Studies of youth subcultures have been carried out for decades from various theoretical perspectives (including functionalism, social ecology, neo‐Marxism, deviance and labeling, cultural studies, sports and leisure studies) as well as from various methodological standpoints (e.g., deductive and inductive approaches, insider and outsider perspectives, ethnographic, historical comparative, and semiotics). The sociological study of youth subcultures thus offers a wide range of opportunities to bring together an interesting topic for young people and theoretical or methodological pedagogies.Suggested booksThe significance of youth‐subcultural studies is evident in the plethora of current books on the topic. Here, I provide a brief summary of some recent books, as well as a few classics that should not be overlooked.Cohen, Stanley 2002 [1972]. Folk Devils and Moral Panics (3rd edn). London, UK: Routledge.This study of the infamous mods and rockers clashes in Britain in the mid‐1960s focuses attention on the media's role in construction youth subcultures as deviant social phenomena. Its significance lies not only in its analysis of how the British media created a moral panic by stereotyping, exaggerating, and mishandling representations of youth, but also in its more general insight into the social construction of social categories such as 'youth', 'subculture', and 'deviance'. Readers of the third edition will benefit from Cohen's introductions to the second and third editions (both printed in the third edition), which give an updated analysis of the two concepts he originally proposed in his title (i.e., folk devil and moral panic).Gelder, Ken (ed.) 2005. The Subcultures Reader (2nd edn). London, UK: Routledge.This book represents the single most comprehensive collection of original research in youth‐subcultural studies. The edited volume has 48 chapters divided into 8 thematic sections, each with its own introductory chapter (in addition to the 48), and covers a broad range of theoretical and empirical research.Greenberg, Arielle (ed.) 2007. Youth Subcultures: Exploring Underground America. New York, NY: Pearson Longman.Unlike some books on youth cultures or subcultures that develop theory at the expense of readability and engagement, Greenberg's edited volume is very friendly to less experienced social science readers. The contributed chapters are written both by professional scholars and undergraduate students. Greenberg has sought to avoid jargon‐ and reference‐laden research and succeeded in developing a book that undergraduates, especially those who are not taking an entire course on youth subcultures, will find most useful.Haenfler, Ross 2006. Straight Edge: Hardcore Punk, Clean‐Living Youth, and Social Change. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.In recent years, there have been several thorough ethnographic studies of youth subcultures. Along with Paul Hodkinson's study of goths and Lauraine Leblanc's study of female punks, Haenfler's book offers keen sociological insight into the contemporary culture of straight edge. His book frames the subculture in terms of its nonmaterial culture, its status as an agent of social change, and its masculine and feminine dimensions. It is well written and serves as a tool for engaging students on notions of gender and social change, especially.Hall, Stuart and Tony Jefferson (eds) 1998 [1975]. Resistance through Rituals: Youth Subcultures in Post‐War Britain. London, UK: Routledge.This is the classic edited text from the Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) at the University of Birmingham, UK, which established youth‐subcultural studies as a subdiscipline of both cultural studies and sociology. The editors offer a significant theoretical expose on the links between critical theory and youth subcultures. The subsequent empirical and theoretical chapters further express their collective stance, which although it has come under serious criticism over the years, is still a must‐read for students of youth subcultures. Most of work relates directly to British youth subcultures of the 1950s to the 1970s and, therefore, may seem quite foreign to younger American readers. Teachers relying on this book may need to do some homework of their own to get up to speed on the substantive issues covered.Hebdige, Dick 1979. Subculture: The Meaning of Style. London, UK: Routledge.This book is considered by many scholars to be the quintessence of British subcultural studies. Hebdige takes a rather nonsociological view of subcultures in the book, emphasizing a humanist semiotic approach instead. Many scholars have criticized the book as unnecessarily dense and devoid of the voices of subcultural participants, yet the author's insights into the cultural significance of style still make it a very significant text.Hodkinson, Paul and Wolfgang Deicke (eds) 2007. Youth Cultures: Scenes, Subcultures, and Tribes. London, UK: Routledge.This edited collection is based on a 2003 conference in which youth culture scholars discussed the relative utility of the subculture concept in the face of pressure from competing concepts such as scenes and neotribes. The book consists of a rather eclectic set of chapters that tackle both theoretical and substantive issues. While its weakness is perhaps its lack of coherence, this is balanced by its wide coverage of contemporary issues, including gender, race/ethnicity, commodification, and new media.Huq, Rupa 2006. Beyond Subculture: Pop, Youth and Identity in a Postcolonial World. London, UK: Routledge.Focusing on music cultures at the turn of the millennium, Hug offers a solid synthetic analysis of subcultural studies in the UK during the latter half of the twentieth century. She then moves through a series of case studies on various music genres – including bhangra, rave/club, hip‐hop/rap, and grunge – as she attempts to articulate how the cultures that consume such music have moved beyond the 'subculture' label.Leblanc, Lauraine 2001. Pretty in Punk: Girls' Gender Resistance in a Boys' Subculture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.While many books look at core cultural dimensions of particular youth subcultures, Leblanc dedicates her book to young women's participation. Focusing on punk, she investigates the historical structures of the subculture that result in the marginalization of women, how female participants construct the significance of punk in their lives, and how they deal with males both within and outside subcultural contexts.Muggleton, David 2000. Inside Subculture: The Postmodern Meaning of Style. Oxford, UK: Berg.Playing off the name of Dick Hebdige's famous book, this monograph offers a very different reading of youth‐subcultural participation than classic CCCS texts. Muggleton takes an empirical rather than semiotic approach, using interviews and fieldnotes from his study of young people in Britain who dress in alternative fashions. His work offers new insights into the relations between youth culture, fashion, and identity.Muggleton, David and Rupert Weinzierl 2003. The Post‐Subcultures Reader. Oxford, UK: Berg.This edited volume focuses on recent work by scholars working, for the most part, from a postmodern perspective. Rather than seeing subcultures as class‐based, ideologically pinned or static, the authors collectively explore the more fluid and negotiated terrain upon with contemporary Western youths live. The book would be best used for a graduate course, as much of the writing is relatively sophisticated.Thornton, Sarah 1996. Club Cultures: Music, Media and Subcultural Capital. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan.Starting with Pierre Bourdieu's theory of cultural capital, Thornton moves into the world of rave/club culture to study how subcultural participants articulate their own form of status, power, and identity. Another significant dimension of the book is her articulation of the role various media (from mass to micro to niche) play in subcultural worlds.Films and videosAs discussed by Leblanc (1998), films provide opportunities for students to practice casting a sociological eye on the world around them. While Leblanc's focus was on teaching ethnography, her substantive interests in youth and youth subcultures provide a useful discussion for teachers interested in teaching a course on youth subcultures. Over the years, I have used many films and videos, both in whole and part, either to emphasize a particular sociological concept, to provide documentary evidence of particular subcultural styles, practices, and worldviews, or to facilitate relatively safe student engagement with a topic that many of them might shy away from in a face‐to‐face context. In the following list, I will make reference to particular parts of my syllabus (further below) where the film/video might be most useful.Between Resistance and CommunityThis is an independently made documentary film by Joe Caroll and Ben Holtman (2002) about the Long Island, New York DIY (do‐it‐yourself) hardcore scene. The documentary provides an in‐depth look at the scene through the eyes of its members. It is full of raw footage of hardcore music shows and interviews with scene participants and offers a coherent standpoint analysis of the concepts of resistance and community (thus living up to its title). I typically use parts of the film in connection with the concept of resistance, as well as societal responses/reaction and identity/authenticity.Merchants of CoolFrontline's documentary of the relationship between cultural production and consumption emphasizes not only mainstream fashion, but specifically how cultural industries take advantage of young people that live on the cutting edge of style through basic marketing tools. The video is available online (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/cool/view/) and is broken down into six parts. I sometime show parts 1–3 and 6 during a single class in order to have time for discussion. The video is relevant to discussions of style, consumption/culture industries, authenticity, and media.Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood HillsThis is a lengthy documentary film about the so‐called West Memphis Three: three young men who were convicted of torturing and murdering three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas, in 1993. The case surrounding the murders and trials remains highly contested, and to this day there are serious doubts by many as to the guilt of the accused. As the documentary shows, the West Memphis Three were heavy metal fans, one of whom dabbled in the Wiccan religion. While the film is too long for most classes, I used two sections of the film to highlight (i) the 'dominant' Christian culture of West Memphis and (ii) the attempts by prosecutors to create a strong tie between the defendants' appearance and style on one hand and Satanism on the other. The film offers students insight into the harsh reality of labeling, moral panic, and societal response (there is also a follow‐up documentary entitled Paradise Lost 2: Revelations).QuadropheniaA film produced during the 1970s by the British rock band The Who, Quadrophenia looks back at the mod and rocker subcultures of the mid‐1960s through the eyes of a mod. The film is best viewed in Section 2 of my course syllabus, while students are reading about the Birmingham tradition (in the USA especially, since many students have never heard of mods and rockers). Mods are cited repeatedly in the CCCS literature; thus, the film gives students something more tangible to engage. The film is particularly good and facilitating student engagement with certain subcultural concepts learned in Sections 1 and 2, including frame of reference, strain, homology, bricolage, and 'magical' solutions.The SourceThis documentary looks at the Beat culture. I use sections of the film to highlight the dominant American culture of the 1950s and how individuals who felt marginalized or otherwise nonnormative moved to big cities in search of other people who were similar. The film works well with a discussion of Albert Cohen's theory of subcultural strain.The WarriorsHaving attended a formal gathering of all the gangs in New York, a local gang called the Warriors are wrongly accused of assassinating a would‐be gang lord and are forced to fight their way back home to Coney Island. The film is full of stereotypical images of subcultural style and deviant behavior. This film fits in well with a review of the Chicago School, in particular a deviance or criminological approach to youth subcultures. The film offers insight into class, gender, strain, and the urban environment.Other film titles and the subcultures to which they relate include:
A Clockwork Orange – abstract representation of subcultural deviance Afro Punk – punk subculture and race American Hardcore – punk and hardcore music subculture Another State of Mind – early hardcore punk scene, highlights music Boyz in the Hood –marginalized black culture that produced hip‐hop and rap music Dogtown and Z‐Boys – skateboarding Dreadheads: Portrait of a Subculture – new age travelers, deadheads Heavy: The Story of Metal – heavy metal Metal: A Headbanger's Journey – extreme metal culture, including death metal and black metal Punk: The Early Years – history of punk Red Light Go – Bike messengers Romper Stomper– racist skinheads Sid and Nancy– punk, focusing on The Sex Pistols SLC Punk– punk Surburbia– interesting mix of disaffected youth, mainly punk with skinheads and goths as well This is England– looks at the intersection of racist and non‐racist skinhead culture in the UK
http://www.youtube.com contains a vast collection of subculture‐related material. I troll the site every few months looking for new resources to use in the classroom.Sample syllabus outlineCourse descriptionYouth as a social phenomenon arose largely as a cultural derivative of the industrial revolution in Europe and the USA and is now global. In the twentieth century particularly, youth became an object of sociological, cultural, and psychological analyses. The concept of 'subculture' has been used with various degrees of success to analyze youths' individual and collective behaviors. This course surveys some of the many strands of youth‐subcultural theory during the twentieth century. It begins with early sociological work from the University of Chicago, followed by an overview of the cultural studies approach from the University of Birmingham, UK. It then moves on to examples of contemporary subcultural theory and research, focusing on a number of discrete sociological concepts and youth‐subcultural groups.Purpose and objectivesThe purpose of the course is to try and arrive at some consensus as to the worth of 'subculture' as an analytic concept as well as the various concepts that drive subcultural studies. The objectives of the course are: to familiarize students with various strands of subcultural theory in sociology and cultural studies; to review a variety of historical and contemporary youth subcultures as well as the concepts and methods used to study them; and to improve students' understanding of how and why youth subcultures emerge, exist, and change.1 Section 1: Introduction to youth‐subculture studiesHoward Becker 1986. Culture: A Sociological ViewSarah Thornton 1997. General Introduction to The Subcultures Reader, 1st edn.Ken Gelder 2005. Introduction: The Field of Subculture Studies* Section 2: American subculture studiesKen Gelder 2005. Introduction to Part One: The Chicago School and Urban Ethnography* Subculture as deviance Paul Cressey 1932. The Life‐Cycle of the Taxi‐Dancer* Subculture as strain Robert Merton 1938. Social Structure and AnomieAlbert Cohen 1955. A General Theory of Subcultures* The ethnographic study of subcultures Howard Becker 1963. The Culture of a Deviant Group*Ned Polsky 1967. Research Method, Morality, and Criminology*Paul Hodkinson 2005. 'Insider Research' in the Study of Youth Cultures Section 3: British subculture studiesKen Gelder, 2005. Introduction to Part Two: The Birmingham Tradition and Cultural Studies* Marxism and class Phil Cohen 1972. Subcultural Conflict and Working‐Class Community*John Clarke et al. 1975. Subcultures, Cultures and Class* The semiotic study of resistance Tony Jefferson 1975. Cultural Responses of the TedsDick Hebdige 1979. Subculture: The Meaning of Style* Section 4: Subsequent theoretical strands Criticisms and Revisions Gary Fine and Sherryl Kleinman 1979. Rethinking Subculture: An Interactionist AnalysisStanley Cohen 1980. Symbols of Trouble* New directions Andy Bennett 1999. Subcultures or Neo‐Tribes?Rupert Weinzierl and David Muggleton 2003. What Is Post‐Subculture Studies?David Hesmondhalgh 2005. Subcultures, Scenes or Tribes? None of the Above Section 5: Analytic topics Style Ken Gelder 2005. Introduction on Part Five: Style, Fashion, Signature*Dick Hebdige 1983. Posing ... Threats, Striking ... Poses*Jeffrey Kidder 2004. Style and Action: A Decoding of Bike Messenger Symbols Resistance Paul Willis 1977. Culture, Institution, Differentiation*Kathleen Lowney 1995. Teenage Satanism as Oppositional Youth SubcultureKristin Schilt 2003. I'll Resist You with Every Inch and Every Breath Space and media Ken Gelder 2005. Introduction to Part Four: Territories, Space, Otherness*Peter Marsh et al. 1978. Life on the Terraces*Iain Borden 2001. Performing the City* Societal responses and reaction Jill Rosenbaum and Lorraine Prinsky 1991. The Presumption of InfluenceClaire Wallace and Raimund Alt 2001. Youth Cultures under Authoritarian Regimes Identity and authenticity Kembrew McLeod 1999. Authenticity Within Hip‐Hop and Other Cultures Threatened with AssimilationJ. Patrick Williams 2006. Authentic Identity, Straightedge Subculture, Music and the InternetMurray Healy 1996. Real Men, Phallicism, and Fascism* Consumption and play Jock Young 1971. The Subterranean World of Play*J. Patrick Williams 2006. Consumption and Authenticity in the Collectible Strategy Games SubcultureSharon Kinsella 2000. Amateur Manga Subculture and the Otaku Incident*Assignments and projects1. Portfolio project: The portfolio project facilitates students' interaction with the theories and concepts being learned in the classroom.Over the course of the semester, you will be responsible for collecting and summarizing information about one subculture of your choice. I will expect you to analyze the information you collect in a sociological manner, but we will practice this throughout the semester so that you should continually improve your analytic skills. During the second week of the semester, I will divide the class into several groups and each group will choose a particular youth subculture to study (e.g. punk, riot grrrl, goth, hardcore, hip‐hop, skateboarding, graffiti, gaming). You will negotiate with other students to decide collectively what subculture you will study. Individually, you will be responsible for collecting and analyzing information about your topic as it pertains to theories and concepts being covered in class. To do this, you will first need to identify subcultural objects for analysis. These may include (i) a definition of the subculture you are studying, (ii) a song and/or music lyrics, (iii) a research article (historical, sociological, cultural, etc.), (iv) an Internet discussion forum, (v) an event at a local hangout, bar, or club, (vi) a zine, blog, or other publication, (vii) cartoon, album cover, or other art, (viii) journalistic account of a subcultural event, (viiii) a pop culture item (e.g. clip from television, magazine article), or (x) a video (e.g. YouTube) or documentary. Second, you will need to follow the course outline and use a specific theory or concept (e.g. hegemony, societal response, style, resistance, homology, identity, media, diffusion, class, gender) to analyze each item. By the end of the semester, your portfolio should consist of a minimum of 10 items that deal with your assigned subculture. Plan on collecting one item per week beginning in week 4. During week 3, I will show you some examples to get you started as well as bring in a completed portfolio from a previous student. You should not use the same type of subcultural object more than twice, nor should you use the same theory or concept more than twice. The purpose, as stated above, is to have you collect and analyze the information over time rather than collect everything in a mad rush during the last week. Every other week you will give a 2‐ to 3‐minute summary of your most recent portfolio entry.2. Group portfolio presentations: The group presentation requires that students combine many different portfolio entries together and develop a coherent, analytically informed presentation of a specific youth subculture.At the end of the semester, your group will give a 15‐ to 20‐minute multimedia presentation of whatever subculture you have been studying by combining the information collected in individual portfolios.3. Film assignment: The film assignment facilitates the development of the sociological imagination when consuming popular cultural treatments of youth subcultures. I reserve the university auditorium to give the students a fuller cinematic experience. Use the list of films and videos above and the course outline to decide what to show and when to show it. We will watch one film outside of class during the semester, entitled (name of film). In case you are unable to attend the film viewing, you may rent or buy the film from a number of different sources. Make plans as soon as possible to be available to watch the film. Watching it at home is your prerogative, but watching it with other students will enable you to participate in discussion afterward. After viewing the film, you will write a (x)‐page paper addressing specific questions that I will provide before the film begins (as one example, I often show Quadrophenia and ask that four specific questions be answered in their papers: (i) What aspects of the actors' lives are informed by CCCS theory? What aspects are informed by Chicago School theories? Link your answers to specific readings or citations when appropriate. (ii) How important is 'conspicuous consumption' for mods in the film? Be sure to give multiple examples of consumption as you answer the question. How does consumption relate to our discussion of style? (iii) In what way is the ending of the film 'magical', in the CCCS sense of the term? (iv) How do the concepts of hegemony, bricolage, or homology play out in the film? Pick one of them to discuss and use a detailed example). Note
1 In the sample outline below, I list only the readings I might assign to an upper‐level undergraduate course during one semester. See my main article in Sociology Compass 1(2) for a much more detailed discussion of articles and chapters that might be used in each section. An asterisk (*) marks readings from Ken Gelder's The Subcultures Reader (2nd edn), listed above.ReferenceLeblanc, Lauraine 1998. Teaching Sociology 26: 62–68.
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XVII GETTYSBURG, PA., NOVEMBER, 1909 No. 6 CONTENTS. THE WBONG OP WASTE 2 DAVID M. CRIST, '10. FEESCOING A LOST ART 3 ELMER STOUFFER, '11. A HALLOWE'EN STOEY 7 SAMUEL BOWER, '10. THE VOTEE'S DOMINANT PBINCIPLES: WHAT THEY SHOULD BE 12 ROT V. DERR, '10. IS GEEMANY A MENACE TO THE WORLD'S PEACE? 15 C. M. ALLABACH, '11. A NAEEOW ESCAPE 16 R. L. MCNALLY, '13. THE "BACK HOME" BOY 20 EDWIN C. MORROW, '12. THE EVOLUTION OP THE BEAST 22 EDWARD N. FRYE, '10. THE SPIEIT OP THE PLACE 24 HARVEY S. HOSHOUR, '10. EDITORIALS '. 29 EXCHANGES 31 GETTYSBURG COLLEGE Gettysburg, Pa. | - LIBRARY - I THE MERCURY. THE WRONG OF WASTE. DAVID M. CRIST, '10. jO the contemplative mind one of the saddest things in the world is the waste that is going on, and has gone on ever since civilization dawned. Much of this waste is wretched, needless, wicked; it means human efforts thrown away; it is one form of homicide for it sacrifices life and the material that life thrives on, and thus it hampers progress. What does a grain of corn amount to? Nothing, we hear the wasteful man say. Yet the secretary of agriculture of Missouri computes that one grain on every ear of corn grown in his State alone would add one hundred thousand dollars to the wealth of the State each year. We have all been told what a large sum the saving of a few cents a day will amount to, if allowed to roll up for a period of years, yet we all go through life really unmindful of the possi-bilities there are in such little things. A Kansas statistician has recently figured that the men of that State are constantly wearing on their coat sleeves eighty thousand dollars worth of buttons which serve no earthly use. It is easy enough, of course, to over do economy and make it ridiculous, and it is often most difficult to say whether a given policy is wasteful or economical. In this country our railroads work their locomotives very hard, and wear them out in a few years, whereas in England locomotives are used very carefully, and are kept in service several times as long. The English blame our railroads for being wasteful in this, whereas our au-thorities hold that it is better to get the best wear out of any ma-chine in a reasonable time, and then scrap-heap it, and replace it with something newer and better. Large scale producers such as the Carnegie Steel Company of Pittsburg, have owed their success in no small degree to their lavish expenditures, or industrial experiments, and for the in-stallation of new machinery as soon as its superiority to that in use has been demonstrated. So ideas to what is waste will differ. Unquestionably we are wasting our coal, oil, natural gas, and THE MERCURY. 6 timber supplies in this country, but under the conditions it does not pay to husband these material resources. A few years ago the world became alarmed because its fuel supply seemed to be coming to an end. Now, we are harnessing the rivers, water-falls, and even the glaciers, and making them do much of the work that coal hitherto has done. There is no small doubt that before the coal supply is ex-hausted the world will be so completely electrified that the use of coal will have become obsolete. The waste of timber is more serious, and yet as lumber rises in price other materials will be developed to take its place, witness the present rapid introduc-tion of concrete for building purposes. This country would not be what it is if it had been developed UDcler such a saving policy as has necessarily dominated the rise of European nations, so it would be well for us to remember the words of Benjamin Franklin when he said: "What maintains one vice would bring up two children. Eemember many a little makes a nickle. and farther, beware of little expenses; a small leak will sink a great ship." FRESCOING A LOST ART. ELMER STOUFFER, '11. EW people realize that the frescos which they see on the walls of buildings are the remnants of a once great art. An art which for the number of men who were engaged at it and scope of application never had an equal. The history of this great form of art is long and of itself interesting to read. It is not the purpose in this article to give the history beyond what is necessary to the illustration of the subject in hand. It shall be our purpose to discuss the art as we know it, and the methods of the frescoer of to-day. It is claimed by many that the art of frescoing was known to the ancient Egyptians, but this is doubtful. If they knew any-thing at all about it, it could not have been more than enough THE MERCURY. •to cover the walls of their houses with the crudest and coarsest kinds of earth colors mixed with water. True one can find buildings decorated in patterns which are supposed to be genu-ine reproductions of ideas found on the walls of Egyptian ruins, but the methods of getting these actual designs are never told. The whole is fanciful and not certain enough to receive much consideration. The Greeks were familiar with the art of fres-coing but the extent to which they developed the art is uncer-tain. The excavations of Schlieman have brought forth some old decorated pieces of walls which were thought to be frescoes, but careful examination has shown them to be mere earth colors applied in various designs. The Hebrews it is certain knew nothing of frescoing. It was not until the beginning of the Christian era that the art rose to its fullest development. The Christian artist wanted an art which would properly express the emotions. The stirring scenes of the early Christian times were the subjects for the •church decorator to work upon. The art which he would use must be able to express faith, hope, joy, sorrow, grief, pain and things of that nature. Sculpture, the art of the Greeks, would not answer his purpose for that is essentially an art of repose. Frescoing seemed the only one capable of answering his purposes so he employed it. Even then the early decorator was held in check by ecclesiastical interference. In decorating the churches he was not permitted, even though he had the impulse, to use any type not traditional. For this reason we find nearly all the fres-coes of this period consist of the gaunt, pinched bodies of an-chorites and saints. In the sixteenth century this art reached its highest state of development. In this period some of the world's most famous frescoers lived, and some of the most noted frescoers were executed. Several of the works produced in this period are extant to this day. The wave of Iconoclast fanaticism which swept over Europe in the sixteenth century struck the art a blow from which it has never wholly recovered. In England nearly all the paintings were destroyed. In some churches they were merely defaced, hut in those churches where the frescoes could not be destroyed without permanently injuring the buildings, the despoilers cov- THE MERCURY. «red them up with lime. On the continent of Europe the hatred was not so intense, and it is doubtful whether any works of real value were destroyed. It is true, however, that when the Icono-clastic wave had swept away, the art was practically dead. In America very little is known about frescoing. Our near-est approach to it are the distemper paintings with which we decorate our theatres and churches. Several reasons might be mentioned for this, but the most reasonable seems to be that Americans are too impatient to apply themselves to a trade in which the first and chief requisite is painstaking precision. The Americans as a class are too much in a hurry to take the time which it is necessary to do a good work of frescoing. The aver-age American does not care what a piece of work costs but he invariably does want his work done at once. So little interest is taken in the art in America that not one color manufacturer is to be found who so much as manufacture the kind of color which mural decorators use. The American decorator must depend upon the shops of Germany for the colors which he uses. German workshops also supply America with her supply of deco-rators. Frescoing as clone in former times required a great deal more skill than it does to-day. The work was all done while the plaster was still soft. The decorator decided in the morning just about how much surface he wished to cover that day. The plasterer, who worked right with him, then finished that much. With a sharp pointed awl or some other instrument the deco-rator then marked the design in the plaster, and proceeded to his task. Sometimes a small design of the work in hand was made and kept lying by to refer to in case the decorator became puz-zled as to how to proceed. The necessity of this can readily be seen when one remembers that some of the great works of this kind were fifteen and sometimes twenty years in the accomplish-ment. If all which was marked could not be done in the day the plasterer cut the unfinished portion off and they began all over again. An almost perfect knowledge of pigments was ab-solutely essential to the decorator of the old time. Lime in dry-ing causes many colors to fade and some to become darker. It was necessary for the mechanic to know just what effect the lime tf**ftiufvrxv GETTYSBURG COLLEGE * Gettysburg, Pa. LIBRARY 10 THE MEBCURY. "An unlucky spot," sighed Proud Patrick. "He ain't the first, nor thirteenth to be tuk tar." Hattie came running in with the holy water bottle and Mis-tress Proud Patrick eagerly bathed poor Oiney's head. As the cold drops fell showering upon his face Oiney winced in spite of himself. "The color is comin' to his cheeks," said Hattie as she knelt over him solicitously. "The fire is warmin' him. He's comin' roun' all right." "God be thanked for holy water bottle said Mrs. Proud Pat-rick. "Let's raise him up a bit," said Del. "An' a drop of nice warm sweet milk with a pinch o' ginger and sugar might do the poor fello' good," said Hattie. "Bether couldn't be," said Del. "An' a bowl o' tea," added Chris. "An' a drop o' spirits," said Joe. At this insinuation a perceptible glow over-spread the features of the unconscious one and to the delight of Del and eve^one there, a sigh escaped his lips. "God be thanked," said Hattie. Del bent over his patient and softly whispered, "Oiney." Oiney slowly opened his eyes and looked wonderingly and in-quiringly about him. "Del—is—is—thet—you ?" "Yis, yis, me darlint." "Del—where an' where can I be?" "Make yer min' aisy, ye are in a dacent house an' with dacent folks. Mister Proud Patrick and Mistress and Hattie McPher-son. Del then asked for a drop of whiskey and tried to persuade Oiney to take it but he refused. "Just a drop," said Del. "Only a toothful," said Mrs. Proud Patrick," and take it as medicine. It'll send the blood through yer veins." But Oiney looked gratefully at Mrs. Proud Patrick and ten-derly at Hattie, but still refused to touch the whiskey. The patient grew rapidly stronger on the beef tea which was THE MEKCURY. 