheism with its likening of
the sovereign to god, the hierarchy modeled on the church, Saint Peter, Jesus,
God, uniformity and the power of life (to kill or let live), and to understand
that there have always been places where the sovereign was not in fact that
revered. Think of India, for example, where people have multiple gods, and some
are mischievous, some are promiscuous, some are happy and some are mean, so
there are lots of conceptions and some of these don't translate well into
different cultural contexts. The same, incidentally, goes for the Greek gods.
Of course, we had to make the Greeks Christians first, before we drew our
lineage to them. You see what I mean? Christianity left a very deep impact on
Western traditions. Whether you think of political parties and a parallel to
the Catholic orders: if you are a Jesuit, the Jesuits are always right; if you
are a Franciscan, the Franciscans are always right. The Franciscans for instance
think they have the monopoly on Christian social teaching. In a similar way, it
doesn't matter what your political party does, you follow whatever your party
says. The same thing happens when you study: are you a realist, are you
liberalist, etc. You are replicating the Jesuits, the Franciscans, those monks
and their orders. But we are all caught within that logic, of tying ourselves
into one school of thought and going along with one "truth" over another,
instead of permitting multiple takes on reality..



For me, as a non-monotheist myself,
everything revolves around this question of truth: whether truth is given or
has to be found and how we find it. Truth has to be found, discovered, revealed—we
have to continuously search. The significant point is that we never find it
absolutely. Truth is always provisional, circumstantial, and pertinent to a
context or situation. We all want truth and it is always evading us, but we
must look for it. But I don't think that truth is given. It is in the Bible,
the Quran, and the Torah. And I am
comfortable with that but I am not in the realm of theology. I dwell on human
truths and humans are imperfect and not omniscient, at least not so
individually. 



If I had the truth, then I might be one
of those dictators governing in Africa today. I was raised a Catholic by the
way, I almost went to the seminary. If you just think through the story of the
Revelation in profane terms, you come to the realization that ours are multiple
revelations. Again in theology, one truth is given at a time—the Temple Mount,
the Tablets, and all that stuff—but that is not in our province. I leave that
to a different province and that is unattainable to me. The kind of revelation
I want is the one that goes through observing, through looking, through
deliberating, through inquiry—that I am comfortable with. There can be a
revelation in terms of meeting the unexpected, for example: when I went to the
New World, to Latin America for the first time, I said, 'wow, this is
interesting'. That was through my own senses, but it had a lot to do with the
way I prepared myself in order to receive the world and to interact with the
world. That kind of revelation I believe in. The other one is beyond me and I'm
not interested in that. When I want to be very blasphemous, even though I was
raised a Catholic, I tell my students: the problem with the Temple Mount is
that God did not have a Twitter account, so the rest of us didn't hear it—we
were not informed. I don't have the truth, and I don't really don't want to
have it.





What
would a student need to become a specialist in IR or understand the world in a
global way?



I am not sure I want to make a canonical
recommendation, if that's what you are asking me for. Let me tell you this: I
have trained about eleven PhD students, and none of them has ever done what I
do. I am not interested in having clones, I don't want to recreate theology,
and in fact I feel this question to betray a very Western disposition, by
implying the need to create canons and theology. I don't want that. What I want
is to understand the world, and understanding can be done in multiple ways:
people do it through music, through art, through multiple things. The problem
for me, however, is actually the elements, assumptions, predicates of studies
and languages that we use in IR, the question to whom they make sense—I am
talking about the types of ethnographies, the ways in which we talk about
diplomatic history, and all of those things. The graduate courses that I was
talking about have multiple dimensions, but there are times in my seminars here
where I just take a look at events like what happened in the New World from
1492 to 1600. This allows me to talk about human encounters. The ones we have
recorded, of people who are mutually unintelligible, are the ones that took
place on this continent, the so-called New World. And what this does is that it
allows me to talk about encounters, to talk about all of the possibilities—you
know the ones most people talk about in cultural studies like creolization,
hybridization, and all those things—and all of the others things that happened
also which are not so helpful, such as violence, usurpation, and so forth.



What that allows me to do is to cut
through all this nonsense—yes I am going to call it nonsense—that projects the
image that what we do today goes back to Thucydides and has been handed down to
us through history to today. There are many strands of thought like that. If
you think about thought, and Western thought in general, all of those
historically rooted and contingent strands of thought have something to do with
how we construct social scientific fields of analysis today—realism,
liberalism, etc.—so I'm not dispensing with that. What I'm saying is that
history itself has very little to do with those strands of thought, and that
people who came here—obviously you had scientists who came to the New World—but
the policies on the ground had nothing to do with Thucydides, nothing to do
with Machiavelli, etc. Their practices actually had more to do with the
violence that propelled those Europeans from their own countries in seeking
refuge, and how that violence shaped them, the kind of attachments they had.
But it also had to do with the kind of cultural disposition here, and the
manner in which people were able to cope, or not. Because that's where we are
today in the post-Cold War era, the age of globalization, we must provide
analyses that are germane to how the constituents (or constitutive elements) of
the historically constituted 'international' are coping with our collective
inheritance. For me, this approach is actually much more instructive. This has
nothing to do with the Melian Dialogue and the like.



All of the stuff projected today as
canonical is interesting to me but only in limited ways. I actually read the
classics and have had my students read them, but try to get my students to read
them as a resource for understanding where we are today and how we were led
there, rather than as a resource for justifying or legitimating the manner in
which European conducted their 'foreign' policies or their actions in the New
World. No. I know enough to know that no action in the New World or elsewhere
was pre-ordained, unavoidable, or inevitable. The resulting political entities
in the West must assume the manners in which they acted. It is history,
literally. And of course we know through Voltaire, we know through Montaigne, we know even through Roger Bacon, that even in those times people realized that in
fact the world had not been made and hence had not been before as it would
become later; that other ways were (and still) are possible; and that the
pathologies of the violence of religious and civil wars in Europe conditioned
some the behaviours displayed in the New World and Africa during conquest and
enslavement.



For the same reason I recommend students
to read Kant: I tell them to read Kant as a resource for understanding how we might
think about the world today, but I am compelled to say often to my students
that before Kant, hospitality, and such cultural intermediaries as theDragomans in the Ottoman Empire, the Wangara in West Africa, the Chinese Diaspora in East and
Southeast Asia, and so forth, enabled commerce across continents for centuries
before Europe was included into the existing trading networks. This is not to
dismiss Kant, it is simply to force students to put Kant in conversation with a
different trajectory of the development of commercial societies, cross-regional
networks, and the movements to envisage laws, rules, and ethics to enable
communications among populations and individual groups.



This approach causes many people to ask
whether the IR programme at Johns Hopkins really concerns IR theory or something
else. I actually often get those kinds of questions, and they are wedded to
particular conceptions of IR. I am never able to give a fixed and quick answer
but I often illustrate points that I wish to make. Consider how scholars and
policymakers relate the question of sovereignty to Africa. Many see African
sovereignty as problem, either because they think it is abused or stands in the
way of humanitarian or development actions by supposed well-meaning Westerners.
I attempt to have my students think twice when sovereignty is evoked in that
way: 'sovereignty is a problem; the extents to which sovereignty is a problem
in Africa; and why sovereignty is unproblematic in Europe or America'. This
questioning and bracketing is not simply a 'postmodernist' evasion of the
question.



Rather, I invite my students to
reconsider the issue: if sovereignty is your problem, how do you think about the
problem? For me, this is a much more interesting question; not what the problem
is. For instance, if you start basing everything around a certain mythology of
the Westphalia model, particularly when you begin to see everything as either
conforming to it (the good) or deviating from it (the bad), then you have lost
me. Because before Westphalia there were actually many ways in which sovereigns
understood themselves, and therefore organized their realms, and how
sovereignty was experienced and appreciated by its subjects. Westphalia is a crucial
moment in Europe in these regards—I grant you that. If you want to say what is
wrong with Westphalia, that's fine too. But if Westphalia is your starting
point, the discussion is unlikely to be productive to me. Seriously!





In
your work on political identity in Africa, such as your contribution to the
2012 volume edited by Arlene Tickner and David Blaney, the terms periphery,
margin, lack of historicity recur frequently. What regional or perhaps even
global representational protagonism can you envisage for IR studies emerging
from Africa and its spokespeople?



The subjects of 'periphery' and 'marginalization'
come into my own thinking from multiple directions. One of them has to do with
the African state and the kind of subsidiarity it has assumed from the
colonization onward. That's a critique of the state of affairs and a commentary
on how Africa is organized and is governed. But I do also use it sometimes as a
direct challenge to people who think they know the world. And my second book, Beyond Eurocentrism and Anarchy (2006), was actually about that, and that book
was triggered by an account of an event in Africa, that everybody in African
Studies has repeated and still continues to repeat, which is this: in June
1960, Africans went to defend France, because
France asked them to. This is to say that nobody could imagine that
Africans—and I am being careful here in terms of how people describe Africans—understood
that they had a stake in the 'world' under assault during World War II. And so
the book actually begins with a simple question: in 1940, which France would
have asked Africans to defend it: Vichy France which was under German control,
or the Germans who occupied half of France? But the decision to defend France
actually came partly from a discussion between French colonial officers in Chad
and African veterans of World War I, who decided that the world had to be
restructured for Africa to find its place in it. They didn't do it for France,
because it's a colonial power, they did it for the world. That's the thing. And
Pétain, to his credit, is the only French
official who asked the pertinent question about that, in a letter to his
minister of justice (which is an irony, because justice under Pétain was a
different question) he said: 'I am puzzled, that in 1918 when we were
victorious, Africans rebelled; in 1940, we are defeated, and they come to our
aid. Could you explain that to me?' The titular head of Vichy had the decency
to ask that. By contrast, every scholar of Africa just repeated, 'Oh, the
French asked Africans to go fight, and the Africans showed up'.



Our inability to understand that Africa
actually sees itself as a part of the world, as a manager of the world, has so
escaped us today that in the case of Libya for instance, when people were
debating, you saw in every single newspaper in the world, including my beloved Guardian, that the African Union decided
this, but the International Community decided that, as if Africans had
surrendered their position in the international society to somebody: to the
International Community. People actually said that! The AU, for all its 'wretchedness',
after all represents about a quarter of the member states of the UN. And yet it
was said the AU decided this and the International Community decided that. The
implication is that the International Community is still the West plus Japan
and maybe somebody else, and in this case it was Qatar and Saudi Arabia: "good
citizens of the world", very "good democracies" etc. That's how deeply-set that
is, that people don't even check themselves. Every time they talk they chuck
Africa out of the World.  Nobody says,
America did this and the International Community decided that. All I am saying
is that our mindscapes are so deeply structured that nothing about Africa can
be studied on its own, can be studied as something that has universal
consequence, as something that has universal value, as something that might be
universalizing—that institutions in Africa might actually have some good use to
think about anything. Otherwise, people would have asked them how did colonial
populations—people who were colonized—overcome colonial attempts to strip them
of their humanity and extend an act of humanity, of human solidarity, to go
fight to defend them? And what was that about? Even many Africans fail to ask
that question today!



And it could be argued that this
thinking is, to some degree, down to widespread ignorance about Africa. We all
are guilty of this. And oddly, especially intellectuals are guilty of this, and
worse. Let me give you an example: recently I was in Tübingen in Germany, and I
went into a store to buy some shoes—a very fine store, wonderful people—and I
can tell you I ended up having a much more rewarding conversation with the
people working in the shoe shop than I had at Tübingen University. Because
there was a real curiosity. You would like to think that it is not so unusual
in this day and age that a person from Guinea teaches in America, but you
cannot blame them for being curious and asking many questions. At the
university, in contrast, they actually are making claims, and for me that is no
longer ignorance, that is hubris.





Your work presents an original take on the role of
language in International Relations. How is language tied up with IR theory?



The language problem has many, many
layers. The first of these is, simply, the issue of translation. If I were, for
instance, to talk to someone in my father's language about Great Power
Responsibility, they would look totally lost. Because in Guinea we have been what
white people call stateless or acephalous societies, the notion that one power
should have responsibility for another is a very difficult concept to
translate, because you are running up against imaginaries of power, of
authority, etc. that simply don't exist. So when you talk about such social scientific
categories to those people, you have to be aware of all the colonial era
enlightenment inheritances in them. When we talk about International Relations
in Africa, we thus bump into a whole set of problems: the primary problem of
translating ideas from here into those languages; another in capturing what
kind of institutions exist in those languages; and a third issue has to do with
how you translate across those languages. Consider for instance the difference
between Loma stateless societies in the rain forest
in Guinea, and Malinke who are very hierarchical, especially since SundiataKeita came to power in the 13th
century. But the one problem most people don't talk about is the very one that
is obsessing me now, is the question how I, as an African, am able to communicate
with you through Kant, without you assuming that I am a bad reader of Kant.



The difference that I am trying to make
here is actually what in linguistics is called vehicular language which is
distinct from vernacular language. Because a lot of you assume that vehicular language
is vernacular—that there is Latin and the rest is vernacular; that there is a
proper reading of Kant and everything else is vernacular; or you have
cosmopolitan and perhaps afropolitan and everything else is the vernacular of
it. But this is not in fact always the case. The most difficult thing for
linguists to understand, and for people in the social sciences to understand,
is that Kant, Hegel and other thinkers can avail themselves as resources that one
uses to try to convey imaginaries that are not always available to others—or to
Kant himself for that matter. And it is not analogical—it is not 'this is the
African Machiavelli'. It is easy to talk about power using Machiavelli, but to
smuggle into Machiavelli different kind of imaginaries is more difficult.
Nonetheless, I use Machiavelli because there is no other language available to
me to convey that to you, because you don't speak my father's language.



Moreover, there is a danger for instance
when I speak with my students that they may hear Machiavelli even when I am not
speaking of him, and I warn them to be very careful. Machiavelli is a way to
bring in a different stream of understanding of Realpolitik, but it's not entirely Machiavelli. If you spoke my
father's language, I would tell you in my father's language, but that is not
available to me here, so Machiavelli is a vehicle to talk about something else.
Sometimes people might say to me 'what you are saying sounds to me like Kant
but it's not really Kant' then I remind them that before Kant there were
actually a lot of people who talked about the sublime, the moral, the
categorical imperative, etc. in different languages; and if you are patient
with me then we will get to the point when Kant belongs to a genealogy of
people who talked about certain problems differently, and in that context Kant
is no longer a European: I place Kant in the context of people who talk about
politics, morality, etc. differently and I want to offer you a bunch of
resources and please, please don't package me, because you don't own the
interpretation of Kant, because even in your own context in Europe today Kant
is not your contemporary, so you are making a lot of translations and I am
making a lot of translations to get to something else: it is not that I am not
a bad reader.



At an ISA conference I once was attacked
by a senior colleague in IR for being a bad reader of Hegel, and I had to
explain to him that while my using Hegel might be an act of imposition, and a
result of having been colonized and given Hegel, but at this particular moment
he should consider my gesture as an act of generosity, in the sense that I was
reading Hegel generously to find resources that would allow him to understand
things that he had no idea exist out there, and Hegel is the only tool
available to me at this moment. But because all of you believe in one theology
or another, he insisted that if I spoke Hegelian then I was Hegelian, and I
retorted that I was not, but that deploying Hegel was merely an instance of
vehicular language, allowing me to explore certain predicates, certain precepts
and assumptions, and that is all. In this way, I can use Kant, or Hegel, or
Hobbes, or Locke, and my problem when I do this is not with those thinkers—I
can ignore the limitations of their thinking which was conditioned by the
realities of their time—my problem is with those people who think they own
traditions originating from long dead European thinkers. Thus, my problem today
is less with Kant than with Kantians.



Or take Hobbes: Hobbes talked about the
body in the way that it was understood in his time, and about human faculties
in the way that they were understood at that time. Anybody who quotes Hobbes
today about the faculties of human nature, I have to ask: when was the last
time you read biology? I am not saying that Hobbes wasn't a very smart man; he
was an erudite, and I am not joking. It is not his problem that people are
still trivializing human faculties and finding issue with his view of how the
body works—of course he was wrong on permeability, on cohabitation, on what
organs live in us, etc.—he was giving his account of politics through metaphors
and analogies that he understood at that time. When I think about it this way, my
problem is not that Hobbes didn't have a modern understanding of the body, the
distribution of the faculties and the extent of human capacities. Nor is my
problem that Hobbes is Western. My problem is not with Hobbes himself. My
problem is with all these realists who based their understanding of sovereignty
or borders strictly on Hobbes' illustrations but have not opened a current book
on the body that speaks of the faculties. If they did, even their own analogies
may begin to resonate differently. There is new research coming out all the
time on how we can understand the body, and this should have repercussions on
how we read Hobbes today.



The absence of contextualization and
historicization has proved a great liability for IR. Historicity allows one to
receive Hobbes and all those other writers without indulging in mindless
simplicities. It helps get away from simplistic divisions of the world—for
instance, the West here and Africa there—from the assumptions that when I speak
about postcolonialism in Africa I must be anti-Western. I am in fact growing very
tired of those kinds of categories. As a parenthesis, I must ask if some of those
guys in IR who speak so univocally and unidirectionally to others are even
capable of opening themselves up to hearing other voices. I must also reveal
that Adlai Stevenson, not some postcolonialist, alerted me
to the problem of univocality when he stated in 1954 during one UN forum that 'Everybody
needed aid, the West surely needs a hearing aid'. Hearing is indeed the one
faculty that the West is most in need of cultivating. The same, incidentally,
could be said of China nowadays.



One of the things I would like
to deny Western canonist is their inclination to think of the likes of Diderot as Westerners. In his Supplément au Voyage a Bougainville (1772), Diderot presents a
dialogue between himself and Orou, a native Tahitian. Voltaire wrote dialogues,
some real, some imaginary, about and with China. The authors' people were
reflecting on the world. It is hubris and an act of usurpation in the West
today to want to lay claim to everything that is perceived to be good for the
West. By the same token that which is bad must come from somewhere else. This
act of usurpation has led to the appropriation—or rather internal colonization—of
Diderot and Voltaire and like-minded philosophers and publicists who very much
engaged the world beyond their locales. I have quarrels with this act of
colonization, of the incipit parochialization of authors who ought not to be. I
have quarrels with Voltaire's characterization of non-Europeans at times; but I
have a greater quarrel with how he has been colonized today as distinctly European.
Voltaire rejected European orthodoxies of his day and opted explicitly to enter
into dialogue with Chinese and Africans as he understood them. Diderot, too, was
often in dialogue with Tahitians and other non-Europeans. In fact, the
relationship between Diderot and the Tahitian was exactly the same as the
relationship between Socrates and Plato, in that you have an older person
talking and a younger person and less wise person listening. A lot of Western
philosophy and political theory was actually generated—at least in the modern
period—after contact with the non-West. So how that is Western I don't know. I
encounter the same problem when I am in Africa where I am accused of being
Western just because I make the same literary references. It is a paradox today
that even literature is assigned an identity for the purpose of hegemony and/or
exclusion. Francis Galton (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Galton) travelled widely and wrote dialogues from this
expedition in Africa, so how can we say to what extent the substance of such
dialogues was Western or British?





So in sum you are not trying to counter Western
thought, but do you feel that the African political experience and your own
perspective can bring something new to IR studies?



I am going to try and express
something very carefully here, because the theory of the state in Africa
brought about untold horrors—in Sierra Leone, in Liberia, and so on—so I am not
saying this lightly. But I have said to many people, Africans and non-Africans,
that I am glad that the postcolonial African state failed, and I wish many more
of them failed, and I'm sure a lot more will fail, because they correspond to
nothing on the ground. The idea of constitutions and constitutionalism came
with making arrangements with a lot of social elements that were generated by
certain entities that aspired to go in certain directions. What happened in
Africa is that somebody came and said: 'this worked there, it should work here'—and
it doesn't. I'll give you three short stories to illustrate this.



One of the presidents of postcolonial
Guinea, the one I despise the most, Lansana Conté (in office 1984-2008), also gave me one
of my inspirational moments. Students rebelled against him and destroyed
everything in town and so he went on national TV that day and said: 'You know
I'm very disheartened. I am disheartened about children who have become
Europeans.' Obviously the blame would be on Europe. He continued, 'They are
rude, they don't respect people or property. I understand that they may have
quarrels with me, but I also understand that we are Africans. And though we may
no longer live in the village', and it is important for me that he said that, 'though
we may no longer live in the village, when we move in the big city, the council
of elders is what parliament does for us now. We don't have the council of
elders, instead we have parliament. They, the students, can go to parliament
and complain about their father. I am their father, my children are older than
all of them. So in the village, they would have gone to the council of elders,
and they could have done this and I would have given them my explanation'. And
the next morning, the whole country turned against the students, because what
he had succeeded in doing was to touch and move people. They went to the head
of the student government, who said: 'The president was right. We had failed to
understand that our ways cannot be European ways, and we can think about our
modern institutions as iterations of what we had in the past, suited to our
circumstances, and so we should not do politics in the same way. I agree with
him, and in that spirit I want to say that among the Koranko ethnic group,
fathers let their children eat meat first, because they have growing needs, and
if the father doesn't take care of his children, then they take the children
away from the father and give them to the uncle. Our problem at the university
is that our stipends are not being paid, and father has all his mansions in
France, in Spain, and elsewhere, so we want the uncle.' He was in effect asking
for political transition: he was saying they were now going to the council of
elders, the parliament, and demand the uncle, for father no longer merits being
the father. He was able to articulate political transition and rotation in that
language. It was a very clever move.



The second one was my mother who was
completely unsympathetic to me when I came home one day and was upset that one
of my friends who was a journalist had been arrested. She said, 'if you wish
you can go back to your town but don't come here and bother me and be grumpy'. So
I started an exchange with her and explained to her why it is important that we
have journalists and why they should be free, until our discussion turned to
the subject of speaking truth to power. At that moment she said, 'now you are
talking sense' and she started to tell me how the griot functioned in West Africa for the past
eight hundred years, and why truth to power is part of our institutional
heritage. But that truth is not a personal truth, for there is an organic
connection between reporter and the community, there is a group in which they
collect information, communicate and criticize, and we began to talk about
that. And since then I have stopped teaching Jefferson in my constitutional
classes in Africa, as a way of talking about the free press, instead I talk
about speaking truth to power. But it allows me not only to talk about the
necessity of speaking truth to power, but also to criticize the organization of
the media, which is so individualised, so oriented toward the people who give
the money: think of the National Democratic Institute in
Washington, the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung in Germany, they
have no organic connection to the people. And my mother told me, 'as long as
it's a battle between those who have the guns and those who have the pen, then
nobody is speaking to my problems, then I have no dog in that fight'. And
journalists really make a big mistake by not updating their trade and
redressing it. Because speaking truth to power is not absent in our tradition,
we have had it for eight hundred years, six centuries before Jefferson, but we
don't think about it that way. I have to remind my friends in Guinea: 'you are
vulnerable precisely because you have not understood what the profession of
journalism might look like in this community, to make your message more
relevant and effective'. You see the smart young guys tweeting away and how
they have been replaced by the Muslim Brotherhood, because we have not made the
message relevant to the community. We are communicating on media and in idioms
that have no real bearing on people's lives, so we are easily dismissed. That
is in fact the tragedy of what happened in Tunisia: the smart, young protesters
have so easily been brushed aside for this reason.



The third story is about how we had a
constitutional debate in Guinea before multipartism, and people were talking about
the separation of powers. And I went to the university to talk to a group of
people and I put it to them: why do you waste your time studying the American
Constitution and the separation of powers in America? I grant you, it is a
wonderful experiment and it has lasted two hundred years, but that would not
lead you anywhere with these people. The theocratic Futa Jallon in Guinea (in the 18th and
19th centuries) had one of the most advanced systems of separation
of powers: the king was in Labé, the constitution was in Dalaba, the people who
interpreted the constitution were in yet another city, the army was based in
Tougué. It was the most decentralised organization of government you can
imagine, and all predicated on the idea that none of the nine diwés, or provinces, should actually
have the monopoly of power. So those that kept the constitution were not
allowed to interpret it, because the readers were somewhere else. But to make
sure that what they were reading was the right document, they gave it to a
different province. So the separation of powers is not new to us.



In sum, the West is a wonderful
political experiment, and it has worked for them.
We can actualize some of what they have instituted, but we have sources here
that are more suited to the circumstances of the people in that region, without
undermining the modern ideas of democratic self-governance, without undermining
the idea of a republic. Without dispensing with all of those, we must not be
tempted to imagine constitution in the same way, to imagine separation of
powers in the same way, even to imagine and practice journalism in the same
way, in this very different environment. It is going to fail. That is my third
story.





Siba N. Grovogui has
been teaching at Johns Hopkins University after holding the DuBois-Mandela
postdoctoral fellowship of the University of Michigan-Ann Arbor in 1989-90 and
teaching at Eastern Michigan University from 1993 to 1995. He is currently
professor of international relations theory and law at The Johns Hopkins
University. He is the author of Sovereigns,
Quasi-Sovereigns, and Africans: Race and Self-determination in International
Law (University of Minnesota Press, 1996) and Beyond Eurocentrism and Anarchy: Memories of International Institutions
and Order (Palgrave, April 2006). He has recently completed a ten-year long
study partly funded by the National Science Foundation of the rule of law in
Chad as enacted under the Chad Oil and Pipeline Project.





Related links




Faculty Profile at Johns Hopkins University
Read Grovogui's Postcolonial Criticism: International Reality and Modes of Inquiry (2002 book chapter) here (pdf)
Read Grovogui's The Secret Lives of Sovereignty (2009 book chapter) here (pdf)
Read Grovogui's Counterpoints and the Imaginaries Behind Them: Thinking Beyond
North American and European Traditions (2009 contribution to International Political Sociology) here (pdf)
Read Grovogui's Postcolonialism (2010 book chapter) here (pdf)
Read Grovogui's Sovereignty in Africa: Quasi-statehood and Other Myths (2001 book chapter in a volume edited by Tim Shaw and Kevin Dunn) here (pdf)




Print version of this Talk (pdf)

La historia es una disciplina incómoda para los filósofos de las ciencias sociales. Piénsese en la respuesta a la pregunta: ¿es posible encontrar leyes del desarrollo histórico de las sociedades? K. Popper creía que no y afirmaba que la creencia en dicha posibilidad era la fuente de los totalitarismos del siglo XX. Eso afirmaba en"The poverty of historicism" en 1957. Unos años antes Carl Gustav Hempel creía haber encontrado la fórmula básica para expresar una explicación en términos científicos a través de la formulación de leyes en un estilo nomológico deductivo (ver HEMPEL, 2005). Y creía que dicha fórmula también se aplicaba a la historia. En el campo de la sociología fue George Homans quien dio impulso a las ideas de filósofos como C. G. Hempel y R. Braithwaite quienes creían que era posible llegar a teorías deductivas de la misma naturaleza tanto en las ciencias naturales como en las ciencias sociales (ver HOMANS, 1970). A mediados de la década pasada, Philip S. Gorsky publica un provocador artículo en "Sociological Methodology" con el título "The poverty of deductivism" y retoma la vieja discusión sobre el lugar de la historia en la teorización en ciencias sociales (GORSKY, 2004). Lo hace, afirmando exactamente la tesis contraria a Popper: las ciencias sociales no son más que historia.Como señala Thomas Smith, el estudio de la historia es particularmente importante en la investigación en Relaciones Internacionales:"As either political backdrop or behavioral laboratory, history is never far removed from International theory and research. When theory is constructed from the bottom up, history provides the building blocks. When theory is constructed from the top down, history serves to test or falsify theoretical concepts. Case studies are focused, comparative historical analyses. The learning and institutionalist literature is explicitly historical and evolutionary. When quantitatively oriented researchers speak of 'events data' or 'data making', they are referring to historical representations abstracted from a welter of evidence. Normative theorists stress the historical context of moral action. Marxist theorists seek to uncover the hidden histories upon which international theory is founded, while postmodernists point out privileged views of the past that have shaped the discipline. (…) Formal theory, including game theory is perhaps the most ahistorical of theoretical approaches, yet increasingly it too is being put to the historical test". (SMITH, 1999, 8)La investigación histórica y el problema de la explicaciónEn el presente artículo retomaremos las ideas de uno de los sociólogos vivos más interesantes del siglo XX: Arthur L. Stinchcombe (1) (de aquí en más ALS). Al hacerlo pretendemos presentar una discusión del tema que está a medio camino entre las pretensiones deductivistas y el relativismo histórico. Al mismo tiempo pretendemos aportar elementos que apuntan a mostrar lo fructífero de la obra de investigadores que le dan una importancia clave a la historia en ciencias sociales.Antes de comenzar la exposición creemos importante dejar sentado que sentimos una profunda admiración por las ideas de ambos "bandos": aquellos que defienden el proyecto de que los resultados de la investigación deberían poder ser generalizables como la de aquellos que defienden que la investigación social debe explicar hechos históricos singulares e irrepetibles. Creemos que la postura de Stinchcombe busca un término medio mediante el cual, la investigación social se nutra de la particularidad histórica sin renunciar a encontrar generalizaciones aplicables más allá de los casos concretos que formaron parte del estudio realizado.Abordaremos el libro que ALS especialmente escribió sobre teoría social e historia y que se llama "Theoretical methods in social history" de 1978. En este libro Stinchcombe comienza a delinear una perspectiva sobre la explicación en ciencias sociales que hoy en día es una corriente ya instalada en el panorama de las mismas. Me refiero a la perspectiva analítica, la cual se nutre del pensamiento de cientistas sociales provenientes de diversas disciplinas como la economía (T. Schelling) o la sociología (R. Boudon, P. Hedström), así como de la filosofía (J. Elster, P. Manicas, W. Salmon) (2). La idea de mecanismo social como base de una explicación en términos científicos aparece delineada con claridad en la siguiente cita de Peter Hedström:"A social mechanism, as defined here, is a constellation of entities and activities that are linked to one another in such a way that they regularly bring about a particular type of outcome. We explain an observed phenomenon by referring to the social mechanism by which such a phenomenon is regularly brought about". (HEDSTRÖM, 2005, 11)La idea de "mecanismo" tiene una clara inspiración en el individualismo metodológico, la perspectiva según la cual toda explicación de un hecho social en términos agregados (como puede ser la civilización capitalista, la revolución rusa o las recientes revueltas en medio oriente) debe remitirse en última instancia a individuos y sus acciones. Para expresarlo en términos actuales, toda explicación en ciencias sociales debe tener micro fundamentos (LITTLE, 1991). Más allá de esta especificación, la idea de la existencia de un "mecanismo" vinculante entre causa y efecto pretende ser una alternativa a dos formas tradicionales de abordar la causalidad en ciencia: la explicación en términos nomológico - deductivos (covering law model) y la explicación en términos estadísticos. ¿Qué tiene de diferente la idea de mecanismo? Para entender su singularidad repasaremos en los siguientes excursos los principales elementos de las dos teorías rivales (covering law model y explicación estadística).Excurso 1. Covering law model: Carl Gustav HempelActualmente se reconoce en filosofía de la ciencia que el trabajo de C. G. Hempel sobre la explicación científica es la piedra angular de la discusión sobre la materia en la segunda mitad del siglo XX (SALMON 2006, MANICAS, 2006). Según W. Salmon el artículo original de Hempel con Paul Oppenheim de 1948 "is the fountainhead from which the vast bulk of subsequent philosophical work on scientific explanation has flowed –directly or indirectly" (SALMON, 2006, 8).Más allá de sus aciertos y errores hay que conocer el argumento de Hempel para adentrarse en la discusión contemporánea sobre qué es explicar en ciencia.En su formulación inicial, Hempel establece que una explicación científica adquiere la forma de un argumento deductivo con sus premisas y su conclusión. Supongamos que queremos explicar un cierto evento E. Dar respuesta a la pregunta ¿por qué E ocurre? implicaría subsumir el evento E en alguna ley general. Es decir, E queda explicado cuando su ocurrencia se deduce de ciertas leyes conocidas y de determinadas condiciones en las cuales el evento se produce. La explicación de un evento adquiere la forma de un silogismo en el cual una de las premisas establece al menos una ley general, otra premisa refiere a ciertas condiciones iniciales (ambas constituyen el explanans) y la conclusión es el evento que quiere ser explicado (explanandum). Se posee una explicación cuando el explanandum es una consecuencia lógica del set de premisas que constituyen el explanans.Esta idea puede representarse de la siguiente forma:Si ocurre A entonces ocurre B (la forma de una ley general)A ocurre (refiere a las condiciones iniciales o "relevantes") --- Por lo tanto, ocurre B (evento a ser explicado o explanandum)Esta explicación que está formulada para leyes universales también puede formularse de manera probabilística con lo cual tenemos un tipo de explicación que abarca procesos de pensamiento de tipo inductivo o estadístico (para profundizar en esta posibilidad ver MANICAS 2006; SALMON, 2006; HEDSTRÖM 2005).La debilidad habitualmente criticada a este modelo de la explicación científica es que no es suficientemente restrictivo como para eliminar explicaciones obvias o superficiales. Veamos un ejemplo conocido de este tipo de crítica al modelo de Hempel que aparece en Manicas (2006); Salmon, (2006) y Hedström (2005):Nadie que tome píldoras anticonceptivas en forma regular queda embarazadoPedro toma píldoras anticonceptivas regularmente --- Por tanto, Pedro no ha quedado embarazadoEl problema denunciado por los críticos de Hempel es que el covering law model está construido en términos de un argumento lógico en vez de estar construido en términos de causas y sus "poderes" para la producción de eventos ("poderes" o "capacidades" que hay que dilucidar teóricamente). La consecuencia que tiene esta deficiencia es que explicaciones incorrectas (como la presentada en el silogismo previo) deberían ser admitidas si se sigue estrictamente la propuesta del covering law model. En palabras de Hedström: "The fact to be explained can be logically derived from the premises –both of which can be assumed to be true- but the explanation is nevertheless incorrect because it refers to the wrong causal mechanisms" (HEDSTRÖM, 2005, 16).Veremos en la presentación de las ideas de Stinchcombe sobre la investigación histórica, que en éste tipo de perspectiva analítica no solo importa señalar que dos fenómenos aparecen juntos o uno sucede al otro sino que es necesario establecer por qué eso ocurre de determinada manera y en determinadas circunstancias. Precisamente, para Stinchcombe la investigación histórica es una fuente ineludible para descubrir y probar los mecanismos por los cuales determinadas causas producen determinados efectos.Excurso 2. La explicación estadísticaLa explicación estadística en su formulación tradicional está vinculada a la idea de "correlación" o "dependencia robusta". Si en el covering law model la explicación de un fenómeno implica que se posee una teoría desarrollada capaz de subsumir el fenómeno en sus leyes, el modelo estadístico desconfía de las teorías generales y se dirige a la constatación inductiva de regularidades. Esto es, a la asociación de dos fenómenos lo cual implica, en términos estadísticos, que los valores de dos variables tienden a variar en forma conjunta. Hay una sutileza a tener en cuenta cuando se aborda la explicación estadística: la asociación o correlación entre dos variables no necesariamente implica que una sea la causa de la otra, aunque sí es un indicador de que puede haber una relación de tipo causal. X e Y pueden tener una asociación robusta pero puede suceder que ambas sean un efecto de Z con lo cual la relación entre X e Y es espúrea (en términos llanos: se trata de una falsa relación de causalidad). Si bien siempre existe este riesgo también hay formas de controlar la espuriedad de la relación entre X e Y manteniendo constantes los valores de otras variables y observando qué ocurre con la relación original entre X e Y. De aquí viene uno de los pilares de la explicación estadística: una relación es robusta (y por tanto podemos creer que existiría una relación de causalidad entre ambas) si dicha relación al ser controlada por otras relaciones se mantiene firme.Hay dos problemas con este tipo de explicación. En primer lugar, no es posible controlar una relación entre dos variables mediante todas las posibles variables que podrían oficiar como control. En segundo lugar, constatar una regularidad no implica explicar porqué ocurre dicha regularidad. Ya desde Hume sabemos que la causalidad no es observable y este es un problema con mucha investigación orientada a la búsqueda de explicaciones meramente estadísticas. Por ejemplo, durante mucho tiempo se insistió en la importancia de la educación de la madre como predictor del nivel académico alcanzado por los hijos. Esta afirmación provenía de la constatación de una relación robusta entre el nivel educativo alcanzado por la madre y los resultados académicos de los niños. Ahora bien, ¿por qué ocurre este fenómeno? ¿Se trata de una transmisión de conocimiento desde la madre hacia el hijo? ¿Es debido a que una mayor educación en la madre hace que ésta sea más sensible a la evolución educativa de sus hijos e intervenga para componer problemas en la misma? La investigación estadística es muy útil para explorar la pertinencia de hipótesis alternativas como las planteadas recién, pero no es la herramienta capaz de generar por sí misma explicaciones de los fenómenos. En última instancia, la explicación de las relaciones es una cuestión de teoría, es decir, de una perspectiva teórica capaz de develar los mecanismos por los cuales un cierto fenómeno influye sobre otro. Esta es la principal crítica que desde tiendas "analíticas" se hace al tipo de investigación que confía exclusivamente en la detección y control de regularidades.Una propuesta heterodoxa para la investigación históricaEn "Theoretical Methods in Social History" ALS cuestiona tanto la investigación histórica cuantitativa sin una orientación teórica como la idea deductivista de emplear la investigación histórica sólo para validar teorías. Para ALS la investigación histórica es útil para construir teorías. En sus propias palabras:"Our object has been to analyze how generality can be wrested from historical facts" (1978, 115). El desacuerdo con el deductivismo no pasa por negar que un objetivo del trabajo científico sea elaborar y trabajar con conceptos generales, sino en la metodología para construir dichos conceptos. Por su parte, ALS también se separa de la perspectiva que niega la posibilidad de generalizar a partir del estudio de la historia, "the Nietszche – Dilthey side of epistemology" tal como le llama el autor. ALS afirma que los conceptos deben poder captar la singularidad de los hechos y que esto es clave para construir conceptos generales con alto potencial de ingresar en sentencias causales fructíferas.Para ALS la "gran teoría" (como el marxismo o el estructural funcionalismo) solo sirve como un punto de partida: nos facilita ciertos conceptos que nos ayudan a determinar por donde comenzaremos a observar el fenómeno de interés. En definitiva, las grandes teorías pueden mostrar coherencia lógica, pero no necesariamente ser capaces de explicar de forma coherente una secuencia empírica de eventos.La investigación histórica permite avanzar en la teorización aportando precisamente la clase de ajuste "a los hechos" que toda buena teoría debería tener. Este ajuste hace que la teoría tenga un mayor caudal explicativo. ALS explica su idea con suma claridad en el siguiente párrafo:"Concepts are things that capture aspects of the facts for a theory; they are the lexicon that the grammar of theory turns into general sentences about the world.The argument is that the power and fruitfulness of those sentences is determined by the realism and exactness of the lexicon of concepts, and not by the theoretical grammar. The problem of eliminating false sentences by research, the traditional problem of epistemology, is not as problematic as the problem of having sentences interesting enough to be worth accepting or rejecting. And this is determined by whether or not our concepts capture those aspects of reality that enter into powerful and fruitful causal sentences". (1978, 115) (énfasis agregado M.B.)¿Qué método de abordaje propone ALS para investigar un fenómeno histórico y poder teorizar a partir de él? En su forma más sencilla se compone de cuatro pasos.Tomar una secuencia de hechos claramente delimitada en el tiempoObservar la secuencia de hechos a partir de algún concepto general(tomado de teorías previas) con un foco preciso: tratar de vincular una serie de hechos que están conectados a dicha noción general como causa y efecto.Tratar de componer dicha secuencia de hechos en una teoría causalque pueda explicar la secuencia de interés.Probar los conceptos a partir de su capacidad para generar analogíasA continuación retomaremos cada uno de los pasos planteados por ALS para abordar un objeto de estudio histórico. Nos proponemos mostrar la originalidad de su perspectiva.Tomar una secuencia de hechos claramente delimitada en el tiempoUn gran problema de las grandes teorías de la historia como el marxismo o la teoría de la modernización es que trabajan con largo períodos. Este abordaje lleva al investigador a darle prioridad a los aspectos narrativos de la gran secuencia histórica antes que a la formalización de una secuencia causal capaz de mostrar la conexión entre los fenómenos. El marxismo, la teoría de la concentración del poder político (de Jouvenel) y la teoría de la modernización todas tratan de explicar el transcurso desde el siglo XV al siglo XX apelando a algún mecanismo "maestro" que opera a través de la historia y cuyos efectos son acumulativos. Para el marxismo ese mecanismo está en los conflictos que surgen a partir de la propiedad de los medios de producción, para de Jouvenel está en la concentración de poder en los gobiernos centrales, para la teoría de la modernización está en los procesos de diferenciación. ¿Cómo podemos hacer para establecer cuál mecanismo es el más importante en la generación del mundo moderno?Para ALS, la única forma de hacerlo es investigar una secuencia relevante de acontecimientos históricos de moderada extensión que permita (a partir de la riqueza y profundidad que brinda un contexto específico) probar que el mecanismo explicativo "maestro" puede postularse como variable exógena. Es decir, oficia como causa del output final sin ser afectado por cambios en las variables que integran el modelo.Observar una secuencia de hechos históricos y tratar de componer dicha secuencia en una teoría causalLos pasos 2 y 3 son clave en la exposición de ALS porque es en el proceso de ajustar una secuencia de hechos en una cadena de causas y efectos cuando "emergen" los mecanismos explicativos más fructíferos. ALS afirma que los buenos historiadores que tienen una inclinación teorética, no importando el paradigma del cual parten, pueden llegar a descubrir similares mecanismos teóricos. ¿Por qué? "Por que han mirado los hechos" nos diría el autor. Vinculado a este punto, el autor plantea la siguiente paradoja (la cual intenta resolver en el capítulo 2 del libro de referencia):"De Tocqueville's theory of revolution is almost completely unanticipated in conservative thought, Trotsky's theory of the Russian Revolution almost completely unanticipated in Marxist thought; they are very similar, and both are probably basically true". (1978, 5)La teoría de la revolución que puede extraerse de los escritos de de Tocqueville (sobre la revolución francesa) y de Trotsky (sobre la revolución rusa) son muy parecidas ya que recaen en similares mecanismos explicativos. ¿Cómo es esto posible? Para ALS es posible porque ambos historiadores construyen teorías adecuadas a la secuencia de hechos que quieren explicar y dado que estos hechos son análogos un resultado posible es que las teorías también lo sean. Sin duda, es un argumento fuerte y dedicaremos unos breves párrafos a mostrar la pertinencia del análisis de ALS. Pero antes, es importante que resaltemos la riqueza del pensamiento del autor. Contra toda intuición previa, ALS nos dice que dos investigadores que políticamente se ubican en las antípodas piensan igual cuando trabajan como teóricos de la sociedad. ¿No es acaso una buena prueba de la importancia de "razonar los hechos" ésta que nos ofrece ALS?Sin ser exhaustivos repasaremos un mecanismo explicativo del quiebre revolucionario que –según ALS- aparece teorizado de la misma manera en Trotsky y de Tocqueville.El mecanismo básico del cambio revolucionario que abordan de manera muy similar Trotsky y de Tocqueville es el relativo a la crisis de la autoridad tradicional. Toda revolución implica un cambio de autoridad. Por ello, para ambos autores (Trotsky y de Tocqueville) la reflexión sobre cuáles son los elementos que propician en un sistema social este cambio, es un punto clave en su explicación de la revolución.A ambos les interesa la decadencia de la autoridad real y se concentran en los mecanismos que permiten mantener o que son capaces de erosionar la legitimidad de dicha autoridad.Ambos autores apuntan a conceptos que permitan dar cuenta de qué condiciones favorecen en las masas la formación de la creencia en la posibilidad de una alternativa a la autoridad instituida. Ambos niegan que la privación sea por sí sola capaz de movilizar a los grupos sociales que forman parte del conflicto. Antes que por las condiciones de vida de la población se preocupan por problemas tales como la percepción de injusticia como motor de un proceso de extrañamiento entre los grupos sociales, lo cual genera un contexto que estimula (aunque no sea causa directa) el proceso revolucionario. Como puede verse, ambos autores remiten su explicación a mecanismos que operan a través de individuos. Por tanto, ambos tienen una posición encuadrada dentro del individualismo metodológico.Ambos intentan dar cuenta de un cambio cognitivo en la población que va desde el respeto a la autoridad hacia el activo cuestionamiento de la legitimidad de la autoridad instituida. Este cambio, para ambos autores, no depende exclusivamente de las condiciones de vida (factores estructurales de la situación). Es fruto de un cambio cognitivo en el cual es clave la deslegitimación de la autoridad, la posibilidad de imaginar una alternativa y la evaluación de que dicha alternativa tiene posibilidades de triunfar.Un elemento central de la legitimidad de una autoridad está en su efectividad en el cumplimiento de los fines para los cuales ha sido creada: "effectiveness, especially in services to the public, legitimates authority, and ineffectiveness makes the privileges of authority galling" (1978, 35).Ambos autores intentan explicar cómo ciertos patrones sociales, ciertas prácticas de gobierno y ciertos eventos históricos provocan una distribución desigual de la fé en los propósitos de la autoridad instituida y en la percepción de su efectividad al ser comparada con la efectividad de sus posibles alternativas. El foco del análisis de ambos autores está en los procesos cognitivos (3), fundamentalmente comparativos, que producen deslegitimación de la autoridad. Esta es una lección muy valiosa que surge de la investigación de Trotsky y de Tocqueville sobre los procesos revolucionarios: determinar contra qué es comparada la autoridad instituida (por parte de los grupos sociales que desafían o participan, activa o pasivamente, del derrocamiento de la autoridad establecida).En definitiva, tanto Trotsky como de Tocqueville extraen de sus respectivas investigaciones históricas, mecanismos que operan a nivel de la cognición de los actores y es a partir de estos procesos de cambio que dan una explicación de la particular secuencia de hechos que concluye en el quiebre abrupto de vastos esquemas absolutos de poder. "They are all directed at the problem of explaining the decay of authority, they all have something to do with people forming purposes and believing, or not believing, that particular social organs are effective in pursuing those purposes, and they have to do with the perception of possibilities". (1978, 40)"The gradual spreading of the conviction that perhaps a better alternative is really possible (…) is what both Trotsky and de Tocqueville see as the basic psychological process of undermining the traditional authority". (1978, 40)Así como Trotsky y de Tocqueville enfatizan en los mecanismos que estimulan el proceso revolucionario, también son capaces de encontrar en sus investigaciones, los mecanismos que desestimulan dicho proceso. Para ambos autores, por ejemplo, la discusión pública y la participación de los diferentes grupos sociales en la elaboración de la política tienden a no erosionar la legitimidad de las autoridades instituidas. Este tipo de mecanismo impide que se dispare un proceso de enajenación respecto a la autoridad y quienes la ejercen.Probar los conceptos a partir de su capacidad para generar analogíasAhora bien, ¿cómo es posible saber si la teoría a la que se ha llegado es promisoria? Para ALS, una teoría es "fuerte" cuando los mecanismos causales que emplea para explicar un fenómeno son válidos para explicar diferentes instancias históricas concretas. Es decir, cuando nos permite realizar analogías.La analogía es un típico producto de la investigación empírica. Considerar a dos objetos como similares (los predicados que A y B tienen en común y que los diferencian de un tercer objeto C) surge de una comparación minuciosa entre los objetos. Para ello hay que investigar (puesto que hay que hacer comparaciones). Una vez que tenemos un concepto que separa a dos objetos de otros, tenemos en potencia un concepto con alta capacidad para poder ingresar en sentencias causales. ¿Por qué? Porque podemos presumir que la analogía encontrada es causa de comportamientos similares entre A y B, comportamiento que en otros objetos adquiere valores diferentes.En la medida en que ALS defiende la estrategia de investigar series de eventos históricos de moderada extensión, el hallazgo de analogías fructíferas a nivel del comportamiento de los actores (individuales o corporativos) tiene mayor probabilidad de emerger durante el trabajo de investigación mismo. Ya que el estudio cuidadoso de la historia le ofrece al investigador un campo "rico" en posibilidades para hallar fenómenos análogos (fenómenos en los cuales los mismos mecanismos producen similares resultados). Por tanto, el estudio de la historia para ALS es una fábrica de conceptos con mayor potencial explicativo que el pensamiento teórico en abstracto, desarraigado. Es más fructífero construir conceptos a partir de la elaboración de analogías históricamente situadas que elaborarlos en abstracto sin un "teatro de operaciones" que pueda ayudar al investigador.Esto no implica un llamado al inductivismo ingenuo, "it is about the use of facts to improve ideas, to make them richer, more flexible, more powerful" (1978, 24).Un ejemplo de razonamiento por analogía tomado de Letras InternacionalesPara ejemplificar el método propuesto por ALS tomaremos un análisis realizado en Letras Internacionales por Javier Bonilla en editorial correspondiente al número 100 de la revista. En dicho editorial Bonilla aborda el problema de los "fundamentalismos islámicos" y su explicación en tanto fenómeno político. Dice acerca de los mismos:"Si hoy alguien quiere creer que los talibanes afganos, así como la miríada de grupos más o menos afines, autónomos o apoyados por distintos estados, son sólo "fundamentalistas islámicos" que, indignados por la irrespetuosa fuerza de la globalización generada en Occidente, han optado por defender su identidad religiosa y cultural, estará seguramente en todo su derecho. Pero tendrá inevitablemente que explicar dos cosas.La primera: ¿como se "defiende" la pureza del Islam mediante el expediente de aplicar 200 azotes y ejecutar de tres tiros en la cabeza en la plaza pública a una viuda encinta?. Si esta metodología no es la forma misma de instaurar el Terror para controlar a la población por el ejercicio del Terror mismo, no imaginamos un mecanismo mejor.La segunda: ¿por qué razones, tanto el 'modus operandi' de la exhibición pública del Terror, como el sistemático recurso al desmentido propagandístico cínicamente reñido con las evidencias que utilizan los talibanes, resultan ser prácticamente idénticos a los métodos de Lenin, de Hitler, de Mussolini, de Stalin, de Enver Hoxha, de Tito, de Pol Pot, de Castro o de Kim Jong-il , entre otros ?"(4).Este razonamiento puede ser tomado como un ejemplo de aplicación de la propuesta de ALS respecto a las analogías. Veamos la propuesta del editorialista en términos sencillos:Todo régimen político que es análogo a otro régimen político en el ejercicio del terror en forma pública es también análogo en no aceptar ninguna limitación ética, en la intención de imponer su relato y lograr sus fines (5). En consecuencia, una forma de conceptualizar qué es el régimen talibán es hacerlo formar parte del mismo conjunto que integran la Alemania nazi o la Unión Soviética bajo Stalin.Estas analogías son muy valiosas cuando nos enfrentamos a la explicación de un fenómeno político. En primer lugar, implican una conceptualización que recorre un camino que podríamos llamar "bottom – up". En el sentido que parte desde características observables del régimen y asciende en la conceptualización de las mismas (el camino inverso es despreocuparse de las características observables y aplicar apresuradamente una categoría teórica tomando al régimen como un vago ejemplo de la misma). En segundo lugar, apunta a clasificar las características observadas en alguna categoría análoga y ya conocida de régimen político. Esto permite ahondar en el estudio del fenómeno contemporáneo al menos con una herramienta desarrollada como punto de partida. La comparación minuciosa nos dirá si nuestro punto de partida es el correcto o no. En tercer lugar, nos permite eludir explicaciones aparentemente poderosas como aquella que hace del florecimiento de fundamentalismos la consecuencia de una misteriosa fuerza llamada "globalización" (nunca definida con precisión y desprovista de todo anclaje individual). Eludir este tipo de explicaciones basadas en grandes abstracciones es muy importante aunque los cientistas sociales solemos ser adictos a ellas. Conceptos como "globalización" o "modernidad líquida" son adictivos porque nos transmiten la sensación de que podemos explicar casi cualquier cosa con ellos. Sin embargo, su problema es que la inconsistencia de la definición de los mismos y su nulo anclaje en la actividad concreta de individuos no nos permiten esclarecer cómo es que esa fuerza llamada "globalización" genera aquellos fenómenos que queremos explicar. La utilización indiscriminada de estos conceptos nos hace sentir que al menos tenemos una explicación, aunque no se tenga la más mínima idea de cómo es que opera el explanans en el mundo concreto de los individuos que hacen o dejan de hacer determinadas cosas y con ello producen resultados a nivel colectivo.(1) Arthur L. Stinchcombe (1933) es actualmente profesor emérito en el Departamento de Sociología en Northwestern University. Previamente enseñó en Johns Hopkins, Berkeley, University of Chicago y University of Arizona. En su carrera se destacan tanto sus contribuciones al área de la metodología como de la construcción de teorías en ciencias sociales. Ha escrito más de 12 libros en muy distintas áreas como desarrollo agrícola, organización industrial y educación. Su segundo libro es un clásico en el área de la construcción de teorías y se llama precisamente "Constructing social theories", publicado originalmente en 1968. Dicho libro ha sido traducido al español. Ganó a lo largo de su carrera muchos premios, destacamos los más recientes: en 2004 Distinguished Career Prize, American Sociological Association; en 2007 Lazarsfeld Award for career contribution of methodology, ASA Methods Section. Una excelente entrevista en la que puede leerse sobre su trabajo de investigación hasta finales de la década de 1980 está en Swedberg (1990, ver bibliografía).(2) La lista no es exhaustiva. Pueden consultarse tres antologías de exponentes de la corriente analítica en las siguientes referencias especificadas en la bibliografía de este artículo: Hedström y Silverberg 1998, Hedström y Bearman, 2009 y Noguera et. Al., 2006.(3) Proceso cognitivo que se produce a nivel de los individuos que forman parte de los grupos en conflicto.(4) Disponible en:http://www.ort.edu.uy/facs/boletininternacionales/contenidos/100/editorialbonilla100.html(5) No aceptar limitaciones y pretender una sumisión total es una de las virtudes del concepto de totalitarismo que permiten diferenciar este tipo de régimen de otros que pueden ser similares en algún aspecto. Pablo Brum escribe: "Hitchens acota que totalitarismo 'is a useful term, because it separates 'ordinary' forms of despotism –those which merely exact obedience from their subjects- from the absolutist systems which demand that citizens become wholly subjects and surrender their private lives and personalities entirely to the state, or to the supreme leader'" (BRUM, 2011). *Profesor de Fundamentos de la Investigación Social, Métodos de investigación y Taller de Monografía.Depto de Estudios InternacionalesFACS – ORT Uruguay(ma.baudean@gmail.com). BIBLIOGRAFÍABRAITHWAITE, Richard. 1965 [1953]. La explicación científica. Madrid, Tecnos.BRUM, Pablo. 2011. El Impacto del Totalitarismo en el Siglo XX. Documento de Investigación Nº 62. Montevideo, FACS-ORT.GORSKY, Philip S. 2004. The Poverty of Deductivism: A Constructive Realist Model of Sociological Explanation. En: Sociological Methodology, 2005.HEDSTRÖM, Peter; SWEDBERG, Richard. 1998. Social Mechanisms. An analytical approach to social theory. New York, Cambridge University Press.HEDSTRÖM, Peter. 2005. Dissecting the Social. On the Principles of Analytical Sociology. New York, Cambridge University Press.HEDSTRÖM P., BEARMAN, P. (Editors). 2009. The Oxford Handbook of Analytical Sociology. USA, Oxford University Press.HEMPEL, Carl G. 2005 [1965]. La explicación científica. Estudios sobre la filosofía de la ciencia. Barcelona, Paidós.HOMANS, George C. 1970. Naturaleza de la ciencia social. Buenos Aires, Eudeba.LITTLE, Daniel. 1991. Varieties of social explanation: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Social Science.Colorado: Westview Press.MANICAS, Peter. 2006. A realist philosophy of social science. Explanation and Understanding. New York, Cambridge University Press.Analytical Sociological Theory Papers. En: Papers Revista de Sociología (número especial), 80, 2006, p. 1-307.POPPER, Karl. 1969 [1957]. The poverty of historicism. London, Routledge.SALMON, Wesley. 2006 [1989]. Four decades of scientific explanation. USA, University of Pittsburgh Press.SMITH, Thomas W. 1999. History and International Relations. London, Routledge.STINCHCOMBE, Arthur L. 1978. Theoretical methods in social history. New York, Academic Press.SWEDBERG, Richard. 1990. Economics and sociology. Redefining their boundaries: conversations with economists and sociologists. New Jersey, Princeton University Press.