11 tendered by loving hands and thanked the whole family for the trouble they had gone to in his behalf. "But ah, ye knows I can't be kapin' ye dacent folk out o' bed all night—it's almost mornin' now." "Oh, that's all right," volunteered Hattie. "It's no bother an' as to me uncle an' aunt, there, they can go to bed any time now seein' ye are on the fair way to mendin' yerself; an' me an' Eosie-an' Matthew 'ill tarry a while an' git ye somethin' to eat." "Uncle," she continued, "you an' me aunt can now take yer-selves off to bed seein' poor ill Oiney here is gettin' along bet-ter. Myself an' Eosie an' Matthew 'ill take care of him jes as good as if you was here." So with more thanks Oiney bade them good night and wished them a sound sleep and pleasant dreams, and assured them he would never forget their timely generosity. Then Hattie warmed some sweet milk and supported Oiney while he drank it. He was soon sufficiently strengthened to make his way to the fireside with the help of Hattie and Eosie, where he and Hattie sat down together. Oh, I'm ever so glad you're comin' roun' so fast," Said Hattie. "Faith an' I know the doctor I'm thankin' for the same," re-plied Oiney, his eyes beaming upon her. "Och, don't bother me Oiney, it's a poet you should a' been born—you've a tongue as sweet as any poet's." "Well, it's no poet you should a' been born, darlin' but in the Garden of Aiden." "Array, go way with ye." "Yis. in the Garden of Aiden, when man was alone an' com-fortless." "But the Bible never mentioned Adam takin' 'fever gortach," and Oiney reflected. "Oh, Adam would a' got it some how if he had a thot that it would a brot you in its wake." "Houl on Oiney. Take yer arm away out o' that. Take it away. Tre' ain't no danger o' my takin' waikness—no fear of it." "An' thr' all blamin' poor Adam 'cause he ate the apple"— went on Oiney, philosophical!}', gazing into the fire, still keeping ^■^■i^^n^^^^^^^^^^^H 12 THE MERCURY. his arm across her as if absentmindedly. "I know well if I was Adam an' some people I know was Eve, an' that if this partick-ler Eve offered me the same size o' rat pizen and sayed, Here Adam, my sweet, take this, its good, I'd swallowed it an' swared it was honey." "My, what a nice fellow you'd make for the lucky woman that gits ye," said Hattic. "But will ye take away yerself an' take yer arm out o' thet." "Oh," said Oiney in surprise. "Is that where my arm is?" Yet absentmindedly he went on philosophizing upon man's lonely lot had not God given him lovely woman to be a joy and a blessing forever. Del whiled away the early morning hours for Eosie, the maid, and poor Chris and Joe Eegan smoked their pieces of pipe. When the gray dawn began to filter through the blackness of the night, Hattie and Eosie who now had to begin their day's work, bade their sweethearts a merry good-bye after promising to meet them on Sunday evening at the Crooked Bridge. THE VOTER'S DOMINANT PRINCIPLES SHOULD BE. WHAT THEY ROY V. DERR, '10. .NDIVIDUAL right of franchise is the heart of a demo-cratic government. The stability and perpetuity of a nation such as ours depend upon the righteous use of the ballot-box j while corruption and dissolution are the fruit of its abuse. The right to vote becomes a cherished privi-lege by the young man as he approaches twenty-one. At this point a searching question confronts him. Will he be influenced by seductive tradition and paternal inheritance? Will he con-tinue to cast his vote as father always did? Or will he permit his privilege to be directed by certain guiding principles? This is the vital question. When one thinks of the untutored multi-tudes who become the prey of scheming politicians, it becomes an THE MERCURY. 13 important question. But what should these dominant motives, of action be? If our voter is a man of any education or good judgment, he will seek to have a general knowledge of the country's condition and needs. He aims to know the issues at stake, and the plat-form of his chosen party with regard to them. Why ? That he may decide whether the candidate in question is fully qualified for the position. In other words he will endeavor to vote intel-ligently. Not merely boasting a long ancestry who were stal-wart Democrats or life-long Eepublicans. Very often such a spirit is but ignorant pride and betrays the lack of intelligence and reason. The voter should not only be able to state his party,, but also to tell why it is his preference. But the careful voter will not stop with an investigation into the ability of the candidate to fill the duties of office. He goes further and deeper. He will seek to know the aspiring office seeker as a man. What is his character? A man of self-con-trol and integrity ? Will he prove faithful to the trust ? These questions must be answered affirmatively by the conscientious voter. Strict sense of civic duty demands nothing less. The loyal citizen will not cast his vote for incompetent or unworthy men out of mere favor or friendly acquaintance. To do so weak-ens the dictates of his moral conscience. The highest motives should control our franchise; the prosperity of the State, the-welfare of the community, and the best interests' of all concerned. This is true loyalty and genuine patriotism. Above all, for the thoughtful man the dominant principle will be party subordinate to the man. Some one may ask would not such universal independent voting destroy political parties? They are essential to counter-balance one another in government. In answer the true voter will use his influence in securing the best men on the party ticket of his preference, if for some reason these are not chosen, but undesirable nominees instead, the strict sense of civic duty will compel him to refuse to vote for those men. Partisanship must bow before right and duty. Prejudice and tradition must yield to justice and intelligence. It is bet-ter to cut one's ticket and prove traitor to one's party than to iise one's franchise in voting for incompetent or unworthy men. Then he will have nothing to regret. L GETTYSBURG COLLEGEI Gettysburg, Pa. LIBRARY ^^^■^^^^B^^^H 14 THE MERCURY. Who is to blame for corruption in politics? For partisan legislation and bad government? Those holding office we say. But our nation is a democracy! We boast of the rule of the-people! The boomerang springs back upon the voter himself. Corrupt legislation reflects itself upon the public at large. If office holders prove unloyal to their country's trust, it shows that the voters were not careful enough to elect the best men. This situation is but a practical application of the fable in which the indulgent master gives shelter, under his tent, to the imploring ass who in turn ungratefully kicks him out! What, then, should be the voter's dominant principles? To serve his country and State, not only party and self. To know the needs and conditions of his nation or community. To elect the man best fitted to fill the position, that is the man of capabil-ity and character. The former involves the ability to discharge his duties well and efficiently. The latter includes those quali-ties of honesty and integrity as will enable the office holder to stand fearlessly against bribery, partiality or injustice. Such is the type of man whom the true voter will strive to elect. So long as the right of franchise is jealously guarded and highly prized, there will be no need to fear the downfall of our repub-lic. But she shall ascend higher as a moving power in the eyes of the civilized world. Her destiny will not approach soon, but with the oncoming years, she shall exert an untold influence-among the nations of the world. THE MERCURY. 15 IS GERMANY A MENACE TO THE WORLD'S PEACE ? C. M. ALLABACH, '11. T can hardly be denied by those who have noticed the trend of international politics that Germany is the greatest obstacle to the world's peace to-day. This has become strikingly evident in recent years. Diplomatic relations between the English and Germans have been strained for more than a decade. The famous Kruger tele-gram of 1896, the intense commercial rivalry, the hostile attitude of the German people during the Boer War, the biting criticism of the press, and finally, the manifest intention of Germany to wrest from Great Britain her maritime supremacy, have all com-bined to make the situation critical. To England, this mari-time supremacy is a matter of life and death; to Germany, it is an object of mere desire or ambition. Examples of German aggressiveness are numerous. The first American experience of it was in the Samoan Islands in 1888, and a second in 1898, when Germany sent a powerful fleet to the Philippine Islands. Japan felt it in 1895 when Germany joined Russia and France in forcing her to recede from the Liao-Tung Peninsula which bore no small weight in furthering and hasten-ing the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War. All Europe and America was unfavorably impressed by the attitude of the Ger-mans in the Boxer uprising. Then, too, it is generally known that Germany took the initiative in the Venezuelan blockade in 1M2, and since the power of Russia has been considerably les-sened by the Russo-Japanese War, the Germans appear to be even more aggressive than before. These actions truly speak louder than words, but the words are not lacking either. The German Kaiser's speeches are teeming with expressions which clearly reveal the German attitude. Among many others he said at Cologne in 1897: "We have great duties in the world. There are Germans everywhere whom we must protect. German prestige must be preserved abroad. The trident belongs in our hands." In 1900, upon delegating to Prince Henry the command of the Oriental fleet, he said: "Im-perial power is sea power. The two are mutually dependent. 16 THE MERCURY. Should anyone infringe our rights, then use the mailed fist and earn your laurel wreath." To departing soldiers he used such terms as these: "Spare nobody." "Take no prisoners." "Give no quarter." Such expressions are not the mere workings of an individual's maind, but are the sentiments of a nation expressed through its chief executive. It is true, too, that Germany is the greatest obstacle to the policy of limitation of armaments and obligatory arbitration. It was with great difficulty that the German government was per-suaded to consent to the establishment of the permanent Court of Arbitration. She opposed nearly every policy advocated by England. She held strict views of belligerant rights and voted against every specific proposal of obligatory arbitration. The Germans have rejected the advances since made by the English to enter upon an Anglo-German understanding concern-ing the cost and extent of their naval programs, claiming that no formal proposal has been made and therefore no official transac-tions have followed. Since Germany was not in harmony with the proposals of the Hague Conference, there seems to be but one remedy to check the steadily growing martial spirit of the sturdy Germans, namely, an alliance between the two greatest branches of the Anglo-Saxon race, England and America. Unless some such alliance is formed, the law of "the survival of the fittest" will be the outcome; of which the fittest is the strongest, the best or-ganized, and the most unscrupulous. A NARROW ESCAPE. R. L. MCNALLY, '13. JHNEAKEY was feeling blue that night as we sat together in the lobby of The Eoyal. He awaiting the arrival of a certain well-padded person, whom he pleased to call his victim,—and very impressibly informed me would be his last one,—while I was trying to pass away the night of idleness. Sneakey started to tell me all about his intended re- THE MERCURY. 17 form, and was in the midst of a "profound resolve" with his fist in the air intending to bring it down on the handle of my chair, when the arrival of a ponderous white steam car arrested his at-tention and without a sign or signal he arose from where he sat walked over to the door where the fat and hearty autoist would have to enter. Only once did he glance back at me, and then very quickly. I thought 1 noticed a shade of distress in that glance, but dismissed the thought of the fact that Sneakey, above all, would ever shrink from a job. Sneakey followed this particular individual over to the desk and watched him register, lighting a cigarette in a cool and un-interested fashion, but carefully noticing in his mind the rooms to be occupied by this person. He didn't return to where I was sitting, a very wise thing on his part, but strolled over to the bil-liard room, where fifteen minutes later, I found him actively en-gaged in a game with a stately looking, shifting-eyed sport. I walked on through and out on the street, took a car, and was soon in my room snugly seated in my large chair, planning, and thinking I had spotted a large elegantly finished mansion across the park, occupied solely by an old gentleman of eccentric habits. his brother, two house maids, and a general utility man. Next morning after breakfast I strolled across the park to in-vestigate my intended loot and map out a course that would be sure to bring me safely to my goal. I bought a paper afterwards and nothing could be printed clearer, nor more prominent to me than the little three-lined announcement that Sneakey, the one and only friend I had to depend upon, had been intercepted in an attempt to enter the rooms of a wealthy guest and was being held for trial. Of all the news, this was the most distressing. But what could I do but accept it as a present from our dreaded enemies, the plain clothes men. I did not know what to do for tools, and to attempt such a task alone would be almost fool-hardy, and Sneakey's presence was an excellent solution to both of these quanderies. But, since he was taken into the strong arms of the police, I could do nothing else than depend on luck. It was now 10.30 A. M., and I thought I might run across an old acquaintance, but there was none I could think of, let alone trust as an accomplice. After dinner I made a list of what I t^^^m^^^m 18 THE MERCURY. was in need of and among the things I needed most was a pair of wire nippers in case I would need them. Now I knew that Sneakey had a pair so I walked over to his room, having to pass the seat of my night's work, and picked the lock. Hanging across the back of a chair was a coat made up with the lining of a smoking jacket. I quickly realized its value and took it over to a tailor's and ordered it pressed, and put into proper shape. In the pocket of this coat I found a cigar which I took as a charm for my safety because I found it in the pocket of the most valuable tool I could have possibly came across. Placing the cigar carefully in my pocket the next thing to do was to get a mate at all hazzards. Scotty kept a rather notable pool room where I had been in the habit of spending some time and where I knew I could find a collection of choicest men of my profession. On entering I could hardly believe myself when who should step up and shake my hand but Harry Musser. I hadn't seen him for years, and why, I'm sure, is not because he had fallen into the same ill luck as Sneakey. I told him all of my plans and asked him to go along and help "cinch it," but woe for my hopes; he had a job on hand at White Flains, and was leaving that night on the 11.30 boat to ge to White Plains about 2 A. M., and be safe from all view to carry out his aim. Well, this was the last hope, and I decided to go alone. I saw Harry off and returning to my room put on the coat nicely tailored, and walked across the park and on around to the rear entrance of this house. Just as I entered the hedge I heard West Hall Hedge clock strike one. Walking up to the porch I started operations by climbing the vine, since I had to dispense with Sneakey's excellent tact of pitching a rope ladder. Gaining the level of the window sill I swung across and caught hold of the sill and hung suspended until I could grasp the shutter and pull myself up so that I could place my foot against the opposite side of the window frame and gradually work myself up inch by inch until I was standing on the sill holding on to the shutters. I was starting to work on the win-dow when I heard somebody walking on the pavement. When he got opposite the place where I was he stopped, lit a cigar and gazing aimlessly about, turned his steps and walked up the gravel walk and sat down on the porch almost under me and smoked. THE MERCURY. 19 After about fifteen minutes I did not see or hear him stir, and concluded he was asleep. Much was my chagrin when I found the window pulled up tight against the upper frame. To get in was almost impossible, and to get back to where I came from, was impossible. I had to decide some way. I knew that it would be safer to get out through the house than to get past that night watchman below, so taking a small finger-nail clip from my pocket, I dig two crescent shaped holes in the window frame, and placing my fingers in them bent all my effort toward pulling it down. It yielded, and carefully lowering it, I climbed in, down on the floor and I thought noislessly over to view my room in general, when all of a sudden, the lights were turned on brightly and a small buz sounded on the wall which I knew was a signal. Then locating the door, I made for it, but was barred by a huge porpous of a man whom I concluded was the butler. I had to pass him to liberty, and being much smaller, knew a struggle would be useless. I waited until he charged, then side-stepping I gave him a lucky stroke in the stomach. He wasn't long in the fight. Throwing my hat in a corner, I ran my fingers through my hair, put the coat inside out, the cigar in my mouth, ran down to the front door, to escape, preparing lest the police should arrive before I got away. Two officers were coming down the pavement at a good speed. I did not know what to do in so-tight a place. I decided to use strategy, so assuming a horrified expression, I called to them that here was the place, and ex-plained that the old gentleman had became suddenly worse, and that I was sent by him to bring his son, who lived some distance-from the house. That story wasn't believed in full by them, and! they decided to go along with me to bring his son. The two fol-lowed me for a square, and then stopping, I reasoned that two of them should go back to the old man, and assist the butler in car-ing for him, while the other officer and I went for the son. To this they agreed, and we two sped, where, I did not know until, reaching into the pocket of this coat, my hand fell upon the wire nippers. I just happened to think of Sneakey. I knew he wouldn't be in his room so I made a short cut there and pound-ing on the door received no reply, until a doctor next door put his head outside the door and informed us that that gentleman mi^^^^^^^^^^^^mwg^^^^^^^^^^^^^m 20 THE MEECUET. had left yesterday morning and had not returned yet. Now I knew to go along back to the house would mean my arrest so I told the officer that he should go on back to assist the other officer and the butler, while I awaited until this doctor would dress and go along with me, that we would follow in a few moments. When the officer left, I feigning that I intended to wait, followed after him down to the street level and proceded over by a back street to my rooms. Next day I learned of Sneakey's sentence of two years and went around, packed up his furniture to store it. In the pro-cess of this packing I was assisted by this doctor who told me of the very strange call he had last night. THE "BACK HOME" BOY. EDWIK C. HOBBOW, '12. EE we, the great American people, interested in the farmer boy? "We are. Why should the attention of the richest, most commercial nation of the earth turn to the humble youth of sunburnt face and freckled nose "back home ?" There are several conspiring reasons which cause the lines of national interest to deflect from their normal course toward that obscure spot on the map where is growing to man-hood the average country boy. One of the first reasons, perhaps, is to be found in the fact that he is "the boy back home." Somebody has said, "God made the country, but man made the town." Well, what man made the town? It was the man from the country; and it is the man from the country who is making the town grow and prosper to-day. It is from the hay-field rather than from the gutter; from the garden rather than from the crowded quarters of the town, that men are being drafted to fight the great battle of the world's market place and public halls. The bulk of brains, the brawn, and the character of this country has come from the country; and from the country will come at least many of our big men of the succeeding gen-eration. THE MERCURY. 21 The country boy is running America to-day; his name is legion. Abraham Lincoln, the greatest monument in American history, has established a standard of idealism for all American frontier boys. President Eoosevelt was a western rancher. William Jennings Bryan, who, despite conflicting views and re-gardless of politics, is an international character, wears overalls on his Nebraska farm. Anthony Comstock, one of the greatest and best moral forces in America to-day, came from a New Eng-land farm. Homer Davenport, one of the best known political cartoonists in the country, grew up on a far western farm. And so the list may continue down along the directory of the "Who is Who"—including United States senators, merchant princes, economic, scientific and philosophic authorities; light of the bar and pulpit; writers, artists and musicians; there is no seat of the mighty where the farmer boy has not sat. If there is anybody in this whole country of ours who is a free citizen, it is the country boy. He is as free as everything about him,—the air, the sunshine, the birds, the snow. Out here in God's own country, a boy can not help growing to manhood brave and strong and clear-minded. Simple taste, simple appe-tites, a simple home, these are a wholesome curriculum for a boy's individual education. Plain food, regular hours, and plenty of healthful exercise,—these create a strong body, the only fit setting for a strong mind. The farmer boy grows up away from the atmosphere of riotous vice. He is not bred in the shadow of corporate domination and "higher ups;" he recognizes no "higher up" in this world than his Father. He is imbued with the faith that a man who dares can, and that a man who can should. He has confidence in himself, and belief in his future. That is what we by times call by one of several names: Energy, backbone, enterprise, jasm, initiative, perseverance, grit, gump-. tion. Whatever it is, it is a winnig quality,—it is power. The thoughtful men are realizing this to-day as they never-did before. Employers know it and want young men from the country; educators feel it and rejoice over the country bred scholar. The voter knows it; and the politician knows that he knows it, with the result that we get in office to-day some honest and fearless men, who stand for the best in American polities,, though tied until almost powerless. 22 THE MERCURY. It is no disgrace to have come from the country, and the boy from the country need not be afraid to apply for a job. His record is good, and nothing need stand between him and success. THE EVOLUTION OF THE BEAST. EDWARD N. FRYE, '10. |OWJST from the mountains came two beasts into a plain upon which grew a few blades of grass; they stood facing each other with snarls. Finally the battle be-gan to rage as to which should get those few blades. It became a life and death struggle, and the turmoil was great. It was a case of the survival of the fittest. The strong one con-quered and the grass was his. The other lay in the dust and gore with his life slowly ebbing away. Thus as I look out over this great country and see the strug-gle of man for life, for liberty and for progress, and then think that he is called beast and materialist, I am reminded of the story of the beasts. The charge is not wholly untrue. Man is a materialist, but a materialist by necessity, a materialist because he is a creature of society and society is warring to keep him bound. His materialism is a bread and butter problem. His materialisms are the necessities of life, nourishment of the body and a life with its comforts. The problem is how shall he pro-cure those necessities upon which his life depends, and how can he add to his daily life those comforts. These are the foremost thoughts in his mind. His hunger must be satisfied and his body clothed, likewise he must care for his wife and his children. Of course he is a materialist and what else could he be. What would give him existence? Surely not spiritualism. The life of man is made up of more or less materialistic wants. And he has been called a materialist because he is forced to center all thought on these wants. He has been called a materialist be-cause he is demanding that which by right is his and which so-ciety will not grant. He has been called a materialist because the other big beast, capitalism, is contending with him for the THE MERCURY. 23 last blade of grass. He is being driven to the very brink of de-spair with only one thought: "How can I live," and with one problem to solve: "How can I procure bread and butter." He is forced further and further to the point of starvation and still that mighty hand reaches out to grasp more from his little to swell its fortune or fill its coffers. Thus the working man is forced to lift up his voice and cry for his rights when the Ameri-can aristocracy consider him nothing more than a machine to further their interests. Whentheworkingman is reduced to a thing he becomes a materialist by necessity. He cannot lie back on the oars and pray that the Almighty God may give him bread, for then he would starve. He is therefore compelled to concentrate his energy, to rise up against such conditions and let his voice be, heard in order that he may receive that which by divine right is his. Then only when he receives that right can he turn his at-tention to the other phase of life, the spiritual side. To bring this about there must be an evolution of social condi-tions, not a revolution as the one who stands without the turmoil describes. The working man must rise up out of his present condition and let it be known that he is not a mere beast for the purpose of serving capitalistic interests and when of no more use to be turned off to starve or to be an object of charity. The capitalist, who is the real materialist, and in a sense a pragma-tist, must realize that the so-called brute is his social brother, born with all the privileges of a human being and with a soul that is equally precious in the sight of God. The capitalist must recognize that life is not a mere dream for the other fellow, but that it is a reality demanding a certain share of this world's goods to make it a joy and to prepare that soul for its rightful inheritance. This will take place when he ceases to say of his social brother: "Beast, beast," and in turn shows him his love. If the capitalist would change his perspective what a change would surely be in human affairs and in human lives. How much strife would be eliminated and how much deeper would be the spiritual life. Then man could think more seriously of things that are spiritual. The stomach of the working man would be filled and his physical wants attended to. You must satisfy those physical wants before you can hope to have him seek the wants of the soul or to develop him spiritually. 24 THE MERCURY. THE SPIRIT OF THE PLACE. HARVEY S. HOSHOUR, '10. S the autumn twilight closed in upon the old Thomaaton campus, so fraught with traditions and memories of a century's existence, there seemed to be an element of discontent, quite foreign to the place indeed, which per-meated everyone. Grant Hilsey, if the conversations which were conducted in low tones throughout the quadrangle were correct, the cause of all this discord, was throwing off his football togs in a room luxuriously furnished in every appointment. He then took a quick shower and dressed thoughtfully. Yes he was right. Something would happen tonight. Something must happen. What should he do ? Should he go to the mass-meeting or stay in his room? What was best for the college? All these ques-tions played havoc in Hilsey's mind while he was dressing and while he ate a late supper at the training table: The old chapel on the hill was that night the scene of the largest mass meeting Thomaston had ever known. Tomorrow-was the day for the "big" game with Greenvale, and the slogan of the meeting was, "Thomaston expects every man to do his duty." After speeches short and to the point by various mem-bers of the faculty, the 'Varsity men were called for one by one, and responded with short talks, promising their best efforts on the morrow. "What's the matter with Captain Hilsey?" shouted the cheer leader. The answer was an irresolute, "He's all right," amid a hubbub of hisses and jeers. The cheer leader looked aghast. "Let's see him. We want Hilsey," clamored the crowd, seem-ingly ashamed of its first action. Every one turned to the rear whence they expected Hilsey to come but there was no answer. Hilsey was not there. The captain had come into the meeting late and had sat in the rear, listening to his men as they spoke. He, too, would do his best to win. How could he lose, leading men with such spirit? Then came the jeers. He had known they must come, but he could not check the hot tears that kept swelling to his eyes. There was still one chance. He was in the rear seat and had not THE MERCURY. 25 been noticed in the excitement of the evening. H suited his ac-tion to the thought, and when the crowd turned to look for him, he had gone forth, unseen and alone. The leader shook his megaphone for silence and said in a voice that quivered just a bit, for he was a friend of the captain, "Pel-lows, tonight we have insulted one of the best captains Thomas-ton has ever known. He has picked the team with the best in-terests of the college at heart, regardless of what his enemies may say. For four years we have seen Grant Hilsey fighting for Thomaston honor. Where is the man who ever saw him betray the college. We have elected him captain, and upon him our hopes of beating Greenvale depend, and yet we hear criticisms, "improvements," and even jeers on the eve of our gratest game. It's mighty fortunate he isn't here to see this, for you know the Hilsey pride and its hard to tell what any one of us wouldn't do under his circumstances. Now fellows, lets make it so he can hear it. "What's the matter with Hilsey?" "He's all right," came back witht the roar of thunder. The dissatisfaction over the picking of the team and the captain himself seemed to be go-ing fast. "Who's all right?" Hilsey," re-echoed the crowd. "We want Hilsey," they yelled, but none appeared. The leader again motioned for silence. "Boys," he said, "one more rick-etyax for Captain Hilsey." The yell was given with a lust. All feeling was gone now in the spirit of the place which gripped every man in a way which was irresistible. With a "last long ray for the 'Varsity," the most successful mass meeting Thomas-ton had ever seen was over. When Grant Hilsey emerged from the building all seemed a confused mass. He had been publicly insulted and even jeered at. Last year, after the season which had ended by "sweeping Greenvale off the face of the earth," as the Thomastonian had it, he had been the hero of the college. He had made the run that had won for his Alma Mater, and it was quite natural that Hil-sey should be elected captain of next year's eleven. The election had been unanimous. He had come back this fall eager to pro-duce another victorious team, but the material was new and hard to get into shape. He had done his best, fairly and squarely, with the result that his associates characterized him as a deserter, for he had not chosen the, team entirely from his own "clique." 26 THE MERCURY. He was too fair for that. He was also criticized by that class of students—all too common everywhere—whose chief concern it is to kick, who are too good for everybody, yet whom nobody wants, and who still, somehow or other, exercise an influence,—probably only due to their persistency,—on every college community. The result was that Hilsey had become the most unpopular man in the college. As he walked through the campus he had grown to love, his mind was crowded to overflowing. What should he do? The Hilsey pride asserted itself. He would show them. No Hilsey could be played with in this manner. They had said that his team was "crooked." Let them improve on it. They would see that they couldn't do without Grant Hil-sey. Eevenge would be his and sweet would be his revenge. Instead of going to his room Hilsey went across the campus to his fraternity house. It too was deserted. He would send for his trunk after the game. As he sat musing on the porch the old walls loomed up before him. How he longed to graduate. But he was a Hilsey and a Hilsey never gave in. What did he care for the place anyhow? There were surely others just as good. The night train for Watauga was almost empty that night. All traffic was turned toward Thomaston for the morrow's big game. It was too late for Hilsey to go home when the train got in, so he resolved to stop at the hotel till the next day. Through-out the night and the morning his mind was in one vast whirl. He would wait till evening before going home. He remembered that all his people were at Thomaston to see the game. Some-how or other he felt that he was shirking something. Maybe he ought to go back to Thomaston even though his fellows had de-serted him. What did these unworthy sons have to do with old Thomaston anyhow ? He remembered a little essay of his on college spirit, on which he had been complimented highly. He was a Freshman then. He remembered the past three years, their ups and downs, their fortunes and misfortunes. Yes, they were happy years, all too happy but they were gone for good now. The Hilsey pride had shown itself. But that essay on college spirit kept forcing itself into his mind. That was theory he knew, rather sentimental at that. Was there such a thing at Thomaston as real live college THE MERCUKY. 