Las críticasEn el marco de este derrotero por el que ha pasado la tesis de la Paz Democrática, se han montado diversos ángulos de críticas hacia la misma. Una primera vertiente destaca la implausibilidad de las explicaciones que intentan dar cuenta de la supuesta "ley". Así por ejemplo se ha señalado que en momentos de crisis aún en las democracias se produce una reducción del tamaño en el círculo decisor final. O que los dirigentes de los estados no democráticos también enfrentan condicionamientos de índole institucional o por parte de grupos de poder a los que están vinculados. O, incluso, que la opinión pública no es necesariamente una fuerza pacificadora. Asimismo, una crítica de índole realista se refiere a la escasez histórica de democracias que se traduce en pocas oportunidades de conflicto (Peñas, 1997: 133).Otro ángulo ha sido la existencia de serios problemas en la recolección y clasificación de los datos que sustentan la tesis. Su génesis yace en buena medida en la definición de los dos conceptos centrales detrás de la idea de la Paz Democrática: la democracia y la guerra. Sobre el concepto de "democracia" se advierten importantes diferencias en los criterios constitutivos del mismo. ¿Qué es una democracia? ¿Qué rasgos la definen? ¿Cuál es su condición? ¿Son éstas frágiles? Además, existen discrepancias entre las bases de datos y/o bien calificaciones bastante arbitrarias como por ejemplo la consideración en la basePolity II de Francia entre los años 1981 y 1986 como una "anocracia", mientras que El Salvador de la misma época, enfrascado en una cruenta guerra civil sí figuraba como "democracia".En cuanto a las guerras, el criterio de selección de datos más aceptado fue el implementado por Small y Singer que consiste en catalogar como guerra internacional a un conflicto que involucra uno o más participantes estatales y que provoca un mínimo de mil víctimas. Esto excluye intervenciones violentas que causan menos víctimas, pero no por ello políticamente menos significativas o bien las operaciones encubiertas (Salomón, 2001: 247). Tampoco ésta conceptualización da cuenta de las tendencias más modernas en los conflictos internacionales, entre las que se destaca la caída relativa de las disputas interestatales frente a las intraestatales ). En definitiva, "[lo] que caracteriza a nuestros días no es la desaparición de la violencia del sistema internacional ni la ausencia del recurso a la fuerza por parte de los Estados, sino la disminución del número de guerras formalmente declaradas y el aumento de guerras de guerrillas, guerras a través de terceros, subversión interior de los Estados instigada por otros Estados, acciones encubiertas, etc., menos costosas y que no necesitan ser justificadas, por lo menos tanto como una declaración formal de guerra" (Peñas, 1997: 135). Asimismo, los estudios cuantitativos en general han olvidado distinguir entre agresores y agredidos, o también la medición de la intensidad de la guerra (determinar si las democracias causan más muertes que otros Estados). La tesis de la Paz Democrática a su vez no ha logrado dar respuesta a ciertas anomalías que denotan la existencia de variables perturbadoras. Una anomalía es la existencia de zonas de paz en regiones del mundo donde no todas las sociedades son democráticas, como es el caso de América del Sur. Otra es que la correlación entre paz y democracia es más fuerte en el período posterior a la Segunda Guerra Mundial (Farber y Gowa, 1995). Este tipo de anomalías ha llevado a que explicaciones alternativas cobren fuerza. Entre estas, la más destacada es la teoría de Comunidades de Seguridad Pluralistas de Karl Deutsch (1957) que refiere a zonas donde sus miembros tienen la certeza de que sus disputas no se resolverán por medio de la fuerza. También se advierten reajustes y matizaciones de la tesis que debilitan su poder. Un ejemplo es la afirmación de Raymond Cohen (1994) de que la única conclusión razonables es que "los Estados democráticos del área del Atlántico Norte/Europa occidental, compartiendo una serie de circunstancias históricas particulares y una herencia cultural común, han evitado enfrentarse en una guerra" (en Peñas, 1997: 134). Asimismo, es posible encontrar evidencia en contra. Es el caso de la investigación de Charles Kegley y Margaret Hermann (1996) que arroja el interesante resultado de quince casos de intervención militar con uso de la fuerza, entre 1975 y 1995, por parte de democracias estables contra otras democracias estables, de las cuales ocho de ellas correspondían a intervenciones estadounidenses. Más recientemente, Thomas Schwartz y Kiron Skinner (2002: 160-161) identificaron un listado de conflictos que contrarían la tesis o están muy próximos a hacerlo y que hacen a lo que ellos llaman el "problema histórico" de la Paz Democrática:American Revolutionary War, 1775 (Great Britain vs. U.S.)Wars of French Revolution (democratic period), esp. 1793, 1795 (France vs. Great Britain)Quasi War, 1798 (U.S. vs. France)War of 1812 (U.S. vs. Great Britain)Texas War of Independence, 1835 (Texas vs. Mexico)Mexican War, 1846 (U.S. vs. Mexico)Roman Republic vs. France, 1849American Civil War, 1861 (Northern Union vs. Southern Confederacy)Ecuador-Columbia War, 1863Franco-Prussian War, 1870War of the Pacific, 1879 (Chile vs. Peru and Bolivia)Indian Wars, much of nineteenth century (U.S. vs. various Indian nations)Spanish-American War, 1898Boer War, 1899 (Great Britain vs. Transvaal and Orange Free State)World War I, 1914 (Germany vs. Great Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, and U.S.)Chaco War, 1932 (Paraguay vs. Bolivia)Ecuador-Peru, 1941Palestine War, 1948 (Israel vs. Lebanon)Dominican Invasion, 1967 (U.S. vs. Dominican Republic)Cyprus Invasion, 1974 (Turkey vs. Cyprus)Ecuador-Peru, 1981Nagorno-Karabakh, 1989 (Armenia vs. Azerbaijan)Yugoslav Wars, 1991 (Serbia and Bosnian-Serb Republic vs. Croatiaand Bosnia; sometimes Croatia vs. Bosnia)Georgia-Ossetia, 1991 (Georgia vs. South Ossetia)Georgia-Abkhazia, 1992 (Georgia vs. Abkhazia and allegedly Russia)Moldova-Dnestr Republic, 1992 (Moldova vs. Dnestr Republic and allegedly Russia)Chechen War of Independence, 1994 (Russia vs. Chechnya)Ecuador-Peru, 1995NATO-Yugoslavia, 1999India-Pakistan, 1999 Como se advierte, la teoría de la Paz Democrática se enfrenta a problemas tanto de índole empírica como de índole explicativa. Frente a este tipo de críticas, las reacciones se han dividido entre las defensivas (Maoz, 1997), las que han ignorado los hallazgos, las que han empezado a considerar otros factores (Russett, 1998) y las que se han dedicado a verificar su validez mediante estudios de casos (Elman, 1997). En definitiva, el debate ha sido prolífico y entre una de sus evoluciones más interesantes es la que ha recomendado evitar "las dicotomías simplistas y estudiar el mayor número posible de interacciones entre factores de conflicto internos e internacionales" (Salomón, 2001: 253).La materialización política de la Paz DemocráticaEn el contexto del "optimismo liberal" despertado por el colapso soviético y el fin de la guerra fría, la tesis de la Paz Democrática suscitó gran entusiasmo, sobre todo entre aquellos estudiosos de las Relaciones Internacionales que ansiaban acabar con la hegemonía retórica del realismo-neorrealismo en la disciplina. Como señala Peñas (1997: 130), "la gran virtud de esta tesis (…) es que en su discurso disuelve o reconcilia la escisión entre principios e intereses: una política de extensión de las democracias de libre mercado es a la vez una política éticamente justa y políticamente adecuada". Por tanto, el corolario político de la tesis de la Paz Democrática no es otro que la presunción de que el imperio de la paz y la cooperación internacionales requieren de la democratización de los Estados en el Sistema Internacional. Esto ha dado lugar al plano prescriptivo de los teóricos de la Paz Democrática. El más destacado en este sentido ha sido Russett al recomendar al gobierno en Washington la activa promoción democrática en base a las "pruebas sólidas de que las democracias no se hacen la guerra entre sí". Su propuesta se cuida de no alentar intervenciones militares unilaterales, sino apoyadas y legitimadas por organizaciones como la ONU o la OEA; y sus preceptos, en efecto, se materializaron durante la administración Clinton en la estrategia de Engagement y Enlargement ("compromiso y expansión"), en la que primacía global estadounidense, democracia y libre mercado caminaron de la mano.Pero lejos está de ser la Paz Democrática algo reciente o coyuntural en el discurso de política exterior de Estados Unidos. John Ikenberry sostiene que "[the] American preoccupation with promoting democracy abroad fits into a larger view about the sources of a stable, legitimate, secure, and prosperous international order. This outlook may not always be the chief guiding principle of policy, and it may sometimes lead to error. Still, it is a relatively coherent orientation rooted in the American political experience and American understandings of history, economics, and the sources of political stability" (Ikenberry, 1999). Sus orígenes políticos se remontan, claro es, a Woodrow Wilson quien en 1917 señaló: "A steadfast concert of peace can never be maintained except by a partnership of democratic nations. No autocratic government could be trusted to keep faith within it or observe its covenants". De acuerdo con el análisis de Henry Kissinger (1995), Wilson retomó postulados ya volcados en su momento por Thomas Jefferson, a saber: a) que la misión especial de Estados Unidos trasciende la diplomacia cotidiana, y los obliga a servir como faro de libertad para el resto de la humanidad, y b) que la política exterior de las democracias es moralmente superior porque el pueblo es, en esencia, amante de la paz. Esta misma línea de argumentación fue bien visible en la prédica de Harry Truman sobre las naciones libres, en la visión maníquea del "Imperio del Mal" de Ronald Reagan y, además del mencionado Clinton, más recientemente en las administraciones Bush (h) y Obama, como puede verse en los siguientes extractos obtenidos de distintos documentos estratégicos. Estamos en presencia por tanto de una constante de política exterior estadounidense.A National Security Strategy for a New Century, October 1998."…We seek international support in helping strengthen democratic and free market institutions and norms in countries making the transition from closed to open societies. This commitment to see freedom and respect for human rights take hold is not only just, but pragmatic, for strengthened democratic institutions benefit the United States and the world" (p. 33).The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, September 2002."…We will (…) use our foreign aid to promote freedom and support those who struggle non-violently for it, ensuring that nations moving toward democracy are rewarded for the steps they take (…) [and we will] make freedom and the development of democratic institutions key themes in our bilateral relations, seeking solidarity andcooperation from other democracies while we press governments that deny human rights to move toward a better future" (p. 4).National Security Strategy, May 2010."… The United States supports the expansion of democracy and human rights abroad because governments that respect these values are more just, peaceful, and legitimate. We also do so because their success abroad fosters an environment that supports America's national interests. Political systems that protect universal rights are ultimately more stable, successful, and secure. As our history shows, the United States can more effectively forge consensus to tackle shared challenges when working with governments that reflect the will and respect the rights of their people, rather than just the narrow interests of those in power" (p. 37).Esta prédica democrática, sin embargo, pareciera marchar a contramano de ciertas realidades. Señala Peñas, "la historia demuestra que las islas liberales no sólo han hecho la guerra por doquier, sino que además han sido responsables de un alto grado de militarización del mundo y han contribuido significativamente a la militarización y los conflictos entre los Estados no democráticos: esta militarización podría poner en peligro la paz democrática que el liberalismo propugna" (Peñas, 1997: 136). Estados Unidos, una de las democracias más importantes a nivel mundial (sino la más), posee en particular una historia reciente de retroalimentación entre militarización y conflictividad en el Tercer Mundo. Vale recordar, cómo a través de la CIA, Washington ayudó armar a la red al-Qaeda para combatir a la ocupación soviética de Afganistán en la década del '80, lo que a la postre generó una guerra civil en dicho país y el surgimiento de un importante enemigo en la figura de Osama Bin Laden, o bien el apoyo a Saddam Hussein durante la guerra irano-iraquí por aquellos mismos años en coexistencia casi paradojal con la venta encubierta de armamento a Irán —destinada a su vez a financiar la guerra sucia de los Contras nicaragüenses contra el gobierno revolucionario sandinista. La invasión a Iraq en marzo de 2003 y el posterior caos del país, también constituye un buen ejemplo del fracaso y los peligros que conlleva la aplicación de una retórica democrático-mesiánica a través de la manu militari.Ciertamente, el repaso de estos eventos despierta temores si se contempla el actual caso de Libia. Allí, la intervención bajo autorización del Consejo de Seguridad de Naciones Unidas para frenar la crisis humanitaria en curso en el país, por iniciativa de Francia, Estados Unidos, Italia, Gran Bretaña y España (todas democracias), se ha convertido en una operación liderada por la OTAN, donde se está financiando y proveyendo a las fuerzas insurgentes opositoras a Kadafy y en la que el objetivo del cambio de régimen parece cada vez más claro (van Tijen, 2011). A pesar del importante despliegue de poder aéreo y naval, la balanza del conflicto parece no sólo equilibrada sino estancada, contrariando las expectativas iniciales de los mandos políticos y militares occidentales, lo que a su vez augura una potencial inestabilidad en el corto y mediano plazo para todo el Magreb. ¿Es esta la clase de escenario regional que desea la comunidad internacional? ¿Es esto lo que pretenden las principales democracias occidentales? Difícilmente.Resulta por tanto un desafío tan grande como imperioso el lograr romper con la trampa entre democracia, militarización y conflictividad en aumento. Más aún si se advierten datos tan desalentadores como el tamaño del gasto militar de Estados Unidos, el cual eclipsa el gasto correspondiente al resto de las potencias y regiones del planeta.Tal contrariedad entre discurso pacífico-democrático y los hechos, en parte, se explica porque el objetivo estadounidense de la difusión de la democracia liberal a nivel mundial no es el único que compone su política exterior. Existen otros intereses (de seguridad, económicos, poder, etc.) y los medios para conseguirlos no siempre son pacíficos, ni justificables. Desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la política exterior estadounidense ha oscilado entre métodos como la negociación, disuasión, unilateralismo y multilateralismo (Barceló Sasía, 2006: 64). En este marco, por momentos el discurso político de la Paz Democrática ha generado la impresión de actuar más como una mera justificación retórica, como un auxilio para encubrir ideológicamente motivaciones de otro orden, antes que como el verdadero leit motif de las acciones emprendidas.Reflexión finalEn definitiva, la Paz Democrática, la idea de que las democracias no guerrean entre sí, cuyo corolario nos dice que la construcción de estados democráticos promueve la estabilidad en las relaciones internacionales, resulta una sugestiva noción desprendida del Liberalismo cuya corroboración científica, a pesar de las frases pomposas que puedan emitirse sobre su certeza y fiabilidad, se encuentra aún en juego. Siendo una tesis por demás atractiva, defendida y cuestionada en el mundo académico, resulta aún más trascendente su estudio dada su cristalización fáctica como supuesto criterio guía en el comportamiento exterior de los Estados democráticos más poderosos a nivel internacional. Los dilemas que ello entraña no son menores, como los intentos recientes y actuales de "democratizar" Medio Oriente y el Mundo Árabe nos recuerdan. Dobles discursos —morales de doble-standard de acuerdo con la célebre crítica de Stanley Hoffman— parecen conjugar anhelos democráticos con intereses geopolíticos y/o geoeconómicos, o más bien encubrir estos últimos bajo el manto de los primeros. En el medio, se resuelven y dirimen en el tablero mundial las corrientes de cambio pacífico o revolucionario, de progreso democrático o de restauración autocrática, las viejas lógicas de poder, de conquista y de influencia, la estabilidad internacional, el porvenir de la guerra y las sombras de la paz. *Candidato doctoral, Universidad Nacional de General San Martín (UNSAM, Argentina). Investigador del Centro de Estudios Interdisciplinarios en Problemáticas Internacionales y Locales (CEIPIL-UNCPBA).Referencias BibliográficasBabst, Dean: "Elective Governments - A Force for Peace", The Wisconsin Sociologist, No. 3 (1964), pp. 9-14.Barceló Sasía, Alejandra: Anti-americanismo: ¿Problema de percepción o de formulación de política exterior? (Puebla: Universidad de las Américas Puebla, 2006). Bremer, Stuart A.: "Dangerous Dyads: Conditions Affecting the Likelihood of Interstate War, 1816-1965", Journal of Conflict Resolution, No. 36 (1992), pp. 309-341.Chan, Steve: "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall. Are the Freer Countries More Pacific?" Journal of Conjlict Resolution,No. 28 (1984), pp. 617-648. Cohen, Raymond: "Pacific unions: a reappraisal of the theory that 'democracies do not go to war with each other'", Review of International Studies, No. 20 (1994), pp. 202-232.Deutsch, Karl: Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957).Doyle, Michael: "Kant, Liberal Legacies and Foreign Affairs, Part I & Part II", Philosophy & Public Affairs, No.12 (1983), pp. 205-235 y 323-353.Doyle, Michael: "Liberalism and World Politics", The American Political Science Review, Vol. 80, No. 4 (Dec. 1986).Elman, Miriam Fendius (ed.): Paths to Peace. Is Democracy the Answer? (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1997).Farber, Henry & Joan Gowa: "Polities and Peace", International Security, No. 20 (1995), pp. 123-146.Harrison, Ewan: "State Socialization, International Norm Dynamics and the Liberal Peace",International Politics, No. 41 (2004), pp. 521-542.Hewitt, J. Joseph, Jonathan Wilkenfeld & Ted Robert Gurr: Peace and Conflict 2008. Executive Summary (College Park, MD: CIDCM, University of Maryland, 2008).Ikenberry, John: "Why Export Democracy?: The 'Hidden Grand Strategy' of American Foreign Policy", The Wilson Quarterly, Vol. 23, no. 2 (Spring 1999).Kant, Immanuel: La Paz Perpetua (Buenos Aires: Longseller, 2001).Kegley, Charles & Margaret Hermann: "How Democracies Use Intervention: A Neglected Dimension in Studies of the Democratic Peace", Journal of Peace Research, No. 33 (1996), pp. 309-322.Kissinger, Henry: La Diplomacia (México: Fondo de cultura económica, 1995).Levy, Jack: "Domestic Politics and War", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, No. 18 (1988), pp. 653-673.MacMillan, John: "Whose Democracy; Which Peace? Contextualizing the Democratic Peace",International Politics, No. 41 (2004), pp. 472-493.Maoz, Zeev & Nasrin Abdolali: "Regime Types and International Conflict, 1817-1976", Journal of Conflict Resolution, No. 33 (1989), pp. 3-35.Maoz, Zeev: "The Controversy over the Democratic Peace", International Security, No. 22 (1997), pp. 162-198.Peceny, Mark: "A Constructivist Interpretation of the Liberal Peace: The Ambiguous Case of the Spanish-American War", Journal of Peace Research, No. 34 (1997), pp. 415-430.Peñas, Francisco Javier: "Liberalismo y relaciones internacionales: la tesis de la paz democrática y sus críticos", Isegoría, Núm. 16 (1997), pp.119-140.Rendall, Matthew: "'The Sparta and the Athens of our Age at Daggers Drawn': Polities, Perceptions, and Peace", International Politics, No. 41 (2004), pp. 582-604.Risse-Kappen, Thomas: "Democratic Peace - Warlike Democracies? A Social Constructivist Interpretation of the Liberal Argument", European Journal of International Relations, No. 1 (1995), pp. 491-517.Rummel, Rudolph: "Libertarianism and Interstate Violence", Journal of Conflict Resolution, No. 27 (1983), pp. 27-71.Russett, Bruce: "A neo-Kantian perspective: democracy, interdependence, and international organizations in building security communities", en Emanuel Adler & Michael Barnett (eds.):Security Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).Russett, Bruce: Grasping the Democratic Peace (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993).Salomón, Mónica: "El debate sobre la «paz democrática». Una aproximación crítica", Revista de Estudios Políticos (Nueva Época), Núm. 113 (Julio-Septiembre 2001), pp. 237-265.Schwartz, Thomas & Kiron K. Skinner: "The Myth of the Democratic Peace", Orbis (Winter 2002), pp. 159-172.Small, Melvin & David Singer: "The War-Proneness of Democratic Regimes", Jerusalem Journal of International Relations, No. 1 (1976), pp. 50-69.Snyder, Jack: "Un mundo, teorías rivales", Foreign Policy edición española (dic.-enero 2005).Tovar Ruíz, Juan: "De Königsberg a Kosovo. La Paz Democrática: del planteamiento filosófico al discurso político y su aplicación en el régimen de los protectorados internacionales", Revista Académica de Relaciones Internacionales, núm. 10 (febrero de 2009). Van Tijen, Tjebbe: "NATO's collateral tyrannicide", Open Democracy (7 May, 2011). Walt, Stephen M.: "International Relations: One World, Many Theories", Foreign Policy(Spring 1998), pp. 29-46.Weede, Eric: "Democracy and War Involvement", Journal of Peace Research, No. 28 (1984), pp. 649-664.Wright, Quincy: A Study of War (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1942).

SUMMARYA great changement was occurring after fell down the Berlin Wall in East Europe, in 1989.The countries had begun to new period with high debts and inflation by these changements.East European countries have a common feature by carry out the transition period politics by rapidly in this process. So, it was necessity on stabilization politics but not easy.At result, privatization and restructure got an importance.I – THEORICAL AND CONSEPTIONAL FRAME OF MARKET ECONOMYFree market economy has the same philosophy and idea with liberalism. Economical liberalism is defended the free competition, reducing the customs taxes, import freedom and resisted to interference of state on the economy.Classical economy's base is economical freedom and market economy. Market economy is relying on free competition and private enterprise. Price mechanism and world prices are important. Interference of state must be in minimum levels. Public sector must be reduced. Basic factors such as wage, capital and foreign currency must reflect the real market prices, must get an importance to external trade.1-DEVELOPMENT OF MARKET ECONOMY1.1. CLASSIC REVIEWFree trade, specialization only on one field, annihilate the obstacles such as customs and quotas, interferences of state on the market are most important according to Adam Smith, which lived in 18th century.A specialization between nations must be obtained according to Ricardo. So, it must be an exchange on the entire world. 1.2. NEO-CLASSIC REVIEWAlfred Marshall, Leon Walras and Carl Menger is an echol. The state must be more active to improve the poor part of community and must create the opportunities on the market, get the taxes from revenues and wealth, finance the education, health, park and city planning, defence the personal freedom, private property and open markets, manufacture the public commodities.1.3. ORDO-LIBERALISM REVIEWIt is different from classic liberalism. Economical regularity is social which emerges in an evident process, not natural. Social and juridical standards emerge the economical system.Price, monetarily stability, sciences, stability and durability on economical politics are important to emerging of market economy.Basic aim is bring to existence an economical constitution.2- BASIC ELEMENTS OF MARKET ECONOMYBasic factors are enterprising, competition, economical ideas and attitudes.Enterprising is a person which makes unity the manufacturing factors, makes direct the investments, begins to motion by utilize the signals from internal and external markets, gets the share on productivity and determines the firm profit. Basic aim is profit.Competition is social event, protects the personal, which works with high productivity against to personal, which works with low productivity, uses the sources most effectively. Buyer and seller number must be too much in this system. Competition is opposed to monopolization but necessity laws and politics have to support it. ECONOMICAL IDEAS AND ATTITUDESIt includes price, wage, interest, hire and foreign currency. Price system occurs freely according to rate of request and demand conditions. At this straight, firms and consumers must carry out their decisions freely.3- MARKET MECHANISM FLOW AND ROLE OF SOURCE DISTRIBUTIONConsumers and producers have activities on the market economy. The prices are determined according to the lowest cost and to the highest profit.Ideal special future is high productivity, low profit and high production. Competition reduces the profit to the lowest level.Main mechanism on free market is price. If the relative scarcity is enough, request and demand is more or less equal.Producers and consumers may have a decision according to the price indicator and request and demand. This case makes lead the manufacturing, increases the alternatives, also economical activities make an harmony against to conditions.The evident features of market economy are free decision, liberty on preferences, a great price mechanism and competition. So, economical stability is obtainable.Interferences may apply on the market economy for public health, regulations on economical activities, protect the consumers. These motions are generally precautions to control of drugs and drink manufacturing and consumption, annihilation of harmful on public health, growth the power on economic morals, make grow the quality, regulation on manufacturing and marketing. The state may meddle with economy to development rapidly. For example, the state may encourage the saving, increase the rates of interest, decrease the taxes to get on the saving, provide the precautions on investment.The buyers and sellers cannot determine the price on one's own on free competition market. Otherwise monopoly, trust and cartels may occur, stability may out of order between commodity and services.Market economy may deviate from the rules on two main categories.Manufacturer, buyer and seller may make deviate from the rules. Especially trade unionization is effective on this deviation.The state may interfere in economy by taxes, if social and individual advantages different, it may deviate from competition market.The state is exist in every kind of economy and serves to people with harmony and politics and social philosophies of our age. Also it provides security, education and health services but it doesn't determine the prices. It is one of the biggest manufacturers at the same time.II – HISTORICAL WIEW TO BULGARIAN ECONOMY IN THE TRANSITION PERIOD OF FREE MARKET ECONOMY1. BASIC SOCIAL AND ECONOMICAL INDICATORS1.1. GENERALThe form of government is republic, capital is Sofia, Population is 8.297.000(1997), increasing of population is %0. 7, distinctive characteristics in common with Turkishs, Pomaks, Russians, Gipsies, Tatars, Jewishes are in 16 percent.Estimated agricultural area is 1/3 and woodland is 1/3 of all the land. Charcoal, petroleum, natural gas, ferrum and sources except metal are too much. Bulgaria can't use the money too much on surroundings cause of economical lacks.Too many people are migrated to Turkey reason of economical lacks after communism regime. Population is decreased year by year, but unemployment.2. BULGARIA BEFORE 1989Ottoman empire had governorship on the Bulgaria more 500 years till 1908. Then, Bulgarian Kingdom is founded in 1908. Stamboliyski is in powered from Farmer Party in 1920. A new fascism supporter government is founded but communists and farmers were outside of government.Bulgaria is allied with Germany in 1941. Although a new government was found in 1944, the republican regime with referendum is founded in 1946. The new constution is validated in 1947. Cercenkov is in powered in 1950, relations with U.S.A. were out of order and membership of United Nations was validity in 1955.The new constitution is validated in 1971. T.Jivkow is in powered continually, became arrested cause of irregularity in 1990 and then, again a new constitution is validated. Communist Party is made to take out of only one party. In that year, state's name is changed to Republic of Bulgaria and removed the communist symbols from flag. Privatizational laws are validated with Jelev in 1992. The Government of Videnov is contraried the privatization in 1994.Peter Stoyanov is Nato's supporter and he was president in 1996. United Democratic Forces is in powered with 52 percent of vote after selections in 1997.2.1. COMECON AND COLLAPSING OF SYSTEMComecon is a union that emerged by East European Countries. Bulgarian economy has begun to transition period with some negative ness like other East European countries causes of political incompetence and dissociating end of 1980s.Bulgaria which had more than 60 percent of export to associate but it had couldn't find the new markets cause of inadequate ship of quality standards and had an old technology. Foreign currency reserves are high level. It has too many debts, political incompetent ship in the land. Financial system is not conformity to market economy and also could not claim 2 million dollars of money owing from Iraq because of golf war. So, Bulgaria couldn't save from crisis because of above reasons.2.2 GENERAL ECONOMICAL DEVELOPMENT AND SECTORSBulgarian manufacturing industry basically is founded on textile, wooden engrave, leather products and food prep rationing sectors.Bulgaria had realisation the attacks on the heavy industry that supported by S.S.C.B. after 2nd world war.Production of electro-mechanic and electronic goods in manufacturing sector is reached to an important share since 1970s.The biggest natural wealth of Bulgaria is productive earths. There are not important minerals in Bulgaria.In the following period of 2nd world war, metallurgy and chemical production had an importance. Industry sector had old technology. Its competition is losted the power with disunited of the Comecon.Productivity rates on industry are grown with economical reforms that started in 1979. Economical growing is dynamically continued in spite of reducing the productivity on agriculture sector, building sector and investments in Bulgaria. Especially, price volatility on agriculture sector is a reason of suspicion about real value of growth in 1988 according to 1987.Productions on agriculture and industry of Bulgaria are reduced according to statistics. Main problem on agriculture sector is delivery prices of goods.A stagnation indicator on Bulgarian economy is weakness of building and construction sector. Manufacturing products such as cement and weawing is in necessity. Manufacturing level is inadequate on that area and also unqualificationed organisations have been affected.2.3 - FOREIGN TRADEThere are no definite results on foreign trade reason of inadequate of numerical data's.However, export is increased up to the rate of 4 percent in 1988 and import is reduced to the rate of 1.8 percent. Bulgaria finance deficit is 600 million dollars result of trade with west countries in 1998. Tourism revenues are positive. Trade connections with Turkey are weak according to another East European countries.2.4 – PERESTROICA POLITICSThe new age on economy with state council's decision is started in January 9,1989. Activities to get the indepences of firms are velocitied. At the same time, this decision is more benefit to foreign investors too.3. 1989 – 1997 TRANSITION PERIOD3.1 – ECONOMICAL REFORM ACTIVITIESAlteration is started in east block countries after 1989 and together with this alteration. Comecon is losted the activity. So, idle capacities are commenced and Bulgaria is losted the production markets.The reforms are making started by new government in February 1991. External trade regime is liberalisation in one direction; this is one of the import nest factors of the reforms. With a decision is accepted in 1989, basic of economical reforms are occurred. Firms had equal rights to execution of economical activities. The laws related to foreign investment are validated in 1992.Commercial banks have gone to consolidation. Prices had freed except 11 basic consumption. Economical activities, government status on economy, foreign trade and foreign exchange regime, price regulations, privatization, tax systems are reorganized about foreign investors.3.2. SECTORAL CONSTITUTIONIndustrial sector had the over 50 percent of share on economy until 1990s. 11 private sector's share with service and trade sector approached to 60 percent between 1992 and 1997.SECTORSProductivity with old technologies on industrial sector is at low level. Engineering sector is developed. Products of textile sector are manufactured at high quality.CHEMICALSChemical products that have an important mark on export of Bulgaria. They were 1,096 milliard dollars with 22,3 percent in 1997 and 983 million dollars with 19.4 percent of total export in 1998.AGRICULTURE, FOOD AND TOBACCORate of plan tablelands are 34 percent in Bulgaria. Totally 304 firms are active on food, drink and tobacco sector.METALLURGY AND MINERSHIPIron product is 6.2 percent and other than iron is 6.8 percent on all of industry in 1998. In 1997, metallurgy sector is grown up to 117.2 percent with 529 million dollars in total amount of export in Bulgaria.MACHINEShare of machine sector is 13.8 percent in all of industry. Principal are; Machine parts, tractor, bus, ship, building and auto spare parts.CONSTRUCTIONPrivate firms in the sector have share with 13 percent in 1991. That share is grown to 62 percent in 1995 but then; it is reduced reason of financial inadequate ships.TOURISMTourism revenues are approximately 280 million dollars in 1995.4.5 million of transits and totally 8 million tourists are visited the Bulgaria in 1996.3.3. TRADE AFTER ECONOMICAL REFORMSExport of Bulgaria is totally 4.9 milliard dollars in 1997. The import nest export products are fuel oil, other fuels, cooper and its products and nuclear reactors. Import is 4.5 milliard dollars in 1997 and included the product such as mineral fuels, nuclear reactor heaters and spare parts, electric machines, mineral substances, cotton, synthetic fibres, cereals, auto and tractors.3.4. EXTERNAL DEBTSRate of the external debts to export revenues were 249.9 Percent in 1993 but then, back to 188.2 percent in 1994.Official external debts were 10.363 dollars in the end of 1997.3.5. FOREIGN INVESTORS EXTERNAL CAPITALMost investments with 636.2 million dollars by foreigners are made in 1997. This amount is 526 million dollars in 1998. Principal foreign investors are European countries and U.S.A. A new foreigner investment law is prepared in Oct 1997. Main sectors to investment are industry, trade, finance and tourism.3.6. COMMERCIAL BANKINGState banks are privatization by associate. Regulations relate to control of banking are valitidied by government. In the middle of 1997, a new law on banking are validated after economical crisis in 1996, Central Bank Law are rebuilt. High levels of capital and capital qualifications are obligationed.3.7. PRIVATIZATIONPrivatization is started with foundation transformation and privatization belongs to state and municipalities in April 1992. Privatization Agency is built-up. Privatization is realization with totally 836 million dollars between Jan 1,1993 and Dec 30,1998. Its part of 421.4 million dollars is in 1997 and part of 116 million dollars is realization in 1998.Foundations like ports, telecommunication and, etc.are out of privatization by laws. 95 percent of state firms transformed to form of private limited or nationalization. Share of these firms are belong to state.III. BULGARIA IN EUROPAN UNION AND CONNECTIONS WITH TURKEY1. BULGARIAN ECONOMY AND CONNECTIONS WITH TURKEYTest and certification operations, metal products except iron, chemical products, cereals, operational petroleum. Products are important substances from Bulgaria to Turkey.Although weaving products, food, chemical products, leather and stout leather products, glass, ceramics, brick products are ones of important from Turkey to Bulgaria.1.1. CONTENTS OF FREE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN TURKEY AND BULGARIAAll taxes and restrictictions on industrial products by signed on European Agreement between European Union and Bulgaria in Mar 8,1993 and validated in Dec 31,1993 will be removed till 2002.Turkey and Bulgaria made easy to particularization into agricultural products market by reduced the taxes for between their selves.End of signed acts, 131 products of 446 that stated to Turkey and 1141 goods of existing on European Union Agreement are liberalization by remove from list of sensitive products.Foreign companies had a partnership rights with corporations and individuals and also foreign individuals had a right on economical activities by law of keeping foreign investors, which is validated in 1992. Same economical rights are recognized between foreigners and Bulgarians and also getting unlimited share from exist companies and companies that will be found.2. CONNECTIONS WITH EUROPEAN UNION AND FINANCIAL PORTREIT OF BULGARIA2.1. CONNECTION WITH EUROPEAN UNION OF BULGARIAIn the autumn 1989, Berlin wall is demolished and this motion make united the European that had divided to east and west after 2nd world war. Comecon's mean is continuing the economical dependent ship to Soviet Union. But, most east and west European countries reject it. After these European Union augmented economical and political supports to that countries reason of carry out and conclude the reform, which is started in middle and east European countries.Firstly, a group includes the Turkey is formed by 24 of OECD countries. G24s are transferred to entrust with coordination of support to the European Union Commission.That commission is functionizationed the Phare program that helps on financial and technical areas to Poland and Hungary. Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania in Sept.1990, Albanian, Estonia, Leetonia and Livonia in Jan.1992 and Slovenia in Aug.1992 are included by Phare program.Military regulations on security of West European losted the importance but they are already securely areas.Main political aims that related to Middle and East European countries of European Unions are explained below;a- Encouragement of liberal democratic system with respectful of law's superiority.b- to be sense on surroundingsc- to prevent the ethnical collidesd- to prevent the migration to foreign countries at the west.e- Phare program and encouragement of free market economy from planned economy.2.2. WHAT IS THE PHARE PROGRAM?Phare program's aim is build the encourage mental conditions to the market economy and to take pains about investments on economies of Middle and East Europe countries. This program includes unfinancable fields by traditional external supports. That supports on the program is formed by credits and encouragements and used for pilot projects related to reorganization of associations.Bulgaria is taken a support of 10.6 millions ECU by include of Phare program.European Union don't use only Phare program as a tool on politics related to Middle and East Europe countries, except itIncludes the programs within own constitution such as ERASMUS and COMETT.2.3. FIRST PERIOD (before 1989)In this period; trading is developed between Middle and East European countries that named as COMECON COUNTRIES but couldn't show the same developments against to West Europe in European Union.Soviet Union takes the priority on exporting with countries. Bulgaria is the develop pest country on trade with Soviet Union.2.4 TRANSITION PERIOD (1989-1992)The great changements occurred on trade in Soviet Union and Middle and East Europe countries from starting the reforms in 1989 to 1992.From 1989,trade and partnership agreements signed with Hungary and Poland then, with Czechoslovakia in 1990,also Bulgaria and Romania in 1991. At the same time, rejection is started on amount of restrictions. Exporting is increased between Middle and East European countries, Soviet Union and European Union other than below too;Devaluation in the countries other than Hungary,- Workings to join into the West European markets reason of re-emerging the losted ones in East European- Import is on peak-level from those countries to Germany after unitized the East and West Europe.2.5. EUROPEAN AGREEMENTSEuropean agreements are acted end of 1991.Bulgaria-Europe agreement's date of signature: Mar8, 1993Date of being inforce: Dec 31,1995Temporarily agreement: Dec 31,1992European agreement has been in force in Bulgaria, end of 1995. European agreements are partnership agreements that signed by based on 238th paragraph of Roma agreement and Maastricht agreement. According to that state, increasing of export is an prestipulation to growth the economy with stability.3. SUCCEED OF STABILITY PROGRAM IN BULGARIABulgaria signed on an agreement with IMF to pass over the economical hardships and started the reforms in 1991.Economy is grown at the rates of 2.1 percent in 1995.In 1997,economy has the new crisis related to Yugoslavia crisis and so, Bulgaria signed on a new agreement with IMF.Leva is fixed with 20 DM and 1000 Bulgarian Leva to 1 DM and constructral reforms is started to gain the speed.Economy in Bulgaria grown to positive from 1994 but to the 10.9 percent in 1996.- Inflation rates (%) in Republic of Bulgaria; 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 199882,2 72,8 96,2 62 123,1 1082,3 22,3After the stand-by agreement with IMF, inflation approached to 22.3 percent in 1998.Annual average of inflation is expected as 7.3 percent in 1999 and 9.0 percent in 2000.Bulgaria is the poorest country according to other east European countries candidate to membership of EU. Bulgarian Leva is determined by rejected the 3 zeros from Detsch Mark. So, new Leva is make related on euro at the rates of 1.95583:euro 1 (Lvl:DMI ).CONCLUSION:Bulgaria is declared the moratorium reason of hardness's to find an external debt, to refund the capital and interests of external debt.While external debt is 10.6-milliard dollars end of 1990,it has been 12.2 milliard dollars, end of 1993. So, started to paces towards to market economy in Feb 1991. Annual inflation is reduced from 338.5 percent in 1991 to 79.4 percent in 1992.The debts of managements of state are ruined the budget and also a reason to broken balance on economy too.The crisis on foreign currency is occurred in Mar 1994. Reforms have been out of control at the result of that crisis.Leva is devaluated as 100 percent and inflation is reduced to 90 percent on annual average. At this parallel, financial and revenue politics, money and its value are controlled. The debts to foreign countries are decreased to 9.8 milliard dollars with precautions in 1994 and end of 1996.Financial balance are obtained again in the first months of 1995, reduced the inflation and also rate of interests to 72 percent.Rate of exchange (Leva/$) was 503 percent between Jan 1 and Feb 12,1997. Especially, that increasing was 20-percent/each day in Feb 1997.Rate of interest was 300 percent in Sep.1996. 14 Banks are bankrupted in that period. Bulgaria had been 1st of the world from inflation increasing speed of view.Inflation, devaluation, unemployment and also wages are on the lowest level in transition period in Bulgaria. Incoming per person is decreased 50 percent between 1989 and 1995.Annual criminal events are increased 3 times more after 1990. Money committee had formed by advice of IMF in Jul 1997. 1Deutsche Mark is indexed on 1 Leva.Qualified personnel with educationed on technical areas is a great potential force of Bulgarian economy.Bulgaria will be completed the transition period when it became to membership of European Union.

PI'S RELIGIOSITY IN YANN MARTEL'S LIFE OF PI Yektiningtias English Literature, Art and Language Faculty, State University of Surabaya yektiningtias@gmail.com Drs. Much. Khoiri, M.Si English Literature, Art and Language Faculty, State University of Surabaya Much_choiri@yahoo.com Abstrak Agama merupakan istitusi mengenai ketuhanan. Agama berisi sekumpulan pengertian dan kebiasaan yang mengacu pada individu. Individu tersebut adalah individu yang religius, pernah religius, atau bisa jadi religius. Partisipasi dalam suatu hal yang berbau religius didefinisikan sebagai religiusitas. Individu yang memiliki religiusitas tidak berarti mereka menganut sebuah agama. Selagi mereka melakukan hal hal yang sebuah agama perintahkan terhadap para pengikutnya, seperti percaya kepada Tuhan, mencintai ciptaan Tuhan, dan melakukan tindakan religius, individu tersebut dapat dikatakan religius. Life of Pi, sebuah novel karya Yann Martel, menggambarkan religiusitas seorang anak laki –laki, Piscine Molitor Patel atau Pi. Sejalan dengan hal tersebut, tujuan dari pernelitian ini adalah untuk menggambarkan religiusitas dari Pi dalam hidupnya dan mengungkapkan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi religiusitas tersebut. Metode analisis secara tidak langsung berdasarkan teori psikologi remaja karya Frederick Tracy karena sebagian besar novel tersebut menyuguhkan kehidupan Pi ketika dia masih dalam masa remaja. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Pi telah memenuhi tiga komponen religiusitas-keyakinan, perasaan, dan tindakan. Terlebih, ada lima faktor yang mempengaruhi religiusitas Pi. Faktor tersebut adalah pengaruh keluarga, pengaruh pekerja professional, kebutuhan, ketertarikan, dan rasionalitas. Kata kunci: agama, religiusitas, komponen religiusitas, remaja Abstract Religion is the institution of godness. It contains a set of meaning and behavior referring to individuals. The individuals are religious, were religious, or could be religious. The participation in religious things is defined as religiosity. Individuals who have religiosity do not mean they commit to a religion. As long as they do what a religion tells its followers to do, like believing God, loving God's creation, and doing religious action, the individuals are considered religious. Life of Pi, a novel by Yann Martel, depicts the religiosity of a boy, Piscine Molitor Patel or Pi. In line with that, the purpose of this study is to depict religiosity of Pi in his life and reveal the factors that influence it. The method of the analysis indirectly works mostly based on Frederick Tracy's psychology of adolescence theory because mostly the novel presents the life of Pi when he is in adolescent period. The result of this study shows that Pi has fulfilled three components of religiosity—knowing, feeling, and doing. Moreover, there are five factors that influence Pi's religiosity. They are family's influence, professional workers' influence, needs, interest, and rationality. Keywords: religion, religiosity, component of religiosity, adolescence INTRODUCTION Fiction, by its definition, is describing imaginary events and people. The contents of a prose literature which are included in fiction are drawn from imagination that shows creativity or original thought. An unrealistic plot like a boy who flies by a broom, talking animals, aliens, or monsters that attacks the earth often cause delusion. Thus, an author puts truths to make the work more realistic although as the mentality history, a work of art can be a manifestation of reality, critic of reality, and alternative thought of reality (Supaat, 2008: v). A modern literature has a notion that art or literature is a matter of creativity. Often the creativity is bounded with the legalistic and formalistic doctrines of religion. Thus Western societies put the religion aside from their literature. The literature is free and free from religious matters. On the contrary Y.B Mangunwijaya in Supaat (2004: 175) stated that basically all literatures are religious. T.S Elliot in Supaat (2004: 166) added that the value of literature must be seen from the ethic and religiousness. If there is an idea or agreement of a society of a religious ethic so the literature must be 'good' like the religious ethic. Religion within a fiction is based on religious ideas from the real world. The religious ideas can be included into a fictional prose because basically fictional characters are imaginary. Although the characters are made up, they still have people's same willingness, needs, and drives in the real world. What people do in real world includes seeking religious understandings. (http://altreligion. about.com/od/artandculture/a/Religion-And-Fiction.htm retrieved on March 7th 2013). Based on the explanation, art works often raises religious issues to make the story becomes more real. The issues contain the truths from real religious ideas. The authors put more understanding to the issues from the facts. A character seeks for religious understanding for some reasons. The character may find peace and satisfied feeling towards his or her life in religion. Although religion is a term for conceivable religions whether formal or informal (Ferm, 1959: 647) a character does not always practice what a particular religion that he or she commits' rules. A satisfaction is found deep inside a feeling. Because it is related to feeling, it can be related to religiosity. Stolz (2009: 347) defines religiosity as what an individual chooses, feels, believes, and acts that refer to a religion that already exists or to a self-made religion. Religion itself is a cultural symbol-system that responds to problems and possibilities that are related to a very important reality. This system influences everyday life and cannot be controlled directly. Stolz continues with religiosity is when an individual prays, sacrifices, believes, loves or fear his god while the religious symbol-system or religions are like Christianity and Islam (Stolz, 2009: 347). An author may put his understanding about religious things to his works. 'Literature going behind God' is an effort of a man in letter by his works in which nuances in religious with his total comprehension of faith , so that he could comprehend fully of his seeking of God, his Creator, and literature is a dynamic, productive, and creative media (Supaat, 2004: 176). Yann Martel puts his idea of religion and religious things into his fictional work, Life of Pi. "Pi is interested in religions: so am I. Pi is open to all faiths: so am I. Pi is comfortable in different Godhouses: so am I. There is a sociocultural component to religions. Just as there are different ways of feeding the body, there are different ways of feeding the soul. Each religion is one group of people's attempt to understand ultimate reality. I think in each one there is a portion of truth and a portion of error. So I see in all great religions the same frame of being, only seen from a different perspective." (http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Books/story?id=124838&page=5 retrieved on March 7th 2013) Life of Pi mostly presents such unrealistic things and events. The carnivorous trees and an impossible 227 days survival of a boy together with a Bengal tiger floating on a boat in Pacific Ocean seem hard to dissolve by mind. Although these things are in some ways unrealistic, Martel puts Gods and religions ideas into this work. The Author's Note in the beginning of his novel states that the story comes up from a man named Mr. Patel. Yann Martel, the author of Life of Pi, was in India in searching for inspiration here he met a man in a café who then tells him to meet a man with great story i.e. Piscine Molitor Patel. He then says that the story will make him believe in God. Life of Pi is uniquely presenting its adventurous content with religious values and zoology. Yann Martel was intelligently put those different things into synchronized single unit. The coordination of the true story of Mr. Patel told in first person is incredible. The story begins about Mr. Patel's education and working life which serve with the fact that he was a student of religious studies and zoology. Then it shifts to his life when he was a boy, son of a zoo owner. In this part, the story provides facts about some animals' life inside the cage or out there in the wild. The story next progress is story about Pi's religious life when he was in his teen that reveals his strange religious practice. The 227 days survival in Pacific Ocean on a boat with a Bengal tiger is the next part of this incredible story and it is closed with he is survived. This novel once comes up with controversy of its originality. Some critics come up with their idea that this novel resembles Scliar's Max and the Cats, a story about a family of German zookeepers sets sail to Brazil. The ship is shipwrecked and only a young man survives after floating at sea with a wild jaguar. This issue then goes down as a discussion between Scliar and Martel done. But Martel had been firstly mentioned Scliar's name in his Author's Note part of his book. (http://www.sparknotes.com /lit/lifeofpi/context.html, retrieved on February 12th, 2013). This issue affects the outstanding content of this novel. Some critics, however, still appreciate the novel. This novel makes the reader recalls the story of Ernest Hemingway's The Old Man and the Sea Yann Martel was an author of seven awards in literature. His first book entitled The Facts Behind Helsinki Roccamatios and Other Stories was a collection of four short stories published in 1993 deals with themes like illness, the anguish of youth, grief, and loss that blend with the lunacy of 20th century history. This book achieved Journey Prize in Canada. Martel's second book, his first in the form of novel Self published in 1996. This book succeeded to win Chapters/Books in Canada First Novel Award. This novel's theme was study of sexual orientation and identity. Also Martel was the author of a collection of letters to the prime minister of Canada, What Is Stephen HarperReading? (http://Literature.britishcouncil.org/ yann-martel on 17 oct 2012) After the publication of his novel in 2001 Life of Pi, his name was widely recognized by literature world. This novel was able to win five different awards. In 2001, this novel won Governor General's Literary Award for Fiction in Canada and also Hugh MacLennan Prize for Fiction. A year later, it won Commonwealth Writers Prize in Eurasia Region as the Best Book although it won over the shortlist. Also in the same year, Life of Pi was able to get the Man Booker Prize for Fiction that made him create much of literary splash rather than with his first two books and it also won the Boeke Prize in South Africa. As the recent achievement, Life of Pi has been filmed in 2012 and achieved a great success. Martel's works have been praised seven different literary awards although his life began with various odd jobs after he graduated for a degree in philosophy in Trent University in Ontario. He ever became a tree planter, dishwasher, and security guard before he committed in writing at the age of 27. Although he began his life with various odd jobs, his decision to write books after that was a right decision. He got praised for his ability to make multi themes and problems that are not common to be bound in to one. For his ability to combine uncommon multi themes and problems, he succeeded to make Life of Pi to become a novel of great combination of religious values, zoology, and adventurous life. As the opening of the novel, it is told that the novel will make you believe in God. This story reveals Pi's journey of life since he was child until he was mature and graduated from university. This story provides about Pi's religious life which is strange and it affects his understanding about his life and God's destiny for him. The combination of religious theme and zoology of the novel is purposely done for enriching Pi's religious life portraits. Pi is kind of person with maturity in his mind to combine his understanding about God of his religions towards the objects around him although he is still young. As human life is divided into four divisions (Tracy, 1920: 10) in which the first period is the period of childhood. The second is period of youth where this is the period of procreative function to the process of self maturing. The next period is the period of manhood and the last is the period of decay that is being dead. As the character of Pi in Yann Martel's Life of Pi is in the second period of life, he experiences great things in his religious life. In his adolescence that is ranged from 12 up to 24 years of life, Tracy (1920: 187) points out that, youngsters seek for spiritual meaning in religion as well as from the objects of nature, events, and their relationship with other fellows. Piscine Molitor Patel or Pi is originally a Hindu. He lives in a Hindu neighborhood when he was kid until he is adolescence. His religious practice has become strange when he meets two religious people i.e. a priest and an imam. Thus, this introduction constructs his understanding about other religions, Christianity and Islam. His decision to commit three religions, Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam simultaneously is also influenced by Bapu Gandhi who said that the most important thing is to love God. Pi has a strong love towards God although he is still a young man. Pi is having a disliking towards his biology teacher who does not believe in God's existence. Pi sees the doubt on the important of religion and the existence of God as just a while. Every man will pass it someday and reach a happy life. Although Pi is still young, he has already experienced his deep feeling about being religious and to religion itself. The feeling creates him to experience religious flaming. This deep religious feeling or religiosity happens in his teen. His religious feeling seems have mutualism with his personality as adolescence. His life whether they are individual or cultural and social more or less influence personality and affect his decision in understanding religions as the way to love God and being a religious on his multi religions practices. This religiosity that is seen from his religion combinations stresses the importance of individual factors, including social background and personal history. Those backgrounds are to build up his mind of committing three different religions at the same time. Thus this study is to reveal the form of his religiosity in the novel and the influencing factors. RESEARCH METHOD The source of this study is taken from a novel by Yann Martel, Life of Pi reprinted and republished in New York in 2012. The data collection is by analyzing the quotations, phrases, dialogues, or monologues in which reveal thought, speech, action, and attitude that reflects the idea of religiosity of the main character, Pi, from the novel Life of Pi. This study of religiosity will be applied by the concept of religiosity with its components, modes, dimension, orientation, and changes that often experienced by people. The religiosity used to determine and explain about the main character Pi issues of religiosity. To analyze the background of his commitment, it is used psychology of adolescence concept that consists of several psychological points of view about relationship between adolescence and family and religious life of adolescence. Close reading of the novel is done first to determine the major issue of it. The major issues are collected and proposed into a topic of the study by seeing the conflict, the monologue, the dialogue in the novel. After the topic is already decided, it is tried to figure out what should be analyzed with the topic. Thus it is collected two statements of problems. There are the depiction of Pi's religiosity and the factors that influence his religiosity. The next step is searching related information about concept of the topic and to figure it out, it is used religiosity concept and theory of psychology of adolescence for the analysis and the conclusion. CONCEPT OF RELIGIOSITY Religiosity is a concept that has a bound with religion. This concept of religiosity can be defined in some definitions that relate to the religion itself. Supaat (2008: 175) defines religiosity as an aspect which lies inside the deep heart, flaming in the inner heart, personal attitudes which more or less are mystery for the other people, because are based on intimate psychology i.e. universal totality, that includes human's ratio and feeling, inside the personal being. This religious attitude is pointed on personal side of an individual toward his God, and having attitudes as what God wants. Stolz (2009: 347).continues with religiosity is when an individual prays, sacrifices, believes, loves or fear his god. Religiosity can also be defined as participation in religious rituals, various behaviors, and attitude in group or society by an individual (Theodorson, 1969: 345). Rituals are usually what a religion tells the adherents to do. Whitehouse (2004: 4) explains rituals as actions that have lack of intrinsic meanings although there are possible interpretations or symbolic motivations that may be the background of the rituals. Although these actions are lack of intrinsic meaning, the ordeals are ritualized and the speculation of their significance and meaning are still present. Focusing on implicit motivations of people doing the behaviors has some tactical merits (Whitehouse, 2004:24). The explicit religious concept that ethnographers interpret is often difficult to differentiate that the concept is the interpretation of the ethnographers or the people's actual explicit religious concepts. The other reason is from the psychological point of view, implicit concepts are better predictors of behavior. The people can also be manipulated to do the actions because they are not consciously aware and will of their response to the stimulus. This leads to explicit reason to do the behaviors instead of the real motivation of them. The explicit knowledge is likely consisting of post hoc rationalization rather than a guide of the motivation for the behavior (Whitehouse 2004: 25). On the contrary, Fazio stated in Whitehouse (2004: 25) says that the conflicts between the implicit concept and explicit concept are not always true all the time. He says that explicit belief can also be a guide to the motivation. People who do the same ritual procedures regularly results in habituation. Those automated habits can make the people to have less reflection of the symbolic meanings of the rituals (Whitehouse, 2004: 6) for example in religious speech. People can be feeling bored of the doctrinal repetition. Rituals are the main things to do in order to get merits and not being sinful. As Tracy (1920: 183) stated that religion involves man's attitudes towards the Supreme Being without age differences and the main thing is to do positive attitudes towards the Being. To support these, an adherent often does various behaviors like fasting and to behave or keeping his or her good attitude by helping other people and doing good things. God is the invisible but owns the highest power and attitudes towards the Being, as sacred and profane. Durkheim (1915: 37) states that there are two divisions of world. They are sacred in which is the one containing all and profane which is the other all. These are the distinctive characteristics of religious thought. Sacred thing is not only about the personal beings