27 spirit? He had done his best but did he have the spirit which could endure all for the sake of the college. Anything but gibes, he thought. But what else had he endured. He had failed at the first trial. He was a failure, a quitter, and Thomaston had expected every man to do his duty. Again the college walls loomed up in his mind. Yes, he loved them, he loved their •every stone, he loved their traditions and their lore. He looked at his watch. Could he make it? The Thomaston spirit asserted itself. He signalled a passing car, which he recognized as one of his father's. "Fast as you can to Thomaston," were his orders. It was a long ride but never for an instant did Hilsey's intentions change. There was such a thing as college spirit, Thomaston spirit. He was completely in its spell. As the car neared the campus he heard the cheer leader call, "Now then Thomaston." It thrilled his very heart. That was Thomaston, his Thomaston. "To my room," he fairly yelled to the chauffeur. The campus was de-serted. Over the green hedge which surrounded the athletic field, he could see a mass of crimson and gold. That meant Thomaston, the Thomaston he longed to fight for. It was the work of a few minutes to jump into his togs. Never was he so proud of the hugh "T" on his sweater. To think that he was so near forfeiting the privilege of wearing it. As he neared the field he heard a count—one-two-three—and then a long drawn out —nothing, all from the opposing side. His heart gave a throb. There was a chance yet. He flung off his sweater. He would show them that the Hil-sey pride was swallowed up in his college spirit. A great shout arose as the wearers of the crimson and gold saw Hilsey. They forgot enmities. He, their only hope, had come back to make them win. His judgment had been vindicated for his team had played wonderfully, and, but for a beautiful kick would have held Greenvale to no score. "Ten minutes to play," announced the time-keeper as Hilsey took his place at quarter. The team had been holding well be-fore. Now with a leader they played an aggressive game. Slowly they marched up the gridiron. Once they lost the ball, only to regain it on downs. Thomaston enthusiasm knew no bounds. There were no spectacular runs, ten yards being the greatest 28 THE MERCURY. single gain. With one minute to play a touch-down was made and the goal kicked. "What's the matter with Hilsey?" again shouted the leader. Never was such a yell heard as when they cried, "He's all right." The game was over. Again the colors of Thomaston flew high. Hilsey was late for supper again that evening. The sun was setting beyond the chapel hill with a blaze of crimson and gold, which seemed to him to be in honor of Thomaston's victory, his victory. The old chapel looked dearer than ever. In a few short months he would receive his diploma there. "It's the spirit of the place," he murmured as a crowd of students came down the street, wood in one hand and oil cans in the other. "There he is now. We want Hilsey," they cried." Yes," he muttered, as he was being hoisted upon the shoulders of his ad-miring fellows, "its the spirit of the place, the college spirit, the Thomaston spirit." I H E HE RCU RV Entered at the Postoffi.ee at Gettysburg as second-class Matter. VOL. XVII GETTYSBURG, PA., NOVEMBER, 1909 No. 6 Editor in-Chief SAMUEL FAUSOLD, 'IO. Exchange Editor G. E. BOWERSOX, 'io Business Manager PAUL S. MILLER, 'IO Ass't Bus. Managers C. M. ALLABACH,'ii S. T. BAKER, 'II Assistant Editor RALPH E. RUDISILL, 'IO Associate Editors E. J. BOWMAN, 'II C. M. DAVIS, 'II Advisory Board PROF. G. F. SANDERS, A. M. PROF. P. M. BIKLE, FH. D. PROF. C. J. GRIMM, PH. D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary Societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance ; single copies IS cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be ac-companied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. fore, his duty to cultivate it. THE CONYERSA- What a world TIONALIST. of meaning this word contains! What a flood of memories it brings to us! Un-consciously there leaps to the im-agination the pictures of talkers who have given us many a pleas-ant hour. The human voice is probably man's greatest gift. It is his dis-tinguishing feature. It is, there- Indeed this should be his ambi- ^■■■^^^■H 30 THE MEECUEY. tion: to be affable, clear, optimistic and pleasant; to develop a ready wit and the happy accomplishment of speaking the right word at the right time. Indeed to keep silent always is as great a fault as constant babbling. Franklin expressed the idea as follows: "As we must account for every idle word, so we must for every idle silence. Conversation is not a wooden thing; it is elastic, happy and free; it runs, hops and skips. Indeed man's greatest asset is speech and harmonious conversation between two or more should be made the supreme pleasure of life. Conversation costs us nothing in dollars and cents; it com-pletes our education; discovers friends for us and can be enjoyed at all times and in all places. Although conversation is common to all ages, we believe the golden age of youth makes most of it. The young man or woman—particularly the college man or woman—uses the gift of speech to give expression to the bright-est hopes for the future. The collegian, in fact, lives in the fuT ture and oh! what a loss it would be to him to be deprived of the pleasure of building castles in the air. Talk is the great instrument of friendship. By it as Steven-son says, "Men and women contend for each other in the lists of love like rival mesmerists. By it friends can measure strength and enjoy that amicable counter-assertion of personality which is the gauge of relations and the sport of life." Conversation generally drifts to the two great subjects, "You and I." Of course the third party may be given passing consid-eration but vain humanity can not long escape the subjective. This fact is quite noticeable in the chat of two college chums. It invariably has to with the welfare of the speakers directly or in-directly. This being the case the conversationalist should be careful to clothe his old subjects in new garments and to bring them forth from the mint, as it were, with new and ever delight-ful aspects. Yes, let us continue to talk! Let us enjoy our talks, but let us seek to find more and more ways to benefit from them. THE American business world is a rapidly flowing river. To get into this rapidly moving stream, man must hustle and not be slothful. The competitions of modern life have become so keen THE MERCURY. 31 that there are no opportunities for the lazy. Man must either work or go to the wall. In every community this fact is under-stood but too often not believed. Should not these student days be hours of industry and benefit ? Many a night is spent in folly and the following day suffers. The only real and lasting enjoy-ment in life is to be found in work. Everything which man creates decays when neglected, but nothing in nature goes to pieces so fast as man in idleness. The conditions of all our faculties and enjoyments are found in the full exercise of all our powers to the limit of their capacity. There are examples of college men ad inflnitissium whose voice touches no sympathetic chord in the activities of to-day. Their thoughts never got beyond college politics and rivalries of secret societies. They have always been idlers and now are hopeless failures. As in the lower life the busy bees have no room for the drone, so in a college community the diligent students have no room for the dilatory. Let us conscientiously answer the ever-present question would our parents approve of their money's time and benefit ? and give tireless attention to our own work and advancement and when the commencement clock strikes we shall all be ready for our liberal professions. EXCHANGES. | GAIN it becomes our pleasant duty to examine and com-ment on our exchanges. We are gratified to see so many of the former papers again appear this year; as well as many new ones. A few of the former ex-changes have not yet made their appearance, but we trust it is only a matter of a short time until we shall again have the pleas-ure of receiving them. The matter of criticism is quite a relative one; some papers choose to tear every thread of good out of productions by hostile criticism; others are too apt in praising. It has always been our custom to act the part of appreciative critics in dealing with our friends. Of course there is often a necessity to make the harsher 32 THE MERCURY. kind of criticism, but in so doing we shall always do it with a friendly spirit and trust no offense is taken. Of the few exchanges to reach our hands this year one of the best is "The Gilford Collegian;" its departments are all well ordered and literary contributions are of a high order. The ora-tion, "The Solid South," is a very pertinent production; it deals in a broad and sensible manner with the reasons of southern solidity and shows how the causes for it no longer exist and that the idea belonging to a past time should be relegated to its pro-per place by the thoughtful citizens. The story, "The Heart of a Woman," in the same issue is very clearly written and not only causes much amusement but some serious thought. The October issue of "The College Student" is filled with well written articles. "The Crime of the Congo" and "The Crucible of Life" show much preparation and skillful arrangement of material. "We gratefully acknowledge all exchanges received. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. IN this Drama of Four Year's Course, Play your part without dad's horse ; This to do is up to you With just a little tact between each yearly act, In some domain take a stroll And sell ALUMINUM for next year's Role (roll). Every summer hundreds of students make BIG MONEY selling Aluminum Cooking Utensils. For particulars address LOUIS HETZEL, Gettysburg College, GETTYSBURG, PA. THE STEWART & STEEN CO., COLLEGE ENGRAVERS, 1024 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA. MAKERS OF INVITATIONS, PROGRAMS, MENUS, VISITING CARDS, DANCE CARDS, MONOGRAMS, CLASS AND FRATERNITY STATIONERY. P. S. MILLER, '10, Representative, Who has a full line of samples. EDUCATION The times an .1 the Schools demand that the best things shall be done and in the best manner. Watermans^FountainPen accomplishes everything that can be required of a good writing in-strument. Made to last for years of service and give its owner the satisfaction which comes with owning "the best." From all dealers. The Globe trade-mark i» our guarantee .742 Market St. San Frm 136 St. Jftinei St., Moi.trenl 12 Golden L*n«. ton-ton G Ru« A* lUnovm Paris PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. FUIOTTU^E Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. - Telephone No. 97. H. B. BENDER. 37 Baltimore Street, Gettysburg, Pa. EDGAR C. TAWNEY BAKER West Middle Street. J. B. WINEMAN, DEALER IN CHOICE FAMILY GROCERIES, PROVISIONS AND FRUITS, BOARDING CLUBS A SPECIALTY. L. WEIGAND, DEALER IN FRESH AND CURED MEATS OF ALL KINDS-Boarding Clubs a Specialty. §003^5 f^e5tQUPQDt, No. 7 Chambersburg Street. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. EMIL ZOTHE, College Emblems, Engraver, Designer and Manufacturing Jeweler, 722 Chestnut St., Phil delphia. Specialties: Masonic Marks, Society Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through G. F. Kieffer. Charles S. Mumper, DEALER IN FURNITURE, PICTURE FRAMES OF ALL SORTS REPAIR WORK DONE PROMPTLY I will also BUY or EXCHANGE any SECOND-HAND FURNITURE No. 4 Chambersburg street, Gettysburg, Pa. D. J. Swartz, DEALER IN COUNTRY PRODUCE, GROCERIES, CIGARS AND TOBACCO. GETTYSBURG. —IS— OHLER BRO.'S RESTAURANT, First National Bank Bld'g. The place to eat the best Ice Cream. QUICK LUNCH and Oysters in season. Your Photographer, If not, why not? 41 Baltimore St., Gettysburg. FLEMMING I BAIR'S LIVERY, Baltimore Street, First Square, Gettysburg, Pa. Competent Guides for all parts of the Battlefield. Arrange-ments by telegram or letter. Dock Bock 257. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. WINDSOR HOTEL, W. T. BRUBAKEB, Manager. Midway between Broad St. Station and Reading Terminal on Filbert St. A convenient and homelike place to stay while in the city shopping. An excellent restaurant where good service combines with low prices. BOOMS $1.00 PER DAY AND UP. The only moderate priced hotel of reputation and consequence in PHILADELPHIA. The Modern Steam Laundry . . OF YORK . . Offers the COLLEGE STUDENTS first-class work at Special Low Prices. E. C. STOUFFER, Local Agt. C. D. SMITH, Prop. The Baltimore Medical College Preliminary Fall Course begins September ist. Regular Winter Course begins September 20th. Liberal teaching facilities ; Modern college buildings; Comfortable lecture hall and amphitheatres ; Large and complete equipped laboratories; Capacious hospital and dispensary; Lying-in department for teaching clinical obstetrics ; Large clinics. Send for catalogue. Address DAVID STREETT, M. D., Dean, N. E. Cor. Madison St., and Linden Ave., Baltimore, Md. COMPILER IMPRINT ON JOB WORK MEANS TASTY WORK CAREFULLY DONE. MENU CARDS WINDOW" POSTERS LETTER HEADS ENVELOPES DANCE CARDS TICKETS Programs of all kinds. Everything the College Man wants in Paper and Ink. Specially designed work. Latest Effects in Paper, done in Colors along lines of College Men's Associations. Catalog and Book work. The Gettysburg Compiler will keep old and new students in touch with town and college life.
The Mercury February, 1908 HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y. Maker* °f CAPS AND GOWNS To Gettysburg College. Lafayette, Lchigh. Dickinson; State College, Univ. of'Penn-sylviini , Harvard. Tale. Princeton, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr and the others. Class Contrasts a Specialty. Correct Hoods for Degrees. To The Class of '08. We have begun our college campaign for next Spriug and Buuimer. Over, 25.000 employers li-ok to Hapgoods for their men in sales, offices and technical positions in all departments. Must of these firms use college men. They arrange with us to cover the entire college world for them. We have a unique proposition of immediate interest to any college aiau who will be open fora propo-sition. Let us tell you about it. Write to-day. TIIK JVMTMOJYAi, «/.■•.'./.WX./7/O.V Oh' iiit.JM.v itiio1,1:us. Commonwealth Trust Building, Philadelphia, Pa. HOTEL GETTYSBURG, Headquarters for BANQUETS. Klectric Lights, Steam Heat, All Conveniences. Free Bus to and from station. Convenient for (Commencement Visitors. RATES $2.00 PER DAY. .wiver-y G.tio,c"ked. Joliq P. JV[c(^tiri, Proprietor. IF YOU CALL ON C. A. Blocher, Jeweler, CENTER SQUARE, He can serve you with anything you may want in REPAIRING or JEWELRY. WE RECOMMEND THESE FIRMS. Established 1867 by Allen Walton. ALLEN K. WALTON, Pres. and Treas. ROBT. J. WALTON, Supt. Humraelstown Brown Stone Company, QUARRYMEN and Manufacturers of BUILDING STONE. SAWED FLAGGING and TILE, Waliorvvllle, TSo.-u.pK-in, ^c, Pa. CONTRACTORS FOR ALL KINDS OF CUT STONE WORK. Telegraph and Express Address, Brownstone. Pa. Parties visit-ing quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station on the P. & R. R. R. For Artistic Photographs Go To TTPTON The Leader in PHOTO FASHIONS Frames and Passapartouts Made to Order. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS Come and Have a Good Shave or Hair Cut —AT— Harry B. Set*ion's BARBER SHOP. 35 Baltimore St. Barber's Supplies a Specialty. Also choice line of Cigars. SHOES REPAIRED —BY— Charles Hartdagen, Middle St., Opp. Court House, GUARANTEE ALL WORK. GETTYSBURG DEPARTMENT STORE, Successors to the L. M. Alleman Hardware Co., Manufacturer's Agent and Jobber of HARDWARE, OILS, PAINTS AND QUEENSWARE, GETTYSBURG, PA. The only Jobbing House in Adams County. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. » ft » *« * *«*»««» * ft ft ft ' */ ft' e «a » «««** » «« » ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft * ft ft « ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft * ft ft ft * ft ft ft ft ftftftfte«a««aft«a»««««»«»«»*ee$«a««#ee»#a«aftft ft f«t «» fat «««a ft » ft«« ft « ft ««« « «»« « ft » ft » ft ft «» ft »«« ft «a »» ft «« « ■ft « a »« ft «« »* « * « ft « ft «« «««» ft « «* a »♦»» Seligm^q Are Gettysburg's Most Reliable TJ&TLO^S *£ And show their appreciation of your patronage by giving you full value for your money, and closest attention to the wants ot every customer. Give Them Your Patronage IF»»ft«»*««««««««««ft«ft«««««»ft»««ft«sft#£iftee$$# PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. "i" 7F. '•!■■ "F ii. * "F \i- T •j "F •t "ir •i- 'i" i Weaver Pianos and Organs Essentially the instruments for criti-cal and discriminating buyers. Super-ior in every detail of construction au.d superb instruments for the production "■ of a great variety of musical effects and the finest shades of expression. Close Pricss. Easy Teras. Old lustra ants Siohiujai. =~^2 '>" WEAVER ORGAN AND PIAN^ CO., MANUFACTURERS, YOWK, PA , U S A. —i-H--t--:-X Students' Headquarters —FOR - HATS, SHOES, AVI) GENT'S FURNISHING. Sole Agent tor WALK-OVER SHOE EGBERT'S STORE. Prices Always Right TIJB Lutheran . Publicmioii Society No 1424 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches. Colleges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and develop one of the church in-stitutions with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. Address HENRY S. BONER, Sup't. THE MERCURY The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XV GETTYSBURG, PA., FEBRUARY, 1908 No. 8 CONTENTS ALUM X I SPIRIT .*. 2 PROF. is. j). s'i'.uii.i:v, u.n., "tl. THREE GREAT PHILOSOPHERS. Plato—Part II.11 CHARLES W. IIKATHCOTK, '05. WINTER Poem 16 BOWMAN '10. THE PERSONALITY OF THE MUSICIAN" 18 II. KI:Y WOLF, '09. THE EALNBOW HOPE • 21 Q. ARTHUR KliF.Y. SEMINARY., '08 TAX AX ACCEPTABLE SUBSTITUTE FOE PREACH-ING BE DEVISED? : 25 KiiiiiiAirr, '09. IS THE MATERIAL FOE iSTOVELS EXHAUSTLESSF.-.28 VIRGINIA BEARD, '09. EDITORIALS 31 XH E MEPOUEY. ALUMNI SPIRIT. PROF. G. I). ST.AHLKV. VI.IJ., 187T. R. CHAIRMAN, Members of the Pen and Sword So-ciety, and Students: It is pleasant to have■honors thrust upon one. I appreciate the privilege of becoming a member of the Pen and Sword Society. It has occurred to me to utilize the present occasion hy speak-ing on the subject of Alumni Spirit. A proper alumni spirit, and college prosperity go hand in hand. The alumni are ungrateful and despicable, if they do not lovingly hold in remembrance their college days, and contem-plate with gratitude their alma mater—their nourishing mother, who guided their adolescent steps through the preliminary paths of learning, and established their feet on broad and well tested avenues leading to higher culture. And on the oilier hand that college is short-sighted indeed, that does not recognize-the ne-cessity of co-operation with its alumni in carrying on its educa-tional wmk. To lightly esteem or ignore alumni opinion or in-fluence is 3 suicidal policy for any college to adopt. Alumni spirit has its foundation in college spirit «nd class spirit. It is therefore a product of the four years passed in the college community, and is not a I'rame of mind originated on .commencement day. and formally received, with the diploma, from the hands of the president. Those who have been gradu-ated from college and have frequently seen others graduated, know that commencement day is a day of subdued sadness. The emotions may be well mastered, but the undertone of regret at the breaking up of pleasant companionships certainly exisits. and if not realized by the student then, will he realized later [f the alumni spirit is not invisibly conferred with th degree, then the degree will lack a sentiment and a subtle influence, which will greatly mar its effectiveness as a symbol of eminence attained. Let as consider college spirit as a primal factor in the culti-vati I' alumni spirit. The existence of a college spirit invari-ably follows, wherever there is a college having students. It cannot be otherwise, The institution is the center of the college idea and the exponent of college traditions. The students are THE MKRCURY. there for what the college can give them—of training, incentive, •council,—and it is the rallying jjoint for all their scholastic in-terests and activities. It is their educational home, and it wordd he just'as unnatural for them to disregard their college colors, as it would be to hold in contempt their own family honor. There are various influences winch contribute to the building up of a college spirit. In these days there is no lack of college activities which have in view the betterment of the institution, from tlie student view-point. Athletics with its varied and strenuous features, the musical organizations, literary publica-tions, debating and dramatic clubs, the college Y. M. C A., fra-ternity and inter-fraternity fellowships, together with social en-gagements, present a complex of student interests, which from the amount of time and personal attention they require, often causes alarm, when we stop to consider that in addition to all these activities there is such a thing as a curriculum, \vbieh by fight should also claim a certain portion of the student's time and attention. *J?o those unaccustomed to a student's life, and ignorant of the easy adaptations which characterize college men. the problem of student efficiency, under such conditions, becomes a puzzle, and they shake their heads in emphatic disap-proval. But to those of us who are on the inside, the situation is not alarming, and the logic of our thoughts is to the effect that all these activities contribute mightily to.the building up of a vigorous college spirit. They converge and unify the varied energies of the student body, and definitely determine a rallying center about which to engage with inspiring shouts and songs. Of course there are tendencies in these activities which \wd to be regulated. I beard recently of an employer who said that so many of his workmen were only interested in "pay day and quit-ting time" So it sometimes occurs that students become more interested in these self-assumed enterprises, than in the prose-cution of their studies. But this need not be so. More than fifteen years ago one of our students asked me—"Can a man play football and yet continue to be a good student." I replied —"It can be done, but it requires a level-headed man to do it." fie did not tell me what his decision would be, but I noticed that ■he continued to play football, and during an iniporta.it season he was captain of the team and one of its crack players: when lege is not frequently in their thoughts and their interest seems dormant aft9-de'ad. Such an one I met recently, who did not know of the existence of a certain department in our college, although that department was established twelve years ago. However his heart is all right, and he expects to attend our com-mencement exercises this "summer. A genuine alumni spirit, when at its best, will not allow tin cares of this world and the deceitfulness of riches to choke it and to render it unfruitful. Those of us who are officially, or as students connected with the college, and whose interests are therefore at white heat, must not expect the alumni spirit to be always abundant, intense and persistent—but when we do find it characterized by these admirable qualities, we should be willing to accord due credit We have with us to-day an alum-nus, whose spirit of interest in his alma mater'has the qualities T have just mentioned—it is abundant, intense and persistent— I refer of course, to Dr. Gies, the founder of the Pen and Sword Society, the donor of valuable prizes to stimulate literary work in the college, and whose interest in his alma mater has neve] lessened, notwithstanding the multiplied and arduous duties imposed upon him by the professional chair he so ably fills. Alumni interest and college prosperity go hand in hand. The former is i >st valuable asset of the college, and without it. its resources are insignificant indeed. The alumni ptand, as THE MERCURY. did Aaron and Hur, in holding up the anus of Moses,—they assist mightily in securing influence and prevailing power. Many of the best men of the college boards of the land are alumni of the institutions they serve, and some of them are the official rep-resentatives of the alumni associations of their respective col-leges. The alumni on these boards, have, '"both theoretically and as a fact, the best interests of the institution at heart. II' these alumni have been actually engaged in educational work, so much the better,—and for the very forceful reason that familiarity and experience will insure wise opinions and judicious councils. Our own board did a most commendable act, when last commence-ment, they added to their number Dr. Luther P. Eisenhart of the class of '96. Professor Eisenhart secured his doctorate at Johns Eopkins University, and is now a member <.!' tht faculty al Princeton University. His experience and observations at both of these institutions will undoubtedly be of great value to us here. I do-not sympathize with the idea, sometimes express-ed, that a university trained man can be of no service in the coun-cils of a small college. The. objection made is that such an one will endeavor to introduce inapplicable university methods. I belieye this danger to lie imaginary. If Governor Stuart were to be elected Chief Burgess of Gettysburg, 1 do not imagine that he would proceed to establish a State government within the bor-ough limits, but I beli tat his knowledge of what a State government should be, would greatly aid him in building up a good borougli government. His sense of needs, and of adapta-tion, would guide him mosl admirably in giving us a most effi-cient civic administration. At the next meeting of the Board of Trustees, another oppor-tunity will be afforded ih,m. of again adding an educator to their number. As most of you know, at the meeting of our gen-eral Alumni Association during commencement week 'ast sum-mer, when it was announced that the Association had a vacancy to lill in the Board, at once the name of Dr. (lies, of the class of '93, was proposed, The marked enthusiasm which greeted his nomination as the nominee to the Board, and the hearty and unanimous election which immediately followed, was a bigh and merited endorsement by the general alumni body. In addition THE MERCURY. to this, the Pittsburg-Gettysbtfrg Club and the New York-Get-tysburg Club, have, in specific resolutions, unanimously second-ed the request of the general Association. The existence of a provision, which bars from election, an alumnus who is a member of a college faculty cannot consistently be recognized by the Board at its meeting (bis summer, since it has already, and very justly, ignored the propriety of such an objection, by the'elec-tion of Professor. Eisenhart, The qualifications of Doctor Gies ;is a counselor in educational matters are beyond question. He has been a university man for the past fifteen years. He *m.< ■' received his degree of Do-.tor of Philosophy at Yale in 1898, and that fall began to organize a department of Physiological Chemistry in Columbia University. So well did he succeed in this work that in 1904, or in eleven years after his graduation here, he became a full professor in that great university. Our college, needs (he interest of its alumni, and it needs the active counsel and assistance of those of our alumni graduates who have a practical acquaintance with the educational methods of on- dav. Alumni spirit needs the fosteiing care of recogni-tion, in order that it^iecoiiie^a power for good in advancing the interests of our beloved college We have an institution here to be proud of. E desire to utter the it-liberate judgment, based upon history, observation and fact, that Pennsylvania College has always compared favorably with any other American collegiate institution,—in respect to advantages offered, the standing of its alumni in the higher ac-tivities of life, and. in the representative character of its student body. ■ • Through veais of toil, and by reason of the devotion of its ardent trends and the labors of its instructors, Pennsylvania College has secured to itself a rich prestige of scholarly tradi-tions, and a name and fame for honest achievement, which we . -will do well to guard with jealous care. The past is secure. No profane tongue may successfully dis-credit either the work or the workers. The success of the in-stitution has been evolutionary, cumulative, progressive and we of to-day have inherited a privilege and an obligation. The de-cades of the past mark successive periods of continuous growth and development, and the obligation is insistent that future de- 10 THE MERCURY. cades shall come to their proper inheritance. The work of the present is admirably consonant with the achievements of the past. Progress is still the watchword, as is witnessed by the recent additions in instructors, new departments and new courses. All hail, then, to bur college in its continued onward strides, and all hail to thai essential alumni spirit, which if properly recognized and nourished, will do wonders for our alma mater. And all hail to our undergraduate body of students, who are now diligently cultivating college spirit and class spirit, in order that they may become efficiently equipped with an abundant alumni snirit. [Note:—This address was delivered by Dr. Stahley upon his initiation into the Pen and Sword Society at its annual public .neeting February twelfth. The members of the Society, appre-ciating its excellence, unanimously voted after its collation, to have it published in the MERCURY in order that those who were not present at the time it was delivered might have an opportu-nity of reading it.—EDITOR.] THE 3IEKCURY. 11 THREE GREAT PHILOSOPHERS. Plato—Part II. Cir.VHI.ES W. HEATHCOTE, '05. HE underlying principle in Plato's philosophy is his Theory of Ideas. The various philosophers who pre-ceded Plato prepared the way for the development of his Doctrine of Ideas. He takes the golden thread which runs through their philosophical systems and withvhis master mind weaves the network for his own system. In great part he was indebted to the Eleatics, Heracliteans and Pytha-goreans for his Doctrine of Ideas. He took the abstract matter of thought and moulded it into a "concrete form of an ideal vision." . The Idea.- ( iBei ) stand as archetypes of Being. They are the conceived essence of true existence. Plato gave to the Ideas a separate existence. Their home is in the Universal Mind or God. There is a gradual rise from the lower ideas to the high-est. The highest is the idea of the Good which Plato seems to identify with God and which he construes to be the source of knowledge. Plato was in harmony, in part, at least with the current view of his age, in recognizing the existence of certain minor dieties, but he purified this thought with the true spirit of his philoso-phy. He asserts again and again that the Ideas are divine. In recognizing one Supreme Idea, he held that this Idea was the Highest or God: As a manifestation of this goodness, God cre-ated the world. Or as Zeller well says: "In thus determining the highest Being as the Good, and as Season assigning an end, Plato apprehends it as the creative principle, revealing itself in the Phenomenon; because God is good, He formed the world." In forming the world, Plato firmly held in mind that God had created it perfect. It was not controlled and governed by Blind Force. Law and order prevailed everywhere as the rul-ing factors. Thus mind and intelligence formed the basis of all this creative power. As Plato conceived of God's intelligence being so clearly marked in its perfect form of creation, he also developed the idea of the World-soul. .That is Plato believed 12 THE MERCURY. that intelligence could not exist apart from the soul life. Con-sequently, he believed that God placed the world's intelligence into a true soul-life known as the World-soul. Plato divided this World-soul into two parts, known as the outer and inner. These •parts conceived of as being spherical in form make up the world-system. The outer circle is the system of fixed stars and the inner "the seven spheres of the planets." Thus the soul on ac-count of it; very nature is governed by true law and as it moves continuously it gives the proper place, position and motion of all the heavenly orbs. To tine"World-soul, because of its self-mo-tive power, he ascribes it the faculty of generating knowledge. Plato in writing of the power of the World-soul was using figurative language. It is true that he literally ascribed a sou] to the world yet.the meaning of the word as he uses it embraces too much in its broad conception. With respect to the soul of man Plato carefully reasons that God formed it out of the same elements as the World-soul, but less pure. When the Creator made the souls of men, he made as many souls as there were fixed stars and each soul had one of these stars as its true and eternal habitation. When'man was created, one of these souls would be implanted in his body. To-the soul that would be victorious over wickedness and evil it would be released from its bodily home and be restored to the realms of immortality. But the individual who would fail to-conquer the temptations of his lower nature, his soul would be condemned to dwell among the fierce beasts. But since the soul has pre-existed without bodily form, in the end it will be freed from its sinful bodily home and will fly to those realms where it can grow in power and strength and attain perfection. Plato-did not think that any one did wrong willfully, but Virtue and Good were overruled by a weak and disordered body. This was due to the improper use of the body and the lack of careful Ju-dicious exercise. Thus, parents should live nobly in order that their children would be spiritually strong, in order that the soul might be pure and reach that ideal state of perfection. He firmly believed that man was placed at the head of crea-tion and because of this grand heritage he should continually strive to live the Higher Life. Plants and animals were cre-ated for man's use and to serve his purpose. Animals were THE MERCURY. 13 formed not only as food for him, but also as the dwelling place of man's soul that had proved itself unworthy for the realms of immortal life. "Plants too are living beings, but their so\rl is of the lowest kind, capable neither of reason nor opinion, but only of desire and sensation; a soul only moved from without, to which has been denied the motion that proceeds from and re-turns into itself—self-consciousness, therefore, plants can never change their place." (Zeller page 432.) Socrates had taught that the attainment of the Good by each individual should be each one's best and noblest endeavor. Plato imbibed this golden truth from his great master and inculcated the principle that the individual should so live day by day that his soul would attain the Ideal—the Highest Good. This was to be the ultimate aim of each soul, both for the at-tainment of it in the individual life and for the interests of the State. Plato was so deeply impressed with the reality of evil in the world that the soul was never free from it. As long as the soul resided in the body it was fettered there as in a prison or a dungeon. It was unable to flee away to the Higher Life. However the soul, at. the first opportunity, he realizes, must escape from this corporeal existence and seek its home with God in order to be happy. However, true philosophy serves a pur-pose which is helpful in part, at least, that by its very essence, it has the power of purification. The soid, the center of the intelligence' desires'this philosophy not per se as a pleasure re-sulting from contemplation, but as a power and a help to purify it foi* the Higher Life that is to come. On the other hand, Plato well observes that a soul that does not feel the sting of pain, suffering and anguish could not truly appreciate the Higher Life. Though the soul may be surround-ed by wickedness in its darkest form, nevertheless, there are times when the soul is able to be glad and joyful for the rays of goodness that it is able to receive from the Eternal Light. Pleasure in a certain degree may be considered as a part of the Good. The soul in its present prison, Plato rightly believes, is able to enjoy certain pleasures that are in harmony with natural law and careful living. Those joys that require the im-proper use of the faculties are impure and destructive in their participation. The first and supreme pleasure should be the 14 TIIH JIERCUKY. contemplation of the Idea Good in the present soul Kfe and the striving to realize or actualize the Good in the present life as far as possible. This plan will make the soul truly crave Virtue. In this thought Plato truly reiterates the sublime principle of Socrates. For he emphasizes the idea that morality is based'upon a clear conception of virtuous living. The soul fills itself with the Divine Goodness through contemplation. It is the true philoso-phy of life Then the soul becomes strong and even here on earth can treak down many of the bars of evil and wickedness which summoned it. Through this power it can copy more clearly the archetype conception of Goodness, for the very thought becomes indelibly impressed upon the soul. ' It has been shown that Virtue was the great Ideal for the in-dividual to attain, so this same principle was to be the foundation of the State and Platonic Society. The Greeks held the true organization of the State to be of the utmost importance. They were taught to give true allegi-ance to th.T State. Although Plato strongly believed that moral integrity and good government were necessary for the well being of the State, but he looked upon ihe participation in its affairs not as an absolute but only a relative duty. He thinks the life of the philosopher as he contemplates, in a quiet and undisturb-ed way, on the Higher Problems of life is fulfilling the true end of living. Since it is impossible for all men to live thus, philo-sophically speaking, the State is a moral necessity in order by education to inculcate virtue in the minds of its citizens. The philosophers can only give the inhabitants of the community a true conception of Virtue and they should be the ruling class and Philosophy though united with political ideals, should oc-cupy the first place and all trouble and discontent would be avoided. Or as Uberweg says: "The State is the individual on a large scale. The highest mission of the State is the training of the citizens to virtue. In the Ideal State each of the three principal functions and corresponding virtues of the soul is represented by a particular class of citizens. These are (1) the rulers, whose virtue is wisdom; (2) the guardians or warriors, whose virtue is valor; and (3) the manual laborers and trades-men, whose virtue is self-restraint'and willing obedience. The THE MEKCURY. 13 rulers and warriors are to labor only for the realization of the true and the good: all individual interests whatsoever are for-biddui them, and they are all required to form in the strictest sense one family, without marriage and without private prop-erty." It has been observed that Plato believed in the existence of •God. He clearly shows throughout his philosophical system that lie is a Theist. He repudiates all the stories of the various gods ;is myths and false. Plato was unable to describe God fully as one who is Love, although he catches glimpses of this great fact, but it remained for the Gospel to give the conception of God to the world. In his conception, of the State he inculcates the grand truth that God must be sought after in order that virtue mav be the crowning possession of the soul. Plato also ascribes nnchangeableness and perfection to God. According to Plato in the Laws every citizen who holds public office should fear God and remember his duty to God and the soul that God gave him is higher than the body. Thus every citizen should be faithful .and honest in the discharge of his duties. It is true that the philosophical and governmental teachings of Plato were ideal in their conception, but he was nevertheless truly conscious of his surrounding conditions. He tried by his teachings to help the Athenians in a practical way toward attain-ing better governments and living. Plato more than any other philosopher made Athens the philosophical center of the world, that remained years after she lost her political supremacy. A large number of students from all parts of the world were at-tendant upon his lectures at the Academy. The influence of Plato was widely felt and as time has gone on his thought has affected philosophy and theology. After Plato's death his nephew, Spensippus, succeeded to the headship of the Academy. He was followed by Xenocrates a philosopher.of considerable ability and power. Many of the philosophers of the Platonic school departed from the original teachings of their master. They developed a phi-losophy known as Neo-Platonism which was not pure. Greek philosophy hut was a combination of Hellenic, Helraic and other Oriental speculative thought. However, true constructive historical criticism has resulted in 16 THE MERCURY. giving to the philosophical world purer Platonism and his spirit is not lost in the meshes of Neo-Platonic thought. His thought and philosophy have so deeply permeated oiu own language that gain and again in discussing various philosophical problems we will speak of Platonic conceptions unconsciously. Or as Milton n II Peneseroso has said: "Or let my lamp at midnight hour Be seen from some high lonely tower, Where 1 may oft outwatch the Bear With thrice great Hermes, or unsphere The spirit of Plato, to unfold The immortal mind that hath forsook Her mansion in this fleshy nook; And of those/lemons that are found In fire, air, flood, or under ground, Whose power hath a true consent With planet or with element." WINTER. no W.MAX. '10. The cycle of a year is closed. The seasons one by one have passed: Spring's rising beauty, summer's ioy And autumn's gold are gone at last, And now o'er every field and wood, And brook and stream in all the land There sways the scepter, firm and strong. Of old Kino- Winter's icy hand. CHE MEKCURY. 17 That 'monarch rales with will supreme; By his decree' the brooklet's voice, To summer woods, the croaning charm No more shall make the soul rejoice; For fetters, strong as hands of steel And cold as touch of gruesome Death Have bound the stream from shore to shore, Forged by King Winter's icy breath. O'er his domain a curtain white- Is falling thick and fast, The trees are bending with the load The gloomy shy upon them cast, And o'er the hill and meadow cold The icy wind and snowflakes drive, And here and there before the storm In quest of shelter snowbirds dive. Though all without is cruel, cold. Yet by the hearth there's sunshine, love; For by the fire young and old Enjoy the blessings from above; They hear the sire talk of yore, They drink to one another's health. Forgetful of the cold and snow, Enjoying all the farmer's wealth.' Though Winter rules with cruel hand, Ami cold and gloomy seemeth all; Though nature's beauties all seem gone And hopelessly thy spirits fall, Remember Winter has its joys And love and sunshine may reside Within thy heart, if thou but wilt Look on the bright and happy side. IS THE MERCURY. THE PERSONALITY OF THE MUSICIAN. II. RET WOLF.-'09. OMB one has said thai personality is individuality ex-isting in itself, with nature as a ground. Another says thai personality in a broad sense is a silent but powerful coercer of liunian minds.- 1 would not at-tempt to give a definition of it, but it seems to be a vital princi-ple of life. It is a mystery and seems to defy solution. We know to a certain extent from our own experience what perso-nality is. We see its manifestations from day to day in human ■experiences but we can not detect or define it as something thoroughly comprehended. I think we will not be over estimating when we say that one's success in life depends very greatly on one's personality. It seems that in some person; a strong individuality is a natural gift, while in others it must be acquired. A teacher's personality is a very important factor in his work. His influence over the pupil is something marvelous. His movements are watched, bis every action is carefully obseived and even his moral and mental attitude toward va-ious problems is noted. He is taken as an example; hence the importance of a strong personality. The teacher must have personality, the minister, whom we may class also as a teacher, ought to be able to command respect, the orator's influence depends upon it. the business man's success is measured largely by bis individuality and it is only the politician having some such personal magnetism, who can sway the multi-tudes. Lyinan .). Gage, formerly Secretary of the tJ. S. Treas-ury. in speaking' recently of personality, says, that deep within the man often unconscious to himself, lie the forces, the aptitudes, the desires, the anticipations, the tastes, the proclivities, the temperamental qualities which find outward expression indepen-dent of bis will. Further in the article he states that a change in our personality in the direction of improvement, whatever the cause, must come from within. The mental faculties can be strengthened by exercise an*: the emotional nature nourished by pure ideals. It is our duty to develop these useful inward forces and powers which really constitute one's personality. It is this personal factor tbat-lifts one into prominence and power, and- THE JCEItCURY. 19 gives him that strength of leadership which nothing else can do. Thus, we see of what importance individuality is in the different vocations of life. I deem a strong personality in the fine arts to be the highest kind of personality. It is really difficult to find language prop-erly to express just what is meant. While all culture has a re-lining infhiaice, continually nourishing our minds with the very best of noble ideals and aspirations, yet some arts seem to give more culture than others. Among such arts we would place music as one of the first. It would be impossible for one to de-scribe the numerous emotions and sundry expressions of feeling that musi"; reveals. Every selection of music is to represent some emotion or feeling Since we class music as such a distinguished art, the question now arises as to how a musician's personality is shown. We can safely say that this is revealed in his work as a composer or in his interpretation of the thoughts of others, as they are repre-sented in music. Harmony and teehnic must of course be mast-ered, but after a thorough knowledge of teehnic is acquired, there is boundless opportunity for expression and style. Teeh-nic. must always be a mechanical art, and as such, it has no real musical feeling in it. Fere is the opportunity to show indi-viduality. Scarcely two persons will place the same interpreta-tion upon a selection of music, thus showing the difference of human powers in interpretation. There is just as much differ-ence in the merits of musical compositions as there is in the merits of powers. Some are strictly true to nature and to life, while others are of mediocre merit. Of course, this is entirely a matter of individuality again, showing, on the other hand, a keen and perceptive mind, tnd on the other, a lack of keen in-terpretation. What we call genius is really nothing but the highest manifestation of personality. We sometimes speak of persons playing music by eae. This shows musical talent and is nothing but the crude and untrained personality seeking an out-let. It seems that the appreciation of really good music conies only through education, however broadly that term may be appli-ed. By culture we are brought to the appreciation of classical music, just as we are brought to the appreciation and preference of Shakespeare to the common, ordinary literature. 20 THE AU'JHCCJKY. It is only through persistent study that this musical person-ality can be attained. We may read numberless musical maga-zines, we may attend all tha high-grade concerts ttyat it is possi-ble for us to attend, but it is oniy by personal efforts that any-thing in this direction can be accomplished. We must take some selection, study the composer, know his nature, study the title of the composition, find out, if possible, under what circumstances lie composed that special selection, then study the music measure by measure, and endeavor to catch the spirit and feeling of the composer by placing yourself in his mental attitude. This may seem to be a rather crude method of procedure, but personally I have found it of inestimable value in interpreting a composer. Having studied a composition carefully, the next step is its proper execution. Music, if it is worthy to be called music, must appeal to our higher instincts. We must think and follow its meaning just as if we were paying attention to some one talking. This is true art at its greatest. The musician also shows his personality in the selections that he plays. Unfortunately, classical music is rather unpopular. The, popular music is light, catchy and gay and to many means simply to dance or an accompaniment. Harmony is an import-ant element in music and any selection that is harmonious is re-ceived with applause. Classical music may often seem unharmo-nious, especially to the untrained hearer. This is one reason why it is spurned. This idea of harmony in our nature rests on a psychological fact and music only serves as an excellent proof of it. There is nothing more simple and at the same time more beau-tiful than some of Mendelssohn's songs, Schumann's "Frau-merer" or Chopin's nocturnes. Such selections as these are worth mastering. Webber's "Storm" and Gottschalk's "Last Hope" are very popular. A careful study of such selections can not help but create within us noble ideals and wonderfully broaden our ethical natures. Of course we would not entirely ignore the popular music of the day, it .has its qualities and therefore has its place, but it ought to be strictly held to its place. It is well, however, whenever the opportunity comes to dem-onstrate the superior qualities of good music. Thus we can be-come acquainted with a person to a certain extent, by the kind THE MERCURY. 8] of music that he or she plays. We generally play the kind of music that we admire, because it expresses our sentiments- and feelings. We therefore embody in music, and through it, ex-press our ideals. Can there be anv higher manifestation of personality? Tqp RAINBOW HOPE. C. AliTIiri! FliY, SrEMlXARY, '08. EARLY four thousand years ago one of the spiritual giants of antiquity propounded the weighty question: "Ir a man die shall lie live again ?"—a ques-tion which lie himself answered. Probably the most thonght-of, the most talked-about, the most writ-ten- upon subject of all times has been that of immor-tality. Problems in science, art, philosophy, government, etc., all live their little day, in the arena of thought and disappear, but the human race has never outlived this question of Job's. It is still a burning thought in the hearts of the cul-tured, scientific twentieth century as it has been to all the conn-tries since the dawn of time Scholars in all branches of learn-ing are still brooding and writing upon it, and the common peo-ple are asking and re-asking this gVeat question, and will con-tinue to do so until time shall be no more. It is the one great universal problem which has maintained itself in every age and clime and has never lost its interest and power in the thought of mankind. No race or tribe of men have ever been known who were destitute of the thought of immortality. And why is it thus? Surely it must be more than "the riddle of the uni-verse." Men are not haunt.d with riddles. It's an intuition of; the human mind, an appetence of the human heart, wrought into, the whole fibre of the race that cannot be dismissed without1: some sort of solution, any more than the appetence of li.iui.u"<-i - that gnaws in the stomach and demands satisfaction. 22 THE MEHUURY. "It must be so Plato, thou reasoneth well! Else whende this pleasing hope, tbis fond desire. This longing after immortality? Or whence this secret dread and inward horror Of falling into naught? Why shrinks the soul Back on herself, and startles at destruction ? 'Tis the divinity that stirs within us; Tis heaven itself that points out an hereafter, And intimates eternity to man." Listen to the testimony of Eobert G. Ingersoll, the prince of modern agnostics, in the last words he wrote: "Immortality with its countless hopes and fears beating against the shores of time, was not born of any book nor of any creed, nor of any religion. It was born of human affection, and will continue to ebb and pow beneath the mists and clouds of at. doubt and darkness as long as love kisses the lips of death. It is the rainbow of hope, shining on the tears of grief " What strange words from one who shrouded that "rainbow of hope" in wreathing clouds of doubt and fear and darkness, to whose thought "the golden bridge of life from gloom emerges and on shadow rests, and the secret of the future has ne'er been told." However, men may reject God's revelation in His Son, or deny the future life, yet they cannot utterly silence the voice of God speaking in their hearts. Yes, there are some who say,—and their number is so infmi-tessimally small that we may rightfully call them mental curios, yes mental freaks, if you please—that "death ends all." What a horrible thought! The Gnod, the True, the Pure, shall at least become the brother of the Base, the False, the Vile in death. Tendencies and qualities that in life are far.as the poles asunder, and can never be rconciled, shall at least become a unit in deat'i If that be true, then virtue has no lasting rewards, then unde-tected wrong-doing will forever go unpunished, and the wrongs inflicted upon innocence will never be made right. If death ends all then life has no meaning, no purpose, no inspiration., "and the human race with all its grand achievements, with it-continuous onward and upward march will finally reach the THE MERCURY. 23 zenith of perpetual night, beyond which shines no resurrection morn The light in the sun and stars shall be extinguished, the human race with all that it has done and hoped, shall become a nonentity, and the universe will go into everlasting darkness. Standing at the grave of sieve loved one how much comfort does that theory give:" How much light does it throw upon the dark avenues of human life? How much strength does it impart for the bearing of life's burdens? What inspiration to high en-deavor and noble living does it kindle? None! To affirm the negative of being is to rob hope, faith, patience, love, forbear-ance and kindred graces that enrich life and make character beautiful, of their meaning, and make them well nigh valueless. The noblest aspirations of the heart and the loftiest Teasoning of the mind all revolt when confronted with the postulate of eternal non-existence. Not only within ourselves do we find the intimations of a higher life, but all nature round about us seems to voice the truthfulness of our intimations. The natural world teem? with analogies which suggest the eternal life of the spirit. Take for example the migrations of birds, and especially the ndy-thmated humming bird, the only humming bird known around here. When the leaves begin to fall and the flowers fade he wends his way toward the South American home and spends the winter in his warmer native climes beyond the Amazon. But when it's, early spring here, he becomes restless and yields him-self to the migratory instincts working in his being. If you were, to ask him where or how far he is going, he couldn't tell you, for he doesn't know. All he knows is that his instincts tell him to fly and they point out to him The direction in which he shall go. So he starts out for the far north lands thousands of miles away, feeding by day, flying by night over mountains and plains and seas until he arrives here in these temperate zones of the North, where the dimly implanted instinct of migration which he has obeyed, finds its fullest satisfaction: God never cheats the little bird. So every human being is endowed with the instinct of immortality. Constantly within us we feel the movements of the higher life. There's an inward impulse that tells of a higher world order and bids us seek it, and with our superior intelligence and the light of God's Word we follow this dimly-implanted impulse, we too shall be satisfied, for the God 2<± THE MERCURT. who does not deceive the little humming bird will not deceive man. "He who, from zone to zone, (inides through the boundless sky the certain flight, In the long way that I must tread alone Will lead my steps aright." Nature literally abounds witb bints on immortality, and as men of large vision, like Bacon. Newton and Fiske. uncover her secrets they find nothing that would contradict our best hopes, yea. many of these men acquainted with nature's workings have built their arguments for immortality on this very knowledge. For the Christian believer, however, this problem is no longer on debateable ground. His Lord and Master lias spoken the final word and revealed for human life, a destiny so glorious, a purpose so exalted, that it makes life well worth the living, ting-ing it with rainbows of joyous hopes and golden promises, not ending in "zero and a wall of blackness," but sweeping up through the clouds, and beyond the stars, to the walls of jasper, the gates of pearl, the streets of gold, and "the river of the water of life clear as crystal proceeding out of the throne of God." To such the question of immortality is not a nightmare of thought, nor is the future wreathed in mists and fogs so dense that we cannot know what lies beyond, but rather is bright and radiant :as the noonday sun. Jesus Christ is the one all-convincing an-swer to this problem of the ages. He alone is the all-satisfying response to the cry of the human spirit for God and the life be-yond, and in Him the native intuition and longing for immor-tality is transformed into one of the abiding, unshakeable cer-tainties of existence, so that with him who "heard the voice from heaven as the sound of many waters and saw the holy city, the New Jerusalem, coming down from God out of heaven" we can say, "Xow are we the sons of God and it doth not yet appear what we shall be, but we know that when He shall appear, we shall be like Him for we shall see Him as He is." THE MEROBBTSJ 25 CAW AN ACCEPTABLE SUBSTITUTE FOR PREACHING BE DEVISED? f E-IEHAKT '09. X this tiny and generation when men arc prone to look with disdain upon the "Old Things" and are con-tinually striving to produce something now, original, and up-to-date; when men are much inure attracted, by worldly things than their own soul's salvation; when the mere fact that the preaching of the Gospel is able to claim its true origin from Christ and therefore to be classed among the prac-tices of the ancients, we often cast about us and seek a substi-tute for the preaching of the Gospel from the pulpit. Can there ever be found a substitute for the active, earnest, consecrated minister, whom everyone must recognize and to "whom so much of our scanty praise is due? . Without a doubt there would be or perhaps have been suggest-ed ways and means whereby a substitute for preaching could be obtained, but when we get down to the very essence of things it is clearly apparent to a man of ordinary common sense that it would be impossible to do so without very dire results following. • The very nature of man demands it, it seems. .Man must have some ideal, perfect and spotless, kind yet omnipotent, to look to, to worship, and to whom his mind may turn for help in time of trouble,—for to many, trouble alone will cause God to come into their thoughts. The natural mind demands this. We see it among all nations and classes, from our own class of people down to the lowest forms of human kind. If the heathen in his superstition, fol-lowing the inclination of his mind and. fearful of things un-known to him worships so reverently in his blind way. and is so diligent in doing what has been laid down to him as precepts. how much more ought we who are certain and assured in our faith and have reason to believe ours to be a real and ever pres-ent God, one to whom we owe much and to whom our poor thanks and praises are ever due? How much greater should be our reason to guard ourselves and strive to abide by what has so often been impressed upon us both by word and t\w<]! The natural man is open and susceptible to suggestion to a. 26 THE MERCURY. very marked degree, being ever ready to yield to and turn aside whenever am rldly plJ«easun obsta the h "/on,. regardless of the consequences. In his weakness, he must have some outside agent to offset these, evil influences that sur-round him and by counter suggestion or example turn his mind toward the true way to happiness, away from the gaudy "fool's gold" of the world. I hear the question, "Cannot man by studying his Bible thor-oughly, the concordance of the Scriptures, and books of such a nature, if he is earnest so hold, guide and guard himself as to he above and beyond these evil influences as well as he who goes to church front Sunday to Sunday and listens to sermons direct from the same sources?" Ai first thought this would no doubt seem good logic and peiv haps in theory would be beneficial, but let us consider:— Take it for granted,—although we all know such would not be the case,—that each church-goer and church member would study his Bible lesson thoroughly, think it out for himself, weigh it carefully and eventually apply it to himself as it seems best to him. would he derive as much bench! ami see the same pre-cepts embodied in the subject as he who has listened to a well prepared sermon by an eloquent minister, whose business it is to make a careful research along such lines and then goes home to ponder and reflect? As a powerful analogous example take our own colleges: they stand out squarely against any such principle. They recognize that men cannot attain to any degree of perfection of knowledge through dry text books alone. We ourselves know that more real knowledge comes to us through the lectures than any mere study of the text could warrant. The living voice is the prime factor in all education, shown only loo clearly in the Mu<\y of languages, including our own. The Christians as well as the students cannot possibly get in a few hours' study what their ministers or teachers get who have spent many years or even a lifetime doing only such work. Xo matter how diligently and faithfully Christians would work and study their Bibles, ours.would soon be a divided reli-gion, falling far short of its original purpose, a subject for con-troversy, doomed to Sorrow and despair, because of the manv THE MEKCURY. 27 different and even false interpretations which would of neces-sity be put upon the Scriptures, whether through sincerity on the part of the Christians or by the unscrupulous. We need not even take into consideration the natural back-sliders or the lower and less'educated classes of people for their condition speaks out strongly for itself against any course such as would be proposed. They of a certainty cannot do without the willing shepherd's care and attention. In order that the Word of God may become popular and stand out against and hold its own with the other attractive literature of to-day, it must be preached, spoken from the pulpit and its beauty and powerful truths shown as well as to have light thrown upon it. What has made Roosevelt and his policies so popular? The MTV fact that he is able to preach (speak) his theories and then by example prove their value. I dare say his policies are reeog-. nized all over the world and only because he does not hesitate to speak them and then practice what he preaches. The lawless forces in our country attack, and yet fear him and his disciples, striving to bring about their downfall as strongly as does Satan and his mighty host to bring to naught the works of righteous-no.- and God's worshippers throughout the world. Can we see any advantages arising in view of such conditions, if we should substitute? But examine and consider the doctrines and teachings of the great, noble, men in the church of the past and we see that they too. whose authority and precepts we must accept on account of their value alone, have not overlooked this very thing and that they realize fully that the existence or non-existence of our church rests alone in the preaching of God's Word. Paul in 1 Cor. 1:1
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PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and develop one of the church in-stitutions with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. Address HENRY S. BONER, Sup't. T H E HE RC U R V The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XV GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER 1907 No. 5 CONTENTS PRINCIPLE AND PRACTICE.—Junior Oratorical Oration. 2 W. A. BEKKEY, '08. MAN, THE MARVEL OF CREATION. Honorable Mention Junior Oratorical. H. M. BOWEK, '08. PUMPKIN PIE. GEO. W. KESSLER, '08. THREE GREAT PHILOSOPHERS.—Essay. Socrates.—Part I. CHARLES W. HEATHCOTE, '08. 10 SOLDIERLY QUALITIES.—Essay. MARY HAY HIMES, '08. lf> MY FIRST DAY AS TEACHER IN A COUNTY SCHOOL. 19 E. E. SNYDER, '09. OUR NATION'S DANGER.—Poem. H. D. SWANK, '11. 21 A VISIT TO SING SING.-Essay. BY 1908. 22 SCHEDULED TIME.—Essay. EDITORIALS. EXCHANGES. 2& 28, 31 THE MERCURY. PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE. Junior Prize Oration. W. A. BEHKEY, '08. THOUSAND years hence the history of the United States will be studied with an interest that shall equal if not excel that which is now manifested for Greece, Eome, or any of the nations whose history is already made. . The unparalleled rise and development of our nation is a truism. Our standing and supremacy among the other nations of the world is indeed unique. Little wonder is it that the heads of European nations grow dizzy when they see the progress of their own countries during hundreds of years equalled and excelled in a few scores of years by the American people. Of first importance to the student, then, will be this incomparably rapid development. Various prophesies and predictions have been made about the destiny of our republic. The whole of history has been scanned for a parallel of principles and practice which will indicate her ultimate character and function. The question how long our republic will endure was answered very profoundly by James Russell Lowewll: "So long as the ideas of the men who found-ed it continue dominant." To some people the character of our age seems so evident, since they themselves form a part of it, that it presents no ques-tions of inquiry. To the student who surveys carefully the principles and practice dominating and shaping the trend of our growth, there appear tendencies, various, conflicting and inconsistent to such a degree, that the scene is one of intermi-nable confusion. Among the nations of the world, none wields such power and prestige for bringing about peace, as our own When Nicholas of Russia extended a call to the nations for a world parliament at The Hague, and afterwards refused to follow the very prin-ciples which he advocated; when England, the leading nation of Western Europe was willing to block the way of international peace; when the Hague conference, the grandest ideal ever at-tempted, seemed to result in utter fruitlessness ;then it was that the United States on the occasion of the Venezuelan trouble. THE MERCURY. 