called gods and spirits but a rock, a house, a tree, or anything can be sacred. Profane is what relates to daily life experience of human beings. For example, it is about someone's attitude that results in sins or the way a religion teaches human being to have a meaningful life by giving charity and helping one another so it will result in man's goodness. The representations which express the sacred things, the virtues and powers that they have, or the relation with profane things are like beliefs, myths, dogmas, and legends (Durkheim, 1915: 37) As well as Theodorson, Tarigan (2007:11) supports that. The definition of religiosity for him is as the human attitude which comes from God's blessing. God blesses human to believe in God, to enjoy modest life, to give charity, to help other people, to be lovable, and to be friendly. Because of the participations, behaviors, and attitudes based on particular religion that an adherent must do, sometimes these will cause strain to the adherents. They may feel under pressure because if they are not doing them, there will not be merits that they will get but sins and being afraid of God. God is someone who watches you to see that you behave yourself. (Powell, 1963: 289) The concept of religiosity is also generally accepted as multidimensional phenomenon. The phenomenon happens in the society related, influenced, or caused by many dimensions. The dimensions come from cultural, social, or individual contexts. Religious as the result of practicing and believing religion is also influenced by the religion's system of beliefs, rituals, and practices. Thus, individual actions are often influenced by the religion. Because of factors like afraid of being sinful person or to be considered as a religious person, adherents may do more than what a religion tells. This actualization of excessive religious, religiosity (Concise Oxford English Dictionary Eleventh Edition), besides to show that they are religious by doing it excessively, it also can be deviated from the real doctrines. It is agreeable that religion has to do with the relationship between man and his Maker or specifically it is the relationship between man's attitudes towards whatever he believes to be the owner of the highest power in universe (Tracy, 1920: 183). Because of the existence of attitudes, it needs to differentiate religion and religiosity although they bound each other. Religiosity is something that adherents do from what a religion orders. Then, religion defines as follows A religion is a set of meanings and behaviors having reference to individuals who are or were or could be religious. (Ferm, 1959: 647) The statements means that a religion is a container of what an individual must do or must not do either the individual is religious, was religious, or could be religious. Thus, it is only a term that contains all formal or informal religions in the world (Ferm, 1959: 647). Religion is the institution of godness which is unified system of beliefs, rituals, and practices that typically involve a broader community or believers who share common definitions of the sacred and the profane. (freebook.uvu.edu/SOC1010 retrieved on 18th October 2012) Supporting Ferm, Evans (1978: 305) has a definition of religion in which also has relationship between things or power which are uneasy to explain. Because religion freely allows a man to relate himself to the outer power that cannot be explained with science, quality and intensity of man's religiosity of his religion can be low or high. A man considered himself as religious man not only because he believes on religion , he can be considered as religious without doing religion's doctrines or a man who does it but is considered as not religious one as explained as follows that it needs a deep understanding to consider a man as religious person or not. To be religious is to effect in some way and in some measure a vital adjustment (however tentative and incomplete) to whatever is reacted to or regarded implicitly or explicitly as worth of serious and ulterior concern. (Ferm, 1959: 647) Supaat (2008: 175) stated that someone who is religious is defined as human being who has serious inner heart, pious, careful, and with deep spiritual considerations. GENERAL COMPONENT OF RELIGIOSITY For the social psychologist, religion has five main facets. They are the ideological or beliefs, the ritualistic or practice, the experiential or feelings, the intellectual or knowledge and the consequential or effects (Watts and Williams, 1988: 10). These facets bound into one dimension of religiosity. On the other hand, Duke (1988) defines the general components of religiosity seen from social psychologist are knowing or cognition, feeling or affection, and doing or behavior. Knowing or cognition is abstract. Knowing about things that are related to religiosity and religions are inside every man's mind. This is an ideology. The people believe what he believes that the things are true and good for him. Because ideology is only idea in this context in idea of religious things, the only thing that can be seen from this is the realization of this belief in the real world. For example a person believes that a religion is true. People cannot see his belief but can only see how the person shows his belief true religious doings like doing rituals. The feeling or affective is the feeling dimension of religiosity towards the social situations. The social situations contain things that God has created. Human being, animals, plants, goods, or institution are the creation of God. People who have religiosity are feeling grateful of the existence of His creations. Doing or behavior is the action of showing religiosity. This action aims to get positive effect. Religious doings are the realizations of religion as ideology and the feeling towards the God and His creation in the world. The behaviors are like attending religious rituals like servings God as a duty, studying about religion as the feeling to enlarge his knowledge and religiosity to his God, doing charity as the praise for his sufficiency and love feeling towards fellow, and helping the others to tighten the fellowship. In the matter of religious behavior, cognitive scientists more or less ignored the roles of explicit religious ideas and sentiments as the motivations of people doing the religious behavior (Whitehouse, 2004: 24). Boyer stated in Whitehouse (2004: 24) says that people are feeling the compulsion to participate in rituals because the natural environment often produces contaminants so the people use the rituals as the detection of and protection against them. These specializations are actually just normal cognitive systems. Of these components of religiosity, many researchers still hopes for more developed ways to measure religiosity of someone that the participation in institutional religion because there are differences in religious attitudes and experiences between dominations and between different people with the same denomination and there are fact of the equivalency of average attendance figures (Watts and Williams, 1988: 11). Some people may define themselves as religious in some sense although they play no part in organized religion. From a survey on religious scale items from Independent Television Authority Survey stated in (Watts and Williams, 1988: 11), individuals scored high on religiosity because they classified themselves as very religious or fairly religious, are certain that having some religious beliefs lead a good life, without belief in god life is meaningless, religion helps to maintain standard and morals of society, there is God, god watches each person, are very likely to think of god when they are worried or happy, religious belief affected their everyday lives. MODES OF RELIGIOUS INVOLVEMENT Individual participation on religion consists of two modes of religious involvements. Duke, in his journal, states that the modes are personal mode and institutional mode. The personal mode is built of religious beliefs, feelings, and behaviors. These are found in personal and individualized religion. The person accepts doctrinal orthodoxy from the cultural society around (Duke: 1998). In institutional mode, the religious beliefs, feelings, and behaviors are found in formalized and institutionalized religion. This mode accepts them in which related to religious rituals and worship services like in a particular church or other religions. While Duke divides an individual involvement is a religion as personal and institutional mode, the others like Davidson stated in Duke, separates it to private and public modes. RELIGIOUS ORIENTATION People's interest toward particular religion that makes them religious depends on their own decision. It is whether they are extrinsically or intrinsically oriented (Allport, 1967: 144). Allport's point of view of extrinsic religious is caused by outer reasons or influence. The reason why an individual is committing religious acts aims in seizing mundane goals like feeling comforted and protected and also is like to get a social status and approval. To measure an individual religiosity based on extrinsic orientation is by seeing the influence given by peers, family members, or professional workers. Durkheim demonstrates how process that influence by society motivates individual action. The only source of life at which we can morally reanimate ourselves is that formed by the society of our fellow beings; the only moral forces with we can sustain and increase our own are those which we get from others. (Durkheim, 1915: 425) It is different from intrinsic orientation which assumed without achieving a mundane goal even self denying quality as the reason of religious involvement. This orientation arises from the goal of the contents of the religious tradition itself. To measure this orientation is by seeing the personality. CHANGE IN RELIGIOUS COMMITMENT AND PARTICIPATION Life events relate to religiosity. Peter Berger stated in Cornwall (1998) states that plausibility structures i.e. family, church, or voluntary organizations and conversations with the others are important and can give influence to religiosity. Because there are many life events that will influence someone's religiosity, there is chance of the change of his or her commitment and participation in religion. The changes are change in belief and activity over the life cycle, religion disaffiliation and dropping out, religious conversion and reactivation, religious change as personal development. The changing of religious belief and activity can be related to life cycle. Teens or early twenties may have less religious belief and activity than they who are in late twenties or thirties. This changing is caused by several backgrounds like family backgrounds, early socialization, and to developmental issues of adolescence and young adulthood (Albrecht and Cornwall: 1998) In religious disaffiliation and dropping out, an individual decides to not join one organization because she or he chooses to join another or decides to stop his religious involvement in the organization. Even though this is action of switching, it does not mean they loose their religious faith. They only choose the best belief for them. Religious conversion has often been defined as a rather sudden process consisting of new religious insight or experience which leads to greater religiosity on the part of individual involved (Donahue taken from Albrecht and Cornwall: 1998). Supporting Donahue, Starbuck (1900: 21) added that sudden changes of character like from evil to goodness, sinfulness to righteousness, and indifference to spiritual insight or activity. In the adolescent period, the conversion is an awakening. The conversion can happen in many motifs: conversion from private investigation of alternative ideologies to highly social, emotionally arousing experience (Lofland and Skonovd stated in Albrecht and Cornwall: 1998). Starbuck (1900: 49) states that the motives and forces behind the religious awakening is based on the nature of conversion. To study the motives and fears, the people are grouped into their likeness and differences. They are fears, other self-regarding motives, altruistic motives, following out a moral ideal, remorse and conviction for sin, response to teaching, example and imitation, urging and other forms of social pressure (Starbuck, 1900: 49) Religious development changes as the individual goes matures. This maturation process is primarily seen through psychological study without focuses on the impact of normative events like marriage, first job, child bearing, and death (Albrecht and Cornwall: 1998) PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE Adolescence is the second stage of human life. In this stage, adolescents will experience a period of the birth of procreative function until the full maturity of their powers (Tracy, 1920: 10). This stage is begun in the second dozen period of human life. The first dozen period is childhood, the third is manhood and the fourth or the last period is the beginning of decay of the powers until death. In other word, the adolescent period started from the age of 12 years. Supporting Tracy, Goldenson (1984: 17-18) explains further about the beginning of adolescent of girls and boys. He stated that adolescent period of girls is begun when they are 12 until 24 years. Boys have a year later the beginning of adolescence than girls, which is from 13 until 22 years. The period of adolescence is subdivided into two periods but some writers divided it into three. In the three divisions of this period, there are early, middle, and later adolescence. In this division, the beginning of adolescence happens in the four or five first year while the rest divisions follow this. In two divisions, the period of adolescence is subdivided into early and later adolescence. Both are lined when the adolescents are in their sixteen or seventeen years of life. During the period of adolescence, adolescents will experience a period of puberty. Puberty is a period when sexual life is born and it is also the beginning of procreative quality of them. Although puberty will happen to every person, the birth is varied between an adolescent to the other adolescents. This means that an adolescent can have it when he is 12 and the other may have it in his 14. Besides puberty is the birth of sexual maturity, in some civilized people, puberty is a sign of social and religious obligations of individual. … Frequently by some new emphasis on the social and religious obligations of the individual, evidently with a half-conscious recognition of the close association between the racial and the religious life. (Tracy, 1920: 17). The same thing happens to adolescents in Christian Communions. In this community, adolescents are hoped to take new step of their religiousness and begin to take their religious responsibility. This will lead them to the closer and more open relationship with their church. As well as Tracy, Goldenson (1984: 17-18) stated that during this period, adolescence will experience major various changes that have different rates one to the other. The changes include changing of sexual characteristic, body image, sexual interest, social roles, intellectual development, and self concept. Tracy (1920: 18) stated that in the matter of thought and feeling, adolescence is the period of 'deepening'. The feeling of adolescents will experience a flaming where they will find deepest meaning of things. All experiences of them will make them to interpret them deeper and bound them into a higher thought. In this case Evans (1978: 93) supports Tracy. He explained that in period of operational thinking, adolescents will not face conflict in thought process from the concrete to the abstract form. The adolescents will be aware of logical of basic things and the formulation of hypotheses (Evans, 1978: 93). Thus, they will seek for the logical reasons behind some things, conditions, or situations around them then they began to understand them as something that they have known or purposely introduced when they were kid. The mind of the adolescent reaches out to that which is implicated or involved in the presentation. In a deeper sense than ever before, the mind now takes hold upon the ideal, builds castles, lays plans, and indulges in day dreams, with all kindred psychic adventures (Tracy, 1920: 18) The feeling of adolescents will be richer than when they are children. This will also become actual. The combination of feeling, thought will result of the birth of emotion. Adolescence has primary emotions. They are love, fear, anger, and curiosity. The adolescence does not learn the emotions. The emotions are inborn. Other emotions are built on those primary emotions. Love is a feeling of strong affection or attachment. This emotion makes adolescence concerns for someone or feels delight in an object, person, or situation. This primary emotion builds some secondary emotions like affection, joy, pleasure, and delight. Adolescence will feel alone and insecure without love. Fear is an emotion which ranges from worry. Hurlock stated in Kapunan (1971: 55) categorizes fear into three: fear of material objects, like animals, airplane, elevator; fear of social relationship, like being alone, meeting people for the first time, making a speech; general fear, like poverty, death, darkness, physical incapacity, marriage. Gates and Pressey stated in Kapunan (1971: 56) say that fear has positive values. Fear causes someone to be cautious and careful, thrifty, sober, and the fear prevents one from doing wrong. But, fear also can make one from going a head and can lead to failure. There are three ways to overcome fear. They are forewarning in which the adolescence should be cautioned of something they are afraid of, assurance in which they are told that nothing is to fear, and to live the experience. Some secondary emotions of fear are moods, anxiety, and worry. Anger is an emotion from resentment to rage. This emotion is caused by inability to do or get what is wanted. It may be being teased, treated unfairly, and being bossed. The expressions of anger are like disobedience, resistance, sneers, threats, satire, gossip, or oral attack. This anger also has positive effect. This can make one accomplish more, make one pause and re-examine his practices and limitations. Curiosity is the beginning of knowledge and learning when one starts asking question. This interest or curiosity makes children being aware of the changes around them. This makes their interest aroused. The birth of emotions of adolescence makes the adolescents becoming aware of the combination of those emotions. After that, the action rises. When children's action is imitative, habitual and automatic adolescents' action will be less imitative, habitual, and automatic. It will be controlled by the will although it is not fully controlling the action. It is because their intelligence control is spasmodic and intermittent. FAMILY AND ADOLESCENCE Family condition whether it is related to the parents' attitudes influences the attitude of adolescence. Since many of attitudes or values own by children are well structured in their eight or nine years that are difficult to change, this means the home environment is the primary factor involved in structuring them. Powell (1963: 266) added that although parents have strong role of structuring children's attitudes and values, the home environment also influences them. It is including children's observation of his parent's interaction with each other and with other adults. According to Warnath in Powell (1963: 267) home is the place for children of learning developmental social skill and the desire to participate in activities related to other individuals. THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF ADOLESCENCE Everyman is basically a religious being. They are capable of religion not at this age or that age. They are always capable of this. Although everyman's naturally religious, they are not capable of it in the same sense. It is not also the ideas and feelings towards a religion are the same in every man. An immature man does not have the same things as a mature man has of the ideas and feelings. It can be said that child's capability of religious experience is not the same in form and content as youth's and adult's. Since religion is a matter of thinking, feeling, and acting, children who are not mature, they themselves have intellectual power over their feeling and behavior (Tracy, 1920: 186). As long as they are given early introduction to God, their life is genuinely religious (Tracy, 1920: 186) as they easily absorb things around them. Thus, the character of children's religious life is based on their mental life and this progress. As everyone knows, child absorbs things around him but without the knowledge of his sense. Although the child tries to look deeper about the knowledge he gets from his surroundings, there is not larger degree of understanding that he will get. Although child may comprehend and speak bout the un-sensed for example the unseen and untouched things, there is not understanding about it. They only know that they can see the unseen if they have keener vision and where to look them. During childhood, children are told that God sees them but they cannot see God and God is near to them but they still cannot see God. They may ask such questions but without understanding. Thus, they will be satisfied to any answers given to them. Religion of child and the religion of youth have much in common but there are still features that differ one from another. The religion of youth is more subjectively personal than the religion of children. Religion of children is natural religion but the youth's is spiritual religion. Youth tries to find spiritual meaning of objects, events, and relationship of human life. Religion influences moral values as well as social attitudes not only for adults but also children and adolescents. Children know about religion early from the one closed to them like from parents. Since the children's religion is natural, as long as they are given early introduction about this, they will likely be religious. This differs to adolescent. Early introduction to concept of religion that is relationship between God and man often creates conflict in adolescence. They begin to question the concepts they have absorbed (Powell, 1963: 284) because they start to find out the hidden meaning of something, like no children. For in childhood there is a simple, direct response to the impressions of the environment, on the sensori-motor reflex plane, without the possibility of the deeper and stronger emotions, and with a minimum of logical interpretation or critical analysis. In youth this naive outlook gives way by degrees to one in which the subjective elements play a more prominent part, with the simple feelings giving place to the profounder emotions, mere sense-perception being supplemented by the more ambitious processes of cognition, and the instinctive and habitual motor reactions by deliberate choice and higher volition. (Tracy, 1920: 189) Adolescence is an important period of dedication in participation of organized religions in the world even in primitive form (Ferm, 1959: 378). Ferm also states that When the religious nurture of childhood must issue in personal commitment if significant religious maturity is to follow (Ferm, 1959: 378) Tracy (1920: 191) distincts two distinctive features of adolescence's religion. The first are the experience of intellectual doubts and difficulties whether it is accompanied by emotional tension and upheaval or not. The second is the experience known as conversion. Doubts and difficulties are related to religious questions. As children is very dogmatic which means they greatly absorbs what others say and answer based on questions that they ask, the mind of adolescence begins to criticize that. Ideas which have heretofore dwelt side by side in consciousness without any sense of clash or conflict, may now reveal to the more alert mind of youth certain incongruities and contradictions. (Tracy, 1920: 193) If the adolescence cannot deal with the idea that they have with the reality that they face, there will be conflict which leads to doubts of what they have believed. In some researches stated by Powell (1963: 286) relating to loss of religious interest with adolescent, show that young people do not loose 100 percents the interest of religion but they do not seem feeling satisfied with traditional religious belief and ritual. In this period, he added that confusion seems to happen that may lead to guilt feeling. Family environment which is included attitudes of father and mother influences the development of young people's religious attitudes, Parents often give their children with strict adherence to specific religion. This habit can make confusion to the children when they come to a more liberal home (Powell, 1963: 286). However, children with less religious even irreligious parents will make them insecure and envy of seeing their classmates involved in religious experience denied them. A better point of view of religion will be in the attitudes of children whose parents are religious and liberal. These combinations seem to make result in developing more mature religious views (Powell, 1963: 288). According to Allport cited in Powell (1963: 290) religious sentiments occur from needs, interests, temperament, rationality, and cultural response. Young people seek for new experiences, awareness of the presence of God, to be useful and unselfish, to participate responsibly, and become members of a wholesome fellowship (Powell, 1963: 291) Kuhlen and Arnold cited in Powell (1963: 289) agrees that religious beliefs become increasingly abstract with the increase of age. The more age he has, the more likely he becomes religious. For many adolescents, leaving religious practice is temporary since they will enter their adulthood that makes them likely to become affiliated with religious practice. DEPICTION OF PI'S RELIGIOSITY Three general components of religiosity are depicted by Pi. The depictions are Pi's knowing about God's existence, knowing about religion, feeling grateful of animals' existence, grateful of goods' existence, Pi's doing like serving God through personal prayer, committing three religions, loving the fellow, and loving animals. As adolescence, Pi has knowledge about the great power of God. Pi thinks that it is only a very serious disease that will kill God. What is meant by serious disease is a real serious disease that infects a human being. Pi thinks that God, the Supreme Being who has super power over all things in the world will not die or never dies because of thing like suffering disease like a man can. God is the creator of human being and all other creatures in this world. He disagrees with his teacher's opinion that God died during partition in 1947. He might also die during the war or when he was in orphanage. Pi believes and knows it so he thinks that it is an impossible thing for God to die that way like a human being does. He also thinks that if God's existence in a man's heart is dead, this condition will lead to terrible things. In other words this is a very dangerous condition. Pi states this because he does not want God disappears from every human being's heart. He compares the terrible things that will happen because of that condition with terrible disease. He attempts to say that the effect of both things towards human beings and other creatures in the world is vey dangerous. Someone who suffers a not-dangerous disease still can infect the people around him then imagine if the disease is terrible. This will have greater effect towards them. Then, if someone does not recognize his God anymore, this will make destruction. For example, if human beings are the highest God's creature compared to animals and plants do not have God inside their minds then the God's blessing like mercy towards the other will be lessen and the worst is disappearance of that. If the people do not have mercy anymore, they will damage the environment. Relating this to Pi's life that is closed to animals, Pi knows and believes that by keeping God inside his heart will make the world and its contents peaceful. Pi has a positive point of view of religion. For him religion is light. The light will guide human beings to the right way along their life's way. When Pi met his teacher, Mr. Kumar at his father's zoo, Pi was so happy to see him there. Mr. Kumar said that he often went to the zoo and thought that other people might think that it was his temple although he was indicating to the Pit of goats' and rhinos' cage. He later talked about politic that lead to religious debate between him and inside Pi's heart. Mr. Kumar thinks that the world will be peaceful if the politicians are like the goats and rhinos. But the real condition is reversed. Pi does not know anything about politics although his parents often complained about Mrs. Gandhi. He bluntly said that religion would save them. After Pi mentioned that they will be saved by religion from the political condition that was terrible, Mr. Kumar's response was not very good. He admitted that he did not believe in religion. He thought that religion is darkness. He thought that there were no grounds for believing thing like that. He only thought that religion was a superstitious bosh. He did not believe in God's existence. Hearing this Pi was only thinking that Mr. Kumar was only testing him for his knowledge of religion. He thought that he was like purposely saying that mammals lay eggs. After that Mr. Kumar is an atheist was in his mind. He was then surprised when he was told that God may have died somewhere some when. Although he was surprised of this, Pi did not hate the fact that Mr. Kumar is an atheist but Mr. Kumar's agonistic made Pi upset. Mr. Kumar spoke that God never came when he needed Him. When he was Pi's age, he was racked with polio. The God never came and saved Him but the medicine did. Pi did not respond anything about it although it was a bit much for him. Pi chooses not to argue with Mr. Kumar not because of his anger but more afraid of loosing someone he loved. The depiction of Pi's gratefulness of animals' existence is found when he was in the zoo. Pi's father was the owner of a zoo in Pondichery. He was feeling very happy of growing up in a zoo. Almost every animal in the zoo left an impression to Pi. In some case, Pi did not have to depend on his activity to the mundane thing like alarm clock for example. Pi did not have to have the clock because he could use the voice of animals around him to wake him up, to remind him for breakfast. He used the roar of a pride of lion who usually roar off between five-thirty and six every morning. The loud voice of howler monkeys punctuated his breakfast time. The animals in the zoo also give Pi a happy feeling. Besides from his mother's gaze, he also got a benevolent from bright-eyed otters, burly American bison, and also orang-utans. Pi was living his life as prince who had the fondest memories of living in a zoo because of the animals. The animals brought him advantages. From morning until dark, Pi was always welcomed by them. Every animal in the zoo has different characteristics, habits, and action. There are animals which voices are very disturbing but there are animals which are not. The habits or the actions of the animals whether they are annoying or not, has brought him to think that they are the graceful gifts from God. Seeing their action made Pi feeling as a lucky boy. Pi has always been feeling grateful of what God has given to him. Once when he is in trouble when floating on the Pacific Ocean, he finds goods that will make him survive. Although he is in trouble, he still remembers about the relationship of the goods' colour with one of the religions he has committed. In Hinduism, saffron is the most sacred color for the Hindu. This color represents fire and symbolizes purity. Wearing this color symbolizes the quest for light. If this color is related to what Pi finds in the lifeboat, this means the goods are source of light for Pi. The light is his survival from the fear. The boat makes him safe from the Pacific Ocean beneath him and the tarpaulin separates him with his Bengal tiger. At first, Pi does not think that the goods he has found will become his lifesaver. But, he then thinks that with the lid, he is separated from Richard Parker. This means he is protected from carnivore that is in the same boat with him. He is feeling grateful of that. Then if the tiger is managed to attack Pi from below, he should push the lid and it will warn him and make him fell backwards to the water. And here it is the function of the lifebuoy. The existence of the goods has caused joyful feeling for Pi. He even cannot compare them with all giving occasions that he has experienced before even the occasions bring great pleasure. Although Pi is floating on the Pacific Ocean, he still does prayers. Pi does the religious rituals adapted to the circumstances. He does all three religions rituals he commits. Pi still does the prayers because he has felt that doing prayer will bring him comfort. But, in practice, doing prayer is very hard for him. He thinks that to have faith in God is difficult. He has to have an opening up, trust, and act of love towards God. It is because he is not in a save condition. There are dangerous problems that he faces on the ocean. He sometimes fills with anger, desolation, and weariness. He is angry at the God who puts him in this kind of situation. In that kind of situation, Pi ensures himself that everything around him is God's, even the hat he is wearing, the attire, the cat, the ark, the wide acres, the ear. Pi has a very strange religious practice. Although he is still adolescence, he has already practiced three different religions. They are Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam. At the age of fourteen years old, Pi meets Jesus Christ and becomes a Christian although he was born Hindu. He is admired by the God's Son's sacrifice. He willingly sacrifices Himself for the goodness of humanity. He pays the humanity sins. The reason is because of love. Although Pi is a Hindu, he also commits to Christianity. He does both Hindu and Christian prayers even right after becoming Christian. Pi commits to Islam a year later. Again he is introduced to Islam by a professional worker. He is a Sufi who is a Muslim mystic. His name is Satish Kumar, person with the same name as his biology teacher. Pi is attracted to Islam because of the brotherhood and devotion that are told in Islam. Pi also feels good when he brings his forehead to the ground. He feels a deep religious contact then. After all those introductions to new religions, Pi practices all of them. Pi's love toward the fellow is depicted through his relationship with his biology teacher. Although Pi is born Hindu and is a well-content Hindu, he still respects anyone who does not have the same faith with him including his biology teacher, Mr. Satish Kumar. One day Pi sees Mr. Kumar in the zoo. He is a regular visitor of the zoo. When he is visiting zoo, he always reads labels and descriptive notices of every animal. He feels scientifically refreshed after visiting the zoo. In the zoo Mr. Kumar and Pi have a talk about political things in India. Mr. Kumar imagines if they have politicians like two rhinoceros and a goat, that live together in harmony that they are watching, India would not have faced many problems. Then Pi says that religion will save them. Mr. Kumar's response is out of Pi's mind. He thinks religion is darkness and God does not exist. Pi is surprised about this. Pi only thinks that he is testing him. But it is not. Mr. Kumar is an atheist, someone who does not believe in God's existence. Although Mr. Kumar's point of view about religion and God is not the same as Pi's, he still accepts this. He only thinks that anyone has doubt like Christ who ever doubts God for forsaking Him. Pi still makes Mr. Kumar as the reason he choose zoology as one of his major in university. Because he is the first atheist person that Pi meets, he is able to think that atheists are his brothers and sisters. He considers Mr. Kumar as a person of blood-relationship with him no matter what faith he has. The faith is their faith. They are free for it like Pi himself. Pi's love towards animals has made him to become a vegetarian. When Pi is in trouble finding the source of food on the boat on Pacific Ocean, he is finding many flying fish, Dorado fish, have flown into the lifeboat. He is finding this event as happy event because Richard Parker has had some food supplies to fill its hungry stomach. Pi also takes one of the fish. He covers the fish with blanket in order to not make him hurt. After that, he tries several times to kill the fish but he could not complete the action. Pi cannot make it because he feels pity of the fish. He even feels a bit responsible of the rat's death because he threw it to Richard Parker. To kill the fish, he thinks that he is between the affection feeling towards animals and the need to have meal. In his lifetime, he is a vegetarian. When Pi has been succeeded in killing the fish, the tears come down his cheeks. He cannot feel the life fighting anymore. He feels sad knowing that there is blood on the fish. Although fish is a common animal that human even other animals eat and they rarely think that the fish is a creature that has soul, Pi's aware that there is soul inside the fish. He is very sorry toward the soul living things that he has killed. The fish cannot enjoy its life anymore. Pi thinks the fish and him are the living creation of God. They should not kill each other. Because he loves it, he is feeling guilty. Then, he promise to pray for the fish in his prayer. FACTORS INFLUENCING PI'S RELIGIOSITY The religiosity of a person can be begun since early life of that person. This can appear to the mind of people when they are children. Not all people will experience religiosity since in their early age. Usually the forms of religiosity are based on religion. The moral values and social attitudes of the people will be likely influenced by it. Early introduction of religious things to people are mostly from the people around them but this religiosity can also come from inside the individuals. The factors that influence religiosity of Pi are family's influence, professional workers' influence, needs, interest, and rationality. Pi's religiosity comes from the influence of his parents because they are the closest figure for the children. Although Pi is from Hindu family, he defines his father as person who does not have strong belief about religion. He later explains that all new animals in the zoo owned by his father are blessed by priest. In the zoo there are also two small shrines. They are to Lord Ganesha and to Hanuman. But, the reason behind this is only to please the zoo director. His father thinks the existence of the shrines is good for his business to build a better relationship with the public, not personal reason like personal salvation for him. It is true that Pi is religious because he has been falling in love with Hinduism. But, the children's mental life grows. Pi sees his father as a less or lesser religious than him. Then he might think that committing two new other religions is okay for him. Because of this reason, he begins to think it won't be any problem with my family if I commits to these new religions. Besides of the religious life of his father, Pi also feels that when he was kid, he has never prohibited reading comic and other papers that contain anything about gods of any religion. Pi thinks that his mother was pleased to see him reading any books so long it was not naughty, because she herself is a big reader. Professional workers have a great influence towards Pi's religiosity. Pi was originally a Hindu because he was born in Hindu family. During his childhood, he was familiar with everything about Hinduism. Later on when he enters his adolescence period that is in his fourteen years old, he begins to know about Christianity. Pi is on a holiday trip in Munnar. In Munnar there are three hills. The hill on the right has a Hindu temple, the hill in the middle has a mosque, and the left hill has a Christian church. Pi is a school boy who attends a Christian school but he never goes inside a church. Then, because of curiosity he decides to hide around a corner of the rectory of the church because he is afraid. Inside the church he sees a figure, a priest who is sitting quietly and patiently waiting for anyone who wants to talk to him. On the next day he manages to enter the church and is welcomed by the priest, Father Martin. Pi thinks he is very welcoming. In that church he was told some story about Christianity including God's son who was willing to pay the humanity sins. Pi cannot accept this. He always questions this thing to Father Martin. He always answers it is because of love. Pi does not feel satisfied of the answer. On his last day in Munnar, Pi decides to come to the church again. At first he thinks that the priest is not in but he is. He says to Father Martin that he wants to be a Christian. He says that Pi already is. Before Pi leaves, he finds Father Martin smiling to him. It is the smile of Christ for him. From these, Father Martin's patience and kindness to give explanation to Pi and answers his questions too have made Pi to feel that Christian is not as what he thinks as people with great violence. He has seen the sincerity of Father Martin. He is feeling comforted about what the man is telling. These makes him understands about the religion and finally commits in it. Another professional worker that influences Pi to Pi's religiosity is an imam of a mosque in Mullah Street. At that time, Pi is also in his adolescent period. He is sixteen years old when he knows Islam. Pi actually does not have good impression about Islam. Islam has a reputation worse than Christianity. Islam has fewer gods but greate