3 brought back to life this grandest movement of history. When Japan and Eussia, failing to come to terms of peace, were on the point of resuming a war that was inhuman in its character, and unjustified in its object, it was again through the mediation of U. S. that peace was effected satisfactorily to all the world. But on the other hand, if our nation wields such an influence for peace, honesty, integrity of character and justice, how can we reconcile this with the inner life of our nation—with such facts &s are disclosed by the Life Insurance Investigation, the monopolists, the Capitol graft, in our own state which is but a type of what is occurring in some form or other in nearly every large city; the corruption of our politics; the startling statistics of crime; the constant strife between the different races in our own land; the lack of a public conscience in our courts of jus-tice. These glaring facts seem to indicate an utter disregard of the principles of peace, honesty, liberty, and justice, upon which our nation is founded. Statistics show that the IT. S. has the greatest criminal record of any other nation on earth. We pride ourselves in claiming that one of our great national principles is the equality of man. and we point to the 15th Amendment of our Constitution as an achievement which must outshine any enactment, decree, or legislation in the world. In practice, however, we discriminate against the negro. States are openly disavowing and nullifying the 15th Amendment by inserting in their constitutions suffer-age provisions which are in direct conflict with the spirit of the Federal Constitution. Separate coaches on lines of transporta-tion, and restriction of residence to certain portions of the city are not matters of the dim past. We dilate each year on the growing feeling of peace between the North and South, and yet when a Southerner comes to the North, he is a mark of curiosity—a rebel—alive, and in the North. It was but a few months ago when a prominent South-erner, during his visit to a wealthy shoe manufacturer of Boston was utterly embarrassed by the curiosity of the people, which reached its climax in the question from the most refined lady to the Southerner: "Since the war is over, don't you Southern-ers feel ashamed for causing it ?" We eulogise American democracy for the principles which THE MERCURY. govern her political system. Yet we have come to such a status in which it seems the majority of men are willing to abdicate the sovereignty entrusted to them, to allow a boss to dictate their votes, and all too frequently, to compromise with one fac-tion or tiie other for a price. Do we not regard our own government with too much com-placency ? A feeling' that it cannot go wrong, it has been maintained that the glory of American democracy consists in the manner in which people of the most various races and na-tions have been absorbed and adapted by the vigor of the Aiheri-ean spirit. Hugo Munsterburg says of this: "The foreign ele-ments which come of their own choice to Germany, have been as thoroughly assimilated by the monarchy as the American emi-grants by the democracy. America's whole success in that di-rection, hi' says, is determined by her geographical and economi-cal situation, but not by her form of government." We make no apology for this seeming pessimism. Such is not our view. We have no sympathy with the view that every-thing is corruption and that all the picture should be dark and threatening. The last decade has been marked by prosperity never known heroic: by progress in international relations never dreamed of in all history. There has been illgotten gain and corruption in many places. But, the abuses which in' condemn only cause the principles in which we hare such profound faith, to stand out by contrast in their full orbed glory. The questions which present themselves are these: How can the 1'. S. maintain and exert such an influence for peace and honesty, when internal conditions are so inconsistent ? If the rest of the world is really aware of the true conditions, what is the secret of our influence ? If the rest of the world is not aware, how long will it be until the corruption comes to the sur-face and our prestige falls ? We do not believe even that danger is imminent. But we must admit that the people do not want to hear and seemingly are almost unwilling to believe that our destiny as a nation is affected by forces such as these. 1'eare is not the greatest word. Honor and Justice are far greater. We must remain true to the principles which we maintain. We must endeavor to practice them universally. We cannot close our eyes to facts. We have • little time for the student or teacher of science who refuses to THE MERCURY. -open Eds eyes to the (acts of investigation which lie beneath the surface. So with the individual who refuses to recognize the •disharmony between his principles and the facts of his practice. One of the most dramatic lessons in history is Demostheness pleading with the people of Athens. Demosthenes well knew that Athens could stand only as she was true to the principles ■of the fathers. Not because they were the principles of the fathers, but because their fathers had been faithful to the message of Demosthenes to Athens remains a message to every republic—a message of life. The people in their assemb-lies applauded the fine sentiments, enjoyed the praises of the fathers, passed eloquent resolutions,—and shirked their duties. They depended upon leaders—bosses—to attend to all the affairs •of the state. "In old. days," Demosthenes said, "the people was master of its statesman. Now it is their servant." These seeming inconsistencies are only warnings directing us where our principles which are ideal might become real. If ■there can be any evident reason for our progress at home and abroad during the last six years, it is because we have a man at the head of our government who practices the principles for which the nation stands. His, the work of one man,-shows us the secret of a principle of progress—the individual. The thinker sees problems in their relations. The inconsistencies which he finds become a burden, and this very burden of incon-sistency between principle and practice gives the impulse which, leads him to their solution. THE MERCURY MAN, THE MARVEL OF CREATION. Honorable Mention, Junior Oratorical. H. M. BOWER, '08. ITII the advancement of civilization and the rapid pro-gress of modern times, the truth of the assertion that man is a wonderful piece of mechanism becomes more and more apparent. In his forward movement he leaps the chasm of mysteries, forces the strongholds of igno-rance, and surmounts the seemingly impossible. Prom the very beginning, created from the dust, guided by the Omnipotent Hand, he is by his very nature, not only a vir-tual compendium of proceeding stages of creation; but as such is an exponent of the power and wisdom and goodness of God. For in him the laws of matter are to find their interpreter, the vegetable kingdom its uses, animal and all creation its subordi-nate completion and end. "He is a being who besides being a continuous link in the chain of the divine manifestation, could,, as the creation to whom the manifestation is made, turn round and look back upon that chain and by that very act show himself to be the most important part cf it." In this new creature we behold a being capable of knowing and distinctly conscious of a three-fold element of knowledge—of himself as a dictinct ex-istence; of the finite creation to which he belongs and from which he derives his sensation; and of the Infinite Maker of both, presupposed by their existence. Still more: Ileie is a person, a being, influenced by motives and determined by will, and having a high moral end cf his own. He is a creature in whose mysterious constitution law and liberty—perfect law and conscious liberty—harmoniously co-exist. It is the universal law that all things develop gradually. Man with all his wonderful endowments, his emotion, his intellect, his will, once latent gradually arose to his present stage of in-telligence. But he possessed the germ of power which burst forth into a mighty volcano of achievement—the power of his perception, which enables him to remember and compare, the power of his imagination which, at times indeed, leads him into perplexities and errors, but without the aid of which Newton would never have passed from a falling apple to a falling moon; THE MERCURY. the power of his thought by which an inventor finds his wonder-ful analogies; the power of his will by which he determines his destinies. What mind is there large enough to grasp the great achieve-ments that man has wrought. He revels among the stars and says that they are suns. He delves into the bowels of the earth and says there is fire. Archimedes exclaimed: "Give me a place to stand and I will move the earth." Man has found a standng place and he literally moves the earth, not, it is true, from its place among the stars, but that he brings every part nearer the other, and bends the forces of nature to his own pur-poses. He crushes a ton of granite or cracks an egg with equal •ease. He lifts thousands of tons as easily as he raises a finger. The deepest valleys and the highest mountains are his play-things-— he bridges the one and tunnels the other. He makes a messenger of the lightening and harnesses vapor to his chariot. At his command the spirits of air, water, fire, and earth do his every bidding. They propel his steam ships, railway cars, and mighty energies. They make his garments; they build his houses; they harvest his crops; then illuminate his cities; for him they make ice in the tropics or oranges grow amid the snow; for him they fan heated atmosphere into cooling breezes, banish icy winds. They.flash his news around the world; carry his voice for thousands of miles; or preserve it after he is dead. What are the causes of man's progress ? His indominatable will and the gift of Immortality are the true and real causes. His will, the very image of the Divine will, which is unconquer-able, enables him to control the lower creation as well as him-self. God has given to man immortality. He leads and guides man so that he will be worthy, at His call to assume the crown ■of immortality. No wonder Hamlet exclaimed: "What a piece of work is man ! How noble in reason !, How infinite in faculty, in form and movement, how expressed and admirable ! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world ! The paragon of animals !" *Baker, '08, also received honorable mention. THE MERCURY. PUMPKIN PIE. GEO. W. KESSLER. '"08. • EXT to pudding, pumpkin pie is one of the best of the toothsome inventions of our New England ancestors. The modern substitute is made of squash, and very good it often is. But s-q-u-a-s-h is a dreadful name. The man who invented it ought to have a hard shelled Hubbard hurled at his head, as Ichabod Crane was served with a pump-kin, in the "Legend of Sleepy Hollow." Pumpkin is quite a different word , whether it adorns a bill of fare, is woven into poetry, or is flattened into "pu-n-n-kin"in the vernacular. It is one of the old fashioned vegetables that has held its own among upstart rivals for one hundred years or more. Precious little help has the pumpkin had from the propagating gardeners, who are so intent on improving nature's products in other fields. The pumpkin is the same honest, homespun, self-made sort of vegetable vagabond that it was when it straggled through the cornfields and dotted the autumn landscape with spots of golden color in the pioneer days when luxuries were not necessities and wants were few. They pretend to say that the quality has de-teriorated, like some stiains of blood in men whose heads this useful vegetable has most uncharitably been made to symbolize, and that the flesh is pale and poor compared with the yellow richness of fonner years. Yet this may be only the woi k of the old-time worshippers. But when made "tine to name" in just the right way, and served before it gets cold, a pumpkin pie is a thing of beauty and a joy—while it lasts ! 1 know there is an attempt made by certain super-civilized persons to make abstinence from pie a test of refinement. Some of them haven't gastric juice enough to digest anything but tea and toast, but others are just putting on airs. I wouldn't trust some of these fellows who make a virtue of abhoring pie alone with a whole one behind the pantry door, even at 11 o'clock at night. 1 take my seat with Emerson, who, when lunching at a railroad eating house with a party of literary and scientific friends, asked them each in turn if they would ha,ve a piece of the pie before him. When all had politely declined the philosopher helped himself to a gen-erous pie«e and, beaming upon the company with his benevolent THE MERCURY. 9 smile asked: "What is pie for, gentlemen ?" Judge the diet i)v its results ! Was not our New England sage a hundred times healthier and saner with his pie than crabbed old Thomas Carlyle was with his oat meal porridge and dyspepsia ? A well made pie of the right sort is a good deal more wholesome than half of the modern messes concocted as a concession to dyspep-tics who charge upon healthful foods, the natural results of their own sin and ignorance in living without exercise, sleeping too little, smoking too much and neglecting the normal condi-tions of health. But to return to my pie. I scorn to make a cook book of this essay with my present rather scant supply of technical knowledge. But I do know that for a good pumpkin pie you want plenty of milk, just enough eggs, not a judicious sprink-want plenty of milk, just enough eggs, not too much pumpkin, a lump DI' butter and a judicious sprinkling of spices, princi-pally cinnamon and ginger—omitting, if you please, the nut-megs and cloves. The concoction when made ready for the oven, in a "bottom crust" that is tender and flaky when baked, should be about the consistency of good thick cream. Pies that cut out only a little less firm than a pine board—those that will "wobble" without breaking, like a piece of leather—and those that run about loose on your plate are alike to be avoided. About an inch and a half strikes me as a good depth for the filling; two inches is better than the miserable, thin plasters one some-times sees at boarding houses, that look for all the world like pumpkin flap-jacks. The expressive phrase, "too thin" must have come from such lean parodies on pumpkin pies. With the pastry light, tender and not too-rich, and a generous filling of smooth, spiced sweetness, a little "trembly" as to consistency, and delicately browned on top, a perfect pumpkin pie, eaten within a few hours after baking, is one of the real additions made by American cookery to the good things of the world. For the first pumpkin pie of the season, flanked by a liberal cut of creamy"cheese, I prefer to sit clown, as the French gour-mand said about his boiled young turkey—"with just two of us; myself and the turkey." Company is apt to distract from the attention—and subtract from the pie. IO THE MERCURY THREE GREAT PHILOSOPHERS SOCRATES. Parti. CHARLES W. HEATHCOTE, '08. HE ideal which the citizens of ancient Greece held in; mind was that the state should not be too large, so. that each one personally would be able to take a large share in civic affairs. The divided condition of the country made it difficult for the ideal to be realized, for in-tense rivalries sprang up continually between the various com-munities and the result was that national life was destroyed. Though confederacies were formed, nevertheless they were short-lived and in th end this rival spirit resulted in Greece losing her liberty. . Thus when Xerxes had invaded Greece with his Persian hordes, Athens and Sparta were active in repelling the invasion. Subsequent years found Athens the leader in Grecian affairs. She became weaithy and brilliant. Intense rivalry and jealousy on the part of Sparta and many other Greek states who had formed a confederacy with Athens led to an open revolt. Athens was accused of appropriating funds for her own use, which did not belong to her. In the struggle that followed Athens lost her political supremacy from which she never recovered. Al-though she remained intellectual queen of the world for years afterward. In order that the state might be strong each citizen lived pri-marily for the state. Though the state may be ever so small each citizen participated in the government in a personal and direct manner. The citizen formed and made up the leisure' class of society. The people were therefore able to devote all their time to civic, religious, intellectual and artistic pursuits, since their menial tasks were performed by slaves. The intense rivalry of various states and factions within the-state and the mountainous condition of Greece prevented a firm union. A diversity of interests sprang up. The state was unable to grow or develop. It was ideal in its conception, ■ but there was breathed into its structure an air of artificiality. The true development of the state was also hampered by the-union of their so-called protecting divinities and civic ideals: They developed all knds of fantastic ideas about gods, divinities'. THE MERCURY II and deities. The various so-called priests multiplied the con-ceptions of numberless gods. Their religion was lacking in unity and stability. Forbes.well says: "That the more stable elements in the Athenian constitution had been greatly weaken-ed, and the general aim was to make all legislation and admin-istration a reflection of the immediate feeling of the citizens, a rationalizing process in matters of faith and principle had been gaining among the more cultured Greeks, and its results had been filtering through philosophic teaching and poetry into the minds of a wider circle." Since the priests were not true guides in the religious affairs, the moral life of the people degenerated. However, the time would come when the religious and moral tone of the native would undergo a complete revolution. Poets and philosophers would seek to know and explain the mysteries of life. Specula-tive thinkers desired to know the origin of things. About (600 B. C.) Hales of Milatus begins to philosophize upon these things. After him followed Anaxmander, Heraclitus, Pytho-goras, Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno, Anaxagoras, and others who sought to explain the ultimate reality of things. About 450 B. C. a transition is noticed in Greek thought. The Sophist School became the leaders in Greek philosophical thought. The reasonings and teachings of the Sophists were empty and to a great measure false. Ueberney says: "In the doctrine of the Sophists the transition was effected from philosophy as cosmology to philosophy as concerning itself with the thinking and willing subject. Yet the reflection of the Sophist extended only to the recognition of the subject in his immediate individual character, and was incompetent, therefore, to establish on a scientific basis the theory of cognition and sci-ence of morals, for which it prepared the way. The chief rep-resentatives of this tendency were Protogoras the Individualist, Gorgias the Nihilist, Hippias the Polymathist, and Prodicus the Moralist. These men were followed by a younger genera-ton of Sophists, who perverted the philosophical principle of subjectionism more and more, till it ended in mere frivolity." Furthermore the Sophistic teachings led to a confusion of thought, a corruption of morals and skepticism. Selfishness and self-conceit everywhere were prevalent. Men claimed to know everything, when in reality thy knew nothing. An atmosphere 12 THE MERCURY entirely foreign to the earlier days of the Athenians hung over the city. The citizens were unable to receive justice at the courts. Wealth, luxury, indifference, immorality, atheism and selfishness had resulted in bringing chaos to Greek life. A cricis, faced the people. Who would arouse the citizens from their leth-argy ? To whom could they look for help ? They were in-different to their condition. This work was to be started and accomplished in part by Soc-rates. Kitch el I says: "There were great evils existing in men and society about him. To those evils he was particularly sen-sitive, owing to the peculiar quality of his intellectual and moral nature. For those evils he was persuaded that he had the only and sufficient remedy. The application of the remedy in order to overcome those evils was the work of his life. His great aim was to make men care, not so much for their bodies, or money, or office, as for righteousnes, and virtue and the things of the-snul." He spent his time among his fellow-citizens, in the con-stant and public quest of truth, with them and for their good. He was convinced that as only could he do his part in counter-acting the evils in men and society about him." Socrates was born at Alopece near Athens about 469 B. C. His father, Sophoniscus, was a sculptor and his mother's name was Phaenarete. His father was a freeman and was in humble circumstances. At an early age he was instructed in gymnas-tics, lyric poetry (JKOWEK^)" and literary art. Tradition, says that some one gave him sufficient money to attend a special course of lectures given by a rhetorician in mathematics, logic and ethics. For a time he followed the art of his father, but not with very mueh success. He was dissatisfied with this profession and at length abandoned it to devote all of his time to phi-losophy. However to live in Athens in the days of Socrates was an education in itself. He lived at the time of the confederacy of Delos, the great poet Pindar, and the three brilliant dramatists, Aeschyus, Sophocles and Euripides. It was the great age of Pericles. Athens was the intellectual-queen of the world. He saw the great development Athens was making. He was also conscious of the immorality and skepticism which was prevalent everywhere. Without a doubt as he contemplated and reflected. THE MERCURY J& upon the condition of his beloved' city, lie realized how great a mission he had to fulfill. During this period the Sophists, Pro-tagoras and Gorgias, lived and taught, and it is very likely that Socrates attacked them and argued with them in regard to the-principles they advocated and taught. The mind of Socrates, as his personal appearance, was unique. Kitchell says: "That his eyes projected like a crab's, his nos-trils were upturned like an ape's and his lips were thick." He was independent in his thought. In his conversation with men. he sought to find out the relation of things. His mind was keenly analytic. The principle that governed his teaching was "Know Thyself." • He had wonderful control over his body and mind. As Soc-rates so St Paul had this power as is illustrated in his letter to the Corinthians (i Cor., IX, 26, 27)—so fight i as not heating the air, but I buffet my body and bring it into bondage. His: remarkable fortitude was revealed in the military expedition to Potidaea in 432 B. C. At this time he was in the prime of life. The winter was severe and the food supplies were short and the soldiers suffered intensely. But Socrates went for days without food and went about very thinly clad and marched in his bare feet over the snow and ice. He also took part in the battle of' Delium, Amphipolis and Arguinsal. In these battles he exhibi-ted the same moral courage as at Potidea when he rescued Al-eibiades from the enemy at the peril of his own life. Of the home life of Socrates very little is known. Late in> life he married Xanthippe. Several sons were born to them. Xanthippe's fame as a common scold is proverbial. However, she had much to contend with. Socrates was very seldom at home and did not provide very well for the wants of his family. For days at a time and perhaps for weeks Xanthippe and her hungry children saw very little of Socrates. He was engaged and interested in nothing else than his great philosophic mis-sion. Tradition says that when the needs of the family became too apparent Socrates would make some piece of sculpture and sell it and give the proceeds to Xanthippe to provide for the famished household. Socrates' wants were few and he got the-necessaries of life wherever it was possible. It is very likely that his friend, admirer and pupil, Crito, did much toward sup-porting his family. Perhaps some of the cross things she may 14 THE MERCURY have said to Socrates may be overlooked. It is seen that Socra-tes was more interested in his work than in his home life, as many great men have been. He felt that he had not only a mission to carry out but that God had called him to do this particular line of work. Every-where he came in contact with men. He knew and understood human nature. He was ever ready to question men upon their knowledge of life. He was sincere in his convictions. He loved Athens but he pointed out the wrong views of life her citizens held. He was in the quest of truth and he was ready to learn from every source and he was always willing to impart truth to his hearers. He was practical. He wanted living con-trol with men of action and reflection. Thus he was different from the thought uttered by Wordsworth : "One impulse from a vernal wood May teach you more of man, Of moral evil and of good Than all the sages can." Socrates believed in the divinities which were wworshiped by the citizns of Athens. Every moyning lie offered prayer and sacrifice to the rising sun. He believed that the gods took an active part in the af-fairs of men. From his childhood he claimed to be guided by a voice. He obeyed that voice implicitly and he always listened to be guided by it. This voice he termed the Sai^oviov arj/xilov This voice revealed to him his mission as a philosopher. He be-lieved it to be the voce of God. He was guided by it only in regard to the future actions. Thus Fisher well says: "Socrates asserted the doctrine of theism, and taught and ex-emplified the spiritual nature of religion. It is true that he be-lieved in 'gods many and lords many.'" But he believed in one supreme, personal being, to whom the deepest reverence was to be paid. He taught the truth of a universal Providence. "He was persuaded," says Xenaphon, "that the gods watch over the actions and affairs of men in a way altogether different from what the vulgar imagined; for while -these limited their knowl-edge to some particulars only, Socrates, on the contrary, extend-ed it to all; firmly persuaded that every word, every action, nay THE MERCURY even our most retired deliberations, are open to this view; that they are everywhere present, and communicate to mankind all such knowledge as relates to the conduct of human life." He had only one prayer, that the gods would give him those things that were good of which they alone were the competent judges. \'o service is so acceptable to the Deity as that of a pure and pious soul. With Socrates a new era begins in philosophy. He knew his-, knowledge was limited and he knew how far to proceed and that made him the great man of his age. His influence and power over men was striking. His command was, "Follow me and thou shalt learn." Thus, as Socrates taught and questioned all with whom he came in contact, he started to get at the basic principle of all knowledge. He worked with concrete examples and although many of them were crude and simple, nevertheless they served his purpose. He studied the soul and strove for the improvement of man's moral nature. His method was entirely introspective. Xeno-phon tells us that he endeavored to have his pupils distinguish between "what was pious; what impious; what honorable; what base; what just; what unjust; what wisdom; what folly; what courage; what cowardice;" etc. i6 THE MERCURY SOLDIERLY QUALITIES. MAST HAT HIKES, '08. HOM of men do the people as individuals or as a nation love and revere so mueh while living or pay such honor to when dead as the true soldier ? To the . heart of the small boy in childhood the game which is perhaps the most delightful is that of "playing soldier," and when lie grows older lie reads with admiration of the brave lives of warriors and of the worthy deeds-of knights and, at school lias his taste of hero-worship. What makes the true soldier what he is, what are the qualities which distinguish him 'i If we were to paint our ideal soldier—ideal in every way— the picture would show a man tall, well-built, and impressive, of powerful strength, whose brow shows intellect, and whose eyes though keen are kind and glow with the light of a mighty and noble purpose. The lines in his tanned and weatherbeaten face which is alight with enthusiasm, reveal the strong determination and endurance of the one who overcomes. His whole appear-ance impresses us with his remarkable power in things physical, mental, and moral. He is physically perfect, and, mentally, he is a man of keen-sightedness and wise decision. However these physical and mental traits are not essential for the making of a true soldier. The qualities which are most distinguished as soldierly are the moral ones. One could lie one of the truest soldiers even though not physically or mentally gifted;'for after all the moral battles are the greatest tests. One of the first soldierly qualities to be brought into play is that of patriotism ; however, this must signify devotion to duty. The love of his country leads one to give up much, but not un-less it proves his duty, does the true soldier seek war. There is nothing shallow or fleeting about his patriotism. In the camp the true soldier is distinguished by his honorable-ness. His respect for the cause which is his goal is too great for him to forget himself and his duty. Everything must be con-ducive to the end which he seeks, at least not detrimental to it. The cause is worthy of his risking suffering and death, therefore it is worthy of an upright life. He is truthful and faithful to any trust; holding his honor dearer than his life. When hard- ? 1 i THE MERCURY >7 ships come he is patient and conquers himself so far as to stifle all complaints. He is unselfish, thinking always of others and considering their welfare before his own, even denying himself necessary food at times of short rations in order that another may have a better fare. When he goes to battle he faces the enemy with bravery, not that brute courage which is a "free gift of the gods," but that kind which is inspired by duty, which enables a man to approach the fire though his knees tremble so that he can hardly stand. He fights, not because he hates men, and enjoys felling them, one after another, but because his sense of duty compels him and makes him say with Luther: "Mere 1 stand, I cannot do other-wise." One of the essential characteristics of a soldier in battle is obedience to authority. He must learn to obey without question the one who has the right to command, and this obedience as well as everything else which he does must be prompt and accur-ate. This quality of promptness is, also, a very necessary thing for the soldier, for the delay of a few seconds has often been the cause of the destruction F much life and of heavy losses. The soldier is never at his best unless he has perfect confidence in his commander, for prompt obedience is like the power which naturally springs up under this as the warm spring sunshine.' The true soldier must be a hero doing great deeds if the oc-casion is offered, but doing them always'quietly, unostentatious-ly. He has been brave and he rejoices if he is permitted to go still farther and to give to duty a richer offering, an act of hero-ism. Xext I would mention two qualities whose names when read seem to stand for two extremes, enthusiasm and endurance; for the former seems so full of life and the latter so stolid, almost dead. However the former may impart life to the latter. En-durance is a very essential soldierly quality. Battles are often, indeed nearly always won through the endurance of the soldiers. Enthusiasm is the oil which makes the steady flame of endur-ance grow strong and last as well as excites new energy. The soldier's enthusiasm encourages his comrades to make greater and more effective efforts. Mercy has not generally been associated with the grim coun- THE MERCURY. tenance of Mars, but I believe that the true soldier is merciful. Since he is fighting against a bad cause, not against men, he must be as merciful as possible to his prisoner if he gets control of any, and, in the olden combats, honor forbade the one par-ticipant to strike the other while he was down. Dina Gibson represents in one of his pictures the characteris-tic of the present day soldier, who sits, whole and strong before a veteran of bygone days who had then been deprived of several limbs, recounting with evident relish tales of the terrors he has just experienced, the very recital of which .brings horror to the old man's face. This quality does not belong to the true soldier, as the picture may help to illustrate. A true soldier at home when he tells of the brave deeds of the war invariabty omits, his own share in the glory. The true soldier possesses the quality of modesty—he has done deeds which speak for themselves, he need not boast. So, I have given some of the qualities which are necessary for a true soldier to possess, the qualities which I consider most be-coming to a soldier, and in that sense soldierly. Especially would I emphasize those which may be found in the persons around iis who are fighters in silent battles of which the world seldom dreams. THE MERCURY 19 MY FIRST DAY AS TEACHER IN A COUNTRY SCHOOL. E. E. SNYDEH, '09. XE bright autumn morning, some few years ago, after receiving much good advice from my father and many admonitions from my mother, I set out to walk about five miles to a little country school house to spend my first day as a teacher. It was a beautiful autumn morning; the sun throwing its first firey gleams across a distant eastern mountain, the light of which danced and glimmered on the many colored leaves of the forest through which I passed; the rustling of the corn in the Held just beyond; the noisy chattering of the scolding squirrel; the frequent noisy flight of the quail and pheasant, were enough to arouse one to a more than ordinary interest in the life and beauty about him, but I saw them not, or heeded not, for my thoughts and fancies were all centered on that little white school house which I had never seen. 1 a 1 rived at the school house about 7.30 A. M. and at once began to sum up my duties and to speculate upon my chances for fame amid such surroundings. I found that the school house was situated in an old field partly covered with shrubby pines, locusts, and wild grape vines. It was about two miles to the borne of the nearest pupils and about half a mile from any traveled road. To a more experienced mind the impression would have been anything but favorable, but I was blind to everything unfavorable, and was well pleased with the surround-ings. Taking from my pocket a ring that contained four or five keys I immediately opened the door, and began to examine the in-terior of the school house. I found a room about twenty by thirty feet with one row of desks on each side, and a few others scattered promiscuously around. A slate blackboard ran across the room and immediately in front of this was the teacher's desk and chair. I at once directed my steps thither, sat down on the chair, made a careful survey of the entire room, and felt, for the first time the dignity and power of one in authority. About 8 A. M. the pupils began to arrive; I at once talked to them, and endeavored in every way possiblel to gain their re-spect and friendship. This was not hard to do; for there were 20 THE MERCURY only six of them and they were all bright, mischievous children, four hoys and two girls. When 9 o'clock arrived, we were already fast friends and our real work began. I rang a large bell, which was altogether un-necessary, and once more walked forward to the teacher's desk. After reading a chapter from the Bible 1 attempted to make my opening speech. It was a very brief one, and I was never able afterward to recall what 1 said; but I noticed that the pupils seemed to be getting restless and I thought I had better try some other means of instruction. Accordingly I unlocked a small book-case in one corner of the room and began to distri-bute the books. This, under ordinary circumstances, would have required but a short time; but we spent fully one hour at it, and, by the time we were done, it was time for recess period. After recess we began our class work and the remainder of the forenoon was spent in assigning lessons and arranging a pro-gram. The noon hour was spent gathering chestnuts from some large trees nearby. At 1 o'clock we returned to the school house eager for the afternoon's work. After a series of recita-tions, another recess period and then another period of recita-tions, we found it was time to dismiss, which was immediately done, and my first day's school was over. THE MERCURY OUR NATION'S DANGER. \. 