Issue 65.1 of the Review for Religious, 2006. ; Inspiration The Spirit QUARTERLY ~ 2006 Review for Religious fosters dialogue with God, dialogue with ourselves, and dialogue with one another about tb~ holiness we try to live according to charisms of Catholic religious life. As Pope Paul vl said, our way of being church is today the way of dialogue. Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published quarterly at Saint Louis Universit3£ by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393 Telephone: 314-633-4610 ¯ Fax: 314-633-4611 E-Mail: review@slu.edu .° \¥eh site: *~,w.reviewforreligious.org Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, MO 63108-3393 Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP ° Pontifical College Josephinuln 7625 North High Street ¯ Columbus, Ohio 43235 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©2006 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific lihrarv clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. view for religious Editor Associate Editor Canonical Counsel Scripture Scope Editorial Staff VVebmaster Advisory Board David L. Fleming SJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Elizabeth McDonough OP Eugene Hensell OSB Mary Ann Foppe Tracy Gramm Judy Sharp Clare Boehmer ASC Stephen Erspamer OSB Kathleen Hughes RSCJ Louis and A~. gela Menard Bishop Terry Steib SVD Miriam D. Ukeritis CSJ QUARTERLY 65.1 2006 contents prisms 4 Prisms context American Catholicism's Chaos-- and Its Future Richard Gribble CSC reviews the present situation of the post-Vatican II era of American Catholicism through an analysis of contemporary authors while providing hope for the future. 21 23 3O challenges 0 Religious Life in the Third World-- a Shangri-La? Anthony Malaviaratchi CSSR paints a rather sobering picture of the difficulties involved in discerning a vocation for third-world candidates and in superiors' exercise of leadership. Personal Reflection Questions and Group Discussion Propositions Challenges for Communities' New Members Guire Cleary SSF sets out some of the challenges experi-enced by new members of religious communities, drawing on his own experiences and observations and on personal histories from other new religious. Review for Religious inspiration 43 A Spirituality of Surrender--A Jesuit's Story Rosemary Stets OSF shares with us the making of a prayer of surrender from her conversation with and the living example of the Jesuit Walter J. Ciszek. 48 57 Two Mysteries in One: Implications for Ministry Giovanni Zevola OMI delves into the meaning of the Annunciation and the Visitation to find there the richness of theology and pastoral care, encountering each other in pastoral experience. Truth: Religious Simplicity Revisited Robert P. Maloney CM focuses on Vincent de Paul's choice of simplicity as "being in the truth" with God, with oneself, with others, and with the created universe; He then discusses some of the dilemmas involved in combining the simplicity of the dove with the prudence of the serpent. Prayer Reflection and Group Discussion 7O Sharing God the Ignatian Way David L. Fleming SJ indicates how Ignatian spirituality affects the ways we understand and relate to God. Personal Reflection and Group Discussion 76 the spirit Led by the Spirit: St. Patrick Andrew Ryder SCJ views the working of the Holy Spirit in the life and missionary activity of St. Patrick from his own witness given in his Confession. departments 92 Scripture Scope: The suffering of Jesus ~ 96 Canonical Counsel: Chapters and Other Meetings 102 Book Reviews 65.1 2006 4 ~hen was the last time that we felt that we were making a flesh start? Maybe it was a flesh start in our getting regular exercise. Perhaps it was a fresh start that we needed in establishing a better relationship with a co-worker or a relative. Or it might be the flesh start we need in working on our spiritual or church life. We hear and are well aware of the bromides like "That's the way it has always been done" or "We always do it that way." It seems that there is nothing more deadening than a routine life, a life of frozen patterns. Yet it is normal, even necessary, that we estab-lish patterns in our everyday living. For exam-ple, for good health we are encouraged to keep to a pattern of sleeping hours. It is usually helpful for us to establish patterns for our personal prayer, or else we begin to find ourselves too busy to take time to pray. We as a church are always calling ourselves to start afresh. That is a purpose of church sea-sons. We have recently finished the Christmas season. We are entering Ordinary Time, which we will shortly interrupt for the Lenten and Easter seasons. Each time the liturgy, through these seasonal emphases, calls us to a fresh assess-ment of how we are relating to God and how we are living our Christian life. What does it mean for us "to start afresh"? It does not mean that we reject everything that we have been doing. It does not call for us to break totally with our past and act as if we have Review for Religious no personal history. Each one of us is only one person, from birth to death and into resurrection. We are the ones that God loves into creation and identifies with, as sons and daughters in the redemptive action of Jesus. We must always work with our God-given gifts and limitations. But, accepting and living with the mystery of our own person, we receive God's call to start afresh, always to be growing, which means change and development. The foods that we liked as children should not keep us from foods we could well like as adults. When was the last time we tried something new to eat? Maybe we are very comfortable attending Eucharistic holy hours, but have we ever taken time to visit people in a nursing home or in a hospital? Perhaps we keep our weekends to our-selves, but are we open to volunteering for our parish's special pantry preparation and delivery for poor people in our neighborhood? Every Eucharist we celebrate invites us to start afresh with Christ. The risen Jesus, in his everlasting stance of offering himself anew totally to God and totally to us, extends his arms to embrace us in his offering as we enter into Eucharist. And so each Mass, with its own ritual pat-tern, is God's invitation to us to start anew. In the simple practice of the daily examination of conscience--once again a helpful pattern in our Christian lives--we find ourselves always being alerted to the surprising ways that God has entered into our lives this day and perhaps, to our sorrow, we have not responded. In a paradoxical way, by our looking back over our day in the examen, we find ourselves starting afresh in our relationship with God. "Starting afresh with Christ"--is this the "routine call" we hear every day? We may find that this call freshens the whole of our everyday way of living. David L. Fleming SJ 6Y.I 2006 RICHARD GRIBBLE American Catholicism's Chaos--and Its Future context In his recent book The Catholic Revolution: New Wine, Old Wineskins, and the Second Vatican Council, the priest sociologist Andrew Greeley uses new wine in old wineskins to describe con-temporary American Catholicism's chaotic state. He contends that, while appearing strong, Roman Catholicism's structures were fragile, for they had not been adequately adapted to chang-ing times. Thus, when the progressive teach-ings of Vatican II came all at once, the structures were not ready for them and chaos ensued.l Can this chaotic situation be a turning point to a stronger church in the future? Using the work of several prominent American Catholic intellectuals, this essay continues the discussion and seeks to increase hopes for the contempo-rary church. Richard Gribble CSC is an associate professor of religious studies at Stonehill College; 480 Washington Street; North Easton, Massachusetts 02356. His current email address is rgribble@stonehill.edu Review for Religious The American Church Today American Catholics today can be divided into two groups. The "spirit of Vatican II" Catholics, the majority of American Catholics, view John xxIII's aggiornamento as a move toward solidarity with the present age. Following the opening words of Sacrosanctum concilium, "The sacred council has set out., to adapt more closely to the needs of our age those institutions which are sub-ject to change," these more liberal Catholics see Vatican II as a starting point for adaptation. Greeley says, "Catholics [today] believe that the church can change and that they can disregard the pope when it comes to making decisions, especially about sex and gender.''2 Some refer to those in this category as "cafeteria Catholics," who feel free to pick and choose what teach-ings they accept and reject. George Weigel, senior fellow of the Ethics and Public Policy Center in Washington, D.C., calls such an understanding of the faith "Catholic lite," perceiving this "watered down" Catholicism as the root of the recent sexual-abuse crisis and, by extension, the general malaise in American Catholicism.3 Greeley characterizes the lassitude in the church as "beige Catholicism," with the Catholic imagination, once a source of unity, now replaced by a colorless Catholic life that has little enthusiasm.4 The other group, those labeled "conservatives" in the literature, accepts Vatican II at face value, but goes no further. These Catholics accept and promote what the council taught, but, unlike the more progressive element, do not believe that the council licensed the generation of multiple theologies. They reject the idea that the "spirit of Vatican II" should govern the church. In the eyes of this group, an overemphasis on aggiornamento created the disunities of "Catholic lite" and "beige Catholicism." James Hitchcock, professor of history at St. Louis 6Y. 1 2006 Gribble ¯ dmerican Catbolicism's Cbaos Despite Vatican II's emphasis on the active role of the laity, the hierarchical church is slow to relinquish power and authority. University, is a standard bearer for this position. He writes, "Liberal religion treats secular culture as pos-sessing a superior wisdom and restricts religious beliefs to what the culture allows, including endorsing every movement deemed to be progressive." He suggests fur-ther that liberals have no sense "that modernity itself, in the full sense oi: the term, is simply antireligious, that rejection of belief is essential to its self-understanding." s Given these divisions in American Catholicism, what are the dominant issues? The Catholic editor and writer Peter Steinfels, in his popular book A People Adrift, says the church must nego-tiate (1) the passage from one generation to the next and (2) the pas-sage of power from the clergy to the laity.6 The first passage is compli-cated: those formed religiously after Vatican II ask questions without sufficient background. v_ _ As for the second pas-sage, despite Vatican II's emphasis on the active role of the laity, the hierarchical church is slow to relinquish power and authority. Steinfels concludes: "Today the Roman Catholic Church in the United States is on the verge of either an irreversible decline or a thoroughgo-ing transformation." 7 For Catholicism worldwide and here in the United States, the ideas Catholics had about Pope John Paul II had a strong influence. Almost universally he was well respected for his worldwide crusade for social justice and his influence in the fall of Communism. More conser-vative critics such as George Weigel saw the pope's lead- Review for Religious ership in church affairs, one based on past traditions, to be precisely what was needed to curb uncertainty and dissent. Clearly John Paul saw Vatican II as a point of arrival, not one of departure for church development. Strong authority is needed, Weigel suggests, "to ensure Christians do not settle for mediocrity." 8 In similar sup-port, James Hitchcock claims that John Paul made "a broad and ambitious attempt to relate the Catholic faith to everything positive in modern culture.''9 On the other hand, the columnist David Gibson has written, "For all of John Paul's unparalleled accomplishments, his popu-larity came with a hidden cost to the church.''1° Similarly, the French journalist Alain Woodrow well summarizes how many American Catholics viewed John Paul: "John Paul is self-assured, convinced of his 'divine mission,' and determined to drag the church--kicking and scream-ing if need be--into his own vision of the 21st century, a vision shaped by his Polish ecclesiology and sustained by his theological certainties. No soul searching or admission of doubt here, but a ringing cry: 'Be not afraid'; I am the pope and I know best!''1~ The Church Today: Specific Ideas Vatican II's emphasis on the church as the people of God brought attention to the important role of the laity. In their outstanding study of the Catholic laity today, William D'Antonio and his colleagues have compared the theology and tendencies of three groups of Catholics: (1) those formed before Vatican II, (2) those who matured during Vatican II, and (3) those raised in a post-Vatican II church. All three generations studied seem to want a more democratic church. A positive view of lay partici-pation in the church increases with a generation's prox-imity to Vatican II. Yet participation as measured by Mass attendance and knowledge of church teaching declines 65.1 2006 Gribble * American Catholicism's Chaos 1_ol from the pre- to post-Vatican II church. 12 While lacking an accurate gauge, the study suggested that, because of less religious formation, post-Vatican II Catholics are less committed than their predecessors.~3 The rapid and significant growth of lay ministry, while a blessing ~o the church, has also caused a few problems. The 1999 "Study of Lay Parish Ministry" found that the theology and church policies necessary to govern this explosion of lay involvement have not kept pace with the advance. Additionally, some have raised concerns that the laity's movement into more tradition-ally priestly or religious roles may eclipse the primary role of the laity in the church and/or lead to a clerical-izing of the laity. Some also fear that careerism rather than a desire to serve, a problem called clericalism when noted in the clergy, may invade the ranks of the laity.14 Another concern raised with the post-Vatican II rise of the laity is an evolving mutual distrust and conflict between the clergy and the laity. David Gibson suggests that the rise in lay ministry has created a backlash and retrenchment on the part of priests. The clergy is flex-ing its muscle and standing aloof from the laity.~s Priests find themselves caught between two forces, the laity, with whom they generally agree theologically but dis-trust, and the institutional church, which they trust but do not agree with. Priests generally support the laity's more positive view of sexuality, have a greater sensitiv-ity to women, and possess respect for the laity's freedom to make decisions, especially on moral matters. 16 Yet cler-icalism and poor homilies, among other things, have cre-ated a gap between priests and their flocks. Rather than assigning any blame to themselves for this situation, the clergy generally point to family breakdown, divorce, and apathy as reasons for the divide.~7 In addition to the gap between the laity and the lower Review for Religious clergy, a division exists between the laity and the hier-archy. During the last several years, accentuated greatly by the 2002 sex-abuse crisis, bishops have lost much credibility with priests and the laity. At the June 2002 meeting of the U.S. Catholic bishops in Dallas, Scott Appleby, the church historian and former director of the Cushwa Center for the Study of American Catholicism, summarized the problem while proffering a solution: The crisis confronting the church today cannot be understood and thus not adequately addressed apart from its setting in a wider range of problems that have been growing over the last 34 years. At the heart of these problems is the alienation of the hierarchy and, to a lesser degree, many of the clergy, from ordinary laywomen and laymen . To be faithful to the church envisioned by the council fathers of Vatican II, bishops and priests must trust the laity, appropriately share authority with them, and open their financial, legal, [and] administrative practices and decisions to full visibility. 18 Unfortunately, Appleby's call for transparency has not been heeded sufficiently. In many ways the separation between the hierarchy and the laity has widened on account of the bishops' poor reception of the Voice of the Faithful, the laity's effort to seek accountability while supporting the institutional church. The laity's status in the church and its conflicts with the clergy are highlighted by the ongoing struggle for women to gain proper recognition and equality. How paradoxical that, while women are more active in church ministries, they are mostly relegated to the fringes in authority and privilege. The moral theologian Christine Gudorf has stated that, despite church social teaching on the equality of women, papal teaching on the nature and role of women still accentuates the theme of motherhood. Not only does the pope view motherhood as an element 6Y. 1 2006 Gribble ¯ American Catholicism's Chaos 12 of being female; he views it as a definition of woman-hood. 9 The Benedictine nun, lecturer, and writer Joan Chittister, believes that to design doctrines on marriage, family, and sexuality--all of which deeply and directly impinge on women--without their input is to adopt "posi-tions that are incomplete as well as arrogant." 20 Views opposed ~0 the rise of feminism are also pre-sent. In a strong statement James Hitchcock has written: The rise of militant feminism has been one of the most serious crises in the history of orthodox religion, because women have always tended to be more pious than men and the churches are thus alienated from some of their hitherto most faithful communicants, and because militant feminism logically rejects not only a male savior but the very idea of monotheism.21 The crisis experienced by the laity in today's church is present as well in the priesthood, although manifested differently. Before Vatican II the priesthood in general sustained a vertical.rather than a horizontal faith. The priest was symbolic and functional and was character-ized by the concept of alter Christus (another Christ). The popular 1950s television show "Father Knows Best" could have been easily applied to the priest, who stood as a symbol of the institutional church and functioned to serve God's people in every way. Life for the priest and his people was centered in the parish. While some clergy became prominent as social activists or in other specific roles, the operative model was the all-purpose priest-hood. With rectories and seminaries full and the gener-ally high respect afforded priests, as typified by Father O'Malley in the box-office favorites "Going My Way" and "The Bells of Saint Mary's," priesthood in the American church was .strong. Vatican II's emphasis on the priesthood of the laity and on the church as the people of God "demanded a Review for Religious formal and full reconsideration of the role and identity of the priest in the new church.''22 The tumultuous 1960s, the increased pressure on priests to serve as the-ological and spiritual leaders, and the increasing numbers of men leaving the priesthood transformed the remain-ing priests from "all-purpose" to "orchestra leaders." The priest was now called to identify and foster the unique gifts in each parishioner for service to the church. Empowerment of the laity to fulfill its man-date from Vatican II became an integral part of the priesthood. Yet this demand was not negotiated well by many, leading some to suffer an identity crisis and loss of purpose . With many of the faithful serving as ministers of the Eucharist, ministers of the word, ministers to the sick, and similar functions, what was distinctive about the ordained ministry?z3 Father Donald Cozzens, in his Changing Face of the Priesthood, has described 1980 to 2000 as the "priest-hood's dark night." He writes, "The postconciliar years have tested the mettle of priests--crisis after crisis 'shak-ing the foundations' and turning their lives inside out and upside down." 24 He says that the fallout from Vatican II, most notably the rise in dissent, has eaten away at the priest's moral authority and curtailed the cleric's ability to offer pastoral guidance. Yet, despite these conditions, Cozzens believes the priesthood's present dark night has led to a deepening of spirit and a purification of soul and thus a grace and blessing. The dark night was necessary to bring about the conversion of mind and heart that the Empowerment of the laity to fulf!lt its mandate from Vatican Il became an integral part of the priesthood. 6Y.1 2006 Gribble ¯ American Catholicism's Chaos priesthood needed to serve the people of God in a post-conciliar world.2s The priesthood faces additional challenges that must be addressed in the 2 lst-century church. Some more progressive commentators, like Andrew Greeley, suggest that clericalism allows the clergy to hide behind a veil of secrecy and keeps priests from accepting responsibil-ity for their actions. The natural and important cama-raderie that exists in the clergy has too often been used as an excuse to cover up information and actions that might be seen as prejudicial against the institutional church. One need look no further than the recent sex-abuse controversy to find clear evidence of this. Members of a fraternity will not speak ill of each other. In the same light the priesthood's traditional hierarchical posi-tion above the laity gives license for some to dominate God's people or disregard their opinions.26 More con-servative writers lay much of the blame for lassitude in the church at the feet of the clergy. James Hitchcock has written: The spread of secular attitudes in Catholic cultures has not been primarily the work of professors and journalists, but of priests. Laymen who would be disposed to resist secularization, especially as they see it emanating from hostile sources outside the churches, abandon their resistance at the parent bidding of their spiritual leaders.27 Polarization of theology is another contemporary phenomenon in the priesthood. The researcher Dean Hoge in his First Five Years of the .Priesthood provides a convincing argument that younger priests are more con-servative in their theology and align themselves more strictly along the views of Pope John Paul II.28 Andrew Greeley agrees with Hoge's analysis, especially noting the views of young clergy toward optional celibacy and Review for Religious women priests. He suggests three reasons for their views: (1) These priests do not understand Vatican II, (2) they want the security of a clerical state, and (3) they reject uncertainty.29 More positively, Greeley debunks the myth that priests are unhappy men, especially as a result of the celibacy requirement. Greeley's analysis shows that, while priests may not be paragons of maturity and personal well-being, they are similar to married men with com-mensurate educational backgrounds. His data demon-strates that only two percent of active priests see celibacy as a problem and only sixteen percent of clerics who resign do so because of celibacy. Rather, priests leave because they do not like the work. Celibacy becomes a problem only when ministry is not satisfying.3° What is needed for the American Catholic priest of the 2 1st century? Peter Steinfels presents three signifi-cant qualities of future priests. First, they must possess the theological capacity to celebrate the sacraments, preach the word of God, and make contemporary life meaningful. Second, they must have the ability to ani-mate and guide others. Third, they must be account-able. 3~ John Boissonneau, auxiliary bishop of Toronto, provides a different but consistent list of attributes. Successful priests must view their role as countercultural and not be afraid to take risks. Future clergy must place a premium on authenticity in their personal lives and ministry. And, lastly, successful future priests must avoid isolation, drawing their life from the people they serve.32 The Church Tomorrow To speak intelligently about the needs of the future church, one should know what has proved successful in the past. Andrew Greeley's call for a return to what he terms "the Catholic imagination" deserves some review. 65.1 2006 Gribble * ~qmerican Catbolicis~z's Chaos Catholicism must recover the things of beauty that were summarily swept aside in the wake of the spirit of Vatican II, For Greeley the glue that held worldwide Catholicism was the many metaphors that stressed the immanence of God. Rather than perceiving God as transcendent (the general theological perspective of Protestants), Catholics have always been attracted by multiple sense images of God's presence. The smell of incense, the sight of Eucharistic adoration, processions, and statues, and the words of novenas, parish missions, and the rosary have long served as a glue for Catholics. These were practices to which all could relate; all Catholics were on the same page. Scratch one Catholic and the whole church bled. Greeley does not suggest a return to the 1940s or 1950s, but the "beige Catholicism" that predominates today is not the answer either. He believes that Catholicism must recover the things of beauty that were summarily swept aside in the wake of the spirit of Vatican II. Greeley says the church needs chant, statues, and patron saints; we need metaphors for God.3.3 David Gibson agrees, but goes further. He believes that subsidiarity, a principle of Catholic social teaching, must become operative in the church universal. For Gibson, loyalty to Catholicism is rooted in the local parish. Rather than from the top down, he suggests that governing be from the bottom up, giving voice and authority to the laity. He says that what is important for the church is unity, not uniformity.34 Where must the church move in the 21st century in order to be the viable and healthy institution that will Review for Religious well serve the people of God? Peter Steinfels laments that Cardinal Joseph Bernardin's dynamic Common Ground initiative was summarily cast aside and a reasser-tion of papal authority put in its place. He suggests that the Catholic leadership of the future must break out from trench warfare that has constricted discussion in the American Church since Vatican II. He believes that a balance must be struck between theology and pastoral reality and that the lack of dialogue has been harmful, and so he sees Bernardin's plan as the optimum.35 On a similar track the journalist David Gibson sees the future church in the hands of the hierarchy. There are two routes to follow. Of the two, the more conser-vative one would want Rome to reassert its power and its claim on Catholics' loyalty. The other one would admit problems and seek systemic change. Gibson opts for the second, with the belief that bishops must become more vocal politically and seek avenues whereby those ele-ments of the faith that can be adapted to the uniqueness of the American environment are changed.36 The present crisis in .the church must be a point of renewal that affords growth and a brighter future.36a Clearly it is impossible to return to the pre-Vatican II Church, even if one should desire such a move. The ben-efits that Vatican II brought must be fostered, yet the initial postconciliar "throwing the baby out with the bath" must be avoided. The council called for greater inclusivity as manifest in opportunities for laity and open-ness to other people of faith. Recent developments, as expressed in church documents on various levels, have been seen by many as a regression from Vatican II. In August 2000 the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith proclaimed concerning Protestants: "If it is true that the followers of other religions can receive grace, it is also certain that objectively speaking [emphasis in the 65.1 2006 Gribble ¯ American Catholicism's Chaos document] they are in a gravely deficient situation in comparison with those who; in the church, have the full-ness of the means of salvation.''37 This regression of Vatican II's more open position toward Protestants does not bode well for the future. The church must reinvig-orate the spirit expressed in Nostra aetate: "Ever aware of her duty to foster unity and charity among individuals, and even among nations, she [the church] reflects at the outset on what men have in common and what tends to promote fellowship among them.''38 Additionally, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops has alien-ated many of the faithful laity by stating: "If extraordi-nary ministers of Holy Communion are required by pastoral need, they should not approach the altar before the priest has received communion.''39 In an effort to return to more reverence for the Eucharist, the bishops have effectively placed on ice the council's call for active lay participation on all levels. The council called for a pastoral approach to the lived faith and for a greater sense of dialogue with the world in order to harness the advancement of human knowledge for the betterment of God's people. While the church must continue to oppose secularism and be a countercultural light to the contemporary fascinations of power, wealth, and prestige, she cannot do so effec-tively through a dogmatic and defensive stance. John Paul II reannounced this unyielding position, casting aside dialogue on key issues when he proclaimed in 1994: "I declare that the church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judg-ment is to be definitely held by all the church's faith-ful.'' 4° The church must be open to dialogue, within its own ranks and with other people of faith. The sensz~s fidelium must be addressed by listening to God's people and having the courage to admit error and to effect Review for Religious change. The church cannot stand aloof from the world, but must engage society on all levels. American Catholicism today is at a moment of crisis, even in chaos, but the church need not panic nor be downcast or without hope. Even a cursory review of church history, both universally and in the United States, demonstrates that there have been many crises in the past, but all were negotiated as moments of change, not despair. Such is the case with the contemporary situa-tion. The fate of the church is in our hands; we are, as Lumen gentium states, the people of God. We must not wring our hands or lament with loud cries; rather, as individuals and community, we must use the present cri-sis as a springboard for action. We might not produce systemic change tomorrow, but we need to think globally and act locally. Margaret O'Brien Steinfels has aptly placed the challenge before us: "We can no longer indulge the slothful habit of postponing the church that we need until the next papacy, until the seminaries are full, until the controversies are resolved, until some faith-ful remnant rules the church. We need to bring the new life into the project of church renewal that we have neglected too long.''4~ Are we listening to the church's contemporary voice and willing to act? Only we can answer. Notes ~ Andrew Greeley, The Catholic Revolution: New Wine, Old Wineskins, and the Second Vatican Council (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), pp. 1-4. z Greeley, Catholic Revolution, p. 58. 3 George Weigel, The Courage to Be Catholic: Crisis, Refor~n, and the Future of the Church (New York: Basic Books, 2002), pp. 219-232. 4 Greeley, Catholic Revolution, pp. 81-89. Drawing from David Tracy's Analogical Imagination, Greeley suggests that the glue to Catholic life has always been its "Catholic Imagination," e.g., a metaphor for ritual, 6Y.I 2006 Gribble ¯ American Catholicism's Chaos devotion, and music. While Catholics today find themselves across the board on many issues, religious and secular, the Catholic imagination has kept unity. Today's understanding and practice of Catholicism threat-ens this cohesion. See Andrew Greeley, Catholic Imagination. s James Hitchcock, "Interpreting Vatican II: Version One, A Continuum in the Great Tradition," Commonweal 128, no. 5 (9 March 2001): 19, 18. 6 Peter Steinfels, A People Adrift: The Crisis of the Roman Catholic Church in America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2003), pp. 1-14. 7 p. Steinfels, People Adrift, p. 1. s George Weigel, "Liberal Church? Conservative Church?" Crisis 19, no. 10 (November 2001): 32. 9 Hitchcock, "Interpreting Vatican II," 19. 10 David Gibson, The Coming Church: How the Faitbful Are Shaping a New American Catholicism (San Francisco: Harper, 2003), p. 327. 1, Alain Woodrow, "Superstar or Servant?" in The Papacy and the People of God, ed. Gary MacEoin (Maryknoll: Orbis Press), p. 83. lz William V. D'Antonio et al., Laity American and Catholic: Transforming the Church (Kansas City: Sheed and Ward, 1996), pp. 65-66, 73-79. Interesting statistical figures compare the three generations of American Catholics. For pre-Vatican I! Catholics, Vatican II Catholics, and post-Vatican Catholics respectively, the figures were 63 percent, 45 percent, and 23 percent as regards "active perticipation" (Mass atten-dance etc.). For daily prayer the figures were 90 percent, 67 percent, and 56 percent. When asked if Mass attendance is necessary to "be a good Catholic," 60 percent, 74 percent, and 80 percent said no. This lat-ter statistic, while consistent with the decline in participation over the generations, shows pre-Vatican Catholics not feeling as strong an obli-gation to attend Sunday Mass as they formerly did. 's D'Antonio, Laity, pp. 84-99. 14 "A Study of Parish Lay Ministry," Origins 29, no. 7 (1 July 1999): 103-104, 107. is Gibson, Coming Church, pp. 35-62. ~6 Greeley, Catholic Revolution, pp. 120-127. 17 Andrew Greeley, Priests: A Calling in Crisis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), pp. 86-99. 18 R. Scott Appleby, "What Is at Stake in the Present Crisis?" Origins 32, no. 7 (27 June 2002): 116. 19 Christine E. Gudorf, "Encountering the Other: The Modern Papacy on Women," in Change in Official Catholic Moral Teachings, ed. Charles Curran (New York: Paulist Press, 2003), p. 273. Review for Religious ~o Joan Chittister OSB, "Women in the Church: A New Pentecost in Process," in MacEoin, Papacy and the People 0fGod, pp. 11, 6. Chittister has said, "We need a papacy that can see the oppression of women by the church itself and is willing to model their inclusion at the highest levels of Vatican planning." See "Women in the Church," p. 10. 2~ James Hitchcock, "The Guilty Secret of Liberal Christianity," New Oxford Review 63 (October 1996): 12-13. 22 R. Scott Appleby, "Historical Overview Priests in America, 1930- 2002," Origins 33, no. 4 (5 June 2003): 55. 23 Weigel, Courage, pp. 9-34. 24 Donald Cozzens, The Changing Face of the Priesthood: A Reflection on the Priests' Crisis 0fSoul (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2000), p. 130. 2s Cozzens, Changing, p. 137. See also Cozzens, "Priesthood Emerges from a Dark Night," America 180, no. 9 (20 March 1999): 24. 26 Greeley, Priests, pp. 100-113. :7 Hitchcock, "Guilty Secret," p. 15. z8 Dean Hoge, The First Five Years of the Priesthood: A Study of Newly Ordained Catholic Priests (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2000), pp. 3-4. 29 Greeley, Priests, pp. 73-85. 3o Greeley, Priests, pp. 33-35, 48-72; Greeley, Catholic Revolution, pp. 120-127. 3t Steinfels, People Adrift, pp. 307-351. ~2 Bishop John Boissonneau, "Future Effective Priests," Origins 32, no. I0 (1 August 2002): 174. 3~ This is the theme of Greeley's Catholic hnagination. See also Greeley, Catholic Revolution, pp. 131-149. 34 Gibson, Coming Church, pp. 82-108. ~s Steinfels, People Adrift, pp. 352-360. In April 1996 Bernardin sug-gested that the dissension in American Catholicism could be transformed by seeking common ground amongst the various viewpoints. Bernardin's idea was severely criticized by Cardinals Bernard Law of Boston and John O'Connor of New York. ~6 Gibson, Coming Church, pp. 293-317,336. ~6~ Editorial note. Along with some brief quo.tations, these conclud-ing paragraphs contain some ideas that are current in the church in the United States and are often assumed to express Vatican II's spirit and to be its crystallized mandates. They have not always been argued care-fully. They deserve our careful consideration. The hopes we all have call all of us to this care. 37 Dominns Jesus (On the Unicity and Salvific Universality of Jesus 65.1 2006 Gribble * American Catholicism's Chaos Christ and the Church), August 2000, §22. 38 Nostra aetate, §1. 39 "Norms for the Distribution and Reception of Holy Communion under Both Kinds in the Dioceses of the United States of America," 14 June 2001, §38. ~o Ordinatio sacerdotalis, §4. See Origins 24, no. 4 (9 June 1994): 51. 41 Margaret O'Brien Steinfels, "The Crisis through the Laity's Lens," Origins 32, no. 7 (27 June 2002): 112-113. Rope Bridge At Ava, once, I crossed the ravine on a lattice of slats knotted into rope; undulant, it bucked at every step. That bridge rode its own law at war with gravity and my bulk. I never breathed as my feet swayed above the pines. I'd pry loose one hand from the guide rope thinned to spider silk to cling an inch farther along. And once on solid land, the terror rose: there was no other way to return. But midway back, I learned the sway, could look down at leaves, guess at bird names, not Jear the hawk's arc. I took a breath, and another, and held less tightly. M. Doretta Cornell RDC Review for Religious ANTHONY MALAVIARATCHI Religious Life in the Third Worldma Shangri-La? The attraction to get into the first world is irre-sistible to many of the people in the third world. As everyone knows, thousands knock on the doors of the first world's embassies. Arrangements and rearrangements are made to accommodate them, and of course many more find their way into their chosen Shangri-Las illegally. Throughout its history, religious life and the church itself have often been microcosms of their own social milieu. Religious life has felt the currents and undercurrents of the world around it. However much religious life .chooses to insert itself into its milieu, in no way is it called to succumb to the social trends of its place and time. This, however, is all too likely to happen, even when we think we are relying deeply on Jesus' words "Do not be afraid, I have overcome the world." Anthony Malaviaratchi CSSR is at present involved in mis-sion and retreat work. His address is Santa Maria; George Silva Mawatha; Kandy, Sri Lanka. challenges 65.1 2006 Malaviaratchi * Religious Life in the Third 14form The founding fathers of the church in the third world were members of religious orders who came in the com-pany of world-conquering colonial powers. Religious life did not sprout in the soil of the third world. Rather, like Western democracy, it was brought there and planted there by zealous missionaries. It is natural, then, that it bears the features of the first world's status and security. Religious life and priesthood in the third world offer to those who join its ranks the status and security that third-world people seek in the first world, and so it is no sur-prise that young people in poor countries join religious life by the hundreds. Two factors are at work in this phenomenon. The first is the poverty of the third world. Since the arrival of television, the "attraction of the eye" has motivated peo-ple to go after the goodies of the developed world. What they see with their eyes literally empowers them to go after those material goods. Second, the competition in the job market frightens many. They sense that, if they have neither great talent nor academic qualifications, they will end up as dropouts in the race. A "vocation" is an attractive alternative, a way of escaping such social pressure and yet attaining a position of prestige. Historically, many have embraced religious life and the priesthood for a variety of such ulterior motives. Vocational Discernment In this situation, vocational discernment has become next to impossible. Whether they are aware of all their motives or not, those seeking religious formation from mixed motives know how to play the game, what to say and do and whom they need to impress, bishops, provin-cials, councilors, formators, and so forth. Even honest per-sons' motivations may come to the surface only after final vows or ordination. Then they may be seen in the lifestyle Review for Religious adopted, which may include having a vehicle of one's own, a personal computer, and a cell phone and being head of an institute that provides plenty of money and freedom for foreign trips, for higher studies in the first world, and so forth. Even those who develop crises soon after ordina-tion are offered the opportunity of settling down in the first world in or outside of religious life. Some congrega-tions do not mind offering these perquisites, these "perks," as a cost of their institutional survival even though it is a blatant compromise of the meaning of religious life. For how long? History will answer this interesting question in the not so distant future. Given these circumstances, then, vocation discern-ment is possible only after final vows or ordination! Discernment can take place only over what is humanly discernible and not over motivations that remain largely hidden from all concerned. Some formation programs have begun to take the first steps in countering this situation by insisting that those in formation live and be employed like any other young person for a considerable period of time. This is probably the vocation discernment exercise best suited for the situation. But many congregations and superiors still seem to prefer numbers. As long as there is poverty and unemployment, they will surely have "vocations." The money poured in by the congregations' first-world units positively encourages this situation. In non-Christian monasteries and hermitages, voca-tion discernment is a lifelong process. When a monk or hermit does not live the life that he embraced, he is asked to leave. So it is in any human organization. When mem-bers of a football club want to play ice hockey, they leave. It is not so in religious life. Members remain in the foot-ball club playing not only ice hockey but polo as well. This situation attracts more "vocations." Not only are 65.1 2006 Malaviaratchi ¯ Religious Life in the Third Worm prestige, status, and security offered but permissiveness as well. Remarkably, the situation we are looking at is found largely in the Latin (Western) form of religious life. Eastern and non-Christian "religious" have protected themselves with the help of authority, laws, traditions, and, in some instances, fundamentalism. Religious life of the Western tradition is flooded with evils that sur-round it: secularism, horizontalism, individualism, and permissiveness. Religious life is thus being suffocated by the very evils from which it is supposed to save not only itself but the world as well. 26 Present Leadership Style In the face of these forces, leadership in religious life has largely failed to fulfill its prophetic and pastoral roles by making only innocuous statements, after which it is "business as usual" in the ranks. Absolutely nothing fol-lows till the next innocuous pronouncement. Thus, many third-world religious, who are culturally much more authority-dependent than their Western counterparts, now have to try to be faithful in an authority vacuum. Leadership paralysis is aggravated by the fact that the modern superior is often an elected one. The ballot directly or indirectly produces leadership according to the voters and their expectations. As seen above, too many voters joined religious life for status and security. Today there are as many private agendas as there are voters. These voters will ensure that the superiors will be past masters at compromise, who will accommodate every private interest. The superiors elected thus will on no account insist on group fidelity to the spirit of the con-gregation nor demand the self-forgetfulness that the nature of religious life requires. Superiors who do will not be reelected. Hence superiors avoid this public Review for Religious humiliation by putting up buildings and expanding apos-tolic commitments. They are glad to be blissfully unaware of what is happening at the roots. It is known today that many third-world nations are culturally unable to handle Western democracy. In spite of that, religious in the third world are expected to rise above cultural barriers and vote for their superior. Western democracy is not the only way in which humans involve themselves and make group decisions for their common good. Superiors now belong to a generation which follows the path of least resistance, namely, the path of conve-nience, the first step of which is the avoidance of all that is unpleasant. Confrontation and correction of individ-ual members is unpleasant, ~ . embarrassing, and painful and is therefore carefully avoided. Also superiors are aware that frequently their correction will be ignored and erring individuals will refuse to change. The~e, however, are situations foreseen in the Gospels ~. and church law, and mea-sures to be taken are prescribed. In the situation we are looking at, the superiors may not themselves believe in those measures. People all around choose "the broad highway to hell" rather than "the narrow path" of growth in fidelity. L~adership paralysis is aggravated by the fact that the modern superior is often an elected one. A Trend and Subsidiarity Aiding and abetting today's leadership style is the widespread trend of looking and speaking only about what is positive. Thus, all negatives (such as, in religious 65.1 2006 Malaviaratcbi ¯ Religious Life in the Third World 28 life, unfaithfulness) are evaded at various evaluations. For any human group that wishes to survive, what ulti-mately matters is not what is positive or negative, but rather what accomplishes or prevents the attainment of its goals. Superiors who take precautions to avoid what is negative seem to imitate monkeys who "see no nega-tives, hear no negatives, and speak no negatives." Thus they fail to keep before them the Leader whose repre-sentatives they are and who did not hesitate to speak of "this evil and adulterous generation." Leaders who reli-giously avoid facing what is negative among their members are likely to be the first to attend to the negatives when their laptop fails, their cell phone needs recharging, or their dog needs worming. In this situation the valuable principle of subsidiarity is much abused in our day. The principle means that the lower levels of authority are encouraged and facilitated to perform to the maximum within their ambit. The principle itself, however, demands that higher levels of authority readily step in when lower levels fail in their one and only duty, namely, ensuring faithfulness to the way of life of the particular congregation. Usually only the first half of the principle is followed today, which amounts to passing the buck. Even when it comes to items vital to religious life, the general chap-ter leaves it to the superior general and his council, the superior general to the provincial, the provincial to the local superior, and the local superior to the individual. The result usually is that the matter is thrown over-board--" leaving it to the individual" being a euphemism today for "forget about it." No structure of religious life--nor religious life itself will survive if it does not learn to evaluate all things with the measure given by the Lord: "By their fruits you will know them." Despite all the above, religious life is not without Review for Religious hope. As a radical way of faith, religious life is called at this juncture to be also a community of radical hope, with its only hope in God and in what he will do. Personal Reflection Questions 1. Have I found that my motivations for my religius voca-tion have changed or been purified over the years since entrance? 2. How do I try to be a help in clarifying another's vocation decision? Group Discussion Propositions 1. In an affluent country, we expect that vocations to reli-gious life will be small in number. 2. In developing countries, vocations to priesthool and reli-gious life have a prestige and security factor that clouds the motivation of candidates and makes discernment more diffi-cult. 65.1 2006 GUIRE CLEARY Challenges for Communities' New Members TRAnglican Church in Aotearoa/New Zealand held eligious Life Conference for religious commu-nities in New Zealand, Australia, and Fiji. Some fifty religious from more than twelve communities gathered at the Tainui Endowed College in H0puhopu 17-21 February 2005. Principal speakers included a Roman Catholic Cistercian and a Sister of Mercy. The location itself was significant. Hopuhopu is the center for the Tainui people, the Aotearoan tribe from which the Maori sovereign is selected. Most of the meetings were held in the tribal debating chamber as a show of solidarity with a people recovering their dignity and strength. One of the workshops was titled Issues of Anger in Religious Communities, presented by an experienced priest and spiritual director, the Rev. Pamela Warnes. Her workshop was a brilliant combination of articulating Guire Cleary SSF, an Anglican Franciscan friar whose "novitiate was a trial for everybody," has worked in New Zealand for social justice and currently is stationed in Hawaii: 2463 Kuhio Avenue, apt. 905; Honolulu, Hawaii 96815. He would welcome comments or questions at guirejohncleary@aol.com. Review for Religious issues and discussing solutions, all conducted in a context of prayer and concluded With a healing ceremony. One paper was my own, setting out some of my experiences as a new religious and my observations of the experi-ences of other new religious. Participants said they had experienced almost everything I mentioned and added a few of their own. At the conclusion of the workshop, one asked me, "Have you been a fly on our wall?" I said I was probably more of a mosquito. The challenges set out below are challenges to most communities, not just religious communities. The largest challenge is getting past the frustration and anger of these experiences to the heart space that allows healing and mature development in the community. To be a new member in any organization or group is always a challenge. The process of incorporation and mutual learning is not easy, and only the experience of service, community, and love make it worthwhile or even tolerable. Incorporation can run the gamut from hazing and emotional abuse to a joyous mutual discovery. Often new members experience anger and shock when the real costs of community life become apparent, and religious communities are in difficult transitions to new models of life. Different types of persons are entering and try-ing their vocation. Having left the novitiate eighteen years earlier, I was just a few days short of my forty-sixth birthday when I was re-received as a postulant in my community in the United States. The age restriction was waived because of my prior connection with the com-munity. Since I joined in 1997, four more men have tried their vocation. All but one were even older than I was. Some of these challenges are peculiar to the mindset of liberal Americans or unique to my own emotional makeup and quirks. New members in conservative com-munities or communities of the third world might expe- 65.1 2006 Clearg/ ¯ Challenges for Communities' New Members 32, rience only a few of these, or not in the same way. Interestingly, communities following a conservative rule and communities of the third world are attracting the most new members. ¯ Age Disparities: Although today's novices may be older than the novices of earlier generations, they are still entering communities where most members are at least twenty-five years older than the new members. ¯ Work Experience: New members have generally had one or more careers and generally outside the religious world. A community may have members who have never had paid employment or have never paid into any pen-sion plans, private or public. This may result in con-flicting valuations of the new members' worth and contribution. ¯ Nationality/Culture: A religious house may consist of members from many nations and cultures. New mem-bers may find that they are minorities in houses within their own native country and may encounter members who lack understanding of the language and culture of the very nation where they are living. In other words, new members may find themselves aliens inside the com-munity and natives only when they are on the other side of the front door. ¯ Relationship Experience: New members generally have had emotional relationships or been married or in partnership before joining the community. Older mem-bers have seldom had such experiences and so may approach communication and relationships differently. Members who have not had mature adult relationships before entering the community may have a tendency to adolescent humor and may be unable to "fight fairly and cleanly." ¯ Big Fish in Little Ponds: Some new members may have had executive careers or may have exercised signif- Review for Religious icant power in education, health, law, politics, or com-merce. Such people may not understand how a long-term member of a religious community can be so incensed over someone putting dishes in the "wrong" place and why that would matter so much. A sister who before joining the community has been responsible for millions of dollars may find it difficult to sit through a lecture on conserving toilet paper. Sometimes the failure of new religious to respond to concerns that seem insignificant leads to a misunderstanding of their motives. One reli-gious told of having said nothing because of hav-ing no opinion about a small matter and then being accused of "holding out for the main chance" by a senior member. In reality the younger religious was unlikely ever to hold an opinion on "the use of antiphons." You may hear in this an echo of Winston Churchill's observation that academic politics is so vicious because the stakes are so low. ¯ Multiculturalism and Multifaitb Experience: Newer members generally have a broader experience of other cultures and faiths and often incorporate elements from them into their own spirituality. Older members usually have begun and continued on a path of traditional Euro- American Christianity. They may disparage or discount the religious experiences or practices of new members, who often have exercised great discipline in their spiri-tual lives for years before joining the community. ¯ Neocolonialism: Much of the growth of religious Somet!mes the failure qf new retigious to respond ,to concerns t~at seem insignificant leads: ~io a misunderstanding of their ,mot, ives. 6Y. 1 2006 Clear)/ ¯ Challenges for Communities' New Members communities with which I am familiar has taken place in countries of the third world. As often as not, how-ever, leadership and finances are in the hands of members of the first world. One of the most peculiar anecdotes of neocolonialism occurred in America. English mem-bers who had been transferred to the United States sub-jected a new religious of American citizenship and Irish descent to ethnic slurs and disrespect. Ironically, when this religious spent time in another country, he received abuse from a fellow religious in his host country for being an American. You do not have to live in the third world to experience tribalism. ¯ Diminisbment of Citizenship: One religious observed that, when on assignment out of her native country, she had to ask permission to return to her home country. The irony is that the decision making was shared by for-eign residents who had never acquired citizenship in the country to which they were not permitting the native-born citizen to return. ¯ Disempowerment: No matter how communities pre-sent and sugarcoat the need for the probation and test-ing of new members, the fact is that new members are disempowered for a number of years. Voting rights might not be earned or granted until years after entrance into the community. Conversely, some communities allow full voting rights tO life-members for their lifetime, no matter their debility or their being out of touch. ¯ Prior Debts: Some new members enter communities with unpaid education debts that have to be paid even-tually. How doe~ the community approach this issue? One community allowed new members to live in'a com-munity house rent-free before being received as postu-lants so that they could continue in employment and thereby manage to pay their debts. Other communities have simply told their aspirants to postpone their voca- Review for Religious tions until all debts were paid. These communities rarely saw those aspirants again. ¯ Preexisting Families: The spirit of the times no longer holds that religious are dead to family and friends. Some new members may still have obligations to aging parents or to children or grandchildren. I chuckle at the recollection of a mother superior exclaiming after a string of widows applied for entrance into her community, "Aren't there any virgins left in America?" One com-munity in the United States had a creative approach to assisting new members who still had some family obli-gations. All new members were given educational loans that did not have to be repaid if the member were life-professed for a certain number of years. In one situation a new member was allowed to use the loan for court-ordered child support. ¯ Financial Identity: Most vocations do not survive into life profession. New members would be severely handicapped if they were to reenter the world with an impaired credit rating. Can the community tolerate the new member's keeping a credit card? The vow of poverty might have to be applied differently among community members. Perhaps differing applications of poverty within the same community are not such a new idea at all. ¯ Decay of Professional Qualifications: Some new mem-bers enter community with outstanding professional qualifications that require continuing education. Recent new members of one community have included a physi-cian, chiropractor, attorney, andparalegal. Failure to maintain those professional qualifications means that new members might lose that qualification o.r, if they leave community, find it difficult to return to their prior career or to their prior salary level. ¯ Health: Newer members are not only younger than the majority of the community, but are generally in much 65.1 2006 Cleary ¯ Challenges for Communities' New Menzbers 36 better health. Frequently that better health is due to memberships in gyms or health clubs. What is the com-munity's commitment to the new members' health reg-imen, especially if they are going to be looked to for doing a large share of physical work? ¯ Secret Customaries: Often it appears that there is a "secret customary" that is not available to new members. Sometimes it is merely poor communication. Other times it is simply a way of older members' maintaining power by asserting that a certain way of doing things is house or community custom. This is a form of manipulation by esoteric knowledge. ¯ The Rule: One novice guardian opined to me that older members usually oppressed the new members on those sections of the Rule of which the older members were least observant. On the other hand, older members have felt harried by new members who took on the role of Brother "Living Rule." As the old saying goes in reli-gious communities, "Wherever you have saints you will have martyrs." ¯ Survivors: Many of the older members of commu-nities are survivors of religious and cultural wars. New members, too, have fought the battles of inclusivity, litur-gical reform, gender, sexual orientation, hierarchy, and so forth, but not in the same way as the older members, and so the new members might not bear the same scars or have the same invested positions. The new members might not be aware of the cost the community has paid for a position. The older members may not realize that the struggle has moved to new fronts or past previously adopted positions. ¯ Loss of Disposable Time and Personal Space: New members frequently have to give up the freedom of dis-posable time and larger accommodations. Often new members have lived alone in housing that they did not Review for Religious share with anyone. Living in close quarters is a major adjustment for new members. I had to get used to using headphones with my CD player. ¯ Peers: New members, with few peers in the novi-tiate, lack the mutual support which they and their lay friends once had and which older religious had as novices. My noviceship was a particularly lonesome time. ¯ Wages and Support: With more of the community entering retirement, there is greater pressure for the new members to support the older members financially. New members are sometimes annoyed at being pressured to find full-time employment and encouraged to find sec-ular employment if the pay is better while some older members are working part-time or only started to con-tribute much money to the community when they began receiving pensions. There is further annoyance that members may bring in a vital salary but have no vote on how the money is used. It has happened that a current bad financial situation was caused by the incompetence or negligence of a prior generation, and then new mem-bers bringing in salaries were expected to assist in the bailout. ¯ Full-time Employment: Many religious, especially younger religious, now have to hold full-time jobs. The community still expects them to participate in commu-nity functions, retreats, and chapters. The only time available might be their vacation time. Physical and spir-itual exhaustion are common results. Sometimes the only compensated employment open to new members is sec-ular employment. They might wonder why they sacri-ficed so much only to find that religious ministry is not available or will not fill the .community's income needs or expectations. ¯ Lost Vocation and Still in Community: Perhaps the saddest members of religious communities are those 65.1 2006 Cleary ¯ Challenges for Comntunities' New Members The religious life is a voluntary choice, but still there is a loss of family, friends, status, and autonomy. 