1). SWANK, 1911. United States ! Thou land of lands ! Where once the savage Indian roved. Through forests dense, o'er desert sands, The rude primevial dweller moved. From this vast waste with Time's sure aid, By Culture's and Invention's hands A great republic, grand, was made! And year by year resourceful mines (live forth their rich, unstinted ore. Our fields, our woods of oak and pines, All yield to us their plenteous store ! Our land extends from sea to sea, With plain, broad vale, high hill, rich field, We hold fair isles by us set free, A land which seals and gold doth yield ! Material wealth, abundant ours! But heed ! Success may be a bane, Unless man's soul be pure as flowers And he from guile and greed abstain. Anon comes some calamity, And man is moved by conscious dread, Lest, lacking fellow-amity, Just chast'ning fall upon his head. Take warning from the earthquake's force,. The flood, the dread volcano's fire, That men below have no recourse, ", And cannot flee their Maker's ire. 21 Beware ! Great land, lest thou some day Shouldst sink before material glare, And should'st to gold thy homage pay,, Unlieedful how thy Soul doth fare. Keep us from greed, 0 God, we pray, Let mammon not our actoins sway \ 22 THE MERCURY A VISIT TO SING SING. BY .1908. FEW years ago I had occasion to visit Osining and had an opportunity of visiting Sing Sing Prison. It is unique in more respects than one. Thirteen hundred men breakfast and dine together "in the mess hall, the largest eating room in New York state. The prison workshops turn ont the refuse cans and ash i arts used by the Street Clean-ing; Department of New York City. The mats at the entrance to the Capitol and State House at Albany are made by the pris-oners, and they manufacture the uniforms worn by the officials of the various state institutions. The workshops are hives of industry. They supply every-thing the men wear, from the caps on their heads to the shoes on their feet. 'Hie sheets they sleep on and the quilts that cover them come from the hosiery department. They make the towels that dry their hands and the brooms that sweep the prison floors, Cratches, wardrobes and typewriter desks are manufactur-ed in the cabinet department. The bread they eat, their soup, meat, potatoes and coffee are prepared by prisoners assigned to kitchen duty. Even the classes1 in school are taught by men ce-lected through the head teachers. A chosen few edit and print the prison paper, Star of Hope. The txtiipation of a new prisoner is recorded in the warden's office. He is then assigned to the department in which his tal-ents will be best employed. It is no easy matter for the warden to determine where he shall utilize some of the new-comers. Suppose a trapeze performer or a manufacturer of fireworks should come to the prison. Are they fitted for the mat depart-ment ? What shall be done with a theatrical agent, a coal dealer and an architect ? These are some of the problems that the warden must solve. Places must also be found for letter tamers, hankers, journalists, art dealers, physicians, railroad conductors, insurance agents, musicians, silk merchants, police-men, nurses, messengers, florists, stenographers and grocers. If the new arrival is without a trade or profession he may ehoose his work. The, most popular departments are the knit-ting and hesiery and ihat where the mats arc made. Two Iron- THE MERCURY. 23 dred and thirty-two men are employed in these departments, or nearly a third of the entire number at wort in the different shops. In the mat department the beginner is set at work braiding the rope. The men are seated on chairs and stools, they are in their shirt sleeves, and soon learn to make good head-way. They tie the ends of the ropes to pegs on the wall while the loose mass falls to the floor nea"rby. With a dexterious twist of the hand they braid the rope in a heavy coil, winding it on a piece of wood. The coil goes to another branch of the department and here it is woven over frames into its final form. Bristle mats are also manufactured. The men are seated before upright frames and weave the rope back and forth into the compact form in which the mats are sold. Thousands arc dis-posed each year to the various public buildings throughout the state. One of the most interesting shops is that where the shoes are made. There are eighty-two men in the various sections of the department and they turn out better boots and shoes than are sold in the cities. One set of men makes lasts, while another cuts the leather into shape. In the sewing room the second stage is gone through withjthe men are seated on theeir benches and work as cheerily as if they were in a factory. The room is com-fortably heated and no one wears his coat during working hours. A pleasant effect is gained.by the sunlight which streams in through the windows, lighting np the large room. It has a cheerful influence on the men as they talk and work. Upstairs in the polishing department the shoes receive their final touch, and are then placed in the stock room. The enormous total of 25,000 pairs of shoes, slippers, and boots indicates the fine show-ing of that branch in one year. The clothing department is the noisiest of all the shops. Great piles of clothing are scattered on the tables up and down the room. The material is cut, hemmed and sewn in the'most skillful manner. In another room the hand sewing is carried on. Caps and overcoats are made in addition to suits. The men do all the work, from the handling of the raw bolt of cloth until the finished product is ready. Their own clothing is gray, without stripes if they are serving their first term. Two stripes-close together indicate "second term" men ;three stripes show 24 THE MERCURY. that the prisoner has been in jail twice before. A red bar on the sleeve means that its wearer has one year of good behavior to his credit. Additional bars are added while the mam's record is satisfactory until the fifth year, when he gets a star. That is a mark of confidence, and he gets many privileges which are not granted to those who have disregarded the rufes. He may buy extra tobacco, cigars and the daily pa-pers. Two or three stars are Seen on some of the prisoners sleeves, and the scheme is carried out to the termination of the sentence. More than ordinary interest attaches to the mattress depart-ment. It is in this branch of the prison that a noted convict is at work. He is serving out his life sentence by keeping the books of the shop. He also keeps track of the output of the sash and door department. An allied indiistry is that where the wood carving is carried on. Beautiful examples of what the men have done in that line are shown in the warden's office. Few are aware that there is a prison newspaper, which is en-tirely the product of the inmates. They do all the work inci-dental to the writing of the matter, setting the type and print-ing the paper. There is modem machinery and every facility in tire way of presses and type. It is fittingly named the "Star of Hope," and is a-means of intellectual improvement to a great, many men. They readily admit, it is said, that they have been helped and trained by their efforts to supply contributions,- some of which are particularly interesting. General news items occupy the remainder of the pages. The cleanliness of the kitchen would delight any housewife: The utensils, tables, and floors are as neat as wax. The im-mense ovens are in the rear and in another part of the great kitchen is a long cooking apparatus, with large boiler shaped vessels for making coffee and ovens for roasting meats and po-tatoes. It is no small task to prepare food for 1300 men, and the kitchen force is one of thee largest and most efficient in the prison. For the morning and midday meals the men are marched from their cells and workshops in companies, to the large mess hall. Every one faces in one direction. Fun and laughter is the order cf the meal, and there is no disposition on the part of THE MERCURY. 25 the guards to interfere unduly with the men. The evening meal is at half-past four, immediately after which thee men are lock-ed in their cells. In addition to the plain and wholesome food of the prison, dainties, such as fruit and pastry, are allowed to the trusted inmeates. Their friends may send these in or permission is given them to buy outside the prison walls. On Sunday all work is suspended. At half-past eight the men assemble in the chapel for devotional services. There is a first rate volunteer choir and addresses are made by the chap-lain and visitors. Even the small pipe organ which is used in chapel was made by one of the prisoners and is played by him. It is not an easy matter for a prisoner to escape from Sing Sing Prison for it is well guarded on all sides. The prison is situated on the very edge of the Hudson River which forms a very strong natural hindrance to those who wish to escape in that way. In addition to this there are guard houses on every side of the prison and at each' corner and even visitors are chal-lenged by the guards. A visit to Sing Sing Prison is both interesting and instruct-ive. I write this brief article with the intention of giving you some idea of the way in which the state prisoners are treated. 26 THE MERCURY. SCHEDULED TIME. S. FRANK SNYDEK, '09. BEEMAN HUNT has said, "The best laid plans, the most important affairs, the fortunes of individuals, the weal of nations, honor, and life itself are daily sacrificed because somebody is behind time." The question of time is one of the greatest importance to eacli individual, because our success in life largely depends upon what use we make of the golden moments that have been en-trusted to us. And the question is only to be decided once, as time that is lost cannot be recalled and invested in some other way, but once spent means forever. In this day of competition in every department of life, he who is not upon the scene of action at the scheduled hour has very little chance for success. The merchant who is careless about opening his store at the proper hour in the morning will lose custom. The manufacturer who promises to have a piece of work done for a customer at a certain time and then fails to have it at the time promised must suffer the loss of the custo-mer's confidence and possibly his patronage. To draw an ex-ample of the same principle from our college life, if the profes-sor comes to class more than five minutes after the clock strikes he is almost sure to fail to teach that hour. On the other hand the teachers insist that the students come promptly to each reci-tation at the scheduled hour for at least two reasons: 1st, If the recitation is to be conducted successfully, each member of the class must be present and the work commenced at once. The student that comes in late loses a part of the recitation and also disturbs the class. 2nd, The man who will'be successful in the larger school of life must learn to meet each engagement at the appointed hour. In college is the place to acquire this habit which will contribute so much to success. The successful business man carefully estimates the gain on each dollar that he has invested, so we should carefully estimate the gain that we receive from each hour of invested time. As we study the lives of those men whose names are written high amo^g the heroes of the cr-4!\ wc fr.d *hat b- making the most of time they have been enabled to reach such high attainments. THE MERCURY. 27 Abraham Lincoln by using each golden minute of his early life to an advantage acquired the power of body and mind which enabled him to stand at the head of a great nation and lead it successfully through the dark hours of war. A student being asked by a friend why he did not read more good literature replied, "I have not time." Said his friend, "You have all the time there is." Time is given to everyone alike. But why do some students seem to have time for all kinds of work: athletics, literary society, Y. M. C. A., etc., while others have not. Longfellow explained it when he wrote: "The heights of great men reached and kept Were not attained by sudden flight. But they while their companions slept Were toiling upward in the night." .Some time ago in one of the western cities a man was seen niching down a street at break-neck speed trying to catch a train. You may ask the question did he get there in time. The answer is no. Then you may ask why, was he not going fast enough. And the answer is yes, he was going fast enough, but lie did not start in time. Is this not the frequent experience of everyone? Often when we are rushed with our work, is not the real trouble due to the fact that we have not started in time? The men who have accomplished the most in their lives are they who have recognized the importance of the present, the great principle of the now. It is not for us to worry about the failures of the past or be apprehensive about the future; but get right into the line of duty and fill our place in.life faith-fully day by day. I K E HE RCU RV Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter. VOL. XV GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER 1907 No. 5 Editor in-Chief EDMUND L. MANGES, '08 Exchange Editor ROBERT W. MICHAEL, '08 Business Manager HENRY M. BOWER, '08 Ass't Bus. Managers LESLIE L. TAYLOR, '09 CHARLES L. KOPP, '09 Assistant Editor MARKLEY C. ALBRIGHT, '08 Associate Editors PAUL E. BLOOMHART, '09 E. E. SNYDER, '09 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, LITT.D PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M.D. PROF: J. W. RICHARD, D.D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance : single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contri-bute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be. addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. Another school year GREETING lms very favorable and promising conditions. To the student body, more especially the new men, the MERCUEY extends its most hearty gjeetings and best wishes. Those of us who have been at school for sonic time can appreciate what great oppor-tunities we have had. Some of us, no doubt, all of us, will have to say, but with regret, tbatwe THE MERCURY. 29 have not used them to the greatest advantage. To some, the college course has meant more than to others simply because those who have received the greatest benefit have been those who have applied themselves most. Let us say at this point to the new men that college is going to mean to them just as much as they make it mean. The whole question rests with each indi-vidual. This observation has been made before, but in our estimation, we feel that it may he used again to advantage. Every man who has the idea that he will receive an education by merely going to college is mistaken. It is true he will receive something that he may call an education bnt the term will have to be considered in a very narrow sense. Anyone with any amount of training will realize that knoyledge is infinite. Let each one of us take an introspective view and see how much we know compared to what it is possible to know. We can think of no suitable comparison. To say it is like a drop of water compared to the ocean is putting it mildly. Realizing that diligent application is going to mean much in our education let us all put forth our best efforts for an excellent training. THE BEGINNING No longer riUI we> tue members of the class OF THE END of 1908, anticipate another year in college; no longer can we rely upon next year to accomplish what we have failed to accomplish during the present year. A few years since we entered these halls with the ambition to do our work well, but the most of us have worked along unconcernedly, car-ing foi the present only, paying but little attention to the past and letting the future take care of itself. But now we are facing the stern realization that we have entered upon the be-ginning of the end of our college careers. There remains but one short year in which to complete our college education. Now is the time to take a retrospective view into the golden past and compare it with the future which, before seemed dim and distant, now looms up before us as something near at hand to be reached only too soon. It has been wisely and justly said that the Senior in college is one who knows and knows that he knows. Above all he should know himself; know wherein he has failed and in what respects his education has been neglected. Let each individual member of the class learn what phase of 3° THE MERCURY. his education he lias slighted and at once make strenuous efforts to accomplish the desired results. Our last year at college is here with a great opportunity. Let us seize upon this opportu-nity with all the vigor and energy that we command. Let us make the last lap "the embodiment of dash and vigor." Com-mencement will soon he a matter of history. Then, shall we recall our college days with a spirit of regret or shall we '-dwell upon memories" of faithfulness and sincerity in our college duties ? Let it be said of noone that he is a college man in name only, and little deserving of the title. THE MERCURY. EXCHANGES. 3i ITH the opening of college we have j>repared our desk to welcome the first numbers of our old friends,"The Exchanges." We hope also to receive many new ones. And we ask all to help us in making our pa-per by their criticisms, and that our criticisms of other papers may be received as they are intended for the benefit of the paper and writer. Hoping to hear from all our old "Exchanges" and new ones, we wish you all a successful year. The new cover of "The College Student" makes a big im-provement and also the arrangement of the material add to it. "Nemesis," of the October number, is a well written article and shows much thought and preparation. The poem entitled "The Picture," in the October number of the "Augustana Observer" is a well written article. * * * * We have received several others which are making a good start, among them are the "Otterbein Aegis," "Drury Mirror," "Sta teCollegian," "Dickinsonian" and "Crimson and White." PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. Fl/fOTTt/^E Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. - Telephone No. 97. X3I. 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When an ordinary fountain pen runs dry in the middle of a word, it means you've got to stop right there, hunt up a rubber squirt gun, fill ycur pen to overflowing, clean both pen and dropper, wash your hands, and then endeavor as best you can to collect your lost train of thought. It's different with CONKLIN'S .SSSb FOUNTAIN PEN "THE PEN WITH THE CRESCENT-FILLER" To fill, just dip it in any ink, press the Crescent-Filler, and the Conklin is filled and ready to write instantly. You can't over-fill it Hence no inky fingers, no loss of time, no ruffled temper. The feed of the Conklin is No waiting for ink to come—no jerking—no slips, balks or blots. Leading dealers handle the Conklin. If yours does not, order direct. Look for the Crescent-Filler and refuse substitutes. Prices, $3.00 and up. Send at once for handsome new catalog. THE CONKLIN PEN CO., 310 Manhattan Building Toledo, Ohio. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS EMIL ZOTHE COL^G S!EM3 ENGRAVER, DESIGNER, AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER 722 Chestnut St, Phila. SPECIALTIES : MASONIC MARKS, SOCIETY BADGES, COLLEGE BUTTONS, PINS, SCARF PINS, STICK PINS AND ATHLETIC PRIZES. All Goods trdered through G. F. Kieffer, CHARLES S. MUMRER, iu:.n.i:n IJV TTTTT? TTTTTTT? T j. H- 8°Hep, 115 Baltimore St., near C urt House GOOD WORK GUARANTEED. —IS— Your Photographer ? If not, why not? 41 BALTIMORE ST., GETTYSBURG, PA. 8EFT0N i FLEMMING'S LIVERY, Baltimore Street, First Square, Gettysburg, Pa. Competent Guides tor all parts of the Battlefield. Arrange-ments toy telegram or letter. Lock Box 257. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. The Most Popular College Sc>ngs A welcome gift in any borne. The Most Popular College Songs % .50 50 New College Songs - .'.0 Songs of ALL the Colleges 1.50 Songs ofthe WESTERN Colleges 1.25 Songs ofthe EASTERN Colleges l.Si SCHOOL Songs with COLLEGE Flavor - .!0 Songs ofthe Flag and Nation - .50 100 New Kindergarten Songs . - - New Songs for College Glee Clubs 1.00 -!C New Songs for Male Quartets - .50 Songs of the University of Pennsylvania 1.5ti Songs of the University of Michigan - 1.S5 Songs of Washington and Jefferson College - l.ar. Songs of Haverford College - 1.26 New Songs and Anthems tor Church Quartets, {Eleven Numbers) each .10 to .30 HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE, Publ shcrs 31 -33 35 West 15th St. New York City COMPILER IMPRINT ON JOB WORK MEANS TASTY WORK CAREFULLY DONE. MENU CARDS. WINDOW POSTERS. DANCE CARDS-LETTER HEADS, ENVELOPES, TICKETS, Programs of all kinds. Hverythirtg the College Man wants in •-•aper and Ink. Specially designed work. Latest Effects in Paper, done in Colors along lines of College Men's Associations. 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"Das Recht auf Entwicklung muss so verwirklicht werden, dass den Entwicklungs- und Umweltbedürfnissen der heutigen und der kommenden Generationen in gerechter Weise entsprochen wird" (Rio-Erklärung Grundsatz 3).Dieser Grundsatz wurde 1992 bei der UN-Konferenz für Umwelt und Entwicklung 1992 in Rio de Janeiro von den Vereinten Nationen (VN) festgelegt. Damals kamen Vertreter*innen aus 178 Ländern zusammen, um über Fragen zu Umwelt und Entwicklung im 21. Jahrhundert zu beraten. Die Rio-Konferenz führte zu wichtigen klimapolitischen Ergebnissen wie der Agenda 21 und der Rio-Erklärung und endete mit der Unterzeichnung der Klimakonvention durch 154 Staaten. Die Klimakonvention, die zwei Jahre später in Kraft trat, beinhaltete in Artikel 2"... das Ziel der Stabilisierung der Treibhausgasemissionen in der Atmosphäre auf einem Niveau, das eine gefährliche anthropogene Störung des Klimas verhindert sowie dessen Folgen abmildert" (Simonis et al. 2017, S. 267).Angekommen im 21. Jahrhundert, ist dieses Ziel als nicht verwirklicht anzusehen. Waren es im Jahr der Rio-Konferenz 1992 noch 23.230 Millionen Tonnen CO₂-Emissionen, so sind es 2022 37.150. (https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/37187/umfrage/der-weltweite-co2-ausstoss-seit-1751/). Die Treibhausgasemissionen sind seit 1992 – mit Ausnahme der Zeit der Covid-19-Pandemie – konstant angestiegen. Und das, obwohl die VN 1995 bei der ersten COP (Conference of the Parties) in Berlin das Berliner Mandat veröffentlichten, das als Basis für das 1997 verabschiedete Kyoto-Protokoll diente und in dem sich die Vertragsstaaten einigten, den Ausstoß von Treibhausemissionen zu senken (Vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S.267). Die damalige deutsche Umweltministerin Angela Merkel sprach auf der COP zu den VN:"Wie wir hier in Berlin miteinander reden, wie wir fähig sind, Probleme zu lösen, wird ein Symbol dafür sein, ob es gelingen kann, globale Probleme gemeinsam in Angriff zu nehmen oder nicht."Gut gesprochen, doch sinnbildlich für das "gemeinsam in Angriff nehmen der globalen Probleme" und das Einhalten des Kyoto-Protokolls steht die USA, die mit dem Argument, dass Industrienationen bei der Reduktion des Treibhausgasausstoßes eine größere Last tragen als Entwicklungsländer, 2001 aus dem Protokoll wieder austraten (Vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S.267). Die Treibhausgasemissionen sind trotz des verabschiedeten Kyoto-Protokolls stetig gestiegen und so hat es von Rio an 23 Jahre gebraucht, bis 2015 auf der COP 21 in Paris das Pariser Klimaabkommen verabschiedetet wurde, mit dem Ziel, den Anstieg der weltweiten Durchschnittstemperatur auf 1,5 °C – mit einer Obergrenze von 2 °C – zu beschränken. 8 Jahre später gilt das 1,5-°C-Ziel als nicht mehr realistisch und auch die Obergrenze von 2 °C ist stark gefährdet (Vgl. von Brackel et al.).So kamen Ende des Jahres 2023 die Vertreter der Nationen in Dubai zusammen, um auf der COP 28 wieder einmal darüber zu verhandeln, wie die Welt den voranschreitenden Klimawandel aufhalten kann. Doch wenn das 2 °C Ziel stark gefährdet ist und die Treibhausgaswerte weiter ansteigen, kommen Fragen auf:Wie gedenken die VN, die Treibhausgasemissionen zu verringern?Wieso hat es von der Rio-Konferenz an 23 Jahre gedauert, bis das Pariser Abkommen verabschiedet wurde?Auf welche Maßnahmen konnten die VN sich im Kampf gegen den Klimawandel einigen?Welche Rolle und Verantwortung nehmen die Industrienationen ein?Diese Seminararbeit wird sich mit einer Einordnung der COP28 in die Entwicklung der vorangegangenen Klimakonferenzen befassen und einen Überblick über die komplexe Klimapolitik der Vereinten Nationen geben.Von Rio zur COP1 und dem Kyoto-AbkommenDen Beginn der zwischenstaatlichen Klimaverhandlungen markiert die Konferenz der VN über Umwelt und Entwicklung 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, die in zwei wichtigen umweltpolitischen Ereignissen mündete: der Rio-Erklärung über Umwelt und Entwicklung und der Agenda 21 (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 267).Rio-Erklärung: In der Rio-Erklärung legten die VN das Ziel fest"… durch die Schaffung von neuen Ebenen der Zusammenarbeit zwischen den Staaten, wichtigen Teilen der Gesellschaft und den Menschen eine neue und gerechte weltweite Partnerschaft aufzubauen, bemüht um internationale Übereinkünfte, die die Interessen aller achten und die Unversehrtheit des globalen Umwelt- und Entwicklungssystems schützen, anerkennend, dass die Erde, unsere Heimat, ein Ganzes darstellt, dessen Teile miteinander in Wechselbeziehung stehen." (Rio-Erklärung über Umwelt und Entwicklung, S. 1).In der Erklärung wurde erstmals global das Recht auf nachhaltige Entwicklung, Forderungen sowie Voraussetzungen zur Umsetzung verankert. Daneben stehen Menschenrechte und der Schutz der Rechte zukünftiger Generationen im Mittelpunkt. Im ersten Grundsatz heißt es:"Die Menschen stehen im Mittelpunkt der Bemühungen um eine nachhaltige Entwicklung. Sie haben das Recht auf ein gesundes und produktives Leben im Einklang mit der Natur" (Rio-Erklärung über Umwelt und Entwicklung, Grundsatz 1).Insgesamt umfasst das Dokument 27 Grundsätze und Prinzipien, die die Rahmenbedingungen und Grundsätze für die Umsetzung der Ziele festlegen.Agenda 21: In der Agenda 21 wurden detaillierte Handlungsaufträge zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und Menschheit festgeschrieben, mit dem Ziel, der Verschlechterung der Situation des Menschen und der Umwelt entgegenzuwirken und eine nachhaltige Nutzung von natürlichen Ressourcen zu gewährleisten. Die Handlungsaufträge der Agenda 21 bestehen aus 40 Kapiteln und sind thematisch in vier Dimensionen unterteilt (Vgl. Lexikon der Nachhaltigkeit, 2015): Soziale und wirtschaftliche Dimension (Kapitel 2-8) – Armutsbekämpfung, Bevölkerungsdynamik, Gesundheitsschutz und nachhaltige Siedlungsentwicklung. Erhaltung und Bewirtschaftung der Ressourcen für die Entwicklung (Kapitel 9-22) – Schutz der Erdatmosphäre, Bekämpfung der Entwaldung, dem Erhalt der biologischen Vielfalt und die umweltverträgliche Entsorgung von Abfällen. Stärkung der Rolle wichtiger Gruppen (Kapitel 23–32) – diversen gesellschaftlichen Gruppen, die für die Umsetzung der Agenda von besonderer Bedeutung sind. Möglichkeiten der Umsetzung (Kapitel 33-40) – Rahmenbedingungen zur Umsetzung der finanziellen und organisatorischen Instrumente (Technologietransfer, Bildung, internationale Zusammenarbeit). (Agenda 21, https://www.un.org/depts/german/conf/agenda21/agenda_21.pdf) Die Umsetzung der Handlungsdimensionen erfolgt mehrdimensional. Auf nationaler Ebene bspw. durch Planung von Strategien und Maßnahmen zur Umwelterhaltung. Auf institutioneller Ebene durch Akteure wie NGO. Eine exekutive Rolle fällt den Bürger*Innen zu, die durch ihre Bereitschaft zur Beteiligung an den Maßnahmen einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung mitentscheidend sind. Diese ist u.a. abhängig von der Kommunalverwaltung, die die Aufgabe der Vermittlung zwischen den Nationen und den Bürger*Innen hat (vgl. Lexikon der Nachhaltigkeit, 2015).Klimarahmenkonvention: Die Unterzeichnung der Klimarahmenkonvention durch 154 Staaten markiert das Ende der Rio-Konferenz und bildet die völkerrechtliche Basis für den weltweiten Klimaschutz. Das vorrangige Ziel war – wie in der Einleitung u.a. genannt – die Stabilisierung der Treibhausgaskonzentration auf ein Niveau, das verhindert, dass es zu gefährlichen Störungen des Klimasystems kommt. Die Umsetzung der Klimarahmenkonvention wird durch Berichterstattung über die Treibhausgasemissionen und Minderungsmaßnahmen geprüft. Diese Kontrolle sowie die Weiterentwicklung der Klimarahmenkonvention geschieht jährlich auf den seit 1995 stattfindenden Weltklimakonferenzen (COP) (vgl. Umweltbundesamt, 2024).COP1 und COP2Wie eben genannt, findet die Umsetzung, Beratung und Kontrolle der Maßnahmen auf der jährlichen Conference of Parties (COP) statt. Die COP stellt das wichtigste Organ der Klimarahmenkonvention dar und besteht aus 197 Mitgliedsstaaten (Stand COP28), die nach Einstimmigkeitsprinzip über die Maßnahmen und Umsetzung entscheiden (Simonis et al. 2017, S. 268). 1995 fand die erste COP in Berlin statt. Diese wurde geprägt durch zähe Verhandlungen zwischen der "Alliance of Small Island States" (AOSIS), auf deren Seite auch die BRD stand, und den "JUSCANZ-Staaten" (Japan, USA, Kanada, Australien, Neuseeland).Deutschland und die AOSIS forderten eine Reduktionsverpflichtung der Treibhausgasemissionen von 20 % bis zum Jahr 2005 im Vergleich zu den Emissionen aus dem Jahr 1990. Die USA, die im Jahr 1990 für 23 % der weltweiten Treibhausgasemissionen verantwortlich waren, und die anderen JUSCANZ-Staaten lehnten diese Verpflichtung ab. Die Verhandlungen endeten letztendlich in dem von US-Seite vorgeschlagenen "Berliner Mandat". In diesem verpflichteten sich die Vertragsstaaten, bis 1997 ein Protokoll zur Begrenzung und Reduzierung des Ausstoßes von Treibhausgasen auszuarbeiten (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 268f). Auf der in Genf stattfindenden COP2 wurden die Klimaverhandlungen weiter vorangetrieben. Einen großen Faktor hierfür stellte der Wandel der Klimaaußenpolitik der USA dar. Der damalige Präsident Bill Clinton stand in der Klimapolitik unter großem Einfluss des Vize-Präsidenten Al Gore und konnte durch diesen zu Zugeständnissen in den Verhandlungen bewegt werden. Die COP2 mündete in der Genfer Deklaration, in der die Aufforderung festgehalten wurde, die Klimaverhandlungen bis zur COP3 zu beschleunigen (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 269).COP3 und das Kyoto-Protokoll Die COP3 fand 1997 im japanischen Kyoto statt. Im Vordergrund stand die Verhandlung des im Berliner Mandat festgelegten völkerrechtlich verbindlichen Protokolls zur Reduktionsverpflichtung von Treibhausgasemissionen. Sie waren geprägt von unterschiedlichen Positionen und Interessenlagen der Mitgliedsnationen. Die USA, als einer der größten Verursacher von Treibhausgasen, sprachen sich gegen eine einheitliche Zielvorgabe zur Reduzierung der CO₂-Emissionen für alle Länder aus. Auch andere Industrieländer wie Japan und die EU vertraten diesen Standpunkt.Aufgrund der anfangs unflexiblen Verhandlungshaltung der USA kam es auf Seiten der Entwicklungs- und Schwellenländer wie z.B. der Allianz der AOSIS, die sich für eine einheitliche Zielvorgabe aussprachen, zu Zweifeln, dass es zu einer Einigung kommen könnte. Letztendlich konnten sich die Nationen der Weltklimakonferenz auf eine Zielsetzung zur Reduzierung von Treibhausgasemissionen im Zeitraum von 2008 bis 2012 (u.a. USA 7 %, Japan 6 % und die EU 8 %) einigen.Festgeschrieben wurden die Verpflichtungen im Kyoto-Protokoll, das (nach Artikel 25) in Kraft treten sollte, sobald "mindestens 55 Staaten, die zusammengerechnet mehr als 55 % der CO₂-Emissionen des Jahres 1990 verursachten, das Abkommen ratifiziert haben" (Lexikon der Nachhaltigkeit, 2015).Das Kyoto-Protokoll unterscheidet zwischen Schwellen-/Entwicklungsländern und Industriestaaten. Industrieländer wie Russland, Japan, USA oder die EU (1997 bestehend aus 15 Ländern) verpflichteten sich, aufgrund ihrer historischen Verantwortung für den Anstieg der Treibhausgasemissionen, diese zu reduzieren. Schwellenländer wie China oder Indien mussten genauso wie die Entwicklungsländer keine verbindlichen Maßnahmen eingehen, erkannten jedoch durch die Unterzeichnung die Notwendigkeit an, gegen den Klimawandel vorgehen zu müssen.Neben den Reduktionszielen führte das Kyoto-Protokoll zur Gründung neuer Institutionen und Instrumente, die durch technische und wissenschaftliche Beratung das Erreichen der Emissionsreduzierung zusätzlich unterstützen sollten (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 270f.).Ratifizierung des Kyoto-Protokolls Bis zur Ratifizierung des Kyoto-Protokolls sollte es bis 2005 dauern. Grund dafür war u.a. die in Artikel 25 festgehaltene Hürde zur Ratifizierung. Die von den Unterzeichnern des Kyoto-Protokolls angestrebte schnelle Ratifizierung verzögerte sich durch offene Fragen im Protokoll. Ein zentraler Streitpunkt war der Umgang mit flexiblen Maßnahmen, um die Reduktionsziele einhalten zu können.Ein Beispiel für diese Maßnahmen betrifft Senken, also die Speicherung von Kohlenstoff durch Wälder, Böden und Meere sowie Maßnahmen zur Aufforstung und Wiederaufforstung. Die USA plädierten für eine großzügige Anrechnung flexibler Maßnahmen, um die vorgegebenen Ziele überhaupt erreichen zu können, während die EU nach außen hin für eine strengere Obergrenze eintrat, intern aber hinsichtlich dieser Thematik gespalten war.Bei den auf die COP 3 folgenden COP4 bis COP6 kam es zu keinen signifikanten Einigungen. Neben der Konfliktlinie zwischen den USA und der EU kam es zur Auseinandersetzung zwischen der Umbrella-Gruppe (ehemalige Mitglieder der JUSCANZ, die sich nach der Verabschiedung des Kyoto-Protokolls aufgelöst und sich mit Island, Russland und der Ukraine neu formiert haben) und den G77-Staaten (Zusammenschluss der Entwicklungsländer der Vereinen Nationen) mit China, bei der die EU erfolglos versuchte zu vermitteln. Die andauernde Uneinigkeit zwischen den verschiedenen Parteien mündete letzten Endes darin, dass die USA unter Präsident George W. Bush 2001 aus dem Kyoto-Protokoll austrat (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 273 ff.). Nach dem Ausscheiden der USA übernahm die EU die Führung, um die Ratifizierung voranzutreiben. Industrieländer wie Japan, Russland oder Australien nutzten das drohende Scheitern des Kyoto-Protokolls als Druckmittel gegenüber der EU, um Regelungen bspw. für flexible Maßnahmen zu ihren Gunsten auszulegen. Die EU, die sich stark für das Inkrafttreten des Kyoto-Protokolls einsetzte, ging bei den Verhandlungen auf den auf die COP6 (Den Haag) folgenden Konferenzen Kompromisse ein. Daraus resultierte, dass die strikten Begrenzungen für flexible Maßnahmen, bspw. hinsichtlich von Senken, bei den Folgeverhandlungen auf der COP6II (Bonn) aufgehoben wurden, wovon vor allem Russland und Kanada stark profitierten.Bereits verhandelte Punkte wurden bei der COP7 (Marrakesch) auf erneuten Druck von Kanada, Russland und dazu auch Japan neu verhandelt. Das Resultat war das Übereinkommen von Marrakesch, was neben 15 Maßnahmen zur Umsetzung des Kyoto-Protokolls die Regelungen für die Anrechnung flexibler Maßnahmen noch weiter aufweichte. Die folgenden Klimakonferenzen COP8 (Neu-Delhi) und COP 9 (Mailand) waren weiter von Verhandlungen und technischen Fragen geprägt, führten letztendlich im November 2004 zu der Ratifikation durch Russland und dadurch zum Inkrafttreten des Kyoto-Protokolls im Jahr 2005.Bei der COP10 (Buenos Aires) war nach langen vorangegangenen Verhandlungen zur Ratifizierung erstmals wieder Platz für andere Themen, wie die Anforderungen an die Industrieländer, Maßnahmen und Ressourcen für die Anpassung von Entwicklungsländern an die Folgen des Klimawandels bereitzustellen. Am 16. Februar 2005 trat das Kyoto-Protokoll und seine Umsetzungsregeln in Kraft, kurz nachdem das Emissionshandelssystem der EU (erhebliche Senkung der Treibhausgasemissionen bis 2030 und Netto-Null-Emissionen bis 2050) im Januar eingeführt wurde (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 274 f).Post-Kyoto-ÄraDas Inkrafttreten 2005 leitete eine neue Ära der Klimaverhandlungen ein, mit dem Ziel, ein neues Abkommen für die Zeit nach der Verpflichtungsperiode des Kyoto-Protokolls (2008-12) auszuarbeiten. Auf der COP11 (Montreal) traten die Mitglieder der MOP (Meeting of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol) unter der Führung der EU und gestützt von der AOSIS zusammen und einigten sich auf Folgeverhandlungen über die Verpflichtungen der Industrieländer für die "Post-Kyoto-Zeit." Ausgenommen waren Australien und die USA, die seit dem Austritt mehrmals versucht hatte, die Kyoto-Verhandlungen zu behindern und den Klimawandel infragezustellen.Neben den Folgeverhandlungen wurde die Miteinbeziehung der Schwellenländer und der USA in zukünftige Verhandlungen festgeschrieben. 