38 members who have essentially lost their vocation. They would like to leave their community, but economic con-venience, advancing age, and fears of adapting to a changed world while losing their vocational self-esteem make them choose to stay. Their bitter or sullen presence disheartens everyone. These members are often a terror to new members arriving with belief, motivation, and fresh ideas. The new members represent what the sullen members have lost and thus become objects of spite. ¯ Pecking Order: New members have the least power. For senior members who process their anger or frustra-tion by petty acts of spite, the new members are the nat-ural prey. Then there is enough pain to go around for everybody. ¯ Isolating the Complainers: It is destructive when severely damaged members of the community are allowed to create environ-ments that are emotionally and sometimes physically unsafe. This behavior may go on for years without challenge because the other members are paralyzed with fear. Newer members who challenge the behavior are sometimes told that they are the ones with emotional problems and need to be "more community minded and charitable." I have seen three communities where former superiors were severely oppressed by dam-aged members. In one case, a former superior simply left the local community rather than raise the issue. What caused them to collude in their own oppression? ¯ Grief, Loss, and Anger: All new members are going through a period of grief and loss and possibly anger at Review for Religious their changed situations. The religious life is a voluntary choice, but still there is a loss of family, friends, status, and autonomy. What are the tools to process the transi-tion? How can new members communicate the extent of their loss to members who may never have had the same degree of freedom or experience in their lay life? * Legal Rights: Religious communities are expected to adhere to the civil and criminal statutes of the nations in which they live and work. Often this means certain expectations regarding privacy and protection that were not present in an earlier era. Violations could result in civil penalties or even in lawsuits from disgruntled for-mer members. Some courts in the United States are look-ing at the relationship between members and their communities in the light of employment law with all the obligations that entails. ¯ Conflicting Ethics: Before entering my community, I had been employed as a paralegal with a specialization in tax law. I was sometimes astonished by financial shenanigans I witnessed in churches and religious com-munities. It seemed that some religious or church author-ities believed they were not subject to the same ethical and legal obligations of other nonprofit corporations. If anything, the secular world showed a higher standard of ethics. Communities or institutions that were finally caught by government or church authorities have some-times received an expensive lesson in the ethics from which they thought themselves exempt. No number, however, can be put on people's loss of trust in religious bodies to which they had looked for a higher level of ethics and honor than they expect from the secular world. ¯ Minefields: New members cannot be aware of exist-ing interpersonal dynamics of the community. Some have reported stumbling into personality conflicts that had been going on for decades. Others have reported that 65.1 2006 Clear)/ ¯ Cballenges for Communities' New Members 4O differences of opinion among older members about for-mation methods resulted in new members' bearing the animosity of the losing side. ¯ Infantilization: When you are put in the position of having to ask for permission, of having your future decided by others, of having to please others at some level in order to be accepted, and of giving up much of your personal power, you have to a degree been infan-tilized. A formation director told me he believes that some infantilization of new members helps to surface immature elements of their personalities that can then be worked on. I was left with the impression that this was wishful thinking. A topic came up in the workshop that was not part of my original paper. People agreed that they had all expe-rienced instances of anger and depression due to the sit-uations described above. Many said they were conflicted because they felt their anger was somehow wrong, even though probably justified on a number of levels. Guilt haunted and paralyzed them. What could they do about these feelings of guilt? Unfortunately, this could not be dealt with in a ninety-minute workshop that was already rich in content. One Of my teachers, a Buddhist, once told me that he frequently contrasted the views of anger held by two religious leaders of great experience and deep insight. Pope John Paul II is said to have written, "I try not to get angry." The Dalai Lama is quoted as saying, "I try not to stay angry." These two approaches are perhaps valuable in tandem. On a personal note, a friend of mine once observed that, when it comes to anger, I may be unlucky in being of Irish and German descent. He said, "Irish and German: burn fast and burn long!" I try to bring that thought to mind when humor seems a remedy. Communities can be hard on their new members. The reverse is also true. A life-professed member of my Review for Religious community once said of a newly arrived postulant, "Ah! Another brother sent by God to test my vocation!" While serving as the curator of one of California's historic mis-sions, I was shown a document describing brothers not speaking to each other, undermining each other's min-istry, taking sides, complaining to religious and secular authorities, and showing every sign of advanced dys-functionality. Recent situation in one's own house? But this description pertained to the Franciscan mission in San Francisco in the 1790s. The more things change, the more they remain the same. One of my more insight-ful Jesuit teachers once asked a brother what gospel med-itation came to mind when he thought about community. He responded with apparent pain, "The agony in the garden of Gethsemane." Thomas Merton had his own difficult experiences with his abbot. St. John of the Cross was imprisoned by his community. We have all been there--usually the imprisonment is emotional. Where and what is the key to freedom? What miracle will bring healing and resurrection? We have a duty to speak the truth to our communities and work for the maturing of us all in Christ, even though we might not see any change in the behaviors that sadden, oppress, or anger us. A wise priest was counseling a young religious who was having a frightening time with his community and was trying to make the community see things from his perspective. After listening patiently and acknowledging the brother's wounds, he said, "Brother, you have assumed that the brothers you are struggling with are suddenly going to smack their foreheads and say, 'Oh my goodness! I never realized that! You are sooo right, and we are going to change our wicked ways.' Brother, you have assumed a level of health that is not in them. What are you doing to grow your own spiritual and emo-tional maturity?" Sometimes a person just has to outlive 65.1 2006 Cleary ¯ Challenges for Communities' New Members a situation. My bishop once told me that there is a say-ing in New Zealand among the Maori people: "Question: How do you get even with your komatua [tribal elder] ? Answer: Outlive him!" It reminds me of a Southern proverb in the United States, "Change comes by funer-als." I wanted to conclude this essay with some pithy wis-dom that would have universal application and solve all ills. Unfortunately, or fortunately, we Anglicans are bet-ter at the questions than the answers. As I was thinking out this section, I was on a long walk on a late summer day in New Zealand. The Maori name for this country is Aotearoa, land of the long white cloud. Our sky was true to its namesake with billowing white clouds in a flawless blue sky. My ears were full of the soaring con-clusion to Rachmaninov's Second Symphony coming from my CD player. My problems with my community, my community's problems, and my problems are still in place. But there is something greater at work that is soar-ing and unfolding within me. I pray that it is my faith, my hope, and hopefully my love that are growing and mak-ing community possible and actual both for me and those who have agreed to let me join my life to theirs. Review for Religious ROSEMARY STETS A Spirituality of Surrender A Jesuit's Story In 1964 Walter J. Ciszek, a Jesuit priest who had been ordained almost thirty years earlier to be a missionary in Russia, returned to the United States with an unbelievable story of faith and deliverance. In 1939 World War II began in Eastern Europe, and in 1941 Father Ciszek's mis-sion was cut short when Russian police arrested him and kept him in Lubianka Prison for five years, mostly in solitary confinement. Accused of being a Vatican spy, he was interrogated, beaten, forced to sign a false confession, and sen-tenced to fifteen years at hard labor. Sent to labor camps in Siberia, he secretly began a priestly ministry to fellow prisoners, men and women near despair in the inhumane conditions. During these years he lost all contaEt with his family and the Society of Jesus, but he never lost hope or faith in God's providence and protection. In a Rosemary Stets OSF is vice president for mission and ~nin-istry at Alvernia College; 400 Saint Bernardine Street; Reading, Pennsylvania 19607. inspiration 6Y.I 2006 Stets ¯ A Spirituality of Surrender A Jesuit's Story Father Walter could see all life's ~circumstances not just at eye level, but from a higher plane-- a position ofgrace and surrender. kind of miracle, through the efforts of his family and fel-low Jesuits working with the U.S. government, he was finally released from Russia and arrived in New York as a free man, a hero, beginning a mission in his homeland. When Father Ciszek returned to the United States, he was in relatively good health, considering all the hard-ship and suffering he had endured during his long years of captivity in Siberia. He was almost sixty years old, but still an active and fit man, writing books, giving retreats, travel-ing to parishes across the country, and meet-ing groups who invited him to speak about his life and his spirituality. He had always been a strong man, and he embraced his new life with energy and excite-ment. His correspon-dence was voluminous, and the phone calls were endless. Since Father Ciszek had two sisters in my congregation, he often visited our convents, sharing his personal spiritual journey with us and inviting many of us to continue the conversations. That was the beginning of my personal friendship with him, which lasted until his death in 1984. Shortly after his return, along with the ever increas-ing demands on his time for talks and retreats, Father Walter began writing his autobiography With God in Russia. A few years later he wrote another book, He Leadetb Me, this one emphasizing the spiritual struggles of his journey, In just a few years he had more commit-ments than he could manage, but kept working. A decade Review for Religious later he suffered two major heart attacks and his health began to fail. . During the last decade of his life he had to modify his schedule and pace at a time when, because of his books and his media appearances, he was probably in greater demand than ever. These restrictions frustrated him because of his deep compassion for others and his gen-erosity toward all who sought his advice and spiritual counsel. But ultimately the changes required by his declining health led him to the spirituality of surrender. Change, it seems, is something most of us greet with reluctance, especially if we are comfortable or content with the way things are in the present. We like to feel that we are "in control" and that things are going well, or going the way we want them to go. And so we are jarred and unnerved when our world turns upside down, overwhelms us, makes us feel helpless. One day, as his health became worse and his sched-ule was accordingly being reduced, Father Walter shared with me during a telephone conversation some of his spiritual response at this difficult time. This was not unusual, for Father Walter moved easily from the natu-ral to the supernatural, and he could see all life's cir-cumstances not just at eye level, but from a higher plane--a position of grace and surrender. As he spoke, I was suddenly inspired to make some notes on the conversation, writing down his words and phrases, listening intently and trying to capture the essence of what he was saying. Afterwards I took the lit-tle scrap of paper with the words I had written and put it in my daily prayer book. As I read the words over and over, I realized they were like prayers themselves, but something more. Whenever I felt overcome by the frus-trations of life, by anger, by annoyance with others, or by sudden dark moods like a summer storm on a lake, I 6Y.I 2006 Stets ¯ A Spirituality of Surrender--A Jesuit's Story ,46] would turn to those words for.comfort and strength. A profound peace would return after I entered fully into the spirit of what I was reading. It seemed that chains fell away from my heart. It was as if a door opened, a prison door that had kept me confined and helpless. I felt joy return. My heart felt light again. It was not just a mental understanding, not just a letting go in my mind, but a sense of surrender which lifted my spirit out of the darkness and into a place of spiritual light. As I surren-dered to God in this prayer, I would sense that I was united with Jesus in his abandonment in the garden. I believe I was united.with God's will in those nanosec-onds. A "yes" to the Father was a leap of faith to a new place. It would give me strength to begin a new task, a natural and spontaneous freedom to let go and move on. It would amaze me: the peace was palpable. Many years ago I shared this story with a friend who was going through a difficult struggle, and she was so moved by the simplicity and peace of the words I had jot-ted down that she asked for a copy. I typed it on a small card, calling it the Prayer of Surrender. We soon were mak-ing more copies and giving them to other friends, who also grew to love and value this prayer, Several years later, after the cause for Father Walter Ciszek's canonization had been opened, I sent my notes, letters, and writings about Father Walter to the Prayer League charged with organizing the materials for his cause. The postulator found the Prayer of Surrender in my notes and decided to distribute it through the Prayer League. This is the prayer that has become my daily bread, the prayer I offer to everyone who is desperate for God's help, going under, barely hanging on. It is a prayer filled with wisdom. It does not remove our suffering, but rather it gives us the courage to accept it without anger or fear. Saying the prayer .during times of intense suffering can Review for Religious be difficult, almost heroic, but each time it enables me to emerge whole, strong, and at peace. Father Walter expe-rienced great suffering in his life, in his long sojourn in Russia and in many trying moments that circled his life like a crown of thorns--and like the pains, humiliations, loneliness, and losses that afflict us all. But suffering was also his banner of glory, uniting him to Jesus, who endured everything for us out of love, the love that saved the world. The Prayer of Surrender is Father Waiter's gift to all of us, a moment of grace remembered and passed on to those who love him, cherish his memory, and seek to understand with him that surrender to God's provi-dence is the way to sublime joy, the grand freedom of finding God in all things. Prayer of Surrender Lord, Jesus Christ, I ask the grace to accept the sad-ness in my heart as your will for me, in this moment. I offer it up, in union with your sufferings, for those who are in deepest need of your redeeming grace. I surrender myself to your Father's will, and I ask you to help me to move on to the next task that you have set for me. Spirit of Christ, help me to enter into a deeper union with you. Lead me away from dwelling on the hurt I feel, to thoughts of charity for those who need my love, to thoughts of compassion for those who need my care, and to thoughts of giving yo those who need my help. As I give myself to you, help me to provide for the salvation of those who come to me in need. May I find my healing in this giving. May I always accept God's will. May I find my true self by living for others in a spirit of sacrifice and suffering. May I die more fully to myself, and live more fully in you. As I seek to surrender to the Father's will, may I come to trust that he will do everything for me. Amen. 6Y.1 2006 GIOVANNI ZEVOLA Two Mysteries in One: Implications for Ministry 48 All who are involved in ministry would say that the Bible is a source of strength for their own spirituality and for their pastoral ministry. Biblical themes support our dedication, our zeal, our commitment to people and situations demanding attention and care. In this article I will show that the Bible is not only a source of texts to use in particular circumstances of the ministry,~ but also a pure and continuous fount of spiritual life especially for the those in pastoral ministry. Biblical themes and figures of the Old and New Testament are familiar to pastoral caregivers, and we all may have heartfelt favorites in our own spiritual life. For the various situations that may occur in pastoral care, some biblical figures and themes have special pertinence. For example, the Exodus experience, Samuel's vocation, the social concerns in the prophetic literature, Zacchaeus's desire to see Jesus, and the Holy Spirit overshadowing Mary can be signs "of certain hope and comfort to the pilgrim people of God" (Lumen gentium, §68). Giovanni Zevola OMI continues doing apostolic work in South Korea. His address is 196-51 Yuhyun Dong; Kang Nam Ku; Seoul 135-210; South Korea. Review for Religious Mary can be considered from different points of view, and the few passages of the New Testament where she is mentioned can be sources for understanding our role as disciples and cooperators in the economy of salvation. One meaningful passage is the Visitation recorded in Luke 1:39-56. The verse "During those days Mary set out and traveled to the hill country in haste to a town of Judah" motivated my vocation many years ago. I joined a missionary congregation to dedicate myself to a life of service, and that verse still inspires my life and commitment to the poor. Through the years Mary's attitude of service has informed my spirit, and new insights have helped me grow spiritually and as a human being. The words "she went as quickly as she could" caught my attention and fostered my desire to share with others my sense of the presence of God in my life. I was convinced that, like Mary, we should not keep our own Annunciation for ourselves, but should share it with others through what we do--and doing what we do without delay, "in haste." Mary is the perfect disciple who shares her Master's concerns, values, and attitudes. In Mark's Gospel, Jesus is presented on the scene right away, being baptized by John and proclaiming "The time (kairos) has come," there has to be no delay. Jesus is shown to be in a constant hurry, particularly in chapter one, where it is interesting to note the Greek word euthus. Immediately the Spirit descends on him (1:10) at the baptism. Immediately the Spirit drives him out into the desert (1:12). Simon and Andrew leave their nets at once and follow him (1:18). Immediately he calls James and John (1:20). As soon as the Sabbath comes, he goes to the synagogue to teach, and just then performs a miracle (1:23). His reputation rapidly spreads everywhere (1:28), and he goes straight to cure Peter's mother-in-law (1:29). 6Y.1 2006 Zevola ¯ Two Mysteries in One the force of God's grace : brought to: her in the Annuncia ion,,qnd she becomes a messenger " ff good new.s. In the Visitation, Mary shares Christ's attitude. There is an urgency in proclaiming the good news she has just received through the angel. In Luke 1:26-38 she is presented as the recipient of God's grace, and she becomes the active subject who cannot contain what she has received. She goes to ' -~'~ share it. (Recall here Paul is surfing by . saying "The love of ~. Christ impels us," 2 Co 5:14.) In Mary we see how a disciple is called to announce that "the time has come": the divine project that God has prepared is coming to its maturation and is being made known, and so there is no more delay. Paul expresses the same idea in Galatians 4:4-5: "Vv'hen the fullness of time had come, God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the law, to ransom those under the law, so that we might receive adoption." Perhaps I can express all of this in an image. Think of a surfer waiting for a big wave to come in. When the right time comes, he rides it and enjoys the surfing--a combination of ability (human effort) and force of the wave (grace). In Luke 1:39 Mary is surfing by the force of God's grace brought to her in the Annunciation, and she becomes a messenger of good news. "During those days Mary set out and traveled to the hill country in haste to a town of Judah." The wave made by the wind of God's Spirit is for everyone. Every disciple of every age has to surf that wave; in doing so we are blessed. See Romans 10:15: "How beautiful are the feet of those who announce good news," how welcome the Review for Religious sound! The personal relationship we have with God is not something we can keep for ourselves; it is a gift to be shared. God invites us to the communion (koinonia) of those called by his grace. The personal relationships in the life of the Trinity should be reflected in our human relationships. For a pastoral caregiver, contemplation and action go together. The vertical relationship of us with God is connected with our horizontal relationships with one another. We are called to do "contempl-action." At the very beginning of the church, in the upper room where Mary and the other disciples are gathered, this doubleness is already present. They receive the Spirit and share the mission of Jesus to proclaim the Good News. Perhaps we can imagine Mary showing the eleven how to ride this new wave of the Spirit and thereby fulfill Jesus' promise: "You will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you, and then you will be my witnesses not only in Jerusalem but throughout Judea and Samaria, and indeed to the ends of the earth,' (Ac 1:9). Mary belongs indissolubly to the mystery of Christ, and she belongs also to the mystery of the church from the beginning, from the day of the church's birth. At the basis of what the church has been from the beginning, and of what she must continually become from generation to generation, in the midst of all the nations of the earth, we find the one "who believed that there would be a fulfillment of what was spoken to her from the Lord" (Lk 1:45).~It is precisely Mary's faith which marks the beginning of the new and eternal covenant of God with man in Jesus Christ; this heroic faith of hers "precedes" the apostolic witness of the church, and ever remains in the church's heart hidden like a special heritage of God's revelation. All those who from generation to generation accept the apostolic witness of the church share in that mysterious inheritance, and in a sense share in Mary's faith. (Redemptoris Mater, §27) 65.1 2006 Zevola ¯ Two Mysteries in One With the inner conviction that Annunciation (experience of God) precedes any Visitation (our apostolate or any form of pastoral care), some years ago I was sent to the Philippines for a missionary experience. What I had received (experience of God through the years of seminary formation) I was ready to share with people in my ministry, and there, through a crisis, God's grace brought a deeper understanding. I could not expect my past experience of God to provide me with enough of what people needed from me. I had to be always open to new Annunciations because we can share only what we have at the moment. My personal contact with the poor (Visitation) was a deeper way for me to experience God. The poor were giving me occasions to take notice of God's Annunciations to me and to receive deeper understandings of them. It was like Mary visiting Elizabeth and, during her time with her, coming to further understanding of the meaning of the Annuciation. She was, in the words of her older cousin, blessed for being mother of the Lord and particularly for her faith in the promise. At this moment the Spirit evokes Mary's Magnificat. Everything was already present at the Annunciation, but comes to light at the Visitation like a seed expressing its vitality gradually. Through my experiences in the Philippines, I came to understand that Annunciation and Visitation are not two separate moments, but only one mystery: the Spirit introducing us into the mystery of Christ. In pastoral care we do not go to others with something already cooked. We might already have the necessary ingredients, but it is the interaction that makes it complete. William Barry says something similar when he considers Jesus interacting with his disciples at Caesarea Philippi (Mt 16:13-20), where Jesus seems to come to a better understanding of his identity: "Could it not be that Jesus needs the disciples' response in order to clarify his Review for Religious own sense of his identity and destiny? . . . Jesus, like any human being, could not establish his identity without the help of others. Looked at in this way, this scene shows that Jesus needs Peter's response to 'confirm' his own sense of mission.''2 Elizabeth does this for Mary, and it is similar for any disciple following in Jesus' footsteps. The Annunciation and Visitation considered as but one mystery show that faith is a journey on which we increasingly come to understand and live the fullness of our vocation. Particularly in Luke, Mary is presented as a woman of reflection upon her life experiences (see Lk 1:29, 2:19, 2:33, and 2:51). In so doing she progresses in faith, like Abraham: Mary's faith can also be compared to that of Abraham, whom St. Paul calls "our father in faith" (see Rm 4:12). In the salvific economy of God's revelation, Abraham's faith constitutes the beginning of the Old Covenant; Mary's faith at the Annunciation inaugurates the New Covenant . Certainly the Annunciation is the culminating moment of Mary's faith in her awaiting of Christ, but it is also the point of departure from which her whole "journey towards God" begins, her whole pilgrimage of faith. (Redemptoris Mater, § 14) This insight invites me to review my tmderstanding of pastoral care and particularly the relationship I establish with the people whom I am called to serve. They are not only the recipients of my attention and commitment, but also my companions on the journey. It is this dimension of faith that gives and renews the strength necessary to be witnesses in caregiving situations and ultimately frees us of the idea that we are the ones fixing problems, that we are the saviors. In fact, our caregiving becomes a kind of school, a place where we learn more about ourselves, other people, and God, who in this school fosters a more intimate relationship with us. The caregiver is also a visitor and guest. The whole history of salvation reads 65.1 2006 Zevola * Two Mysteries in One like a series of moments when God visits his people. Jesus himself was always on the go: "Let us go elsewhere to the neighboring towns." Without any fixed abode, he lives a life of continual visiting. And no sooner is Mary visited from on high than she makes all possible haste to .visit her cousin Elizabeth. She, the visited one, becomes the visitor. There is a missionary dynamic here, for us as well as for Mary. As visitors and guests among those we minister to, we listen differendy, more attentively; we dialogue and tell our stories differently; we become present to others in new ways, ways that make dialogue, shared existence, and even revelation possible. In short, we come empty-handed like Jesus, the vulnerable visitor from heaven, and this can perhaps serve as the reason for our hope. Recently, while working in South Korea (another Visitation), I recognized anew that people are agents of the Spirit inviting me to understand more deeply the message that I would Announce to them. Late in the evening we were driving back to the office after a day visiting the company where Mohamed had had an accident while operating a pressing machine. After a long discussion with the manager, the possibility for this Bangladeshi worker to get insurance was now more concrete. Mohamed and one of his friends invited me to supper in a small restaurant. Suddenly he asked me something that surprised me: "Father, why are you doing this for us?" At first I did not know what to say, because my motivation for the ministry with the foreign workers was something I had not talked about. Finally I said, "My experience of God is at the core of this or any other ministry." I was surprised when Mohamed seemed to agree and reinforce my answer. Mohamed's question had forced me to reconnect theology and ministry as the source and goal of any Review for Religious apostolate. Through reflecting upon our pastoral experience, we learn anew that God's call is the source of our commitment within the church. This led me (Mk 8:14-21) to Jesus, in the boat with his disciples, subtly referring them to his recent feeding of two large crowds and then asking, "Do you still not see or comprehend?. Do you still not understand?" It is theology and ministry together that enable people's faith to recognize God's presence right before their eyes. If ministers focus only on their ministerial activities, they are likely to end up implementing nothing but their own plans and projects. The theological reflection has a double movement, namely, (1) our going to the experience for reflection and (2) coming back for a serene and more objective evaluation. A particular pastoral experience be-comes the stuff for reflecting upon the min-istry that we are involved in. We make a point of noticing that God was present in the experience and how God was present. !t is !heology and ministry together that enable people's faith to recognize, God's presence fright before their eyes. It is in this movement, in the connecting of theology with the experience, that we can "interpret" and "name" the experience lived in faith. The experience thus interpreted and clarified tells more than we originally expected: our experience enriches our theology. Theology and pastoral care, encountering each other in the pastoral experience, are reciprocally enriched.3 Theology enables us to understand God's presence as continuing through time, like the continuing mystery of the incarnation. Pastoral care gives us the here and now in which we can readily find the divine presence revealing itself. 6Y. 1 2006 Zevola ¯ Two Mysteries in One The theological reflection adds depth to the richness of the experience, which otherwise might be quickly forgotten. On the other hand, pastoral care gives theological reflection something very real and concrete from which to get a lively idea of God working, working along with us in the human experience. Mary has been for me a model and now is more of a companion in my pilgrimage of faith, reminding me that Annunciation and Visitation are parts of one wonderful mystery. In everything, like Mary, we can give only what we have received. On this truth Henri Nouwen is very explicit: "To help, to serve, to care, to guide, to heal, these words . . . express a reaching out toward our neighbor whereby we perceive life as a gift not to possess but to share." 4 Notes ~ See D. Capps, Pastoral Use and Interpretations of the Bible, in Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling, ed. R. Hunter (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1990), pp. 82-85. 2 See W. Barry, God's Passionate Desire and Our Response (Notre Dame: Ave Maria Press, 1993), p. 101. 3 See R. Kinast, Pastoral Theology, Roman Catholic, in Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling, pp. 873-874. 4 H. Nouwen, Reaching Out (New York: Doubleday Image Books, 1986), p. 109. Review for Religious ROBERT P. MALONEY Truth: Religious Simplicity Revisited E veryone needs a guiding star, but the stars in the ky are countless. Saints have chosen different ones. Jerome focused on the Scriptures: "Love the Holy Scriptures, and wisdom will love you." Francis of Assisi fixed on God's love in the gifts of creation and the cru-cified Lord, praising God in Brother Sun and Sister Moon and uniting himself with suffering humanity. Vincent de Paul, especially as he grew older, chose sim-plicity, or truthfulness, as the star to guide him to know what to say and do. "It is the virtue I love most," he wrote to a priest-friend, Franqois de Coudray. "It is my gospel," he told the Daughters of Charity, the commu-nity he founded with Louise de Marillac. There are many conte~nporary ways of describing simplicity: authenticity, integrity, genuineness, realness, passion for the truth. In the two sections that follow, I Robert P. Maloney CM, having served for-two terms as superior gen-eral of the Congregation of the Mission, works as project administra-tor for D.R.E.A.M., a joint project of the Community of Sant'Egidio and the Daughters of Charity for combating aids in Africa. His address is Theological College; 401 Michigan Avenue N.E.; Washington, D.C. 20017. 6~. 1 2006 Maloney * Truth: Religious Simplicity Revisited will focus first on simplicity as "being in the truth" with God, with oneself; with others, and with the created uni-verse surrounding us. Then I will discuss combining the simplicity of the dove with the prudence of the serpent. Simplicity as "Being in the Truth" There is a wonderful freedom in those who live sim-ply. They project joy and peaceful confidence. One of the most popular hymns in the English-speaking world, Joseph Brackett's "Simple Gifts," began proclaiming in 1848: "'Tis the gift to be simple, 'tis the gift to be free." Simplicity involves making God our ultimate concern, identifying our will with what God is asking. Vincent de Paul remarked rather wryly to Louise de Marillac: "How easy it is to become a saint. The only thing necessary is to do the will of God in everything." For simple persons the kingdom of God becomes the focal point of their life, the ideal that integrates all that they are and do. Of course, growth in single-minded-ness before God, in purity of intention, is a lifelong pro-cess. Our sinfulness continually interrupts our unity with God's purposes. Limited objectives like self-promotion easily distract us from our single-minded pursuit of God's kingdom; even worse, they may substitute for it. In our sinful condition, we are never able to pull our lives together into a perfect opus, finished once and for all. Even those who seem to have done so fall often, some-times badly. Our final integrity comes only from God's forgiving, healing love. It is a gift. In commenting on the simplicity and purity of inten-tion that he had witnessed in the Shaker tradition, Thomas Merton once wrote, "The peculiar grace of a Shaker chair is due to the fact that it was made by some-one capable of believing that an ~ngel might come and sit on it." That sentence is surely worth meditating on. In Review for Religious religious life, many helps have been offered for being in the truth with God: the daily Eucharist, daily mental prayer, and daily examination of conscience are among the most prominent. Human beings are social beings. Human relation-ships are not just an add-on. They make us who we are, forming us gradually. Having friends, falling in love, building a family, joining a community, being part of a nation, an institution, a movement--all these forms of union with others are possible only if there is truth-filled communication. In fact, the English word truth is related etymologi-cally to trust, faithfulness, covenant. Older English-speaking readers may recall the now archaic marriage o tr thfut-reiationships ' with others; implicity - ;:, :haS,its:most: obvious meaning: hoheStg: promise: "I plight unto thee my troth,", which we might translate today as: "I pledge to you my truth (my word, my trust, my commitment)." In fact, we still speak of a promise to marry as "betrothal." In truthful relationships with others, simplicity has its most obvioias meaning: honesty. Trust in the word of another is the condition for life together, for friendship, marriage, community, business ventures, and all sorts of other relationships. Lies bring about the disintegration of communities, the fracture of marriages, the downfall of governments. Lies are not just verbal; they may be present in actions. Marriages collapse through infidelity. Families break down through covert, competing interests. Friendships unravel through secret betrayal. Being in the truth keeps people together; falsehood tears us apart. To put it tersely, simplicity unites; duplicity divides. 6Y.I 2006 Maloney ¯ Truth: Religious Simplicity Revisited 6O Necessary as it is, speaking the truth with consis-tency in religious life is difficult. We are tempted to blur the truth for our own convenience or to avoid being embarrassed. It is difficult to be enduringly true to our word when circumstances change. In the present our statements are true or false right then and there, but, when we make a commitment for the future, it is true only if we keep it true. Truth is fidelity. It is especially in this sense that Jesus is true to us. He promises to be, and is, with us always, even to the end. We too are called to be true in this way--to vows, to friendships, and to our commitments to serve. Thomas Merton once wrote: "We make ourselves real by telling the truth." The truth at the core of each human person strives to emerge. When we express the truth, we construct and reveal our true self. When we distort the truth, we damage not just our relationship with others, but the center of our own being too. Being in the truth with our own self is, of course, vitally related to being in the truth with God and being in the truth with others. BUt our own truth is nevertheless distinctive. There is a distinctive giftedness, a personal vocation from God, that we may not renounce, but must treasure. Simplicity calls us to integrity, authenticity. But, as we journey in quest of personal wholeness, most of us expe-rience our own fracturedness. We sense inner contra-dictions, a broken center, cracks in our personality; sometimes we fall apart. Philosophy, psychology, and sociology have described polarities that people sense within themselves: body/mind, feeling/thinking, heart/ head, unconscious/conscious. Being true to oneself is not as easy as it might seem. Accurate self-knowledge is rare, as Robert Burns elo-quently noted: "O wad some Power the giftie gie us / To see oursels as ithers see us! / It wad frae mony a blun- Review for Religious der free us, / An' foolish notion: / What airs in dress an' gait wad lea'e us, / An' ev'n devotion!" Knowing oneself accurately is essential in life. The philosopher Wittgenstein observed: "You cannot write anything about yourself that is more truthful than you yourself are. That is the difference between writing about yourself and writing about external objects. You write about yourself from your own height. You don't stand on stilts or on a ladder but on your bare feet." Regular confession and the relationship we call "spir-itual direction" are very important means toward self-knowledge. A perceptive confessor or spiritual guide can be a mirror, reflecting back to us what we are not able to see on our own. Speaking the truth is especially impor-tant in such relationships. We choose a "soul friend" so that, with his or her help, we may grow in the Lord's life and in discerning those things which promote God's kingdom. It is imperative, therefore, that this relationship be characterized by free self-disclosure and by the avoid-ance of "hidden corners" in our lives. We need others to echo back to us what is happening or not happening on our journey toward the Lord. The quality of spiri-tual guidance will depend largely upon the simplicity with which we disclose ourselves. Philosophers and theologians have recognized from the earliest times that human existence is inseparable from matter. We are not pure spirit, but have bodies. The philosopher Merleau-Ponty reminds us: "I am my body." We are also related to and dependent on the earth. In a certain sense, as Genesis suggests in the creation story, we come from the earth. Food, water, air, sunshine, and other elements are nutrients of our human existence. Consequendy, if we are to be in truth with God as the Creator, with ourselves as incomplete beings, and with others, we must also be in truth with the created uni- 65.1 2006 Maloney * Truth: Religious Simplicity Revisited verse that is our home. In other words, being fully human involves caring for the earth. In broader terms it means caring for the surrounding universe, whose proportions are staggering and even incomprehensible to us. We do not yet have a comprehensive ecological the-ology, but some of its foundation stones are quite visible and have been set for centuries in Christian tradition: ¯ the presence of God in all creation; ¯ the goodness of all that God has made; ¯ God's providence in accompa-nying history and ongoing creation; ¯ the gratitude, won-der, contemplation, and care for God's gifts that people have as a response to God's gifts. Those who live close to the land often see its impor-tance more vividly than others. When in 1851 the pres-ident of the United States, Franklin Pierce, proposed to buy two million acres of land from the Indian tribes around Puget Sound in the present state of Washington, Chief Seattle (after whom the state's principal city is named) reacted. His famous reflections from the 1850s, about which some historians raise doubts, are neverthe-less a most eloquent environmental statement: Every shining pine needle, every sandy shore, every mist on the dark woods, every clearing and humming insect is holy in the memory and experiences of my people . We are part of the earth and it is part of us. The perfumed flowers are our sisters; the deer, the horse, the great eagle, these are our brothers. The rocky crests, the juices in the meadows, the body heat of the pony and man--all belong to the same family. We will consider your offer to buy our land. But it will not be easy. For this land is sacred to us. This shining water that moves in the streams and rivers is not just water but the blood of our ancestors. If we sell you the land, you must remember that it is sacred, and you must teach your children that it is ~acred and that each ghostly reflection in the clear water of the lakes tells of events and memories in the life of my peo-l~ eview for Religious pie. The water's murmur is the voice of my father's father . You must teach your children that the rivers are our brothers and yours, and you must henceforth give the rivers the kindness you would give any brother. These words were prophetic. Polluted rivers, con-taminated air, and depleted forests rank high among the problems of modern society. In this matter, as in many others, immediate gratification often wins out over long-range goals. But when the environment is neglected, society pays a heavy price, with the poor suffering most. In many places where religious missionaries serve, eco-logical deterioration adds to the crushing burdens of the neediest of the needy. The Simplicity of the Dove and the Prudence of the Serpent Even for those with a bright guiding star, Christian living is filled with paradoxes: initiative/obedience, flex-ibility/ stability, listening/advising, animating/directing, creativity/humility, trusting/planning, serving/govern-ing, simplicity/prtidence. Matthew's Gospel recognizes that the simplicity of the dove must cohabit, in the same person, with the prudence of the serpent. And in life people's common sense and prudence quickly teach them that they cannot simply speak the unabashed truth at all times. Experience teaches us that virtues like truthful-ness, charity, and respect for the privacy and good name of others at times "compete" with one another. In moments of apparent conflict, prudence enables us to balance and blend such competing virtues. Over the centuries moral theologians have written volumes on the dilemmas that arise in the context of truth-telling. Below I simply offer a few reflections on three of the most common moral dilemmas that reli-gious and all those committed to truth-telling face. 6L 1 2006 Maloney * Truth: Religioux Simplicity Revisited Growing in love involves penetrating to the ddep truth of the beloved, Truth derives from God. It is related to beauty. But the expression of "truths" can sometimes be ugly, cold, arro-gant, and angry. Declarations like "I'm just telling you the truth!" can be a facile excuse for harsh words or an escape valve for pent-up rage. In the Christian tradition truth and love are inseparable. Growing in love involves penetrating to the deep truth of the beloved, coming to understand others not just on the surface but deep down. Likewise, growing in truth involves moving toward deeper communion, overcoming dif-ferences, "looking for the larger truth that embraces my little truth and that of the other," as Timothy Radcliffe reminds us. There is a delicate interplay between mind and heart in the search for truth. For those with a highly intellectual formation, Pascal's corrective can be helpful: "The heart has its rea-sons, which reason does not know. We feel it in a thousand things." Antoine de Saint-Exup~ry in The Little Prince expresses the same conviction: "It is only with the heart that one can see rightly; what is essential is invisible to the eye." The problem is that we sometimes use "the truth" to massacre others. Under the pretext of being sincere, we destroy truth with "the truth." In a striking essay, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, who was himself a martyr for the truth, wrote as follows: If it is detached from life and from its reference to the concrete other person, if "the truth is told" with-out taking into account to whom it is addressed, then this truth has only the appearance of truth, but it lacks its essential character. Review for Religious It is only the cynic who claims "to speak the truth" at all times and in all places to all people in the same way, but who, in fact, displays nothing but a lifeless image of the truth. He dons the halo of the fanatical devotee of truth who can make no allowance for human weaknesses; but, in fact, he is destroying the living truth between persons. He wounds shame, des-ecrates mystery, breaks confidence, betrays the com-munity in which he lives, and laughs arrogantly at the devastation he has wrought and at the human weakness which "cannot bear the truth." We must learn to speak the truth while taking other truths into account: the dignity of other persons, their human weakness and ours as well, the love that must characterize all Christian relationships. Our statement of a truth must blend with these other truths. Speaking the truth is therefore.a delicate art rather than a blunt instrument. Very early in life we learn that it is sometimes harm-ful to tell the truth. Our parents teach us as children that some personal and family matters are private; others have no right to know about them. As we grow up, friends begin to entrust secrets to us. As problems arise in our own lives, we ourselves sense the need to talk with some-one, but only on the condition that what we say is kept utterly confidential. These universal human experiences have given rise to a whole body of ethical and legal liter-ature concerning truth-telling, secrecy, and confidential-ity. Confessors and spiritual directors, doctors and nurses, psychiatrists and counselors, lawyers, secretaries, jour-nalists, and many others are bound, in varying circum-stances and within various limits, to professional secrecy. Paradoxically, we have a moral obligation to tell the truth, but we sometimes have a moral obligation not to tell the truth. This is often the case in religious life, where others frequently entrust us with matters of con- 6Y.1 2006 MMoney ¯ Truth: Religious Simplicity Revisited ,66 science and where there are also many "family matters" that are private and should remain within the community. So how does one protect private, even "sacred" truths? Silence, of course, is often the most effective method. In some cases, in the face of inappropriate inquiries, we may be able to communicate, with a combination of gen-tleness and firmness, the delicacy of our situation: "I am sorry, I am not really free to talk about that. I hope you understand." Sometimes, too, with a little bit of inge-nuity, we may say something that some or all recognize as good.humoredly evasive. But for centuries philosophers and theologians have pointed out that there are situations where silence or evasion simply make matters worse and where the right course seems to be to dissemble the truth. To resolve such moral dilemmas, Thomists, defining moral truth as correspondence between what we think and what we say, used the "broad mental reservation." Others, defining truth in relational terms (communication of what is in one's mind to someone who has a right to know), per-mitted "false speech" when utterly necessary to put off those who have no right to know. Neither theory is ideal. Each, in fact, has notable weaknesses. But both recognize that at times there is a moral obligation to "protect" the truth and to put off importunate, inappropriate inquiries, even by misleading the inquirer. In the end, strange though it may seem, one must "learn" to tell the truth. Each word has its own place, its own time, its own audience. Much depends on who is calling me to speak and what entitles me to speak. One of the most poignant, and wise, lines in American liter-ature is what Hester Prynne says to her daughter, Pearl, in The Scarlet Letter (chapter 22): "Hold thy peace, dear little Pearl. We must not always talk in the market-place of what happens to us in the forest." Review for Religious Statements involve a relationship with the person being addressed and at times also with third parties. The truth-teller respects those relationships and maintains them. The nosey inquirer seeks to violate truth and intrude on relationships that truth fosters carefully. It is important to learn how to put such inquirers off, and to put them off well. Truths not only have their time, their place, and their proper audience; they have their own particular peda-gogy. Certain truths have their "moment" in history. Victor Hugo once pointed out that, when an idea's time has come, not even armies can resist it. But, until that time, "new" truths enter most minds and hearts slowly. As mothers and fathers instinctively know, the wise teacher must often wait for the right moment and the right place. I once gave a rather pacifist-sounding con-ference to a group of college students, who loved it. A few days later I gave the same conference to a parish group, which hated it. The time and place were almost the same, but I learned rather painfully that a new audi-ence often requires a new pedagogy. How to present the truth is the key question. This question becomes all the more important as we grow in consciousness that our goal in speaking is not merely the transmission of data but communication and commu-nion in the truth. From that perspective pedagogy is not just a clever means of packaging a "truth" well; rather, it is an integral part of communicating a truth to the other. Emily Dickinson puts it this way: "Tell all the Truth but tell it slant. The Truth must dazzle gradually." This lesson is especially important for teachers who think they have done their job when they have lectured for an hour, citing all the facts and uttering all the "truths." But they must ask themselves whether they have communicated truth or simply uttered it in front 65.1 2006 Malone)/ ¯ Truth: Religious Simplicity Revisited of an inattentive audience. Method is important. Teachers must often reflect not only on the content they wish to communicate, but also on the m~ans for communicat-ing it. The same is true of parents, friends, counselors, and others who must sometimes communicate truths which they know hearers will find it hard to accept. The Greek ~ord for truth, al~theia, means "uncov-ering." Speaking the truth opens us out. What lies within us comes forth. In speaking truthfully we disclose what otherwise remains hidden in our depths. In Greek mythology the goddess of truth puts two pathways before Parmenides: one of uncovering and one of hiding. It is only by "uncovering" that one's true self emerges. The New Testament states this very clearly: "Put on a new self, created in God's image, whose justice and holiness is born of truth" (Ep 4:21). Prayer Reflection Ponder the words of the hymn (perhaps sing it to yourself): Simple Gifts Shaker Hymn Written by Shaker Elder Joseph Brackett, Jr., in 1848 'Tis the gift to be simple, 'tis the gift to be free, 'Tis the gift to come down where we ought to be, And when we find ourselves in the place just right, "Twill be in the valley of love and delight. When true simplicity is gain'd, To bow and to bend we shan't be asham'd. Review for Religious To turn, turn will be our delight, Till by turning, turning we come round right. Group Discussion Share situations where you have found that you are com-promised in telling the truth. What kind qf principles did you use in the situation for your way of acting? The Not-So-Holy Grail The commonest cup may serve. As chalice for the King. Even now he pours the wine Until the heart can hold no more. See the crimson And taste the death That is our life. Teresa Burleson 65.1 2006 DAVID L. FLEMING Sharing God the Ignatian Way I n speaking about God, we each have our own way of rying to express our experience. Christian, non- Christian, Eastern, Western approaches differ and yet often point in directions that move in similar ways towards the same goal--a union or an identifying with God. In this reflection, we are trying to share among our-selves the richness of our experience of God as we have received help from Ignatius Loyola, particularly guided by the experiences of the Spiritual Exercises. There is no doubt that Ignatius has been able to enter us into an experience of God that has some specific characteristics that mark what is now identified as Ignatian spirituality. We need to remember that no Christian spirituality is so unique in its characteristics that we do not find it rooted in the Gospels. But characteristics special to a particular spirituality such as Ignatian include the kind of emphasis given to certain aspects or areas, the intercon-nections of elements, and the vision and imagery that David L. Fleming sJ is editor of this journal. He may be addressed at 3601 Lindell Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63108. Review for Religious become the vehicle moving this particular spirituality. Let us review some of these characteristics of Ignatian spirituality from our experience. We experience a God of gifts. The Ignatian Principle and Foundation is not presenting just a picturing of a creator God. Ignatius provides a fuller picture. In creat-ing, God has chosen us and gifts us that we might choose God through the means of the gifts that are meant to help us to know and to love God. This God has created a human world of gifts-- all provided for us that we might come to know and love God the better. Of course, with so many gifts provided, we find it necessary to make choices, even in terms of developing and using the personal gifts of talents and abilities that God has given to each one of us. Ignatius brings home to us that life is choice, and our choosing is always directed towards God. What does it mean for us to choose God in return? Do we share the God that gifts us with this responsibility? We experience that God is always trying to speak, to communicate with us, through his gifts. As a lover, God does not just speak words to us, even in Scripture. God acts, and his deeds are his expressions of love for us. Ignatius helps us to make the world transparent so that God and God's love shines through the whole of cre-ation. God is not a silent God. For Ignatius, God is always a God in conversation. Are we people who are attentive to God's communicating with us? Do we share with others our experience of this kind of an intimate God? "For'Ignat the. seven days of creation are all vart of God's .,:presence to,us. .71 65.1 2006 Fleming ¯ Sharing God the Ignatian Way 72] We experience God as One who is active and involved with his world--a busy God. Ignatius does not literally understand the six days of creation with God being very active on each of six days and then on the seventh day resting. So that, for many people, God stayed that way--restingmever since! No, for Ignatius, the seven days of creation are all part of God's presence to us. It is all part of God's Now. When Jesus says, ."My Father works, and I work," Ignatius believes him. The dynamic of creation continues and God works. This God, ever active and working with us and with his world--is this the God we share? We experience God in Jesus inviting us to be with him in his work identified as the coming of the kingdom or the reign of God~ In the Pauline mysterious image of the pleroma we know that God intends a certain fullness or completion to his creation, and we human beings---~e ones he loves--are called to play our part within this movement. Does our praying "Thy kingdom come" inspire us in our response to God's invitation to work with God so that the kingdom shines out through our dealings and activities in our ordinary world? Is our working with God in the vineyard of the kingdom the God we share? We experience a God who waits upon our response to this invitation. Just as God waits upon Mary for her response to God's invitation to allow herself to be his mother, so God waits upon each one of us in a similar way to allow ourselves to bring God's life to the world in which we live. Like Mary, we are to have a growing inti-macy with Jesus, and because of his risen life Jesus desires an intimacy that knows no boundaries. Do we share a God who is patient, long-suffering, who waits, for our hesitant and often waffling response? Do we share a God who delights in intimacy with us? Review for Reli~ous We experience our living and working with God. Working does not take us away from our God since God is a busy God, and, being busy, we are right alongside him. Praying, too, flows naturally in a relationship with .a God who converses in so many ways, if we but learn to listen--as when we take time to pray. And so Ignatius shares with us a union with God in the contemplative action of praying and working. There is a wholeness--a unity--in our life that does not take us away from God. Do we live, like Jesus, as contemplatives in action? Is this the God we share? If, in Ignatian spirituality, these are some of the ways we experience God and are moved to share God with others, we need to observe next how this experience flows into how we act. For Ignatian spirituality is above all caught up in a "way of proceeding." Some spiritual-ities identify themselves with a certain horarium--a daily order of set prayers at certain time, such as the Liturgy of the .Hours, one practice that marks a monastic approach to life. Some spiritualities revolve around cer-tain devotional practices, whether so many rosaries prayed within a day, so many set prayers read or recited, perhaps so many hours spent before the Blessed Sacrament. A "way of proceeding" in Ignatian spirituality does not demand any of these devotional obligations, but it does leave a person free to observe any one of them or any combination of them. Just as the text of the Spiritual Exercises remains free of particular devo-tional practices, so Ignatian spirituality imposes no arti-ficial boundaries: prayer times, prayer styles, amount of prayer, particular devotional practices, certain life styles, or specific jobs or responsibilities. Ignatian spirituality is an adaptable "way of proceeding" in our developing a relationship with God, with others, and with our world. From his experience of God, Ignatius wrote the texts 6Y.I 2006 Fleming ¯ Sharing God the Ignatian Way of both the Spiritual Exercises and the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus. We find that both these texts are "to be used"; they provide us with a way of proceeding. They are written for the purpose of the practice they generate. Both are written, not just as a rule of life or just a description of a good life, but as an invitation to experi-ence what Ignatius calls in the Two Standards prayer exercise "the true life." Jesus re

Issue 64.2 of the Review for Religious, 2005. ; Faith Perspectives Taking Account Religious Life Holy People QUARTERLY 64.2 2005 Review for Religious fosters dialogue with, God, dialogue witt~ ourselves, and dialogue with one . another about the l~olin~ess~w~e try tolive' ~ ~ according to charisms of Catholic religious life,,; As Pope Paul VI said, our Way of being church is today the way of dialogue. Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published quarterly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393 Telephone: 314-977-7363 ¯ Fax: 314-977-7362 E-Mail: review@slu.edu ¯ Web site: www.reviewforreligious.org Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, MO 63108-3393 Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP ° St. Joseph's Provincial House 333 South Seton Avenue ° Emmitsburg, Maryland 21727 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©2005 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. view for religious Editor Associate Editor Canonical Counsel Scripture Scope Editorial Staff Webmaster Advisory Board David L. Fleming SJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Elizabeth McDonough OP Eugene Hensell OSB M~ry Ann Foppe 7Fracy Gramm Jiady Sharp ' Clare Boehmer ASC Steve Erspamer SM .Kathleen'Hughes RSCJ Ernest E. Larkin OCarm Lot~is and Angela Menard Bisl~op Terry.Steib SVD Miriam -D. Ukeritis CSJ :'. QUARTERLY 64.2 2O05 contents 116 prisms Prisms faith perspectives Reaching the Alienated Heart: An Interpretation of the Descent into Hell Dennis J. Billy CSSR examines our creedal profession that Jesus "descended into hell" and finds an understanding for our contemporary human experience. 129 Feet First into Resurrection Bonaventure Stefun OFMCap delves into the significance of the Christian action of the washing of the feet in its sacra-mental way of relating us to the risen Christ. Reflection and Discussion 11,4] 135 152 taking account Framing the Ethical Rights of Priests James F. Keenan SJ writes as a moral theologian to propose four ethical rights that would seem to need recognition for the healthy communio of the church. Faith and Solidarity in Action Anne Munley IHM presents a summary overview of the May 2004 plenary session of the International Union of Superiors General (UISG) dealing with the ministry of reconciliation. Review for Religious 159 Women Religious in Treatment for Addictions Millie Cargas describes art therapy and its effectiveness in therapy programs. 168 Asceticism and Chaste Celibate Love 177 184 194 Vilma Seelaus OCD unites chaste celibate love with an asceticism that enlarges the heart to receive a greater outpouring of God's love, which then flows more freely through us into the lives of others. Prayer hoOy people Snapshots of Three Lesser-Known "Saints" Robert F. Maloney CM sketches in brief detail the lives and deaths of three Catholics who continue to call us to witness to our faith. Learning to Live Serenely: The Wisdom of FFancis de Sales Juliana Devoy RGS reintroduces us to the sage advice of Francis de Sales in the ordinary daily living of our Christian lives. Reflection and Questions Good and Bad Zeal, Good and Bad Spirits Joseph I. Cisetti notes that, while distinct, the teaching of St. Benedict on good and bad zeal and the instructions of St. Ignatius on good and bad spirits bear similarities useful for both personal discernment and pastoral ministry. Reflection Questions ~ 201 206 ]epartrn r s Scripture Scope: Reading the Acts of the Apostles Canonical Counsel: No More, No Less, and No Other . 212 Book Reviews 64.2 200Y prisms Te title of the apostolic letter "Stay with Us, Lord," published on the occasion of the October 2004-October 2005 Year of the Eucharist, repeats the request that the two disciples gave to the stranger as they made their way to Emmaus on that first Easter Sunday. Each year we seem to enter anew into the full challenge of our asking the Lord "to stay with us" as we move into the Easter and Pentecost seasons .and the Ordinary time of our Christian living that follows. Every Eucharist we celebrate brings home to us our relating to the Risen Lord in his sacra-mental presence. As we know from our scripture readings in the Easter season, Jesus seemed to move in and out of the disciples' lives. His alter-hating presence and absence prompted Peter and some of the other apostles to go back to their trade of fishing, which provided the occasion for a picnic breakfast at the seashore. Perhaps over and over again we may have heard the apostles and disciples begging "Stay with us, Lord." The Risen Lord does "stay" with his eucharistic stance of offering himself totally in love to God his Father and of giving himself R~ie'w for Religio~s totally in love over into our human hands. The once-event of crucifixion is removed from the boundaries of time by the very person of Jesus now risen and "stay-ing" with us day after day. Each celebration of the Eucharist calls forth our recognition of this nearness of Jesus, inviting us to be with him in this love-offering. Eucharistic adoration outside of Mass continues to chal-lenge us to recognize Jesus' presence not so much as merely "staying" with us but rather as continuously offer-ing himself in love totally to the Father and to us and always inviting us to fully integrate ourselves into his sacrificial (that is, "making holy") action. "Stay with us, Lord"--heartfelt as the plea is--needs more humbly to be prayed as "Let us be where you are, Lord." Our greatest desire is always to be where God is; we do not smugly ask God to take the trouble to come to where we prefer to be. By God's grace and calling, some women and men, often hermits or consecrated religious, have dedicated their lives to Eucharistic worship. They have given their lives to "stay" with the Lord. But for the most part we ordinary Catholics find that life is spent in many activities, working for a living, being helpful and hospitable, planning, coping with setbacks, involved with family or community, with limited time for church celebrations and Eucharistic devotions. Are we slow to expect Christ to "stay with us"? .If we are, why not prayerfully seek to "stay with Jesus" as he continues to be active everywhere in this busy world of ours? Then we realize the 'truth of the Eucharistic action: Jesus is the One inviting us to be With him in his love offering to God and to others. Our. prayer is: "Let me stay where you are." David L. Fleming SJ 117 64.2 2005 faith perspectives DENNIS J. BILLY Reaching the Alienated Heart: An Interpretation of the Descent into Hell The doctrine of Christ's descent into hell after his suffering and death on Good Friday conveys some important truths about the meaning and scope of the paschal mystery. To understand this doctrine, we must distinguish its theological for-mulation from the underlying truth it seeks to express. Also we must put aside any prejudices that would prevent us from probing this doc-trine for its full worth and must open our hearts to its deep spiritual wisdom. My purpose in this essay is to explore what the Apostles' Creed means when it says that Jesus "descended into hell" and to see this teaching's impact on our lives today. Christ's Redemptive Self-Emptying As we begin, note that the descent into hell makes sense only if we examine it in the con-text of the creed's other affirmations about Dennis J. Billy CSSR, a frequent contributor to our pages, writes from Accademia Alfonsiana; C.P. 2458; 00100 Roma, Italy. Review for Religious Christ, especially those related to his plan of redemp-tion. The Apostles' Creed, we are told, "is rightly con-sidered a faithful summary of the Apostles' faith" and constitutes "the oldest Roman catechism." 1 Since all of the church's teachings about Christ are closely related, just where this particular doctrine appears in the creed can tell us much about its overall function in the faith of the early church. When looking at the surrounding words, we see that Jesus' descent is placed between affirmations about his suffering and death ("he suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried") and the proclama-tion of his resurrection ("on the third day he rose again"). If the early Christians considered entering the realm of the dead a natural outcome of Jesus' passion and death, then rising from the dead preceded his ascent into heaven. This immediate context tells us that Jesus' descent into hell occupies an important place in the over-all narrative of Jesus' redemptive journey. If it did not, it would never have been placed at the very heart of the creed's Christological affirmations. The preceding and subsequent Christological affir-mations in the Apostles' Creed make this even more apparent. Earlier we affirm that Jesus is the only Son of the Father, that he was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary. Later we affirm that Jesus ascended into heaven, sits at the right hand of the Father, and will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead. The creed's entire Christological narrative, then, looks something like this: incarnation, birth, suffering, death, descent into hell, resurrection, ascent to the Father's right hand, return in glory, final judgment. Along with the resurrection, Jesus' descent into hell lies at the center of the narrative of human redemption. It is the last action of Jesus' redemptive self- 119 64.2 200~ Billy ¯ Reacbing the Alienated Heart emptying and the point from which his transformation and glorious ascent begins. rOse,ore the dead, ' ascended into heave " allows for somb latit de: about how these forrnulation " " should be ftnderstOod. ,:, Formulation and Truth At this point some pivotal questions arise. What is the correspondence between the statements in the Apostles' Creed and the truths they express? Is this brief narrative of Jesus' redemptive mission meant to be taken lit-erally? Does it reveal certain truths about Christ's redemptive action that can be removed from their present theological formulations in the hope of uncovering deeper, even more penetrating insights into the mystery of the Christ event? Is it possible to uncover the underlying truths of the creed without doing damage to the tradition by which those truths have been passed down? There are no simple answers, to these important and enigmatic questions. Some statements in the creed are affirmations of historical fact and require a close con-nection between the formulations themselves and the truths they .state. To say that Jesus suffered, died, and was buried, for example, leaves little room for discus-sion. Either these affirmations happened or they did not. The historical events to which they refer must be either accepted or denied. Other statements in the creed, however, are affirma-tions of faith that cannot be historically verified and thus Review for Religious offer more leeway in distinguishing between their for-mulations and the truths they disclose. To say that Jesus rose from the dead or ascended into heaven allows for some latitude about how these formulations should be understood. What do we mean when we say someone has risen from the dead? What is our understanding of ascension? What is our understanding of heaven? Unlike the notions of suffering, death, and burial, these con-cepts have no historical precedents with which to com-pare them. Given these possibilities, theologians need to discern with care the nature of the particular creedal statement before them and then determine to the best of their abil-ity the relationship between the formulation itself and the truth it uncovers. While a certain logical gap will probably always exist between the formulation and the truth to which it points, the gap will likely vary from one doctrinal formulation to the next. Understanding Jesus' Descent Like the doctrines of Jesus' resurrection and ascen-sion into heaven, the creedal affirmation of Jesus' "descent into hell" allows for a certain amount of dis-tance between its theological formulation and the truth it expresses. After all, there must be more to this doctrine than the image it conjures.in our minds of a literal, spa-tial descent by Christ into the dark and gloomy under-world of the now outdated Hebrew worldview. What about the astonishing message of God's undying love for the world? Most would agree that hell is not so much a place as a state of being, one completely alienated from God. In our reinterpretation of hell, the focus should be on the spiritual and mental, not the physical. When speaking about Jesus' "descent into hell" today, perhaps we should interpret it as revealing something about 121 64.2 2005" Billy ¯ Reaching the Alienated Heart humanity's alienation from God and about Jesus' role in bringing that alienation to an end. Alienation makes us feel isolated from ourselves, one another, and God. It hinders us on our journey through life and prevents us from becoming the persons we are called to be. Ronald Rolheiser puts it this way: "We are social beings, meant to live in love and intimacy with others. Our nature demands this. When, for whatever reasons, we cannot achieve this and communicate love as we should, then something is missing inside of us--and we feel it! We feel estranged and alienated.''2 To be in hell is to be in a state of complete and utter alienation from God. In such a state, we have lost touch with our-selves and so have become incapable of reaching out in love to anyone. If we are honest, all of us will admit experiencing sometime in our lives this sense of being estranged from and "out of sync" with ourselves, the world around us, and the God who created us. We feel at war with our-selves, divided and incapable of healing the division. Although we are conscious of it in various ways and degrees, this sense of alienation is not a matter of per-sonal choice (although choice can contribute to it), but a part of our existential condition as human beings. What makes matters worse is that we somehow sense that it was not meant to be this way, that something has gone terribly wrong with our human condition and that some-how humanity as a whole bears at least some (if not all) responsibility for it. Making All Things New Christianity is all about how God chose to make things right again by sharing our human condition and overcoming this alienation lurking deep in our hearts. Down through the ages, the church has developed the Review for Religious doctrines of original sin and redemption to explain this universal alienation and reveal the way God has chosen to rectify it. Jesus' descent into hell is intimately tied to these fun-damental Christian doctrines, each of which, like two sides of a coin, cannot exist without the other. Here, too, a distinction must ., - - -- be made between the formulations of these doctrines and the truths they disclose. Like Jesus' descent into hell, these doc-trines allow room for interpretation. The doctrine of original sin affirms that all of humanity has somehow become alienated from God in its collec-tive soul. The doctrine of redemption, in turn, affirms that, for any healing to take place, Jesus entered that realm of alienation and preached the Good News of God's love for each and every human being. When seen in this light, Jesus' descent into hell is the final stage of his redemptive self-emptying. H~ has entered our world, given himself to us completely, to the point of dying for us, and even to the point of telling those who live in complete alienation from the divine that God still loves them. Through the cross Jesus reveals his message of divine compassion, breaks down the resistance of our primal alienation, and offers newness of life to all who would have it. Byzantine iconography illustrates this point very well. When depicting the descent into hell, the artist normally has Jesus standing on the toppled gates of hell with a scroll in one hand and pulling Adam out of a bottom- The word preached by Jesus to those in hell boldly proclaims a new creation made possible by hi! rising from the dead. 64.2 2005 Billy * Reaching the Alienated Heart less pit with the other. Below Adam, angels can be seen locking Satan and his minions in chains that will hold them captive for all eternity. According to the principles of iconography, a scroll typically represents the preach-ing of the word. Since "Adam" in Hebrew means "man," in the universal sense of the term that today many would refer to as "humanity," Jesus' lifting of Adam, the first man, indicates the healing of humanity's primal wounds and its elevation to even great heights through Christ's redeeming grace) The word preached by Jesus to those in hell boldly proclaims a new creation made possible by his rising from the dead. Through his resurrection Jesus, the first fruits of the new humanity, takes fallen humanity by the hand, lifts it out of its primal alienation, and lets it par-ticipate in a union with the divine more intimate than everbefore thought possible. Jesus' descent into hell cannot be properly understood apart from his rising from the dead. It relates to the resurrection as the doctrine of original sin relates to the redemption. They are like two sides of a coin: they cannot exist without each other. Observations The above presentation offers a rethinking of the church's traditional teaching of Jesus' descent into hell. What follows are a number of remarks designed to fill out this interpretation in practical and relevant ways. 1. To begin with, this presentation challenges us to examine our minds and hearts in order to affirm what we truly believe about our faith. The doctrines of Christianity developed over time out of the experience of God's people and must always try to speak to their ongo-ing experience. If they fail to do so, they risk becoming brittle assertions from the past that fail to inspire and give life. The challenge for today's believers is to engage Review for Religious these doctrines in such a way that they continue to speak to their experience while remaining faithful to the insights of our Christian forebears. This presentation of Jesus' descent into hell uses different interpretive lenses to affirm the underlying truths of the traditional teach-ing so that they can be understood among the shifting contours of today's spiritual landscape. 2. A fundamental presupposition of this presentation is that it is possible to draw a distinction between a par-ticular formulation of the Christian faith and the truths it seeks to express. Since the complex relationship between language and meaning are not easy to unravel (if at all), we have urged here that, when seeking a refor-mulation of a doctrine that would be more palatable to contemporary tastes, we proceed strictly on a case-by-case basis. The approach used here for reinterpreting Jesus' descent into hell, for example, would not neces-sarily work in discussions of other creedal statements, especially those with more historically verifiable claims. 3. The distinction between a theological formula and the truth it discloses can be upheld on the basis of the analogy of human language. As with language, the Aposdes' Creed is a complex system of symbols that seeks to convey an intricate web of meaning. While all trans-lations of that meaning from one language to others are themselves interpretations (some better than others), we maintain that translations are not only possible but some-times absolutely required. This claim is all the more true for the church's proclamation of the Gospel, which at one and the same time must remain faithful to the apos-tolic tradition and relevant to the spiritual needs of each generation. 4. The choice of the phrase "alienation from the divine" as the existential equivalent to the Christian doctrine of hell has much in its favor. The term "alienation" is used 64.2 2005 Billy * Reaching the Alienated Heart by many spiritual writers today and, when taken to an extreme, conveys a sense of the intense pain and isolation experienced in a life marked by a total absence of God. The knowledge, moreover, that there are different degrees of alienation (from simple noninclusion to total estrange-ment) brings new insights in the Catholic doctrine of purgatory. If hell is the state of being in which individuals have become so alienated from God that they can no longer open their hearts to God's compassionate love, then pur-gatory represents that state of being where alienated hearts still can be moved to conversion. Seen in this light, the final judgment is not an external ruling exercised by Christ at the end of time, but the simple recognition that per-sons' choices in life have a cumulative effect on their hearts. 5. Finally, Jesus' death on the cross, his descent into hell, and his resurrection from the dead do not bring an end to humanity's existential condition of alienation from the divine, but begin its healing. Jesus' descent into hell was not a single, one-time event, but a continuous engag-ing with humanity's alienation from the divine. Because Jesus' redemptive action occurs both in and out of time, he continues to empty himself for us to this very day by descending into the throes of our alienation from God in order to make of it a new creation. V~at has changed for us as a result of his redemptive action is that, in the midst of this alienation, we can hear a still small voice from deep within our hearts calling us by name and affirming God's compassionate and abounding love for us. That voice is the Spirit, the bond of love between the Father and the Son, who wishes not only to speak but also to dwell within our hearts. Jesus' redemptive action makes it possible for us to live a life in the Spirit. This descent into hell is a stark reminder of what our lives would be like without him. While these observations do not exhaust the insights Review for Religious that this interpretation of Jesus' descent into hell has to offer, they demonstrate that doctrine can be both con-tinuous with the past and relevant to the spiritual sensi-tivities of today's believers. We have seen that this descent can be understood as Jesus' proclamation of the truth of his resurrection even to those who have com-pletely alienated themselves from the divine love. Although God's love for humanity is deep and plen-tiful, Jesus was well aware that not everyone would be ready to accept his message of forgiveness and intimate friendship with the divine. He experienced rejection dur-ing his public ministry and fully expected the same (if not worse) when he journeyed to hell by way of his grue-some and bloody death by crucifixion. This knowledge, however, did not prevent him from proclaiming his trans-forming message of God's love in the realm of the dead. On the contrary, it emboldened him. The point of this essay is that this shadowy realm lies not in some dark, murky Sheol beneath the pillars of the earth, but deep in the human heart. Even today Jesus goes there to proclaim his message and bring an end to humanity's primal alienation from God. Although the message he preaches is a source of vexation to many (hence the well-known phrase "harrowing of hell"), many whose hearts have not been completely hardened will listen to it and be moved to repentance. In the final analysis, Jesus' descent into hell affirms that the Good News is destined to be proclaimed not just to the ends of the earth, but to the heights and depths of reality itself, especially the heights and depths of the human heart. "God is everywhere," as we learned from our penny catechism--even in hell. He is present not only by virtue of keeping things in existence, but also by virtue of his word, the healing message of hope he carries to our fallen and alienated humanity. 127 64.2 2005 Billy ¯ Reaching the Alienated Heart Notes *Catechism of the Catholic Church (Rome: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1994), p. 53, §§194 and 196. 2 Ronald Rolheiser, The Restless Heart: Finding Our Spiritual Home in Times of Loneliness (New York: Doubleday, 2004), p. 43. 3 For more on iconography and Jesus' descent into hell, see M. Helen Weier, Festal Icons of the Lord (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1977), pp. 41-44. 128 Mother and Son She sits in the half lit room, eyes half closed in prayer. Outside, it is still dark, and all in the house but her are asleep. She looks up as the room fills with light, a new day breaking, the light like none she or anyone else has ever seen. Although it is not whiter than snow, the light of the angel at the tomb, to see it would frighten most. But she, with a light of her own, greater than that of angels, knows she has nothing to fear from this light of purest love. Kevin Bezner Re~ie~ for Religious BONAVENTURE STEFUN Feet First into Resurrection ~ nly with the beginnings of scholasticism in the 1 lth or 12th century was there a careful and sys-tematic distinguishing of sacraments from sacramentals. In 1274 the Council of Lyons (DS 860) listed the church's seven sacraments. In earlier centuries, preach-ers would include various actions in Christian life as grace-giving sacraments/sacramentals, without con-trasting them. One action of Christ commonly followed was his washing of his disciples' feet at the Last Supper. In an age when most travel was by foot, one would think that people would take feet for granted--take them in stride and ignore them. Once people's feet developed calluses, it would seem that they could go on forever with a minimum of care. Paul blithely considered feet to be less majestic parts of the body, even though essen-tial for carrying the faith beyond the mountains. As insignificant as feet would have seemed, people could not forget what the Master had done. One can imagine Peter welcoming visitors to his place of abode with a basin and a towel. Feet took on such an importance that 129 Bonaventure Stefun OFMCap writes this reflective article from St. Augustine Friary; 221-36th Street; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15201. 64.2 2005 Stefun ¯ Feet First into Resurrection washing guests' feet was seen as a kind of sacrament in the church for hundreds of years. Imagine how the concept of a body's importance may have developed in the early church. First came the gru-eling crucifixion and then the gradual realization of res-urrection, both actions involving the Lord's body. What Jesus did in washing the apostles' feet became a way of understanding his res-urrection, for it was a complete and natural demonstration of his incarnation, his embod-ied life on earth. His concern for a lowly part of the human anatomy reminds us that his own mortality came from his human makeup. Disciples could simply follow footsteps into the theology of a Lord who could die and then be raised from the dead. The story began on Easter Sunday. Once the Sabbath restrictions were ended, disconsolate women set out for the tomb where their Master had been quickly buried. These were the women from Galilee who used to accom-pany Jesus and his Twelve. They liked to prepare the lit-tle that he ate and to minister to his various needs, tiny as those needs usually were. This time, with desolate hearts, they wanted to per-form their final service with all their deepest love. They wanted to provide for Jesus' body the anointing that had to be cut short when the Sabbath followed so closely on his dying. Their hearts were filled with love and with an overflowing sorrow, the ambivalent feelings the living experience in taking care of the dead. All those feelings were suddenly turned to alarm as Review for Religious they drew close to the tomb. It was gapingly open, and they could see that it was empty. Immediately they feared desecration or vandalism or strong intimidation on the part of the soldiers or the city's leaders. In their bewil-derment the women turned back to their homes, stum-bling along in stunned silence.lust a short way along their return road, the)~ were jolted to a stop. There was .Jesus, just standing there, not a desecrated corpse but alert and fully alive. He lifted his hand in silent bless-ing and greeting. He had come on purpose, knowing the familiar road they would use. Without hesitation the women knelt in a cluster and embraced his feet. Their prostration was typical enough for their day, more than just a simple bow when paying respect to a beloved teacher. Disciples would kneel to acknowledge how superior the person was who taught them and made sense of life's daily struggles. This time, embracing their Master's feet implied something even greater than deep respect. Jesus himself had embraced his disciples' feet with his hands, washing their feet and drying them with the padded caress of a towel. The women marveled when they heard the Apostles tell the story. Once that ritual of washing feet was completed on the solemn occasion of his last meal with them, Jesus told his disciples to do what he had done, and they told others. This would be a sign that they were.Jesus' disci-ples. The whirlwind events of the next days prevented any development of the new rite of service, but all would have been thinking of his command to wash one another's feet, serve one another, love one another just as Jesus loved each of them. Even the children would have to be part of this new and loving ritual of washing feet. Jesus said plainly that all such service, even to the very least, was really done for him. 131 t~4.2 200~ Stefun * Feet First into Resurrection The Gospel of John On 12:3-7) subtly connects this foot-washing by Jesus with the tearful washing and costly anointing of Jesus' feet by a woman of tarnished reputa-tion in the house of Simon the Pharisee (Lk 7:37-38, Mk 14:3-8, Mt 26:7-12). Judas called the flood of oil a dread-ful extravagance. We all are inclined to thoughts like that, John seems to imply, and perfumed oil belongs on the head, not the feet! It certainly seemed wasteful until Jesus said it was part of the preparation for his burial. Now, on the road returning home, the women real-ized that the pre-burial anointing by one or two women was more important to Jesus than what they were attempting to do by going to his tomb early in the morn-ing. He seemed to accept that anointing of his feet at a Pharisee's interrupted dinner as a special sign, a sign which indicated an intense love and an immense faith. John suggests in his Gospel that the woman, named Mary, was showing the kind of reverence a body deserves that brings God's presence into salvation history. Jesus kept saying that he knew he was about to be executed. He would die and bring about forgiveness of sin, and he would do it through his body. He would put his body into total submission to God, and in dying he would trust the Father to take care of him, including his body, and even his feet. The woman herself seemed to be saying the same thing with her aromatic anointing. The body she anointed would not carry the stench of corruption but rather the fragrance of God's presence. In accepting this service for his burial, Jesus was indicating that he had no fear of physical corruption after death. Psalm 16 had long before assured him of his Father's intervention to keep his body from decay. He needed just to trust his Father, to live by faith as completely as he asked his dis-ciples to do. Review for Religious As the women of Easter Sunday embraced their Lord's feet along a familiar road, they understood the fuller meaning of washing and anointing feet. They con-eluded that every washing was also an anointing, a prepa-ration for his burial. All the daily care for little children and other needy persons was part of his burial, as were all the care and respect shown for the bodies of persons who had died. The very care became the perfume of love and the promise that the Father would be present even when bod-ies succumbed in death. What this woman did in anointing his feet, Jesus said, would be recalled wher-ever he would be remembered and his gospel proclaimed. When he made this remark, it seemed like simple grati-tude on his part, but he was really saying that every dis-ciple of his could help prepare his body for burial. Their daily acts of service to their brothers and sisters would be an anointing with perfumed oil, a symbol of God's presence and a pledge of resurrection, his own first, and then that of all his disciples. It was natural for people in the early church to con-clude that the washing of feet was a kind of sacrament, a sign of the Lord's presence and a channel of grace. Gradually, in the course of centuries, feet became pam-pered by socks and sturdy shoes and comfortable trans-portation and no longer looked forward, upon arriving, to the soothing removal of mud and dust. Not just tramping feet but all parts of a Christian's body took on the role of signifying the body of Christ. Can we, like Jesus, in dying, trust the Father ~to take care of us, including our body, and even our feet ? 133 64.2 2005 Stefun ¯ Feet First into Resurrection Instead of a washing only, at baptismal rites the body would be anointed, as it would also at confirmation and the sacrament of orders. Often a healing anointing would be given to the sick, and the sacrament of healing addressed the greater healing of sin's wounds and the grand hope of sharing in our Lord's risen life. In these latter-day circumstances, the washing of feet has taken on the appearance of an act of penance and humility, a virtuous act, but no longer a sort of sacra-ment like the seven described by the Councils of Lyons, Florence, and Trent. Not just the washing of feet, but all thoughtful care of others used to be understood as a path toward understanding and being involved in Christ's dying and rising. If feet no longer need gentle washing as a matter of kind hospitality, some other service in Jesus' name for a poor child or a travel-worn person on life's journey would keep Jesus' disciples aware day by day of him dying and rising among us, or us dying and rising in him. Questions for Reflection and Discussion Questions for personal reflection and group discussion: 1. How do we understand our Catholic distinction between sacraments and sacramentals? Perhaps we may need to review "Sacramental, in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Part Two, Chapter Four. 2. We experience the washing of the feet during the Holy Thursday Eucharistic celebration. Have we experienced other sacramental moments during the Eucharist or other Catholic prayer service? Why was this action sacramental for us? Review for Religious JAMES F. KEENAN Framing the Ethical Rights of Priests Lately priests have been writing and signing a variety of statements. For-instance, on 9 December 2002 fifty-eight Boston priests signed a letter calling for the resignation of Cardinal Bernard Law. In a letter of 1 October 2003, priests of Rockville Centre called for a meeting with Bishop William Murphy over "widespread dissatisfaction" with his leadership. The priests of Chicago wrote an open letter to the hierarchy about the tone and content of church leaders' remarks about gay and lesbian persons, a letter subsequently adopted by priests of Rochester (New York) and Boston. Then there Was the let-ter of last August signed by more than 160 priests in Milwaukee calling for a married clergy. Amazing actions inasmuch as many cannot remember during the 1980s or 1990s any other James F. Keenan SJ has written for us twice before, in 1992 and 1996. His address is Theology Department; Boston College; Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467. taking account 135 64.2 2005 Keenan ¯ Framing the Ethical Rights of Priests such letters written by priests. Thus, it seems relevant for a Catholic moral theologian to ask: Do priests have a right to do this? A~dmittedly, in each instance the letters are admoni-tory at most, yet they are concerned with influencing the bishop and/or the bishops' conference. As the priests in Rockville Centre noted in their letter, as "your brother priests., we believe that [we] may have a special role." Do they? Before answering that question, I need to ask three prior questions. First, how much have moral theologians assisted priests? Second, how interested would priests be in the assistance of moral theologians? Third, how appropriate is rights language for speaking about the priesthood? After answering these questions I will pro-pose four specific ethical rights for priests. Question 1: How much have moral theologians assisted priests? The answer to the first question is simple: Not much. Strange as it may seem, priests and bishops rarely receive any professional training from moral theologians. Those who study at seminaries, divinity schools, or schools of theology do not have the type of ethical training that those at other professional schools receive. Students at business, medical, or law schools take ethics courses that address the ethical issues relevant to their particular pro-fession. They are taught the responsibilities and rights specific to their profession: matters of representation, confidentiality, whistle-blowing, client expectations, priv-ileges, promotions, evaluations, conflicts of interest, pro-fessional boundaries, and so forth. This type of ethical training is not found at most seminaries, divinity schools, or schools of theology, even though many students take two, three, or four courses of Review for Religious Christian ethics. Divinity students and seminarians gen-erally do not study the ethical demands, responsibilities, rights, obligations, and privileges specific to their voca-tion. Rather, they study the ethical norms and relevant circumstances regarding the laity's sexual relations and the attendant reproductive issues, the social ethics of governments and businesses, and the medical ethics of physicians and nurses. That is, those in ministry are taught how to govern and make ethically accountable the members of their congregations. But, generally speaking, they are not taught by what ethical reasoning, insights, or norms they should govern themselves ethi-cally. A priest, therefore, knows much, much more about birth control and in-vitro fertilization than he knows about the demands of confidentiality, the principle of subsidiarity, or the right treatment of employees. This same alienation is found in canon-law courses. When seminarians study canon law, they learn more about whether a married couple can get an annulment than the rights and responsibilities incumbent on their own state in life. Ask a priest what he should do if his vicar says to him, "An accusation has been filed against you; I deem it credible; you have two-hours to leave the rectory." Few would know what rights belong to him. But tell him that you want to marry a person who while belonging to another Christian denomination married a person in a non-Christian wedding but subsequently entered that denomination and then they both sought the blessing of a minister (of yet another denomination) and he will be able to explain to you whether and why your intended needs to file for an annulment. Priests learn a lot about how to direct others, but not about what pertains to themselves. That being said, there have been a few recent signs of change. As early as 1996 the moral theologian Richard 64.2 2005 Keenan ¯ Framing the Ethical Rights of Priests Gula wrote his Ethics in Pastoral Ministry (Paulist Press). Gula has spoken around the country about the need to develop such training. The Protestant ethicist Karen Lebacqz has likewise written and spoken extensively on the topic. More recendy, facing the crisis here in Boston, Edward Vacek, Stephen Pope, and Lisa Sowle Cahill have written and spoken in a variety of places about the need for professional ethics in the church. With the Mennonite theologian Joseph Kotva, I edited Practice What You Preach: Virtues, Ethics, and Power in the Lives of Pastoral Ministers and Their Congregations, which con-tained twenty-six essays by Christian ethicists from a dozen denominations reflecting on the need to develop more ethically accountable lives of service and leader-ship. Interestingly, though all the contributors were well-known, most of them had never written on ethical issues internal to church life. In order to help readers get an idea of the scope of issues facing people in ministry, the writers in our col-lection offered ethical guidance for individual church leaders and their communities and dealt with issues such as disillusionment and deference in clerical life, semi-nary admissions policies, candidacy programs, pastoral assignments, staff salaries, liturgical celebrations, and the practices of collegiality and subsidiarity. These initial exercises by moral theologians illustrate, then, just how much work we need to do to assist the clergy in their professional service to the church. But that leads to the second question. Question 2: How interested would the clergy be in moral theologians' assistance? That answer is simple: It all depends on the priest, for there is no consensus among priests about the need of professional ethics. The reason for this is, in part, the Review for Religious differences among them regarding their own under-standing of themselves and of episcopal decision making. The first difference is how they privilege one dimen-sion of their ministerial identity over another. Admittedly, all understand themselves as having the status of ordina-tion and yet being called to service. But they look at that double identity with specific preferences. In a wonderful new book, Evolving Visions of the Priesthood (Liturgical Press, 2003), Dean Hoge and Jacqueline Wenger asked the clergy whether there is a new status or permanent character conferred by ordina- Because status privileges the clergy as liping in a"distinct world, establishing a professional ethics for them Can be especially challenging. tion. When they first asked that question in 1970, only 52 percent of those aged 26-35 said yes, while 88 percent of those aged 56-65 said yes. But now, more than thirty years later, 68 percent of those once young priests now between 56-65 answered yes, while an enormous 95 per-cent of those 26-35 said yes. That is, thirty years ago the younger the priests were, the less inclined they were to be concerned~with the status question; today the younger they are, the more they are so inclined. Because status privileges the clergy as living in a distinct world, establishing a professional ethics for them can be espe-cially challenging. The second difference correlates with the first. Those priests more inclined to understand themselves as ordained and set apart are more comfortable with earlier forms of episcopal decision making, while those more inclined to identifying themselves with their ministerial service are looking for more professional standards. The 139 64.2 2005 Keenan ¯ Framing the Ethical Rights of Priests former tend to look at ecclesial bureaucracy with esteem and are satisfied with their fraternal and paternal expres-sions. Similarly they are comfortable with the way the Roman curia proceeds. Those who prefer service look to the world of the professional where the norms of con-duct are posted and expectations regarding promotions, decision making, and power sharing are public and clear. Thus the way a priest identifies himself also tends to develop into where he looks for standards of authority. We might be surprised by the way these differing tendencies look at canon law. Those who see themselves as having a set status are comfortable with exercises of local episcopal authority and prefer the bishop's admin-istrative or executive judgment to the actual application of the law. The men who want clarity and norms are more likely to want reform of clerical culture, and toward that end they often turn to their professional identity as expressed in canon law. These tendencies play out similarly in the contem-porary problematic of removing priests. Priests who understand themselves as ordained and set apart prefer episcopal exercise of administrative power to resolve matters. Priests who understand themselves primarily as servants favor canonical procedures. These dividing lines are applicable not only to the clergy but to the laity's relationship with the clergy. It ought not to be surprising, then, that the champions of the right of accused priests to receive due process and juridical appeal are more often those who tend to orga-nizations like Voice of the Faithful. One layperson, Catherine Henningsen, frequently addresses VOTF chap-ters and calls the removal of priests without due process "the most underreported aspect of the pedophilic crisis" and labels it "the second wave of abuse on the part of many bishops." She follows step by step the normative Review for Religious procedures that bishops should follow, that the clergy should expect, and that the laity ought to oversee. Her work highlights the natural affinity between VOTF and freestanding priests' organizations like the Boston Priests Forum and New York's Voice of the Ordained, which look to guarantee the rights of accused priests. But other priests--those who are more comfortable with ecclesial administrative judgments--are strong critics of Henningson, seeing her work as opportunistic. A final set of tendencies among priests is how they distinguish the private from the public. Priests inclined to understand themselves primarily as separated from oth-ers usually are less inclined to find relevance in the dis-tinction between the private and the public. Priests inclined to service, professional standards, and canon law give the distinction great weight. These feel that they should have private living quarters and be able to dress as they want on their vacation days. Some also see celibacy as an unnecessary intrusion into their private lives. I propose these rights, then, not to extend the divide, but to offer a context in which priests tending in either direction can discuss them, Moreover, I propose them, not as a manifesto or as a confrontational stance for those priests and laypersons who prefer the more service-ori-ented professional model. Rather, I offer a modest pro-posal to both sides of the aisle, and to those as well who try to bridge those aisles. Hopefully, it may let us find common ground upon which we can find agreement rather than disagreement. Question 3: Is rights language appropriate? The answer here is also simple: Yes. I use the word "rights" not as a canonist does, that is, as a very specific right that the Code of Canon Law recognizes; but rather as what moral theologians and Christian social ethicists 141 64.2 2005 Keenan ¯ Framing the Ethical Rights of Priests mean when we talk of the right to food, or work, or healthcare, that is, as an ethical right. Certainly, I propose these with the hope that they may be' eventually articu-lated into canonical precepts, but I do not claim that they necessarily have canonical force now. Moreover, I do not see rights as some sort of volun-taristic assertions of power over and against others; rather, I see rights language as springing from acom- " Way, b foreright . .language appeared in modern liberal democracies, righis Were fi. dt , trinsic .the,. good munity of faith looking to see how its mem-bers can best protect the good of the whole church and its specific members. Following Brian Tierney (The Idea of Natural Rigbts: Studies on Natural Rights, Natural Law, and Church Law, 11 Y0- 162$), I believe that rights were originally recognized by l lth- and 12th-century theologians and canonists who tried to articulate those that belonged to popes, bishops, the clergy, and other church members, not as inimical to the life of the church, but as constitu-tive of the church. In other words, way before rights lan-guage appeared in modern liberal democracies, rights were first expressed as intrinsic to the good of the church. Finally, as Aristotle taught us, ethics is for the com-munity, and asserting the ethical rights of priests is cer-tainly not at the cost of the community, but rather for its benefit. Thus, to the extent that these rights are not respected, to that extent not only priests but the com-munity of the church, its own very communio, suffer. Book II of the Code of Canon Law outlines the obli- Review for Religious gations and rights of all the Christian faithful (cc. 204- 223). The first set of rights and obligations belongs to the laity (cc. 224-231), and eventually the Code turns to the rights and obligations of the clergy (cc. 273-289). Here we find three canonical rights: of association, to a vaca-tion, and to fitting and decent remuneration. Instead of these three canonical rights, I propose four "ethical" ones: the right of priests to share respectfully in the episcopal ministry of the local ordinary, the right of association, the right to exercise their ministry, and the right to fair treatment. I propose these rights as modes of helping the church to further understand the way priests today should ethically live and serve in the church. The Right to Share Respectfully in the Bishop's Ministry The first right echoes one that was discussed in the revision of the Code of Canon Law, "the right of coop-erating with the bishop in the exercise of his ministry." It is the right being implicitly invoked and exercised by priests in their recent letters to bishops and bishops' conferences. John Lynch, a canon lawyer who has written on the rights of priests, frequently asserts that the "cleric shares in the episcopal ministry." Interestingly, he roots his claim precisely in the first canon in the section on rights and obligations, canon 273: "Clerics are bound by a spe-cial obligation to show reverence and obedience to the supreme pontiff and their own ordinary." Lynch's claim is derived from three Vatican Council II documents. The Decree on the Ministry and Life of Priests (Presbyterorum ordinis, §7) says: "Priestly obedi-ence, inspired through and through by the spirit of coop-eration, is based on that sharing of the episcopal ministry which is conferred on priests by the sacrament of order 64.2 2005 Keenan ¯ Framing the Ethical Rights of Priests and the canonical mission." Similarly, The Bishops' Pastoral Office (Christus Dominus, §28) says: "All priests, whether diocesan or religious, share and exercise with the bishop the one priesthood of Christ." Finally, Lumen gentium §28 declares: "The bishop is to regard his priests, who are his coworkers, as sons and friends, just as Christ called his disciples no longer servants but friends." Interestingly, the special obedience that the cleric owes his bishop is based on his sharing in the episcopal min-istry itself. This ethical right is found not only in the Code, its commentary, and Vatican documents. It is found also in the rite of ordination. The first question the bishop asks the ordinand is: "Are you resolved, with the help of the Holy Spirit, to discharge without fail the office of priest-hood in the presbyteral order as a conscientious fellow worker with the bishops in caring for the Lord's flock?" Then in the prayer of consecration we hear the bishop say: "Lord, grant also to us such fellow workers, for we are weak and our need is greater. Almighty Father, grant to this servant of yours the dignity of the priesthood. Renew within him the Spirit of holiness. As a coworker with the order of bishops, may he be faithful to the min-istry that he receives from you, Lord God, and be to others a model of right conduct." In sum, various foun-dational texts recognize the priest as having a share in the exercise of episcopal authority. For this to be conveyed as a right, I suggest that it would be implied in "respect-ful" sharing. When we hear of priests' repeated unsuccessful attempts to meet with their ordinary, we learn that this right is not adequately recognized. In fact, when we note the phenomenon of public letters written and signed by priests, we ought to see this not so much as an indication of that right being exercised, but rather as expressing frus- Review for Religious tration that the presumed right has been ignored. Priests are "going public" because in many instances the right has been long bypassed. When routinely exercised and recognized, the right would foster community, the life of the diocese, and the credibility of episcopal leadership. The Right of Association The right of sharing in the ministry of the bishop leads to fostering right relations among the clergy through association. Canon 275, ~1, states: "Since cler-ics all work for the same purpose, namely, the building up of the Body of Christ, they are to be united among themselves by a bond of brotherhood and prayer and strive for cooperation among themselves according to the prescripts of particular law." Immediately after this paragraph, the Code adds, "Clerics are to acknowledge and promote the mission which the laity, each for his or her part, exercises in the church and in the world." Thus, associations of clerics have reason not to create separa-tion from laypersons, but rather to promote their involvement. In fact, in an earlier draft of the Code, priests were called to recognize the laity's mission; in the promulgated Code they are called to promote it. Though canon 215 defined the right of all the Christian faithful, both lay and clergy, to form associa-tions, canon 278 establishes it as the first canonical right for priests. The Code reads: "Secular clerics have the right to associate with others to pursue purposes in keep-ing with the clerical state." This is the first time that canon law recognized this ethical right. Moreover, in developing the revised Code, the com-mission rejected a proposal that placed associations of priests under the local ordinary. To do so would be to infringe on the exercise of the very right that was being promulgated. 64.2 2005 Keenan * Framing the Ethical Rights of Priests The Code derives its inspiration from the natural law and from the writings of previous pontiffs. For instance, in his encyclical Pacem in terris (§24), Pope John xxIII upholds the natural right to assemble and says that peo-ple "have also the right to give the societies of which they are members the form they consider most suitable for the aim they have in view." He adds: "It is most necessary that a wide variety of societies or intermediate bodies be established equal to the task of accomplishing what the individual cannot by himself efficiently achieve. These societies., are to be regarded as an indispensable means in safeguarding the dignity and liberty of the human per-son, without harm to his sense of responsibility." Thus from the natural law, our own experience, papal encyclicals, and the Code itself, we recognize the ethical right of priests to form associations. Throughout the United States we have seen in the past few years free-standing priests' associations emerge (the Boston Priests Forum, New York's Voice of the Ordained). This ethical right validates these groups. Their recent initiatives to form local movements are congruent with good thinking within the church. Moreover, these organizations do not replace presbyteral councils, but represent a few of what Pope John xxIII referred to as the "wide varieties" of gatherings necessary for human flourishing. The Right to Exercise Their Ministry While priests have an obligation to exercise their priestly ministry, they also have a right to exercise that ministry according to their particular judgment. Here we can think of pastors, for instance, who must discern whether this particular couple is actually ready to get married in the church. And there are instances where the appropriate place or time for a child's baptism is something that pastors must discern. Review for Religqous The question of the exercise of ministry was raised recently by the Boston Priests Forum regarding preach-ing. They wanted to reflect on what is at stake when the chancery defends a particular value and a pastor won-ders whether he ought to raise in his sermon another possibly competitive value. To what degree is he called to exercise his ministry as expressing his particular voca-tion? In the USCCB document on Sunday homilies Fulfilled in Your Hearing, we find the bishops calling the pastor to listen to the Scriptures and to the congregation and to respond to that listening. Is there something that hap-pens existentially in that listening that could prompt the pastor to hear the needs of the laity of his parish in some other way than what a statement from the chancery may convey? Could there also be times when laypersons believe that something beyond what the chancery has articulated needs to be recognized? And if the cleric, in all this listening, is also obliged "to foster peace and har-mony based on justice" as canon 287 states, could he find himself eventually perceiving an obligation in con-science to respond as a preacher of the Word to the par-ticular congregation he serves? This is not advocacy for rebel priests. Rather it rec-ognizes both the context in which a cleric exercises his ministry and the process by which he comes to articulate the sermon and other forms of ministry. Though by his faculties a priest exercises his ministry at the bishop's pleasure, there seems to be another claim on the priest that comes not from the bishop directly, but from the people whom the priest serves. If the priest is to truly promote peace and justice and communio, it seems that in discerning how to do so he needs to rely on something in addition to the bishops' particular will. Like other expressions of his ministry that he shares with the bishop 147 64.2 200~ Keenan * Framing the Ethical Rights of Priests and with the laity, a priest's preaching calls for a consci-entious integrity to witness to the gospel as he sees it expressed in his midst. The Right to Fair Treatment To appreciate this right we need to turn to the zero-tolerance policy as it appears (§§56-60) in the Report on the Crisis in the Catholic Church in the United States by the National Review Board for the Protection of Children and Young People. There the ten lay authors note that the policy "was deemed necessary because some bishops and religious superiors in their assessment of sexual abuse of minors by priests under their authority badly under-estimated the seriousness of the misconduct and harm to victims, and allowed wrongdoers to continue in posi-tions of ministry, from which they went on to harm oth-ers." They conclude: "To prevent any recurrence of such situations, the charter and essential norms remove any further discretion on the part of bishops and religious superiors in this regard." But what, then, is the net effect on an offending priest? Here the report notes: "Accordingly, the zero-tolerance policy applies without regard to any assess-ment of the degree of culpability of an offending priest based upon such factors as (i) the nature of the sexual act (e.g., the improper touching of a fully clothed teenager versus the sodomization of a child), (ii) the fre-quency of abuse (e.g., an isolated event versus a pro-tracted history), or (iii) efforts to address the problem (e.g., successful treatment of a problem that had led to an act of abuse years ago versus untreated problems that manifested themselves more recently). The policy also applies with equal fbrce to a priest who reports himself as having engaged in an act of abuse in an effort to obtain help with his problem." Review for Religious Fair treatment usually observes some form of due proportionality. And, though the review board acknowl-edges objections from a variety of observers about the fairness and effectiveness of the policy and though they write "the zero-tolerance policy may seem to be too blunt an instrument for universal application," they believe, nonetheless, "that for the immediate future the zero-tolerance policy is essential to the restoration of the trust of the laity in the leadership of the church, provided that it is appropriately applied. In assessing individual cases in order to determine whether the priest engaged in an act of sexual abuse of a minor, the bishops must consult with the diocesan lay review board, so that they may strive for individualized justice in light of their developing experience and expertise." The report's caveat with regard to appropriate pro-cedures and diocesan lay review could serve, then, as a witness to the fair treatment of priests, but that witness needs to be guaranteed by the national review commit-tee as it endorses the zero-tolerance policy. Inasmuch as review boards recognize disparity regarding their role and the application of appropriate procedures, they need to witness to priests' rights as well as to the rights of the laity, especially children. Finally, they acknowledge "that any discussion of the charter's zero-tolerance provision would be incomplete without noting that there is no equivalent policy of zero tolerance for bishops o.r provincials who allowed preda-tor priests to remain in or return to ministry despite knowledge of the risks. In fact, in the minds of some priests, the impression was created that the Dallas char- Fair treatment usually observes some form of due proportionality. 