2005 kam es durch den Hurrikan "Katrina" in den USA zu verheerenden Schäden, die offenlegten, dass die Kosten, die ein ungebremster Klimawandel durch z.B. Katastrophen verursacht, deutlich höher ausfallen als die Kosten für Treibhausgasreduktionsmaßnahmen (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 275 f). Auf der COP12 (Nairobi) konnten die Staaten sich einigen,"... die bisherigen Ergebnisse des Kyoto-Protokolls nach Artikel 9 bis 2008 einer Effektivitätsprüfung zu unterziehen und die Entwicklungsländer bei CDM und Anpassungsmaßnahmen verstärkt einzubeziehen (Sterk et al. 2007: 141 f., zitiert nach Simonis et al. S.276)."COP13Ein erheblicher Fortschritt in der internationalen Klimapolitik gelang den VN 2007 auf der COP13 (Bali) hinsichtlich des Ziels, sich auf das Post-2012-Abkommen zu einigen. Die zwei zentralen Vorhaben hierfür waren zum einen die Verpflichtung der Industrieländer für eine zweite Kyoto-Phase zwischen 2013 und 2020 und die Aufnahme von Mitigationsmaßnahmen durch die Entwicklungsländer.Bei den letzteren standen vor allem China, das 2007 an der Spitze der Treibhausgasemissionen stand und sich in der Vergangenheit gegen freiwillige Maßnahmen zur Treibhausgasreduzierung durch Schwellen- und Entwicklungsländer ausgesprochen hatte, aber auch Indien in der Kritik. Die USA blockierten früh den Verlauf der Verhandlungen, was dazu führte, dass die Entwicklungsländer ankündigten, einem neuen Abkommen nur zuzustimmen, wenn die USA auch beteiligt sind.Die Position der USA führte zu massiver Kritik vonseiten der oppositionellen Demokraten in den USA und der amerikanischen Öffentlichkeit. Durch den steigenden Druck gab die US-Regierung ihre Blockade-Haltung auf, und die Verhandlungen über ein Nachfolgeabkommen und Verlängerung des Kyoto-Protokolls mit Einbezug der Entwicklungsländer konnten weitergeführt werden.Für die Post-Kyoto-Zeit wurde festgelegt, dass für die Anpassungsmaßnahmen der Entwicklungsländer ein Anpassungsfonds bis 2012 gegründet werden muss. Das Geld hierfür wird von den Vertragsstaaten bereitgestellt und von der Weltbank sowie dem globalen Umweltfonds verwaltet. Des Weiteren wurden finanzielle Zusagen für den REDD+-Mechanismus, der für die Förderung der Erhaltung und Erhöhung der Kohlenstoffbestände in den Wäldern und für eine nachhaltige Waldbewirtschaftung sowie vermiedene Entwaldung steht, vereinbart, was vor allem für die Entwicklungsländer einen bedeutenden Schritt darstellte (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 276 ff.). Die Verhandlungen über das Nachfolgeabkommen des Kyoto-Protokolls sollten über die COP14 (Posen) hinaus auf der COP15 in Kopenhagen abgeschlossen werden.COP15 - COP17Die COP15 in Kopenhagen, die den Erwartungen nicht gerecht werden konnte und als gescheitert (vgl. SPD, 2010) betitelt wurde, kann rückblickend gesehen als ein Zwischenschritt zu dem anstrebten Folgeabkommen verstanden werden. Früh wurde klar, dass das Ziel des Nachfolgeabkommens für die Post-Kyoto-Zeit in Kopenhagen nicht zu erreichen sein wird. Obgleich die Staaten es nicht schafften, ihr Ziel zu erreichen, erzielten sie in einigen Punkten einen Konsens. Das wichtigste Ergebnis der COP15 stellt die Anerkennung des 2°C-Ziels und die daraus resultierende Notwendigkeit tiefer Einschnitte bei den globalen Emissionen dar.Neben diesem Beschluss wurde festgelegt, dass in einem pledge and review-Verfahren (versprechen und überprüfen) die Staaten ihre Emissionsziele angeben müssen und diese im Hinblick auf die Erreichbarkeit des 2°C-Ziels überprüft werden. Im Vergleich zu früheren Beschlüssen wurden neben den Industrieländern in diesem Verfahren auch die Entwicklungsländer mit einbezogen (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 278 f). Der damalige deutsche Bundesumweltminister Norbert Röttgen sagte nach der COP15:"Wir haben nicht das erreicht, was wir uns gewünscht haben, aber das, was erreicht werden konnte – die Alternative von wenig wäre nichts gewesen… Trotz der Enttäuschungen von Kopenhagen dürfen wir das Ziel eines umfassenden, weltweiten Klimaschutzabkommens nicht aufgeben." (BMUV, 2009).Nachdem die Übereinkunft von Kopenhagen (https://www.bmuv.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/Gesetze/copenhagen_accord_bf.pdf) aufgrund des Einspruchs von Ländern wie u.a. Bolivien nicht formal rechtlich verabschiedet und nur zur Kenntnis genommen werden konnte, wurde auf der COP16 im Cancun-Abkommen das 2°C-Ziel als offizielles international gemeinsames langfristiges Ziel festgelegt. Bis 2015 sollte zudem überprüft werden, ob es erforderlich ist, das 2°C-Ziel auf 1,5 °C herabzusetzen. Daneben wurde für die Entwicklungsländer, die besonders von den Folgen des Klimawandels betroffen sind, ein Programm zur Unterstützung sowie ein grüner Klimafonds eingerichtet, der ab 2020 jährlich 100 Milliarden Dollar bereitstellen soll (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 279). Die COP17 in Durban läutete eine neue Phase der Klimaverhandlungen ein. Nachdem im Vorfeld der Verhandlungen die BASIC-Staaten (ein Verbund aus Brasilien, Südafrika, Indien und China) sich auf die gemeinsame Forderung geeinigt hatten, dass auch nach dem Ablauf des Kyoto-Protokolls die Verantwortung für die Treibhausgasemissionen weiterhin ausschließlich bei den Industrieländern liegt, und China, Indien und die USA sich gegen verpflichtende Ziele ausgesprochen hatten, gestalteten sich die Verhandlungen anfangs schwierig.Im weiteren Verlauf gelang es der EU, die Blockadehaltung zu lösen und China und Indien dazu zu bewegen, das Durban-Abkommen zu unterzeichnen, das die Industrieländer sowie China und Indien dazu verpflichtet, sich bis 2015 rechtlich verbindliche Emissionsziele zu setzen. Trotz diesem Erfolg gab es von Seiten der NGO Kritik, dass es erneut nicht gelungen sei, verbindliche Emissionsziele festzusetzen, was auf die Blockadehaltung der USA zurückgeführt wird. Die Weiterführung der Post-Kyoto-Verhandlungen wurde auf die COP18 in Doha vertagt (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 282 f).COP18 - COP20 Bei der COP18 in Katar gelang es, das Kyoto-Protokoll von 2013 bis 2020 zu verlängern, mit dem Ziel eines Folgeabkommens, das 2020 in Kraft treten sollte. Die Verlängerung des Kyoto-Abkommens wurde von einem faden Beigeschmack geprägt, da mit Japan, Kanada, Russland und Neuseeland vier Industrieländer aus dem Protokoll austraten. Das hatte zur Folge, dass die teilnehmenden 37 Kyoto-Staaten für nur noch 15 % der weltweiten Emissionen verantwortlich waren und das Kyoto-Protokoll realpolitisch an Relevanz und Glaubwürdigkeit einbüßte. Im selben Zeitraum veröffentlichte die UNEP (UN Environment Programme) einen Bericht mit dem Ergebnis, dass die weltweiten Emissionen seit 2000 um 20 % angestiegen sind (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 283). 2013 fand die COP19 in Warschau statt, mit der Aufgabe, offen gebliebene Fragen der COP18 abzuschließen. Ein Erfolg konnte bei der Finalisierung des Waldschutzmechanismus REDD (siehe Abschnitt COP13) verbucht werden, bei der sich die Entwicklungsländer mit der Idee eines fondsbasierten Mechanismus zur Finanzierung von Waldschutzprojekten gegenüber den Industrieländern, die eine marktbasierte Lösung durch einen Zertifikatshandel präferierten, durchsetzten. Bei der Frage nach konkreten Zusagen über die Verpflichtung für ein Folgeabkommen nach 2020 einigte man sich, dass die Staaten, die bereit sind, diesem beizutreten, bis Anfang 2015 ihre Emissionsziele bekannt geben müssen (vgl. Simonis et al. 2017, S. 283). Bei der COP20 in Lima stand die Vorbereitung eines neuen Klimaschutzabkommens, das auf der COP21 in Paris finalisiert werden und 2020 in Kraft treten sollte, im Vordergrund. Im Beschluss von Lima wurden die Staaten dazu aufgerufen, bis Mai 2015 eigene Klimaschutzbeiträge vorzulegen und anzugeben, wie sie ihre Treibhausgasemissionen mindern können. Des Weiteren wurde bekannt gegeben, dass Staaten in den grünen Klimafonds, der bis 2020 100 Mrd. USD schwer sein soll, 10 Mrd. USD eingezahlt und dadurch die finanzielle Basis geschaffen haben (vgl. Umweltbundesamt, 2014).COP21 und der Pariser KlimaabkommenNachdem seit der Ratifizierung des Kyoto-Abkommens über ein Folgeabkommen ab 2020 verhandelt wurde, konnten sich die Vertragsstaaten 2015 auf der COP21 in Paris einigen und erreichten mit dem Pariser Klimaabkommen (https://www.bmuv.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/Klimaschutz/paris_abkommen_bf.pdf), was 2009 auf der COP15 in Kopenhagen noch scheiterte. Die Staatengemeinschaft einigte sich völkerrechtlich verbindlich auf folgende Hauptziele, die in Artikel 2 des Abkommens festgeschrieben sind:a) "der Anstieg der durchschnittlichen Erdtemperatur deutlich unter 2 °C über dem vorindustriellen Niveau gehalten wird und Anstrengungen unternommen werden, um den Temperaturanstieg auf 1,5 °C über dem vorindustriellen Niveau zu begrenzen, da erkannt wurde, dass dies die Risiken und Auswirkungen der Klimaänderungen erheblich verringern würde; b) die Fähigkeit zur Anpassung an die nachteiligen Auswirkungen der Klimaänderungen erhöht und die Widerstandsfähigkeit gegenüber Klimaänderungen sowie eine hinsichtlich der Treibhausgase emissionsarme Entwicklung so gefördert wird, dass die Nahrungsmittelerzeugung nicht bedroht wird; c) die Finanzmittelflüsse in Einklang gebracht werden mit einem Weg hin zu einer hinsichtlich der Treibhausgase emissionsarmen und gegenüber Klimaänderungen widerstandsfähigen Entwicklung." (BMUV, 2015. Übereinkommen von Paris)Im Vergleich zum Kyoto-Protokoll sind im Pariser Abkommen nicht nur die Industrieländer, sondern alle Vertragsländer dazu verpflichtet, nationale Klimaschutzpläne (nationally determined contributions, kurz NDCs) umzusetzen, die in 29 Artikeln festgehalten sind. Die Artikel enthalten u.a. Elemente zur Milderung und Anpassung an den Klimawandel, Finanzierung von Klimaschutz- und Anpassungsmaßnahmen, Technologietransfer, Ausbau von Kapazitäten sowie Transparenz von Maßnahmen und Unterstützung. Entwicklungsländer sollen bei den Maßnahmen zur Umsetzung unterstützt werden.Um zu überprüfen, ob die Verpflichtungen des Pariser Klimaabkommens eingehalten werden, soll ab 2023 alle fünf Jahre eine Bestandsaufnahme durchgeführt werden. Damit das Klimaabkommen in Kraft treten konnte, war wie beim Kyoto-Protokoll eine Ratifizierung durch mindestens 55 Staaten, die mindestens 55 Prozent der globalen Treibhausgasemissionen verursachen, nötig. Die Ratifizierung erfolgte im Vergleich zum Kyoto-Ankommen schneller, sodass das Pariser Klimaabkommen am 4. November 2016 offiziell in Kraft treten konnte.Durch das Pariser Klimaabkommen wurde der Klimawandel sowie die Notwendigkeit, diesen zu bekämpfen, auf internationaler Ebene anerkannt, es wird daher als ein Meilenstein in der internationalen Klimapolitik angesehen. Kritik gab es von Forschenden und Klimabewegungen dafür, dass das 1,5°Grad Ziel realistisch gesehen mit den im Abkommen festgelegten Rahmenbedingungen nicht mehr zu erreichen ist und auf internationaler Ebene die Rechtsverbindlichkeit fehlt (vgl. Watjer, 2020).Post-COP21-ÄraCOP22 - COP27Auf die Weltklimakonferenz in Paris folgte die COP22 in Marrakesch, die am 7. November 2016, sechs Tage nach dem Inkrafttreten des Pariser Klimaabkommens, startete. Auf der Agenda stand neben der Ausgestaltung des Pariser Klimavertrags die Finanzierung des Klimaschutzes für Entwicklungsländer, mit besonderem Fokus auf Afrika (vgl. Lili Fuhr et al., Nov. 2016).Diese Themen rückten durch den Sieg von Donald Trump bei den US-Wahlen früh in den Hintergrund, was zu einer gedrückten Stimmung unter den Vertragsstaaten führte, da die Sorge bestand, die USA könnte aus dem Pariser Abkommen wieder austreten, da Trump den Klimawandel in der Vergangenheit als chinesische Verschwörung bezeichnet und das Klima-Engagement der USA kritisiert hatte (FAZ, 2020).Nach unruhigem Start der COP22 konnten die VN mit der "Proklamation von Marrakesch" (https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/marrakech_nov_2016/application/pdf/marrakech_action_proclamation.pdf) eine Proklamation verabschiedeten, in der 197 Staaten – darunter auch die USA – zu maximalem politischen Engagement gegen den Klimawandel aufgerufen haben. Fast 50 Staaten erklärten in der Proklamation, schnellstmöglich - spätestens bis 2050 - klimaneutral zu werden und komplett auf erneuerbare Energien umstellen zu wollen. Die Industriestaaten gaben die Zusage, den Grünen Fond, der ab 2020 jährlich 100 Milliarden für Entwicklungsländer im Kampf gegen den Klimawandel bereitstellen soll, zur Verfügung zu stellen (vgl. Europäisches Parlament, 2016).Am 5. August 2017 verkündete Donald Trump bei den VN den Austritt der USA aus dem Pariser Klimaabkommen im Jahr 2020. Im November 2017 trafen sich die Vertragsstaaten in Bonn auf der COP23. Die Präsidentschaft hatten die Fidschi-Inseln inne, die als erster kleiner Inselstaat den Vorsitz bei einer Klimakonferenz übernahmen. Auf der Agenda stand die Ausarbeitung eines Regelwerks zur Umsetzung des Pariser Klimaabkommens, mit dem Ziel, dieses im Folgejahr bei der COP24 in Katowice zu verabschieden.Die Konferenz endete damit, dass zu allen Kapiteln des Regelwerks umfassende Textbausteine mit Kommentaren und Vorschlägen der Länder vorgelegt werden konnten. Weitere Ergebnisse stellten eine internationale Allianz zum Ausstieg aus Kohlekraftwerken von 25. Ländern und Regionen dar, darunter Kanada, die UK, Frankreich und mehrere US-Bundesstaaten, ein Arbeitsprogramm für die Landwirtschaft und die Talanoa-Dialoge als neues Gesprächsformat. Bei diesem handelt es sich um ein traditionelles, auf gegenseitigem Respekt basierendes Kommunikationsformat, das dazu beitragen soll, dass Staaten ihre Ziele beim Klimaschutz nachbessern, ohne sich gegenseitig mit vergangenen Versäumnissen und Verhaltensweisen zu konfrontieren (Vgl. Lili Fuhr et al., 2017).Im Oktober 2018 veröffentlichte der Weltklimarat (IPCC) einen Sonderbericht (https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/07/SR1.5-SPM_de_barrierefrei.pdf), der die Auswirkungen eines Temperaturanstiegs um 1,5 °C gegenüber vorindustriellen Werten bewertet. Der Bericht kam zu dem Ergebnis, dass die aktuellen Klimaziele der Staaten nicht ausreichen und nach derzeitigem Stand sich die globale Temperatur bis 2030 um über 3 °C erhöhen wird.Dieser Sonderbericht sorgte auf der COP24, die kurz nach Erscheinen des Berichts im Dezember in Katowice stattfand, für große Diskussion. Die USA, Saudi-Arabien und weitere arabische Ölstaaten gaben an, den Bericht nicht anzuerkennen und versuchten, diesen zu verwässern. Letztendlich konnten sich die Vertragsstaaten auf das Katowice-Klimapaket (https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Informal%20Compilation_proposal%20by%20the%20President_rev.pdf) einigen. In diesem wurden Details zur Umsetzung des Pariser Klimaabkommens festgeschrieben und festgelegt, wie die einzelnen Staaten ihre nationalen Klimabeiträge messen, vergleichen und an das Klimasekretariat der VN zu übermitteln haben.Beim Versuch, den Sonderbericht der IPCC in das Katowicer Dokument aufzunehmen, musste eine Kompromisslösung gefunden werden, indem die Vertragsstaaten im Regelwerk dazu aufgefordert werden, die Informationen des Berichts zu nutzen. Beim Thema eines globalen Emissionshandelssystems wurden Kernfragen weiterhin offengelassen (Vgl. Lehr, Schalatek, 2019).Nachdem sich im Vorfeld der COP25 in Madrid 66 Staaten zum Ziel der Klimaneutralität bis 2050 bekannt hatten, stellte die EU-Kommission auf der Konferenz den "Green Deal" (https://www.esdn.eu/fileadmin/ESDN_Reports/ESDN_Report_2_2020.pdf) mit dem Ziel vor, Europa bis 2050 zum ersten klimaneutralen Kontinent zu machen. Hierfür stellte die Kommission rund 50 Maßnahmen aus den Bereichen Klima- und Umweltpolitik, Energiepolitik, Industrie, Verkehrspolitik und Landwirtschaft vor und plante, um die Klimaneutralität bis 2050 voranzutreiben, diese per Gesetz festschreiben zu lassen (vgl. Auswärtiges Amt, 2019).Insgesamt verlief die COP25 ohne konkrete Ergebnisse. Beim Thema globaler Emissionshandel konnten die VN sich, wie schon auf der COP24, nicht einigen. Das lag unter anderem daran, dass sich Staaten wie Australien, USA und Brasilien wenig kompromissbereit zeigten:"Der Ausstieg aus Kohle, Öl und Gas komme nun in eine ernsthafte Phase, deshalb organisieren einige Staaten wie die USA, Brasilien und Australien, die eng mit der fossilen Lobby verbandelt sind, eine letzte Abwehrschlacht" (Christoph Bals, Politischer Geschäftsführer von Germanwatch, DW, 2019).Im November 2020 setzte sich Joe Biden bei der Wahl gegen Donald Trump durch. Daraufhin trat die USA dem Pariser Abkommen im Februar 2021 wieder bei. Im Juli 2021 trat das europäische Klimagesetz in Kraft, in dem die EU die Klimaneutralität bis 2050 zum verbindlichen Ziel, mit dem Zwischenziel einer Reduzierung der Netto-Treibhausgasemissionen um mindestens 55 % bis 2030, festgelegt.Im November 2021 kamen die Vertragsstaaten in Glasgow auf der COP26 (die 2020 aufgrund der Covid19-Pandemie auf 2021 vertagt wurde) zusammen, mit dem Ziel, sich auf einen gemeinsamen Kohleausstieg zu einigen. Dieses Ziel konnte teilweise erreicht werden: Im Klimapakt von Glasgow einigte man sich aufgrund des Drucks der von Kohle abhängigen Staaten wie China und Indien lediglich auf einen schrittweisen Abbau.Festgehalten wurde auch, dass der Ausstoß von klimaschädlichen Treibhausgasen weltweit noch in diesem Jahrzehnt um 45 Prozent sinken muss, wenn das 1,5-Grad-Limit erreichbar bleiben soll. Daneben wurden die reichen Länder aufgefordert, das Geld für die 100 Mrd USD, mit denen die Entwicklungsländer im Kampf gegen den Klimawandel unterstützt werden sollen, bereitzustellen. Eine Überraschung stellte der USA-China-Pakt dar, in dem beide Länder verkündeten, eine gemeinsame Arbeitsgruppe einrichten zu wollen, um den Umbau zu einer klimaneutralen Weltwirtschaft zu beschleunigen (vgl. Dlf, 2021).Die COP27 wurde 2022 im ägyptischen Scharm El-Scheich ausgetragen. Das wichtigste Ergebnis stellt der Fond für klimabedingte Schäden und Verluste dar, der von den Entwicklungsländern seit mehreren Jahren gefordert wurde. Durch diesen sollen ärmere, durch den Klimawandel stark bedrohte Länder bei Schäden, die durch Klimakatastrophen verursacht wurden, Ausgleichszahlungen erhalten. Keine erheblichen Fortschritte konnten dagegen bei den Lösungsansätzen zur Einhaltung des 1,5°C-Ziels aus dem Pariser Abkommen gemacht werden. Versuche, weitergehende Formulierungen zu einem Ausstieg aus fossilen Brennstoffen und Kohle zu verfassen, wurden von China und Saudi-Arabien blockiert. Als Erfolg wird die Klimapartnerschaft zwischen Industrieländern wie den USA und Deutschland mit Entwicklungsländern wie Ägypten, Mexiko und Südafrika gesehen. Die Industrieländer stellen Mittel bereit, um bei den kleineren Ländern die Energiewende voranzutreiben (vgl. Dlf, 2022). COP28 in DubaiAuf der COP28, die vom 30. November bis 12. Dezember 2023 in Dubai stattfand, wurde seit dem Pariser Klimaabkommen erstmals offiziell Zwischenbilanz gezogen. Die EU (-7,4 %) und die USA (-3,0 %) haben es 2023 geschafft, ihre Emissionen im Vergleich zu 2022 zu verringern. In Indien (+8,2 %) und China (+4,0 %) sind sie dagegen angestiegen. Die selbst gesetzten Ziele zur Treibhausgasemission, die sich die Staaten gesetzt hatten, konnten nicht erfüllt werden.Im Vergleich zum Vorjahr sind die Emissionen um 1,1 % angestiegen und liegen bei 36,8 Milliarden ausgestoßenen Tonnen CO₂. Diese werden ergänzt durch Maßnahmen wie z.B. das Roden von Wäldern, sodass die Endbilanz bei 40,9 Milliarden Tonnen CO₂ liegt (vgl. Appelhans, 2023). Die Zwischenbilanz zeigt deutlich, dass die aktuellen Maßnahmen und Umsetzungen der Nationen nicht ausreichen, um das 1,5°C-Ziel zu erreichen.Das "sichtbarste" Ergebnis der Konferenz stellt die Einigung der Weltgemeinschaft auf einen Beschlusstext zu einem "Übergang weg von fossilen Energieträgern in den Energiesystemen" dar. Ziel ist es, durch einen Ausstieg aus fossilen Energien (Öl, Gas, Kohle…) den globalen Süden, den die Auswirkungen des Klimawandels am stärksten treffen, vor weiteren drohenden Katastrophen zu schützen.Bei den fossilen Brennstoffen (Öl und Gas) wurde sich auf den Begriff "Abkehr" anstatt Ausstieg als Kompromiss geeinigt. Dies ist zurückzuführen auf Staaten wie Saudi-Arabien, deren Wirtschaft auf dem Handel mit fossilen Brennstoffen beruht und für die ein Ausstieg, Stand jetzt, nicht in Frage kommt. Um den Ausstieg zu erreichen, benötigt es einen schnellen Umstieg auf erneuerbare Energien. Im Beschlusstext wurde das Ziel formuliert,"... die Kapazität der erneuerbaren Energien bis 2030 zu verdreifachen und das Tempo bei der Energieeffizienz in diesem Zeitraum zu verdoppeln." (BMZ, COP28 Abschnitt 2)Neben dem Ausstieg einigten sich die Staaten auf die Ausgestaltung des auf der COP27 beschlossenen Fonds für Klimaschäden im Globalen Süden. Deutschland und Saudi-Arabien kündigten an, für diesen jeweils 100 Millionen Euro bereitzustellen (vgl. bpb, 2023).Fazit und AusblickDie Historie der zurückliegenden Klimakonferenzen zeigt klar auf, wie kompliziert und hoch angespannt die internationale Klimapolitik ist. Um einen Konsens zu erzielen und ein Vorankommen zu ermöglichen, müssen in der Regel package deals und Kompromisse eingegangen werden, was eine schnelle und effektive internationale Zusammenarbeit erschwert.Ergebnisse zu erzielen, kostete in der Vergangenheit viel Zeit - Zeit, die die Welt und vor allem der globale Süden nicht mehr hat. 2009 scheiterte der erste Versuch, den Klimawandel als ein ernstzunehmendes Problem international offiziell anzuerkennen, auf der COP15 in Kopenhagen. Und es dauerte bis 2015, dass die Vertragsstaaten sich einigen konnten und mit dem 1,5°C-Ziel den Klimawandel anerkannten und ihm gemeinsam den Kampf ansagten. Die Historie von Rio bis Paris offenbart zwei Probleme der internationalen Klimapolitik:Die internationale Klimapolitik ist träge und kommt nur langsam voran. Um überhaupt einen Konsens zu finden, mussten zwischen den Nationen in der Regel immer Kompromisse eingegangen werden. Dies ist am Verlauf des Kyoto-Protokolls, als die EU bei Maßnahmen wie den Senken Industrieländern wie Kanada und Russland entgegenkam, damit das Protokoll überhaupt noch ratifiziert werden kann, gut ersichtlich. Wenige Jahre später stiegen Russland und Kanada bei der Verlängerung des Kyoto-Protokolls bis 2020 dann aus.Es gibt keinen internationalen Souverän, der die einzelnen Staaten maßregelt und Konsequenzen verhängt, wenn Staaten es nicht schaffen, ihre Emissionen zu verringern. Trotz des Pariser Abkommens sind die Treibhausgasemissionen seit 2015, mit Ausnahme der Phase der Covid19-Pandemie, angestiegen. Konsequenzen gab es für die Industrienationen, die Hauptverursacher von Treibhausgasemissionen sind, nicht. Das 1,5°C-Ziel, das bereits 2015 von Kritiker*innen als unrealistisch angesehen wurde, ist acht Jahre später mit dem Trend, dass die CO₂-Emissionen weiter ansteigen, kaum noch zu erreichen. Die Prognose in Bezug auf den Klimawandel sieht für die kommenden Jahre düster aus. Hoffnung könnte der auf der COP28 beschlossene Ausstieg bzw. die Abkehr von fossilen Brennstoffen, die über 80 % der CO₂-Emissionen ausmachen, bieten. Dieser Beschluss könnte - nach dem Pariser Abkommen - ein weiter großer Schritt in die richtige Richtung sein. Wie groß dieser Schritt ausfällt, ist abhängig davon, wie sich die Vertragsstaaten an dem Ausstieg beteiligen und wie schnell sie versuchen, diesen umzusetzen.Ein weiterer Hoffnungsschimmer könnte die steigende Verantwortung sein, die die Industrieländer für den Klimawandel übernehmen. Der globale Süden, der vom Norden über Jahre hinweg ohne große Rücksicht auf Folgen ausgebeutet wurde (und immer noch wird), bekommt das Ausmaß des Klimawandels am deutlichsten zu spüren. Durch den auf der COP27 verabschiedeten Fond für Klimakatastrophen erhält er von den Industrienationen finanzielle Unterstützung, was einen Anfang darstellt. Die Industriestaaten, allen voran die EU, haben sich dazu bekannt, den globalen Süden nicht mehr im Stich zu lassen. Dies kann man gleichzeitig als Zeichen sehen, dass die VN erkannt haben, dass der Klimawandel nur im Kollektiv aufgehalten werden kann.Der Trend der letzten Klimakonferenzen ist positiv. Ob dieser Trend anhält, hängt klimapolitisch stark von den USA, China und mit einigen Abstrichen Indien und den Öl-Staaten ab. Die USA, die eine lange Historie besitzt, sich in der Klimapolitik querzustellen und nicht zu kooperieren, steht vor einem Wahljahr 2024, in dem Donald Trump die Chance hat, nach 2016 erneut zum Präsidenten gewählt zu werden. Trump, dessen Politik unberechenbar ist, ist kein Befürworter von Maßnahmen gegen den Klimawandel und trägt die Verantwortung dafür, dass die USA 2020 aus dem Pariser Abkommen ausgetreten sind.Die USA pflegen trotz des gemeinsamen Pakts für eine klimaneutrale Wirtschaft ein angespanntes Verhältnis zu China, das eskalieren könnte. China, das in Sachen Treibhausgasemissionen seit über zehn Jahren an der Spitze steht, hat lange versucht, sich unter dem Deckmantel "Schwellenland" vor klimapolitischer Verantwortung zu drücken. In der nahen Zukunft könnte sich dies mit Indien, das inzwischen bei den Emissionen auf Platz 3 (Stand 2022) steht, wiederholen.Sollten sich die USA, China und Indien als Top 3 (https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/179260/umfrage/die-zehn-groessten-c02-emittenten-weltweit/) in Sachen Treibhausgasemissionen aus dem Kampf gegen den Klimawandel zurückziehen bzw. bei dem Ausstieg aus fossiler Energie nicht mitziehen, sieht es düster für den Rest der Welt aus. Auch die Blockadehaltung in Bezug auf den Ausstieg aus fossilen Brennstoffe der Ölstaaten wie Saudi-Arabien muss beobachtet werden.Neben den Wahlen in den USA darf die EU-Wahl nicht unterschätzt werden. In den vergangenen Jahren konnten rechtspopulistische Parteien, von denen viele Klimawandelleugner (vgl. Schmidt-Mattern, 2019) sind, fast in allen EU-Ländern Stimmen dazugewinnen. Sollte es innerhalb des EU-Parlaments zu einem starken Rechtsruck kommen, könnte dies auch Auswirkungen auf die Klimapolitik der EU haben. Das wäre fatal, da die EU schon seit der Rio-Konferenz im Kampf gegen den Klimawandel als Vorreiter agiert und regelmäßig zwischen Parteien mit verschiedenen Standpunkten als Zwischenhändler agiert und so Kompromisse erreicht. Die Voraussetzungen für einen erfolgreichen Kampf gegen den Klimawandel stehen auf wackligen Beinen, doch der Trend der vergangenen Jahre ist positiv, was Anlass zur Hoffnung gibt. Dennoch müssen die Staaten, wenn sie noch eine Chance haben wollen, den Klimawandel einzudämmen, geschlossener und vor allem schneller agieren als noch in der Zeitspanne zwischen Rio de Janeiro und Paris. LiteraturAuswärtiges Amt. 2018. "Erfolgreicher Abschluss der "COP24" in Kattowitz". https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/aussenpolitik/klimaaussenpolitik/cop-24-kattowitz/2171152 (24.03.24).Auswärtiges Amt. 2019. 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"UN Klimakonferenz Kyoto, 1997". https://www.nachhaltigkeit.info/artikel/un_klimakonferenz_kyoto_1997_1453.htm (24.03.24).Schmidt-Mattern, Barbara. 2019. "Rechtspopulistische Parteien beeinflussen Klimapolitik". https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/europa-rechtspopulistische-parteien-beeinflussen-100.html (24.03.24).Simonis, Georg (Hg.) (2017). "Handbuch Globale Klimapolitik". Brill/Schönigh Verlag. SPD. 2010. "Klimaschutz: Die richtigen Lehren aus Kopenhagen ziehen" https://www.spdfraktion.de/themen/klimaschutz-richtigen-lehren-kopenhagen-ziehen (24.03.24).Statista Research Department. 2023. "CO₂-Emissionen weltweit in den Jahren 1960 bis 2022". https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/37187/umfrage/der-weltweite-co2-ausstoss-seit-1751/ (24.03.24).Statista. 2022. "CO₂-Emissionen: Größte Länder nach Anteil am weltweiten CO₂-Ausstoß im Jahr 2022". https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/179260/umfrage/die-zehn-groessten-c02-emittenten-weltweit/ (24.03.24).SZ. 2021. "Weltklimarat: Zwei-Grad-Ziel droht unerreichbar zu werden". https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wissen/klimawandel-ipcc-weltklimarat-erderwaermung-co2-duerre-starkregen-meeresspiegel-1.5377150 (24.03.24).Übersicht über die Klimaverhandlungen. Europarl. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/infographic/climate-negotiations-timeline/index_de.html#event-2023 (24.03.24).Umweltbundesamt. 2024. "Klimarahmenkonvention und das Übereinkommen von Paris". https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/daten/klima/klimarahmenkonvention (24.03.24).Umweltbundesamt. 2014. "Zwanzigste UN-Klimakonferenz (COP 20 | CMP 10)". https://sns.uba.de/chronik/de/concepts/t-2f28febf_14a9fe1f1a8_-5f73.html (24.03.24).Umweltbundesamt. 2024. "Übereinkommen von Paris". https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/klima-energie/internationale-eu-klimapolitik/uebereinkommen-von-paris#nationally-determined-contributions-ndcs (24.03.24).UNFCCC. 