64.2 200~ Keenan ¯ Framing the Ethical Rights of Priests 1501 ter and the essential norms were the bishops' attempt to deflect criticism from themselves and onto individual priests . Priests, who now stand uneasily under a sword of Damocles, with their every action scrutinized, under-standably may ask why the bishops do not face such con-sequences if they fail to abide by the charter. This distinction has deteriorated the relationship between priests and bishop." The report concludes this section stating that the bishops "must show that they are willing to accept responsibility and consequences for poor leadership." Fairness then cuts two ways. Not only ought due pro-portionality emerge somehow in the treatment of accused and offending priests, but priests alone cannot and should not bear the weight of the scandal. If a zero-tolerance policy is applied to priests, where is an analogous policy for the scandalous bishops? The scandal will only come to rest when justice has been served, but an inequitable justice is not justice. The national review board has, then, two more responsibili-ties: They must somehow guarantee that due process and due proportionality are granted to priests, and they must hold proportionally accountable both the offending priests and the offending bishops. I want to conclude on a hopeful note. When we read the report, there is the impression that the writers are talking to two constituencies: the bishops and the laity. Regarding priests, they are more talking about them than talking to them. This has been in large measure a com-mon way that judges, reporters, advocates, and others have proceeded. Everyone tries to engage the bishops in order to talk about priests. I propose these four rights--one about participatory leadership, another about right to associate, a third about ministerial vocation, the fourth about fairness--with the hope that these may further encourage the voice of the Review for Religious clergy. Throughout these recent years, when occasionally, though not at all often enough, priests have addressed either the harm and shame attached to the abuse of chil-dren or the rights of the laity and bishops, they have usually done so in the place that they are called to be: the parish pulpit. I suggest that if priests begin to recognize the rights due them--especially at a time when many find themselves, as the report states, demoralized--they might in turn be more vocal from that pulpit in recog-nizing the rights of others and in fostering the communio that the Church so desperately needs. Healing grace always accompanies restorative justice. My Novitiate When I arrived, I was bankrupt: empty, nicotine-stained, desperate, hungry and broke. I had been robbed by those who loved me. The vault held nothing sacred. The bed you gave me was comfortable. I hardly felt the stretching. You smiled and I hoped. Copper penny joy clinked as it hit the floor and echoed in my soul. One by one, the nickels came. Prayer became my treasure. I grew rich with coins of every size. Celibacy became an asset, obedience, my wealth. Who knew that poverty could h'old so much? Finally that time has come. At profession I ask. "Where now may I spend?" Grace Gallant $SM 64.2 2005' ANNE MUNLEY Faith and Solidarity in Action At the heart of religious life is a conviction that the healing and liberating mission of Jesus is for all times and all peoples. This grand mission, the impe-tus for apostolic energy and service, is succinctly stated in the Gospel of John: "I came that they may have life and have it abundantly" (Jn 10:10). The mission of bear-ing life is common to women religious throughout the world. Though of many cultures, the nearly one million women religious in today's world are of one heart in pas-sionate commitment to bringing to birth God's dream of unity, justice, peace, and abundance of life for all. Brought into existence to support leaders of women's religious congregations and to link congregations in ful-filling their life-giving mission of love and service, the International Union of Superiors General (UISG) holds a plenary session every three years to bring members together in an atmosphere of prayer and support to con- Anne Munley IHM, a member of the Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (Scranton, Pennsylvania), is director of Programs and Social Mission at the International Union of Superiors General (UISG); Piazza di Ponte Sant'Angelo 28; 00186 Roma; Italy. Review for Religious sider urgent matters facing religious life and God's peo-ple. In May 2004 almost eight hundred members gath-ered in Rome for five days to reflect on the theme "Women Disciples of Jesus--Bearers of Reconciliation for Our World." This was an apt theme at a time when millions of people in various parts of the world are suf-fering the consequences of war, violence, abuse of power, and divisions of every kind. Before coming to the UISG plenary session, each con-gregational leader was asked to reflect prayerfully on the following scriptural passage: "For anyone who is in Christ, there is a new creation . It is all God's work. It was God who reconciled us to himself, and gave us the work of handing on this reconciliation" (2 Co 5:17- 18). Those planning the session also requested that each participant, bring a symbol that reflected efforts of the sisters of her congregation to enter into God's work of reconciliation in those parts of the world in which the congregation ministers. Since UISG consists of approx-imately thirty-five regional groups called constellations, delegates representing the constellations were similarly requested to bring pertinent symbols. To engage all UISG members in reflection on the theme, the UISG Bulletin (No. 123, 2003, 21-33) pub-lished in five languages an article by Robert Schreiter CPPS tided "A Spirituality of Reconciliation." It explores the biblical basis for a spirituality of reconciliation and suggests five principles that flow from Paul's reflections on reconciliation in 2 Corinthians 5:17-20: (1) Reconciliation is first and foremost the work of God; (2) God's reconciling work begins with the victim; (3) God makes of both victim and wrongdoer a "new creation"; (4) we place our suffering inside the story of the suffer-ing, death, and resurrection of Christ; and (5) full rec-onciliation will happen only when God will be all in all. 64.2 2005 Munley ¯ Faith and Solidarity in Action A strength of the UISG plenary session is that it gathers congregational leaders who have direct experience of religious life and the joys and sufferings of people in all parts of theworld. 1,54 Schreiter speaks of wounds the wounds of victims and of those who would help them as entry points for a spirituality of reconciliation that connects people's sto-ries to the story of Jesus, the "wounded healer." This image speaks to the experience of women religious who, though recognizing their woundedness, persist in efforts to bring about reconciliation because through their faith they are enlivened by God's healing action in their lives. For the God of life nothing is impossible. Hope arises out of confidence in what God will bring forth. A strength of the UISG plenary session is that it gath-ers in one place at one time congregational leaders who have direct expe-rience of religious life and the joys and sufferings of people in all parts of the world. In a multicultural and multilingual meet-ing, prayer, ritual, liturgy, music, dance, and other artistic media are path-ways to mutual understanding and relationship. Explanations of con-gregational and constellation symbols enabled partici-pants to enter into situations in need of reconciliation in other parts of the world and to glimpse the realities of women religious seeking to respond to various circum-stances crying out for healing. It was a humbling expe-rience to hear stories of what being called to be "bearers of reconciliation" means in different parts of the world. Some were stories of steadfast witness in the face of incomprehensible human suffering. Table conversations Review for Religious helped us to understand the stories more intimately, to see into these stories with the "eyes" and "hearts" of oth-ers. Prayer, ritual, and a Power Point presentation of images of people's needs and of sisters' endeavors towards reconciliation and healing provided an enriching pre-lude for further theological development of the theme by Diane Bergant CSA. Working with the biblical accounts of the reconciliation of Jacob and Esau and of Joseph and his brothers, Bergant stressed that it is will-ingness to forgive on the part of the one offended that opens up possibilities for reconciliation and healing of relationships. Participants reflected as well on stories of particular efforts to bring reconciliation to painful situations within the church, society, and religious congregations. These stories were told with eloquent simplicity by three con-gregational leaders. They shared personal experiences of serving in leadership at a time when issues of abuse, life-and-death consequences of ethnic and tribal war-fare, and the need to reconcile long-standing congrega-tional divisions demanded great outpouring of time and energy and unremitting trust in the guidance of the Spirit. Sharing on the part of two congregational leaders from Iraq about the impact of the war on the people among whom their sisters minister evoked poignant response and heartfelt expressions of support and soli-darity. These presentations put flesh on what it means to lead as a "wounded healer." What wove the plenary session, together was a reflec-tion model that moved from sharing experiences (see-ing) to situating reflection in the word of God (judging) to acting on the basis of shared convictions. Throughout the session a writing committee gleaned key ideas and various suggested action steps and fashioned them into a 64.2 200~ Munley ¯ Faith and Solidarity in Action draft version that was brought back and discussed, then further revised, and ultimately approved unanimously in an atmosphere of expectant hope and joy. Here is that approved declaration: Declaration of the International Union of Superior.s General Women Disciples of Jesus Christ: Bearers of Reconciliation in Our World For anyone who is in Christ there is a new creation . It is all God's work. It was God who reconciled us to him-self and gave us the work of handing on this reconcilia-tion. (2 Corinthians Y:17-18) We live in a time of extreme violence, a time when lights of hope and reconciliation are desper-ately needed.We are nearly 800 women leaders from 69 countries and five continents. The International Union of Superiors General repre-sents members of Catholic religious institutes in 98 countries throughout the world. We believe that no more important mission exists at this time than to be bearers of the reconciling hope for which the world cries. Believing that reconciliation is God's desire for the world, we humbly declare our reliance upon God, the source of reconciliation and the source of all healing and forgiveness. We know too that we are not alone as we journey with people of many faiths and traditions who long for a reconciled world. We walk with them in our insecurity, fragility, and need for continuous conversion of heart, recognizing our common desire to make inclusive love and the search for truth the basic principles that govern our lives. As leaders we commit ourselves to work with one another, with the members of our institutes and Review for Religious national conferences of religious by: Living a spirituality of reconciliation. We will witness in community this spirituality of compas-sion, respect, courage, truth, and reconciling hope. Proclaiming publicly our commitment to be bear-ers of reconciliation. We will: ¯ collaborate with other associations for justice, res-olution of conflict, and an end to war in all its forms. ¯ use the media to announce an alternative vision, tell stories of reconciliation, and denounce violence and injustice. ¯ create and promote dialogue, understanding, and reconciliation among peoples, cultures, and reli-gions. ¯ intensify efforts toward healing, reconciliation, and right relationships between women and men. ¯ continue to intensify our efforts, as bearers of rec-onciliation in the world, to eradicate the traffick-ing of women and children. ¯ promote the education and formation of women and girls. ¯ be proactive in peace building and in caring for all creation. We move forward as women religious leaders, disciples of Jesus Christ. We are firm in our belief that, in solidarity with others, our members will collaborate in the Spirit's work of transforming the world. While this 2004 UISG declaration is a Wonderful out-come of the plenary session, an even more precious out-come is the strengthening of the "invisible ties" that bind the women religious of the world together in a spirit of solidarity and collaboration. A poetic prayer by Macrina Wiederkehr suggests an image that pertains not only to 64.2 2005 Munley ¯ Faith and Solidarity in Action the work of the UISG session, but also to the ~uture that is yet to be born: On tiptoe we stand, Lord Jesus ,, eagerly awaiting always expecting you to come some more. Our hands and heart are open to your grace. Our lives are still waiting for the fullness of your presence. We are those who have been promised a kingdom, and we can never forget. Yet we have a foot in both worlds and so we stumble. But we stand on tiptoe, owning our-kingdom-loving hearts and our earth-eyes. We lean forward and hope. (Seasons of Your Heart, 69) Those who had been present left the 2004 UISG ses-sion deeply aware that the women religious of the world are indeed "standing on tiptoe" together. Review for Religiou~ MILLIE CARGAS Women Religious in Treatment for Addictions In early childhood Sister Miriam was sexually assaulted by a family member, a parish assistant, and a neighbor down the road. These malefac-tors never had to answer for their uncon-scionable acts, but Sister Miriam (names have been changed) has paid a high price for them. After many years of competent service in the nursing profession, she was directed to go for treatment of her serious addiction to substance abuse. Sister Miriam is not alone. Many other women religious, with differing stories, have ceased functioning healthily in their ministries and communities. "Women religious" means in this article Catholic women who have taken vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience in one or other religious institute or congregation. Sisters with addictions? Women religious in rehabilitative psychological treatment programs is a difficult concept to accept when typical feel-ings toward sisters are of good, giving, self-sac- Millie Cargas is a registered art therapist (ATR), and her address is 127 Park Avenue; St. Louis, Missouri 63122. 64. 2 200Y Cargas ¯ Women Religious in Treatment for Addictions 160 rificing persons. We remember these valiant women as our teachers, as nurses, parish administrators, and other professional helpers. Often they have been highly respected and admired; people have emulated them. They are capable and articulate persons who have for-saken the materialistic world for the kingdom beyond-- and now they need therapeutic treatment? Yes, for they are human. Like all of us, they need help sometimes. No religious order has escaped the scourge of dys-functions caused by addictive behaviors. The life of Sister Anne had spiraled out of control as her weight climbed to a dangerous three hundred pounds. She could no longer play kickball with eager boys or jump rope with high-spirited girls. During a visit to her internist, Sister Anne was sternly warned of imminent death unless she took immediate steps to reduce the strain on heart and lungs. In response she claimed she had always had a weight problem just as her whole family did; it was not her fault, and nothing could be done. Her intractable anger and alarming obesity, however, limited her physical and professional activities severely and made her a difficult, contrary, and noncontributing member of her community. Sister Anne's uncontrolled addiction to food was not only causing havoc in her pro-fessional life, but was deeply affecting all her relation-ships. Though she did not see the need for treatment, leadership mandated it. This is not always the case. A significant number of other sisters ask for help, realizing, as one said, "I can no longer live this way." Humbled, she admitted her powerlessness. There are various treatment centers in North America. To mention a few: Guest House in Lake Orion, Michigan, and Emmaus Community in Elberon, New Jersey, are for sisters only. Behavioral Medicine Institute and St. Louis Consultation Center, both in St. Louis, Review for Religious Missouri, St. Luke's in Silver Spring, Maryland, Ecclesia Center in Girard, Pennsylvania, and Southdown in Ontario, Canada, are for both men and women religious. Before acceptance into a treatment program, the applicant participates in a series of pretreatment evalu-ations comprising interviews by various staff members, extensive psychological test-ing, and a thorough medical exam. Although therapeutic programs vary, the major components are individual counseling, group sessions, physical activities, spiritual direction, and programs tai-lored to individuals. Sister - - William Mary was a master gardener. Itwas her profes-sion. But gambling was her downfall. Her healthcare facility allowed, her to include gardening in her treat-ment program as long as it contributed to her recovery and was not distracting or distancing her from others. A simple definition of art therapy is using artistic materials in therapy or as therapy. Art Therapy Some treatment curriculums have incorporated art therapy as an effective therapy. This is my area of exper-tise. I have worked with Catholic women and men reli-gious for twenty-five years. I have ~ecently conducted several week-long art-therapy workshops specifically for religious women. A simple definition of art therapy is using artistic materials in therapy or as therapy. For exam-ple, the resident is given a subject and asked to paint or draw images and/or abstract designs. The imagery and other graphic dimensions of art therapy offer a unique way of identifying feelings and expressing oneself. It dif-fers considerably from verbal communication, which can 64.2 2005 Cargas ¯ Wo~nen Religious in Treat~nent for Addictions be insufficient or restricting. A case study illustrates this. Sister Katherine had joined a teaching order even though she was woefully shy and became almost inartic-ulate in group settings. She became the community financial officer. To bolster her much-needed self-con-fidence, she went on shopping sprees that her financial .resources were able to fund. This gave her illusions of power that brought her deeper and deeper into her addiction. This irresponsible money management landed her in therapy, Because she had no experience in art, Sister Katherine felt great risk at getting into it. She did so only reluctantly and even ~belligerently. But, to her great surprise and indeed pleasure, she discovered that her images had a way of speaking and engaging others that her hesitant words and extravagant spending had not. This was real progress for her. Understandably, people fear getting into something new. They fear to make mistakes, to expose their lack of artistic ability. They bring up such familiar objections as "I can't draw a straight line" and "I'm no artist" and "I haven't done art since grade school" as they fight the fears of appearing awkward and becoming embarrassed. Finding a new way of expressing oneself in colors, shapes, and designs in either representational or abstract imagery takes courage. Once they get over their fears, their endeavors are often richly rewarded. Some women revealed skills that they were unaware they had. Others had allowed their artistic talent to lie dormant for far too long. But in art therapy, whether or not the persons are artistically skilled, they eventually welcome the opportunity to go beyond words. An art-therapy badge at one convention appropriately declared, "When words are not enough!" The women in the workshops often relish their wordless therapy once they have worked through their initial resist~ince to art therapy or, more Revie~ for Religious commonly, their anger at finding themselves in treat-ment in the first place. Art Therapy Described The actual week-long art-therapy workshops are all group oriented. After a brief introduction I define the type of art which will be used in the workshop. I stress that artistic talent, no matter how people understand it, is less important than each one's own innate creativity and willingness to plunge into the activity. In these cir-cumstances there is no right or wrong way to do art. I emphasize that one cannot make mistakes, and I advise the group to ignore their own all-too-dominating inner critics. I repeatedly state throughout the week that the process is as important as the product, if not more so. Each session begins with a particular focus. Sometimes I hand out a picture, a poem, or a brief essay to assist creativity, and I always have some music played to support the theme. At age seventy-five Sister Jeanne just knew she was not going to like this mandatory part of her treatment program. But, being a prayerful per-son, she would listen to the proposed topics with her eyes closed, allow the music to seep in, and pray to the Holy Spirit for help. And helpful imagery did appear to her receptive mind and soul. She allowed her initial resis-tance to bow out gracefully and opened herself to lis-tening, ready to entertain new possibilities. Sister Jeanne was a pharmacist, and her issue was addiction to pur-loined prescription medicines. Now, if she could open herself up to some new and different perceptions and experiences, perhaps she could also consider trying alter-native ways of alleviating the pain of her arthritic con-dition. The broad themes of art therapy range from fun and pleasure to themes that are darker and more threatening. 64.2 2005 Cargas * Women Religious in Treatment for Addictions The artistic creations take on a life of their own. Sister Ren~, from Germany, had been sexually abused at a very early age. Paradoxically, she had never actually accepted the art-therapy discipline and yet always com-pleted the assignments--though without enthusiasm. Her colleagues, however, were astonished by her pow-erful imagery done in blacks and grays and blurred opaques. Even though she "resisted" art therapy, she was illuminating, minimally but really, the darkness of her horrendous experiences. Participants are free to work with the broad theme that has been proposed or to select just a small aspect of it to explore more intensively. The themes are vast and varied. Here are just a few that have proved provocative and success-ful: journey, relationships, aging, play, transforma-tion of issues, sexuality, ambiguities, emotions, self-worth, self-identity, joys, anxieties, mixed messages, and change. The "journey" theme can be depicted in any number of ways, including the classic one of marking each milestone in life. Or highlights of success or failure might be featured. Or perhaps the sisters emphasize the eternal goal of their journey. When they have completed their art pieces, each sis-ter presents hers to the group for comments and reac-tions, but specifically not for analysis. The meaning of her work is primarily for her to determine, not those who have not lived her experiences--although the oth-ers' reactions, questions, and support may bring her to deeper insights or different revelations than she origi-nally had in mind. Sister Jude, an elementary teacher with addictions to both food and alcohol, created many figures of herself. Although she was fifty-five years old, Review for Religious they all looked like little girls. She was startled when this was pointed out, but now she was in a position to acknowledge such a "disconnect" in other therapies if she so wished. At the end of the week, each person displays her total body of work to the group. There is always amazement that so much could be done in a short time, that so many issues could be covered in some depth in just a week. As Sister Norine finished presenting all of her works, she said she felt empty, completely drained. She had exhausted her psychic energy. Others in the group read-ily realized that they had similar feelings. Summing Up The art belongs to its creator. Each person does what-ever she wishes with it. Many use a particular piece in their ongoing counseling as it illustrates or illuminates a specific issue. Sister Irene's picture of her attempted sui-cide was more frightening than her bland emotionless oral description. Some pictures have deservedly been framed. Others have been shown with pride or for disclosure to trusted empathetic friends. Others have been destroyed for reasons only to be surmised. No one seems to have been untouched by the week's experiences, which brought forth a myriad of emotions, memories, and hopes. The artistic creations take on a life of their own. They give graphic evidence of people's psychic state and are more permanent than spoken words. They lend themselves to further explorations as the client grows in self-knowledge. They reveal aspects that perhaps were not noted on first viewing. During one workshop the spiritual director asked the group to bring their art on spirituality to the group session the following week. She was impressed by the images created with regard to such a profound and elusive subject. Spirituality is the bedrock 64.2 2005 Cargus * Women Religious in Treatment for Addictions for religious women, and so their attempts to capture it in art are as challenging as they are moving. It is exhilarating to observe artistry and creativity emerge while clients are learning to trust and appreciate their own endeavors. Those who never considered them-selves artistic are often amazed and delighted with their creative results. They have not become "more" artistic, but they have gone beyond their own all-too-limited per-ceptions of their creative abilities. Art has a transformative effect through its ability to transcend time, space, and earthly boundaries. The clients just described have taken risks in telling the group their own sacred stories with the help of original art that enlightens their listeners but most importantly them-selves. One treatment center director told me about being confronted by a new group of residents .upset by the announcement that the regular week's schedule was suspended and that art therapy would replace it. She told them she could not adequately explain why art therapy works or what its therapeutic benefits are, but promised it would work. The group would understand art's bene-fit more clearly and convincingly later. And they did. Creativity is healing. To call forth new possibilities-- a definition of creativity--is to find new directions toward healthier lifestyles. To create new views, rather than remain stuck in old destructive patterns, is some-thing that art can offer. The overeater can picture a thin-ner body; the alcoholic can picture a cornucopia of renewal; the burnt-out person can picture a serene land-scape; and the spendthrift can visualize a pleasing bal-ance and proportion. Art therapy cannot guarantee change, of course, but it can offer graphic glimpses of hope, and hope is a'forerunner to change. It is important to appreciate that these previously functioning women who have gone into treatment have Review for Religious been given and are taking time out for themselves, per-haps for the first time. In a lifetime of giving to others, they are now receiving. Such a respite from their ordi-nary busyness allows them to tell their stories and to explore their concerns by means of art, and art can enlarge and deepen their creative potential. The art-therapy experience encourages people to leave the abyss of addictive behavior behind and try something new. Homemade imagery can reinvigorate deadened or tired emotions and bring joy back into their lives and their spiritual selves. Accepting and working with their cre-ativity assists wounded souls to move from humiliation to humbleness and towards the kingdom where we are all meant to dwell. Easter Monday Morning Prayer 0 God of my forever rising who alone can slip twixt bones and sinews probing the marrow of my being to the dark recesses of my heart wherein by my sin you have been entombed, carving away the stone, I beg you, up-raise me this day with you again and always and forever. Alleluia. Amen. Elizabeth McDonough OP 64.2 200~ VILMA SEELAUS Asceticism and Chaste Celibate Love T biblical understanding of God is captured in ee words: God is love. Created as we are in the image and likeness of God, the core of our being is a "being-in-love" with God.1 Because of our radical con-nection with God, we are conceived and born into the world as preconscious predispositions for love. As Rahner puts it, "man is the event of God's absolute self-com-munication.'' 2 Love therefore is the root and foundation of our being. Life's deepest challenge is to fully accept and give human expression to this foundational reality of love. The vow we call consecrated chastity, or chaste celibacy, has everything to do with love. By it we open ourselves to becoming fully loving persons. Chaste love is love that is single-hearted. Single-hearted love does not of itself exclude a genital expres-sion. Chaste loving is the universal call that includes both married persons and persons who remain single. In mar- Vilma Seelaus OCD last wrote for us in September-October 1999. Her address is Carmelite Monastery; 25 Watson Avenue; Barrington, Rhode Island 02806. Review for Religious riage, love is meant to have a genital expression. The religious vow is not only of chaste love, but also of chaste celibacy intended as a total response to God's uncondi-tional love. The single-hearted love to which religious vow themselves is at the heart of the kind of loving to which we are all invited as human beings. As consecrated celibates we vow to live out in a chaste celibate way the love relationship with God, and with one another, to which all persons are invited.3 Fidelity in chaste celibate loving has its own unique call for asceticism; celibate love must include asceticism. Celibacy for God means that one has a desire to receive God's love and to become passionately in love with God, expressing it in the vow of chaste celibacy. Today we increasingly recognize what the mystics have known for centuries: that, in our universe and in the heart of every human l~erson, there is an energy which as Christians we know to be God's creating love in all that exists. St. Teresa of Avila in her Sixth Dwelling Places describes a remarkable vision in which she sees all things in God. In this vision, "God is like an immense and beautiful dwelling or palace, and this palace is God himself." Teresa now sees all things as taking place in God and therefore in Love. All human love is either an expres-sion or a distortion of this one love, namely, God's unconditional love embracing and encircling the human family. Teresa writes: Could the sinner, perhaps, so as to engage in his evil deeds leave this palace? No, certainly not; rather, within the palace itself, that is, within God himself, the abominations, indecent actions, and evil deeds committed by us sinners take place . The greatest evil of the world is that God, our Creator, suffers so many evil things from his creatures within his very self and that we sometimes resent a word said in our absence and perhaps with no evil intention.4 [16.9 64.2 2005 Seelaus * Asceticism and Chaste Celibate Lo~e How true isoit that even self-centered, narcissistic love contains within itself in a diffused, distorted way the energies ' of divine°iove? 170 Our life unfolds in God! Postmodern Christian ecolog-ical theologians see this reality as the basis of God's rad-ical immanence in the world and as the human challenge to respect and care for the ecological systems of our planet earth, symbolized as the body of God.5 Chaste loving extends itself to loving care of the world in which we live, which, in one of his less-known poems, John of the Cross images as the palace created by God for "all the members of the just," who are "the body of the bride" of the eter-nal Word.6 In viewing all of human love within the ambience of God's creat-ing energy of love, we see how out of harmony is the so-called "sexual revolu-tion," which seeks sexual pleasure apart from genuine love between persons. Yet even self-centered, narcissistic love contains within itself in a diffused, distorted way the energies of divine love. The human urgency for union with God, who alone can offer unconditional love, easily finds expression in dif-fused and distorted ways when God's love is unrecog-nized or rejected. Aware of this reality, Jesus had and has great compassion for all of us, who in ways small or great live love's distortions. Asceticism enlarges the heart to receive a greater out-pouring of God's love. It also allows the energies of divine love to flow more freely through us into the lives of others. This asceticism is a matter of self-denial and self-emptying.7 What we deny ourselves and allow God to empty out are the things within us or around us that we tend to hold on to tenaciously. The purpose of asceti- Review for Religious cism is freedom for self-surrender, not self-punishment, not the giving up of things out of self-hate. Rather, gen-uine asceticism springs from a desire to be rooted in love. It is an expression of our willingness for our love to be freed of its distortions. The asceticism that leads to self-surrender can be sustained only in prayerful com-munion with God and is itself a form of prayer. Self-sur-render softens the soil of our inner being so that stubborn willfulness may more easily be uprooted by God, leaving room for God to plant seeds of willing-ness. 8 These are seeds of the Christ-life. Frans JozefVan Beeck, the Dutch theologian, in an early work of his titled Christ Proclaimed, points out that Jesus "was with-out the need for anxious self-possession, self-mainte-nance, and self-affirmation." Jesus was content to receive his being in a stance of total surrender to his Father.9 To love is to love someone--other persons as well as God. Self-denial can be psychologically harmful and even sinful outside of the context of our relationship with other people and with God. There is, however, some-thing in our being that clings to aloneness, to private and even narcissistic self-possession, distorting the inner solitude of our uniqueness. This distortion, the denial of relatedness, is sin. Sin would have us cling to our sep-arateness as something absolute. This is an ontological illusion, but it nevertheless lures us to rest on its com-forting bosom in the hope of avoiding the pain that comes with reaching out in love. Relatedness can be painful, as we discover early. Although other persons reflect our uniqueness and help us discover our gifts and potential, they also mirror our inadequacies. As we struggle with the demands of friend-ship and human encounter, that relatedness undermines personal myths of omnipotence and reveals our finitude. The insecurity of finitude is hard to accept, and, just as 7171 64.2 200~ Seelaus * Asceticism and Chaste Celibate Love 172 others willy-nilly make demands of us, we place all kinds of expectations on ourselves to be all-knowing and all-capable, to be fully adequate to every situation. Amid these usually unconscious self-expectations, the gifts and talents of others threaten us, so we turn them off or become defensive. Insofar as we are out of touch with these inner movements, enW, jealousy, and competi-tiveness keep us outside of the unifying energies of God's love that flow between people. The opposite can also happen. Self-doubt can so overwhelm us that we give up trying. The gentle vigilance of self-knowledge is an excel-lent form of asceticism. Self-knowledge keeps us in touch with the polluting elements that can be present in love's stream. Self-knowledge looks squarely at emotional and attitudinal dams that cause love's flow to stagnate.1° It strengthens us to bear the pain of our failures as we struggle to learn new patterns of behavior more expres-sive of love. The asceticism of self-knowledge necessar-ily opens us to a deeper understanding of God in our life. God is compassionate, unconditional love; God accepts us just as we are. Imperfection is normative to our finitude. For us to be perfect is to accept the reality of our imperfection. God's only expectation seems to be that we surrender to God's Trinitarian love and that we ourselves become passionate lovers. Fasting is a very traditional and helpful form of asceticism. As self-punishment it is harmful; nevertheless, fasting can be sincere worship. It can express genuine love toward God, who is father, mother, beloved, and friend, the source of all we have and are. The stomach's empty feeling reminds us that we are a hunger for God, who alone can fill our emptiness. Fasting can be an expression of praise and adoration of the One in whom we live and move and have our being. Jesus, alive in his Review for Religious Spirit worshiping in us, becomes more than a desire; he fills our emptiness with his own praise of his Father. Like the young Carmelite Blessed Elizabeth of the Trinity, we too are destined to be a "praise of His Glory." Fasting is a form of worship; it is also a form of the prayer of petition. Our finitude has many needs. We eas-ily come to the limits of our human potential, especially in the realm of love and relat-edness. Times exist when a , relationship reaches an impasse or when persons dear to us seem stuck in self-destructive tendencies, or are struggling with seemingly impossible sit-uations. Our fasting for them can be a hidden silent petition that God nourish the loved one to newness of life. Fasting can also be a prayer for the gift of detachment from the things we cling to in anxious self-possession and which keep us from self-surrender. Asceticism therefore can take many forms. It is cru-cial to the critical moments when a committed celibate is being tempted along a path whose ending would inevitably be genital intimacy. Here one is faced with the asceticism of choice. One. needs to set appropriate boundaries to love's expression while still fostering warmth and caring in the relationship. Fidelity to love is always a paschal experience. The asceticism of choice, in this instance the appropriate channeling of love's warmth, can be painful. But it is pain that is life-giving. Unlike the repression of feelings, which imprisons the self in the turmoil of unacknowledged emotions, the asceticism of choice is an encounter with greater inner freedom and is a call to growth in love. One's pain How would I explain that fasting is a form of worship and also a form of the prayer of petition ? 64.2 200Y Seelaus ¯ Asceticism and Cbaste Celibate Love becomes redemptive not only for oneself and the loved person, but for others as well, because it springs from genuine love and is a true love response. Because love is the creating energy that sustains the universe, and its energies flow through all of'humankind, it is necessarily the very heart of the church. Therefore any decision that one makes out of love and with the intent of fostering love has apostolic value. It shares in the life-giving, redemptive mission of Christ. This real-ity is worth pondering. It broadens one's understanding of the apostolate and of the meaning of mission for con-secrated celibates. We participate in God's creating action through the choices we make, and in doing so we inevitably affect the lives of others. Decisions drawn from the deep well of love enter into love's stream flowing from the womb of God, the source of life, the one life that flows through all of humankind. Even the smallest of our decisions is like the proverbial pebble thrown into the water whose ripples expand in ever widening circles. Here I am reminded of an experience in my own life that becomes increasingly meaningful. My monastery in Rhode Island is located on Narragansett Bay. Occasionally I take an early morning walk along the beach to enjoy the sunrise reflecting itself across the water. One such morning the bay was unusually calm. As I walked along I heard a sudden strong swish of incoming surf. This usually announces the changing of the tide, but the waters of the last high tide had not yet fully ebbed out. I turned and scanned the bay. In the far distance a tiny craft was speeding across the water, split-ting its quiet surface and leaving behind rolling waves of water. As the craft disappeared between the islands, the waters returned .to their previous unruffled state. The swish at my feet settled to a calm. I have experienced this phenomenon many times, Review for Religious and it never ceases to amaze me that the movements of such a small craft, hardly visible in the distance, can affect such a large expanse of water even to a distant shore. This symbolizes for me the awesome reality that the choices we make, no matter how small, are not insignif-icant. Humanity is bonded in a common stream of con-sciousness and love; the movements of one person, toward life or toward diminishment, necessarily affect the whole. Asceticism in its many forms is a prayerful desire that not only our activity but also our entire being may be apostolic, that is, life-giving for others. It fos-ters human solidarity as an enduring reality, by creating a fleer channeling of divine life through the collective body of humankind.12 Notes 1 See Bernard Lonergan, Method in Theology (New York: Seabury Press, 1972), p. 105. 2 Karl Rahner, Foundations of Christian Faith (New York: Seabury Press, 1978), p. 126. 3 This paper was first written in the 1970s. Since then, much of great value has been written regarding the vows. In this recent minor revi-sion, no attempt was made to connect with the fine work of recent authors. 4 In terior Castle, VI. 10.2- 3. Collected Works of St. Teresa ofAvila, Vol. 2, trans. Otilio Rodriguez OCD and Kieran Kavanaugh OCD (Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications, 1980), p. 419. s See Life Abundant: Rethinking Theology and Economy for a Planet in Peril by Sallie McFague (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001), pp. 138ff. See also the writings of Thomas Berry and Brian Swimme. 6 Romances, nos. 3-6, "On Creation," in The Collected Works of St. John of the Cross, trans. Kieran Kavanaugh OCD and Otilio Rodriguez OCD (Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications, 1991), pp. 62ff. [See especially no. 4, pp. 63-64. Ed.] 7 See Vilma Seelaus OCD, Self-Emptying: Philippians 2 and the Carmelite Tradition (Washington D.C.: ICS [Audio] Publications, 2004). 8 See Gerald May MD, Will and Spirit: A Contemplative Psychology (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1982). 64.2 200Y Seelaus * Asceticism and Chaste Celibate Love 9 Frans Jozef Van Beeck sJ, Christ Proclaimed (New York: Paulist Press, 1979), p. 421. ,0 For a further development of the value of self-knowledge, see Vilma Seelaus OCD, "Effective Ministry through Contemplative Self- Knowledge," Review for Religious 41 (May-June 1982): 390-399. " See Elizabeth of the Trinity, The Complete Works (Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications, 1984). ~2 The asceticism of chaste celibate love has yet a deeper dimension, which is the asceticism of prayer, especially contemplative prayer. To remain faithful to love and to prayer during the painful times of dark night and the seeming void of love would be a topic in itself. See Hein Blommestijn, Jos Huls, and Kees Waaijman, The Footprints of Love: John of the Cross as Guide in the Wilderness, trans. John Vriend (Leuven [Bondgenontenlaan, 153; B-3000 Leuven; Belgium]: Peeters, 2000). Prayer Psalm 73 Let the words of the psalm help you pray: Yet with you I shall always be; you have hold of my right hand; With your counsel you guide me, and in the end you will receive me in glory. Whom else have I in heaven? And when I am with you, the earth delights me not. Though my flesh and my heart waste away, God is the rock of my heart and my portion forever. But, for me, to be near God is my good; to make the Lord God my refuge. I shall declare all your works in the gates of the daughter of Zion. Revie~v for Religious ROBBER E MALONEY Snapshots of Three Lesser-Known "Saints" In 1918 the historian Lytton Strachey said in the preface of his Eminent Victorians that in writ-ing history less is often more. In other words, true selectivity is more important than volume. He wrote: "It is not by the direct method of scrupulous narration that the explorer of the past can hope to depict a singular epoch [or per-son]. If he is wise, he will adopt a subtler strat-egy. He will row out over the great ocean of material and lower down into it, here and there, a little bucket, which will bring to the light of day some characteristic specimen . . . to be examined with a careful curiosity." Surely few events say more about pex~sons than their death. Death not only closes life, it defines it. Christians have always regarded mar-tyrdom as the preeminent form of the follow-ing of Christ. From the earliest time, martyrs captured the Christian imagination and inspired Robert E Maloney CM, the former superior general of the Congregation of the Mission (Vincentians), continues to live at Via dei Capasso, 30; 00164 Roma, Italy. 64.2 2005 Maloney ¯ Snapshots of Three Lesser-Known "Saints" 1781 others to incredible heroism in living the Gospels even to the end. The Book of Revelation sings the praise of these heroes: "Love for life did not deter them from death" (12:11). Some, of course, renounce their faith rather than die a martyr's death. But for others, some-times even people whose lives seemed mediocre, death is their finest hour. In Shakespeare's Macbeth (I,iv), Malcolm says of the previous thane of Cawdor: "Nothing in his life / became him like the leaving it; he died / as one that had been studied in his death / to throw away the dear-est thing he ow'd / as 'twere a careless trifle." In this brief article, I offer a snapshots of the deaths of three lesser-known martyrs who in turbulent times were like a "lamp shining in a dark place" (2 P 1:19). Joseph Chow Tsi-Che Did you ever want to be pope? I have sometimes heard Catholics say, with a bit of humor and a bit of frus-tration: "If I were pope for a week, here is what I would do!" Of course, very few of us get that opportunity. But a priest of my own community, whom some of my older friends knew, was actually offered the job. Joseph Chow was born in 1891 in Shijiazhuang, about 180 miles south of Beijing. He made his vows in the Congregation of the Mission in 1915 and was ordained to the priesthood four years later. After serving as a pro-fessor in the minor seminary in his hometown and then as a philosophy professor in the major seminary of Beijing, he was ordained a bishop in 1931, serving ini-tially as the vicar apostolic in Baoding, not far from his birthplace. In 1946 he was named the archbishop of Nanchang, much farther to the south, a city I visited a number of years ago, where his memory is still revered. In 1950, soon after the establishment of the revolu-tionary government in China, Joseph received the invi- Review for Religious tation to become pope. A delegation from Beijing came to visit him. A writer of the time describes their con-versation as follows: "Because you have so many gifts, you have been des-ignated to be the head of the Progressive Chinese Church. Are you willing to become the pope of China?" "Do you really believe that I have the necessary qualities?" "We do." "In that case, I would prefer to become the pope of the entire world." The delegation left, angry at his refusal. From then on, he was kept under constant surveillance. In May 1951 he was arrested, tried, found guilty, and thrown into prison. The charges against him were that he had opposed the reform of the church, that he had listened to the Voice of America, and that he had recruited members for the Legion of Mary. He was condemned to forced labor, toiling in isol'ation for twenty-two Joseph Chow renounced a very prestigious offer: to be the pope of China. ConSequently, he endured a slow, arduous, hidden martyrdom. years. Just before his death he was released, so that he would not die in prison, and was carried to the home of a Christian in Nanchang. There he went peacefully to the Lord. By all accounts Joseph Chow was an extraordinarily gifted man. Those who knew him attest that he was good-humored, quite funny at times, but very clear in what he believed. He surely knew what he was willing 179 64.2 2005 Maloney ¯ Snapshots of Tbree Lesser-Known "Saints" to die for. He renounced a very prestigious offer: to be the pope of China. Consequently, he endured a slow, arduous, hidden martyrdom. In the end the government, by freeing him from prison several days before his death, tried to deprive him of the title of martyr, but Catholics in China today recognize that he was precisely that. 180 Jean Le Vacher I doubt that Jean Le Vacher will ever be beatified, even though the cause for his beatification was actually introduced in 1923. Jean was born in Val-d'Oise, France, on 15 March 1619 and entered the seminary along with his brother Philippe on 5 October 1643. He was ordained a priest in 1647 and went to Tunis almost immediately. Within a year after his arrival, the superior of the mission there died, as did the French government's representative in Tunis. Jean, at the age of twenty-nine, was named both head of the mission and French consul, a combi-nation of jobs which seems strange to us today. Two years later he also became vicar apostolic. Twenty-five years later, history repeated itself in Jean's life. Having been named vicar apostolic of both Algeria and Tunis, he again became the French consul, this time in Algeria. That is the root of the problems surrounding his beatification. On the one hand, Jean was a remarkably zealous missionary, laboring for years among the slaves in the capital, whom he estimated to number about fifteen thousand. But he was also the con-sul, a difficult political post at a time when relations between France and Algeria were steadily worsening. In late June 1683, fighting broke out. The French fleet began to bombard the capital. At the same time a plague raged within the city. The Turkish forces in Algeria asked Le Vacher to mediate peace. He, two Turkish diplomats, and an interpreter arrived under a Review for Religious white flag at the French admiral's ship. As negotiations dragged on, Admiral Duquesne was inflexible and at one point yelled at Le Vacher: "You,re more a Turk than a Christian!" During the negotiations one of the Turkish diplomats deceived the French, promising to work with them to reinstate their control over Algeria. But, once back on land, he himself seized power and began to fire on the fleet again. When the French retaliated, Le Vacher was arrested, along with the few other French citizens who remained in the capital. Le Vacher's martyrdom took place on 16 July 1683, toward sunset, on a small pier in the port. He was asked to renounce his faith and declare himself a Muslim. Instead, he bade farewell to the Christian slaves in a loud clear voice and exhorted them to remain firm in their faith. He was tied to a wooden frame which was then attached to the mouth of a cannon. Then a little drama occurred which it is affecting to recall in the midst of all the strife in the Middle East and North Africa today. None of the Muslims in the crowd was willing to light the cannon's fuse. Many Jews were there, but they too were unwilling. Finally a renegade Christian lit the fuse. Le Vacher was blown to pieces. Ten other Frenchmen followed him to the same type of death. The French campaign was ultimately unsuccessful; a shortage of supplies forced Admiral Duquesne to return home. Because of Jean Le Vacher's political post, some have questioned whether he was really a martyr. Reading the accounts of his death, I have little doubt myself. He died professing his faith courageously and encouraging others to profess it too. In fact, many followed him to death. Marguerite Rutan Marguerite Rutan was born in Metz in 1736. There, at the age of twenty, she began her postulancy in a hos- 181 64.2 200Y Maloney ¯ Snapshots of Three Lesser-Known "Saints" 182 pital as a Daughter of Charity. A year later, on her birth-day, she entered the novitiate in Paris and just five months afterwards was sent to serve at a hospital in Pau. She had the happiness of seeing her two sisters enter the same community shortly after her and the sadness of seeing both of them die at a young age. From Pau she moved to several other hospitals, finally arriving in Dax, near the border of Spain, where in 1779 she was named superior. Ten years later, with the outbreak of the French rev-olution, life became increasingly difficult for the sisters. Resources for the running of the hospital were scarce. The government provided fewer and fewer funds. After 3 October 1793 all sisters employed in running hospitals and schools had to choose between taking the oath of allegiance to the state church or leaving the institutions where they served. Sister Marguerite and her companions refused the oath. From then on they were constantly under surveillance, but their services in the hospital were so needed that they were allowed to continue. Finally, however, on 24 December 1793, Marguerite was arrested on charges of "corrupting the revolutionary, republican spirit of the soldiers who went to this hospital." What had happened, in fact, was that a group of sol-diers, to express gratitude for the care given in the hos-pital, returned to do some songs for the sisters. Sister Marguerite stopped to listen to them, offered them refreshments, and gave them some money. That was her crime. She was taken to a prison at the nearby Carmelite house. At the beginning of March 1794, a guillotine was constructed in the central ~quare of Dax. Simultaneously most prisoners were transferred to another city, but Marguerite was left in the Carmelite prison, a sign that her fate had already been decided. After a brief trial, her name was placed upon the list of those to be guillotined. A commission arrived in Dax Review for Religious to review the cases of those facing capital punishment. On 9 April after a quick hearing in which the same charges were repeated, Marguerite was condemned to death. The sentence was to be carried out immediately. She and the local cur~, also condemned, were tied back to back, placed on a cart with soldiers surrounding them, and rushed to the execution place accompanied by the sound of tambourines. Having first witnessed the behead-ing of the cur~, Marguerite asked the executioner not to assist her and mounted the scaffold by herself, removed the shawl from around her shoulders, put her head on the guillotine, and was executed. In their accounts of Marguerite's death, all observers noted her dignity. She seems to have been undaunted by the prospect of death, wearing those around her gently while speaking her mind clearly and unflinchingly right to the end. Tertullian tells us that "the blood of Christians is seed" (Apology 50.13). The martyrs strengthen those who come after them. They demonstrate that some things are worth dying for. By their witness they proclaim that fidelity to one's central commitments is more important than life itself. In the darkness of persecutions or of oppressive regimes, martyrs are like flashes of lightning that illumi-nate the nighttime sky, a surge of electricity that ener-gizes those who live on beyond them. The church has been blessed by many such martyrs right up to the present. This great "cloud of witnesses" (Heb 12:1) strengthens us to be faithful, no matter what the cost. 183 64.2 2005 JULIANA DEVOY Learning to Live Serenely: The Wisdom of Francis de Sales 184, Ewvery day in the Eucharistic liturgy we pray the ords "Protect us from all anxiety." The daily repetition of this invocation is not without meaning. We have only to open the newspaper or turn on the evening news to find plenty of material for angst. After 9/11 and its consequences, not only individuals but whole nations are experiencing increased anxiety. But it is not only the world scene that disturbs us. We witness divisions in the church, breakdowns of family life, loved ones' illnesses, financial reversals, and many other problems that threaten our peace of heart. Undue worry, anxiety, and agitation not only are detrimental to our psychological well-being, but also impede our spiritual growth. A spiritual guide who can teach us serenity and Christian optimism no matter what happens in the world is St. Francis de Sales (1567-1622), bishop and doctor of the church, a man with a wonderfully balanced and integrated personality, who combined a deep spirituality Juliana Devoy RGS last wrote for us in May-June 1999. Her address remains Good Shepherd Sisters; 30 Estrada da Vitoria; Macao. with a penetrating insight into human psychology. Separated from him by a cultural, theological, and linguistic gulf of four centuries, we nevertheless find in his published works and in his letters of spiritual direction gems of wisdom which, if we take the trouble to extract them, will both counsel and console us on our spiritual journey. In this essay we will examine several points of Salesian spirituality that can aid us in gracious living and tranquillity of spirit. Befriending Reality In his Introduction to the Devout Life, Francis says that, aside from sin, anxiety is the greatest evil that can happen to us. "It proceeds," he says, "from an inordinate desire to be freed from a present evil or to acquire a hoped-for good. Yet there is nothing that tends more to increase evil and prevent enjoyment of good than to be disturbed and anxious.''~ In one of his colorful images, he likens anxiety to birds caught in a net: the more they flap their wings trying to escape, the more they become entangled. Francis knew well what he was talking about. As a nineteen-year-old student in Paris, he had undergone a spiritual crisis over predestination, asking himself whether it was possible for him to be separated from God for all eternity. The moral and spiritual anguish that he suffered was so great that he fell ill and could not sleep or eat. The crisis was resolved only when he abandoned himself unconditionally to God's love, praying for the grace to love God here and now if he could not love God in eternity.2 Francis emerged from his persOnal "dark night" with two profound convictions about reality: his radical dependence on God and God's utter trustworthiness. In the Salesian worldview, creation is suffused with God's goodness and our peace is found in conformity to 64.2 2005 Devoy ¯ Learning to Live Serenely ~DO we live ,the truth, that every vocation is the lo~cus fo~" meeting God andeve~ Christian is called to a life of holiness,? -°186 God's will because God is a GodJbr us. Our particular life circumstances are where we will find God. Francis, therefore, counsels a loving acceptance of the situation in ¯ . which we find ourselves. His Introduction was written especially for lay people who desired to live in closer intimacy with God. Predating Vatican Council II by hundreds of years, he taught that every vocation is the locus for meeting God and that every Christian is called to a life of holiness. But the way to holiness would be different for everyone because the practice of devotion must "be adapted to the strength, activities, and duties of each particular person." A bishop is not called to live like a Carthusian, nor a skilled workman to spend his day in church like a religious. There is no need to emulate the lifestyle or the virtues proper to a vocation that is not one's own. His letters of direction illustrate this teaching in practice: I should like you to consider how many saints, both men and women, have lived in the married state like you, and that they all accepted this vocation readily and gladly. We must love all that God loves, and he loves our vocation; so let us love it too and not waste our energy hankering after a different sort of life, but get on with our own job. Know that God wishes nothing else of you save what he sends at the moment, and do not be on the lookout for other things . What is the use of building castles in Spain when you have to live in France? What a marvelous thing you said when you wrote to me: as long as I am serving God I don't care what kind of sauce he puts me in . Come now, you Review for Religious know very well into what sauce he has put you, into what state of life and condition; and, tell me, is it all the same to you?3 But it would be a mistake to imagine that what is being advocated is a passive acceptance of the status quo. In his Treatise on the Love of God, Francis devotes a large section to "The Will of God.''4 He distinguishes between God's signified will and the will of God's good pleasure. Although obviously God has only one will, our discernment of what God wants of us will have to take account of two different sets of realities. In the first case we are guided by the commandments, the counsels, teachings of the church, and holy inspirations. When there is question of something clearly ordained by God, there is nothing to discern; we have only to obey. For choosing a vocation, however, or choosing one action rather than another, Francis counsels a great liberty of spirit since it is impossible to know God's will absolutely. In important matters we should pray, consult a spiritual director, and then do what we think is best. Even if doubts arise afterwards about whether we chose well, we should remain in peace and continue on the course we have chosen. In lesser matters we should "do freely what seems good to us, so as not to weary our minds, waste our time, and put ourselves in danger of disquiet, scruples, and superstition." The "will of God's good pleasure" is God's will already done. It is the actual circumstances of our lives, the "sauce in which God has placed us," the events that take place and the things that exist outside our control. It is not that God causes everything that happens, but that "whatever is, is in some way within God's providence; it is not outside the loving embrace of the creative and redempt