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The 6th International Week of Science, Technology and Innovation, is an event organized by Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander Cúcuta and Ocaña, aimed at the academic - scientific community and the productive sectors of the region, whose purpose is the dissemination of the advances in research and extension of institutions of the National and International scope, through research groups and seedbeds, promoting the participation of the productive sectors in research, extension, technological development and innovation activities that strengthen the University - Company - State relationship and the exchange of experiences with researchers from the National and International level. ; La VI Semana Internacional de la Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, es un evento organizado por la Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander Cúcuta y Ocaña, dirigido a la comunidad académico - científica y los sectores productivos de la región, cuyo propósito es la difusión de los avances en investigación. y extensión de instituciones del ámbito Nacional e Internacional, a través de grupos de investigación y semillero, promoviendo la participación de los sectores productivos en actividades de investigación, extensión, desarrollo tecnológico e innovación que fortalezcan la relación Universidad - Empresa - Estado y el intercambio de experiencias con investigadores desde el nivel Nacional e Internacional. ; Programación Aplicación de la metodología de valorización del estado organizacional veo asociada al modelo de acompañamiento rural de la escuela de liderazgo, asociatividad y desarrollo comunitario eladc en norte de santander Apoyo a la internacionalización del sector cacao en norte de santander a través de establecer estrategias de posicionamiento y protección de la marca somos cacao s.a.s. con base en las certificaciones requeridas por el gobierno de colombia Costos de producción: innovaciones y prácticas estratégicas de las mipymes manufactureras Cultura y obligaciones tributarias: un análisis en el sector comercial El impacto de marketing digital en la competitividad las empresas del sector de restaurantes en la ciudad de cúcuta y su área metropolitana El manejo de personal ante la actitud hacia el compromiso organizacional en las empresas del sector hotelero de cúcuta colombia Estrategias laborales de utilización del tiempo libre para estudiantes ufps Fundamentos conceptuales de la estrategia en los negocios internacionales: caso café galavis, cúcuta, colombia Modelo de evaluación externa para la cadena de valor de cacao en norte de santander San cayetano, un destino turistico en norte de santander desde el marketing social Sucesión generacional de las empresas familiares. una mirada desde la literatura mototaxism as an occupational alternative to unemployment Lineamientos pedagógicos para la formación del contador público en la gestión ambiental, desde la accion docente Videoclip como herramienta de promoción turística, caso: municipio de arboledas, norte de santander Análisis del rol de las mujeres administrativas en la resolución de conflictos del sector cooperativo en ocaña, norte de santander Diagnóstico de capacidades emprendedoras con enfoque de economia naranja en aprendices sena cedrum Incidencia del uso de las tic en los resultados académicos La nueva competencia geopolítica por el cáucaso sur y sus complejos conflictos internos Análisis socio-económico de las comunidades indígenas y rom reconocidas por la alcaldía municipal de san josé de cúcuta Auditoria forense, técnica esencial en la prevención de contravenciones en el manejo financiero del sector bancario de ocaña Caracterización del desempeño financiero en las empresas del sector hotelero en el municipio de san josé de cúcuta-colombia para los periodos 2014-2017 Certificación halal como estrategia de internacionalización de productos agrícolas de norte de santander El perfil del emprendedor en tiempo de crisis Estandarización de procesos administrativos y operativos en la fabricación de productos textiles bajo el paradigma de los manuales de procedimientos Impacto socio-económico, político y ambiental de los asentamientos humanos en la periferia de la ciudad Inversiones sostenibles: agroecoturismo Representaciones sociales de los modelos gerenciales que poseen los empresarios de los clubes deportivos de fútbol de la ciudad de cúcuta – norte de santander Panorama actual de la educación superior a distancia en iberoamérica Realidad socioeconómica de la población migratoria venezolana en cúcuta Gestión del conocimiento como estrategia competitiva en las organizaciones entre colombia- finlandia Estudios de la inteligencia sobre la educación para la innovación El proceso de enseñanza en las ciencias contables de la ufps-cucuta La innovación como elemento competitivo de las organizaciones de china La economía sostenible como factor crucial de la localización de plantas industriales en colombia Apropiación y construcción territorial campesina en el catatumbo: zona de reserva campesina y territorios agroalimentarios campesinos Caracterización de semillas con especies nativas propias del catatumbo como eje estratégico para la conservación y manejo agroecológico de la zona Evaluación del endocarpio de coco (cocos nucifera) como sustrato en el cultivo de orellana (pleurotus ostreatus) en el municipio de villa del rosario, norte de santander Propiedades mecánicas del adobe mejorado con cal y ceniza volante, como empleo en ladrillos de construcción ambientalmente sostenible en tierra Reconstrucción de series de tiempo de precipitación mensual en clima tropical Estructura de los escarabajos coprófagos en la evaluación del estado de conservación en el bosque seco del jardín botánico jorge enrique quintero arenas de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña Calidad del agua en la producción de las unidades piscícolas en los municipios del zulia, san cayetano y villa del rosario Comparación de sistemas de evaluación seminal en el parámetro de motilidad (sca® versus imagej®) en semen porcino Diagnóstico de sistemas de producción caprino en el área metropolitana de cúcuta (norte de santander) Efecto de diferentes niveles de inclusión de harina de chachafruto (erythrina edulis), sobre el desempeño productivo y la sobrevivencia de juveniles de cachama negra (colossoma macropomum) Elaboración y caracterización fisicoquímica de la harina de banano bocadillo (musaaa simmonds) Estandarización de diferentes concentrados de sucrosa. en la vitrificación de semen ovino Evaluación de la viabilidad de semillas de capsicum annuum usando la prueba de tetrazolio Identificación de factores que han conllevado a la disminución del rebaño caprino en el área metropolitana de cúcuta Integración de datos georreferenciados, multiescala y multidisciplinares para caracterizar espacialmente la respuesta fenotípica del caballo criollo de la orinoquía La apicultura como estrategia de conservación de la biodiversidad y alternativa productiva de la ganadería doble propósito con uso de sistemas silvopastoriles del bosque seco tropical Uso de la analítica de datos en el estudio epidemiológico de la fiebre aftosa. aplicación en el departamento del cesar Conservación del caballo criollo de la orinoquía y desarrollo de una línea de caballo de tropa para el ejército nacional de colombia Determinación de la edad óptima de pastoreo para la estrella africana (cynodon plectostachyus) en un sistema lechero tropical. Diseño de una planta de producción de células bhk-21 para la obtención de la vacuna leucemia felina vlfe usando superpro designer Efecto del concentrado autólogo de plaquetas en las velocidades espermáticas en semen ovino Evaluación de la funcionalidad del almidon de arracacha (arracacia xanthorrhiza) en galletas tipos finas Evaluación de los impactos ambientales derivados de la actividad de minería de arcilla o carbón a partir de una propuesta metodológica Evaluación ex ante de un proyecto de conservación y desarrollo a partir de "pseudognaphalium" (vira vira) en bogotá-colombia Impacto de los extremos de variabilidad climática en la comunidad de macroinvertebrados acuáticos en el cauce principal del río pamplonita en el periodo (2000 – 2014) Impactos agropecuarios en el catatumbo ocacionados por la conflictividad social pre-factibilidad de la producción de bioplástico a partir de almidón extraido de cáscaras de platanos por fermentación aerobia del hongo rizophus oryzae Validación de la metodologia para la estimacion de la biomasa total de la vegetacion arborea de la comuna 9 del municipio san josé de cucuta Simulación de un bioproceso a escala industrial para la producción del hongo medicinal ganoderma lucidum mediante la herramienta computacional superpro designer Simulación mediante cfd de la hidrodinámicagenerada por una turbina rushton a diferentes velocidades de agitación en fluidos no-newtonianos Sensibilidad de plantas de tomate a salinidad por nacl y fusarium oxysporum Evaluación de las propiedades fisicoquímicas, microbiológicas y organoléptica de de cupcakes apartir de moringa stevia y cocoa. Aislamiento e identificacion de cepas nativas productoras de exopolisacaridos a partir de productos autoctonos arnr 16s como herramienta aplicada en la caracterización molecular de géneros y especies de bacterias Aspectos a tener en cuenta en el proceso de vigilancia epidemiologica relacionada con el riesgo biológico Biodegradabilidad y toxicidad de lixiviados de rellenos sanitarios tratados por fotocatálisis heterogénea, usando tio2 en un colector parabólico compuesto Concentración de cultivos microalgales empleando un electroflotador open-access . Efecto de la altitud y tamaño de explotaciones ganaderas sobre aspectos productivos y reproductivos en la region sur-occidental de norte de santander Efecto de la fuente de carbono en un proceso de fijación biológica de nitrógeno utilizando efluentes piscicolas Estimación de la huella hídrica verde y azul en la producción de caña de azúcar (saccharum officinarum) orgánica. caso de estudio: zona centro del valle del cauca Estrategias de adaptación al cambio climático y de prevención ante la ocurrencia de desastres socio-naturales a partir de la percepción de los habitantes del municipio chitagá Evaluación de dos fuentes de calcio sobre parámetros de calidad de cascara del huevo en reproductoras cobb avian 48 en condiciones comerciales Evaluación de la capacidad de biorremediación de aguas postconsumo de piscicultura mediante el uso de microalgas y cianobacterias Evaluación de la toxicidad de extractos de plantas medicinales contra spodoptera exigua Evaluación de un sistema de riego automatizado para el control de humedad en el proceso de compostaje Evaluación del bienestar animal en proyecto piscicola de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña Evaluación del sistema de tratamiento agua potable san fernando – eficiencia y calidad Identificación del potencial agroindustrial del municipio de tibú desde indicadores del desarrollo sostenible Inducción de genes pr1 y mpk1 asociados a resistencia en papaya inoculada con prsv Medición del bienestar animal en el aprisco de la granja experimental de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña, mediante el protocolo welfare quality® Medición del bienestar animal en el sistema de producción avícola de la granja experimental de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña ufpso, mediante el protocolo welfare quality® Microorganismos rizosféricos asociados al ciclo del carbono en el cultivo de arroz, norte de santander Potencial biotecnológico de una cepa de oscillatoria sp termotolerante para la producción de colorantes Protocolo de cosecha y determinacion de metabolitos de interes industrial en microalgas Protocolo para el mantenimiento de cepas y escalamiento en la producción de microalgas de interés industrial Protocolo para la bioprospección eficiente de microalgas y cianobacterias termotolerantes Protocolo para la extracción de ficobiliproteínas (apc, c-pc, pe) de cianobacterias termotolerantes Sostenibilidad y responsabilidad social: factor determinante de buenas prácticas en el sector microempresarial, ocaña-colombia Tratamiento de aguas contaminadas con glifosato utilizando electrocoagulación Elaboración de yogurt funcional a partir de remolacha (beta vulgaris) y leche ultrasonificada Solución por métodos numéricos de la ecuación del calor asociada a la transferencia térmica en polímeros Caracterización mineralógica de material arcilloso de la formación guayabo a diferentes por difracción de rayos x Impacto de la interdisciplinariedad en las investigaciones científicas Análisis descriptivo de las concepciones sobre storytelling en matemáticas Historia de las vías férreas de cúcuta, en el currículo de matemática financiera Impacto del programa jóvenes en acción en la formacion inicial de educadores en matematicas Efecto de la velocidad de centrifugado sobre las propiedades anticorrosivas de los recubrimientos de bismuto-titanio obtenidos vía sol-gel en sustratos de 316l Análisis térmico, ftir-atr y frx de nidos de avispas de colombia Comportamiento térmico de las cenizas de carbón provenientes de la combustión en hornos colmena y su potencial uso como nutriente tecnológico en la elaboración de bloques cerámicos extruídos Factores actitudinales de los estudiantes que inciden en la enseñanza del calculo diferencial bajo el enfoque ontosemiótico Variables críticas que condicionan la competitividad de la cerámica artesanal en norte de santander bajo la dinámica de su cadena productiva Evaluación en laboratorio del grado de infección de burkholderia glumae en semillas de arroz Valores y servicios ambientales de los árboles urbanos desde el enfoque de la purificación del aire Análisis del recurso solar y eólico en tres zonas específicas del departamento de norte de santander Desarrollo experimental de mezclas para la obtención de materiales compuestos de suelo cemento y residuos de demolición, conformados a través de prensa manual: una alternativa para la sostenibilidad a partir del reuso de materiales de construcción La participacion y el dialogo en la construccion de paz territorial Medición de la calidad y eficacia de la participación ciudadana en el catatumbo con aplicación de la metodología siriri (alianza ufpso-fip) Aprendizaje basado en problemas (abp) para el desarrollo de competencias científicas en biología Objetivos para garantizar la efectividad del principio de oportunidad en colombia El exodo transfronterizo: y el cambio en las dinámicas sociales, economicas y politicas -municipio de cúcuta-san antonio (estado táchira) Módulo de refugio temporal madera pet + acero reciclado: ensambles mpet+ar Factores asociados a las pruebas saber 11° en las instituciones educativas del municipio de pamplona Análisis del cumplimiento del enfoque de gestión responsable desde la perspectiva de los sistemas de gestión de calidad y ambiental Estudio comparativo de la aplicación de tecnologías colaborativas en el desarrollo de ambientes de aprendizaje Evaluación del ova big toy, herramienta para la enseñanza del ingles en niños de primaria Imaginarios sobre ciudadanía de frontera: un abordaje desde las distintas miradas de los sectores sociales que convergen en la ciudad cúcuta El uso de las tic y su inclusión en las prácticas pedagógicas de los docentes del programa de enfermería ufps Caracteres multiculturales e intuicionistas del emprendimiento en la ciudad fronteriza san josé de cúcuta y los signos de enfoque diferencial para la administración local Hipótesis normativa para una eficaz protección del medio ambiente en colombia Narrativa visual de la migración de venezolanos, caso: puentes internacionales francisco de paula santander y simón bolivar Incorporación de los sistemas educativos lego y fischer technik como recursos de juego didácticos en la enseñanza de la matemática en grados séptimo del colegio isidro caballero delgado del municipio de floridablanca en santander colombia El concepto de inclusión en la educacion superior: acciones demostrativas y buenas prácticas. caso de estudio, institución francisco de paula santander Animación digital como herramienta para el aprendizaje de niños con discapacidad auditiva, caso: cuentos y fábulas infantiles Estrategias de intervención en el proceso "enseñanza de la historia" museo casa natal del general francisco de paula santander Software educativo para el apoyo del aprendizaje de la asignatura fundamentos de programación Las nuevas dinamicas de la movilidad humana en la frontera colombo-venezolana caso: venezolanos El uso de instagram como herramienta de branding en las empresas de calzado en norte de santander Percepciones de los migrantes fronterizos sobre su representación mediática en los contenidos informativos emitidos por canales de televisión nacionales La arcilla y su influencia en la arquitectura representativa del sector centro como elementos de identidad de la ciudad de san josé de cúcuta Reconstrucción de la memoria histórica en el catatumbo a partir de la producción audiovisual sobre la masacre de santa inés, vegas de motilonia y planadas el 24 y 25 de diciembre de 2004 Análisis del contexto del aula para fortalecer las habilidades integradas en inglés como lengua extranjera a través de la enseñanza basada en tareas en el grado séptimo de la institución educativa integrado juan atalaya Eficacia de la ley 1561 de 2012 para otorgar títulos de propiedad al poseedor material de bienes inmuebles urbanos y rurales y sanear la falsa tradición en el municipio de cúcuta De la práctica y la investigación a los syllabus en ingeniería. Una experiencia de actualización permanente de la cátedra. La investigación formativa como desafío en la educación superior. caso: semillero de investigación en mantenimiento – universidad francisco de paula santander Práctica pedagógica de los docentes y las competencias y procesos matemáticos de los estudiantes en educación media y superior: alineación mediante un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales Factores que influyen en el bienestar y satifaccion en la vida de los inmigrantes en la zona de frontera Desde el enfoque socio crítico: el restablecimiento de los derechos de los estudiantes en condición de víctimas de las instituciones educativas del municipio de san josé de cúcuta, norte de santander 2018-2019 Vacíos de protección y riesgos psicosociales en el marco de la migración venezolana: un análisis desde lo documental Incidencia en la seguridad personal frente a la regulación de los delitos informáticos en la universidad de pamplona sede villa del rosario Estrategia socioeducativa para la prevención del dengue en el municipio de los patios Permanencia académica en un grupo de estudiantes de la universidad francisco de paula santander Las barreras en el acceso a la justicia para las mujeres victimas del conflicto en norte de santander. El caso de la fundación myriam castrillón Comisiones de la verdad y derecho a la verdad en la jurisprudencia de la corte interamericana de derechos humanos La incidencia de las dinámicas urbanas y territoriales en la transformación de la ciudad. el caso de la avenida 1 éste de la ciudad de san josé de cúcuta La comunicación como acción de motivación-productividad en las organizaciones Rendimiento académico en matemáticas y objetos interactivos de aprendizaje-oia Implicaciones sociales del celular en la vida cotidiana de los jóvenes universitarios Estudio de la compactación con calor aplicada sobre fardos de paja para el diseño de soluciones constructivas estructurales Consulta popular minera y competencias de las entidades territoriales (muncipios) La pérdida de oportunidad en la responsabilidad médica del estado Derechos humanos y resocialización en colombia: una cuestión de política criminal Modelo pedagógico transdisciplinario en las carreras de ciencias administrativas y económicas: un cambio de paradigma Una mirada a las concepciones sobre la formación docente: programa de licenciatura en educación infantil. Corporación universitaria minuto de dios – Colombia Análisis de la percepción que presentan los docentes, administrativos y estudiantes de la universidad de pamplona sobre la rsu en sus ejes: campus responsable, formación profesional y ciudadana, gestión social del conocimiento y participación social Transformaciones de la dinámica de familias venezolanas asistidos por la propuesta la casita solidaria Construcción de cultura y territorio en el municipio de tibú por jóvenes víctimas del conflicto Percepción de la discriminación por razones de orientación sexual en estudiantes de trabajo social en la ufps cúcuta Catálogo arquimod (ver lo que hemos sido capaces de hacer) Excepción de inconstitucionalidad frente a la conservación de la supremacía constitucional en colombia Energía renovable para la población vulnerable del barrio el paramo en el municipio villa del rosario estudio de la eficacia de la defensa ejercida por los defensores publicos en los procesos penales en el municipio de villa del rosario análisis desde el principio del enfoque diferencial de las mujeres trabajadoras sexuales migrantes en el municipio de cúcuta y zona de frontera niños y niñas migrantes en zona de frontera e inclusión en las instituciones educativas en el municipio de san jose de cùcuta análisis jurisprudencial en relación de los derechos humanos en la población migrante venezolana región del catatumbo: almas atrapadas entre las memorias del olvido y el dolor población migrante entre fronteras analisis de la transculturación y adaptación de los migrantes venezolanos en el municipio de san josé de san josé de cúcuta realidad fronteriza e impacto social de la migración de población venezolana en el municipio de san josé de cúcuta. (2016-2018) el impacto de la salud pública en las mujeres migrantes de venezuela en estado de gestación en el municipio san josé de cúcuta en el año 2016-2019 liderazgos de las mujeres gramaloteras a partir del proceso de reasentamiento al nuevo casco urbano formación de conciencia política en la niñez juguemos por la igualdad saberes de los yerbateros sobre medicina tradicional en el municipio de cúcuta durante el primer semestre del 2020 la restitución de tierras como reparación transformadora en la construcción de paz 437 estrategia educomunicativa para la prevención del acoso escolar en el colegio instituto técnico patios centro 2-sede patios centro uno uso de la guadua para viviendas de interés social frente a sistemas constructivos tradicionales en la ciudad de cúcuta heterotópia de género: reflexiones desde las mujeres trabajadores informales avances teórico-metodológicos del estudio de factores asociados a los resultados de las pruebas saber pro en los estudiantes de ingenieria civil de la ufps reconstrucción de memoria histórica de las mujeres desplazadas en el barrio ciudad rodeo, cúcuta, mediante la elaboración de un monumento representativo optimización estructural y arquitectónica desde lógicas topológicas a soluciones constructivas de arquitectura en tierra reconstrucción de memoria histórica a través de la creación del libro de relatos para narrar las experiencias de vida de las mujeres víctimas del conflicto armado residentes en el barrio ciudad rodeo, cúcuta-colombia estado del arte de instrumentos de evaluación sobre estilos de aprendizaje en publicaciones científicas internacionales protección a los derechos colectivos y del ambiente en villa del rosario y cúcuta frente a la emisión de agentes contaminantes por el transporte público responsabilidad estatal frente a la vulneración de los derechos humanos a mujeres víctimas de violencia sexual en el conflicto armado interno en colombia mineria tradiconal una mineria especial proteccion laboral a pastores y religiosos revisión de literatura sobre computación cuántica aplicada propuesta de un laboratorio steam bajo el enfoque industria 4.0 en la ufps sistema de control de un estacionamiento basado en tecnología rfid comparacion de momentos flectores producidos por carga gravitacional en losas de concreto reforzado armadas en dos direcciones obtenidos por diferentes metodos de analisis prototipo para la adquisición de señales cardiacas aplicaciones alternativas ambientalmente sustentables del carbón de norte de santander recubrimientos de dioxido de titanio mediante rf-magnetron sputtering sobre sustratos geopolimericos a base de metacaolines automatización de un sistema hidropónico nft para la optimización de la producción de hortalizas de hoja en la casa rural villa fonseca del municipio de salazar de las palmas n. de s. herramientas y algoritmo para la identificación de personas con procesamiento de señales cálculo del valor de variación del asentamiento de consolidación por efecto de modificación de cargas estructurales en zona de amenaza sísmica alta. caso de estudio: san jose de cucuta, colombia diseño e implementación de un banco para la detección de fallas en motores trifásicos mediante el uso de inteligencia artificial estudio comparativo de modelos empíricos para el cálculo de la evapotranspiración potencial en la región andina colombiana diseño y analisis de transductores fotonicos para aplicaciones de biosensado extracción de características sobre regiones de interés en mamogramas digitales adaptación de una bacteria nativa compatible con acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans y acidithiobacillus thiooxidans para desulfurar carbón a nivel de laboratorio análisis de variables ambientales para el diseño de circuitos de medición para sistemas solares fotovoltaicos análisis de un escenario de radio sobre fibra como propuesta para soportar los requerimientos de la red 5g software de reconocimiento facial para el control de acceso del personal a los laboratorios de investigación del programa de ingeniería de sistemas de la universidad francisco de paula santander prototipo de un panel modular compuesto a partir de calcín y grafeno, para la configuración arquitectónica de una envolvente pivotante captadora de energía diseño del sistema de riego auto-suficiente y sostenible para zonas verdes en la universidad francisco de paula santander, mediante el uso del software arduino y labview modelo dinámico lineal y no lineal de un dedo robótico para una prótesis de mano modelación y simulación hidráulica de las zonas de desbordamiento de la quebrada tanauca mediante hec-ras en la provincia de pamplona, norte de santander diseño, desarrollo e integración de un chatbot en organizaciones para la mejora en la atención usando inteligencia artificial como servicio en la nube diseño de protesis transfemoral mecanica graduable responsabilidad social empresarial como estrategia de impulso al emprendimiento e innovación en la ciudad de san josé de cúcuta condiciones de vulnerabilidad del contexto socioeducativo de la región del catatumbo que inciden en el aprendizaje de las matemáticas percepción social de estudiantes con discapacidad auditiva y sus docentes sobre la educación inclusiva en una universidad privada de cúcuta el deporte como una herramienta para la construcción de paz territorial en el pos-acuerdo de paz, en cúcuta zeolitas sódicas y potásicas a partir de cenizas volantes provenientes de la combustión del carbón de la termoeléctrica termotasajero s.a.s estudio para la viabilidad de una zona franca en áreas del posconflicto en el municipio de ocaña, norte de santander estudio sobre el impacto del consumo de energía en las ips de san josé de cúcuta desde el análisis del plan de uso eficiente de ahorro de energía implementado tratado de integración progresista de asociación transpacífico (cptpp) evolución e implicaciones para colombia dentro del contexto de inversión aplicación de un sistema de realidad virtual para la práctica en los procesos de importación y exportación en los estudiantes de comercio internacional de la ufps oportunidad de los supermercados y almacenes de cadena instalados en cúcuta por la crisis venezolana la efectividad de la legislación y desarrollo reglamentario en el progreso fronterizo cucuteño situación actual de la zona franca-cucuta como alternativa de productividad para la generacion de empleo las buenas prácticas para la internacionalización de la miel de abeja de asoarimaan oferta exportable del municipio de teorama del departamento de norte de santander como alternativa para el desarrollo socieconómico retos y oportunidades del sector agricola de norte de santander en el mercado asiatico plan de internacionalización para la miel producida por la asociación asoarimaan del corregimiento buena esperanza, municipio de cúcuta comercio internacional de norte de santander y santander frente a las políticas comerciales colombianas después de la salida de venezuela de la comunidad andina de naciones entre 2006-2018 caracterización del sector mipymes formal e informal de la ciudad de san josé de cúcuta evaluación de las propiedades fisicoquímica del caliz de la physalis peruviana (uchuva) en la elaboración de ungüento antiinflamatorio establecimiento de un cultivo de scenedesmus sp en fotobioreactores de 2 l para la producción de carotenoides de interés comercial a partir de efluentes piscicolas análisis de la tasa de cambio en la cobertura natural presente en la ronda hídrica del río pamplonita en su paso por el casco urbano del municipio de cúcuta microencapsulación mediante secado por aspersión del aceite contenido de las hojas de mora (rubus glaucus) diseño experimental para la cuantificación de biomasa aérea a partir de ecuaciones alométricas en ecosistemas de bosque muy seco tropical, sometidos a baja intervención antrópica validacion del software open casa, sperm motility track v. 1.0 y bgm de imagej en semen de porcino evaluación del efecto de la composición del medio de cultivo sobre la propagación in vitro de híbridos de phalaenopsis determinación de la calidad fisiológica de la semillas de linum usitatissimum l. utilizando el test de tetrazolio pisum sativum un bioindicador eficaz para evaluar el efecto citotoxico del hipoclorito de sodio factores de riesgo relacionados con la adherencia al tratamiento en pacientes con hipertensión arterial, centro de salud once de noviembre calidad de vida del cuidador informal del paciente con alzheimer de la clínica stella maris de cúcuta en el primer semestre del año 2019 percepción de la eutanasia en docentes de la universidad francisco de paula santander durante el segundo semestre del 2019 diseño y aplicación de un programa de intervención en seguridad y salud en el trabajo, basado en los factores de riesgos laborales, en salones de belleza / peluquerías de cúcuta 2019 autoconcepto en adolescentes una mirada desde la migración - ii semestre de 2018 y i semestre de 2019 construcción de un sistema automatizado para conformar equipos de trabajo definición de los parámetros para el diseño de un prototipo clasificador de tipos de mente beneficios del pensamiento triádico en los estudiantes de ingeniería mecánica de la universidad francisco de paula santander, ocaña identificación del tipo de mente de los estudiantes de primer semestre de ingeniería civil mediante el pensamiento tríadico en la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña límites a la libertad de prensa en el municipio de ocaña, norte de santander dificultades de aprendizaje alrededor del algebra elemental en estudiantes de octavo grado actitudes y creencias de estudiantes de matemáticas y su correlación con el uso de las tic análisis de optimización topológica aplicada a espacios arquitectónicos. diseño desde la teoría de grafos enseñanza del concepto de derivada: una propuesta desde la ingeniería didáctica fortalecimiento del programa de prevención de la violencia escolar e intrafamiliar a través de la ejecución del proyecto mediadores en resolución de conflictos perteneciente a la casa de justicia barrio la libertad en las instituciones educativas simón bolívar y misael pastrana borrero de san josé de cúcuta incidencia en la seguridad personal frente a la regulación de los delitos informáticos en la universidad de pamplona sede villa del rosario política de participación social en salud (ppss) desde las competencias ciudadanas como herramienta para la gestión pública de programas y servicios de la e.s.e hospital universitario erasmo meoz representaciones gráficas de una función, ¿ayuda o problema en los jóvenes universitarios? una mirada al contexto penitenciario de las fuerzas militares, estudio de caso: trigésima brigada del ejército nacional de colombia (brigada treinta) felicidad y autoestima como bases esenciales para el desarrollo personal de los estudiantes del colegio universitario san carlos factores que influyen en el bienestar y satifaccion en la vida de los inmigrantes en la zona de frontera estrés laboral en las madres cabezas de hogar vinculadas al comercio informal en cúcuta norte de santander diseño de un estetoscopio digital para el análisis de taquicardia supraventricular analisis de calidad en el ciclo combinado buscando aprovechar el calor residual y control de agentes contaminantes analisis de estructuras de disipacion de energia para mitigar el impacto producido por flujo de avalanchas análisis del desempeño mecánico y de porosidad de una matriz de concreto reforzado con diferentes porcentajes de fibras de tereftalato de polietileno (pet) reciclado caracterizacion de las curvas de un motor de ignicion por compresion a diferentes factores de operación caracterizacion de sistemas de desarrollo esp32 para adquisicion de datos caracterización termo-física y mecánica de un cemento geopolimérico a base de cenizas volantes para diferentes relaciones si/al control de conmutación de baterías para un sistema de carga y descarga elaboración de un pan funcional a partir de harina de centeno (secale cereale) con adición de cúrcuma (curcuma longa) evaluación de la eficiencia de un sistema de refrigeración que opera con distintos refrigerantes evaluación de las propiedades mecánicas, morfológicas y estructurales de tabletas cerámicas con y sin recubrimiento de magnetita usando proyección térmica oxiacetilanica prototipo de cerradura electrónica para el control de acceso mediante huella dactilar y rfid prototipo electrónico para la actualización del sistema de desarrollo "de lorenzo dl3155e24" recubrimientos de poliestireno postconsumo para modificacion de tension superficial 547 rediseño y simulación del rodete y los alabes de la turbina pelton de la universidad francisco de paula santander sistema de cultivo hidropónico semiautónomo diseño e implementación de un sistema de caracterización de un transistor fet con interfaz gráfica de usuario en matlab sistema integrado de desplazamiento entre zanjas basado en sistemas embedidos diseño e implementacion de un sistema de caracterización de dispositivos electrónicos de tres terminales para la medición de la capacitancias internas cπ y cμ caracterización de genes productores de proteasas y quitinasas de hongos entomopatógenos aislados de suelo a caracterización fisicoquimica del raquis de palma de aceite para su aplicación en el uso de nuevos productos agroindustriales efecto de la adición de concentrado autólogo de plaquetas sobre las subpoblaciones espermáticas en semen ovino remocion de coliformes totales y fecales presentes en agua mediante la aplicación de nano particulas de plata tratamiento de aguas contaminadas con glifosato utilizando electrocoagulación utilización de tierras diatomáceas recicladas de la industria cervecera como medio de transporte de macronutrientes estandarización de procesos administrativos y operativos en la fabricación de productos textiles bajo el paradigma de los manuales de procedimientos factores de apoyo social en los pacientes con trastorno bipolar, episodio depresivo sin síntomas psicóticos, en una clínica de la ciudad en el último trimestre del año 2018 selección de un nuevo material refractario determinación del efecto de los fragmentos de bosque urbano sobre el co2 producido por las fuentes móviles en el municipio de ocaña norte de santander desarrollo de una mezcla asfáltica reciclada (rap) en cúcuta analisis comparativo de los tipos de pretratamientos usados en el bagazo de la caña de azúcar diseño de un modelo de gestion de logistica inversa en el sector de muebles en la ciudad de san jose de cúcuta y el área metropolitana identificación de la avifauna, tomando como criterio taxonómico el canto influencia del uso del grano de caucho triturado (gcr) sobre la resistencia bajo carga monotónica en una mezcla drenante caracterización morfológica y térmica de cerámica plastica modelado de la gestión del conocimiento en docencia universitaria empleando dinámica de sistemas desarrollo de un sistema de supervisión de las variables de temperatura, presión y humedad en un biodigestor con el fin de visualizar el balance de energía de la ufpso diseño de la estrategia de control de una celda electrolítica para producir hho como combustible complementario desarrollo de un sistema automatizado para el banco de prueba de soldadura mig modelo numérico de detección de fugas para sistema de tuberias evaluación de un sistema de comunicaciones óptico modulado en desplazamiento de fase empleando multiplexación por división de frecuencia estrategias de producción limpia para las empresas del sector cerámico del área metropolitana de cúcuta aplicación móvil de reconocimiento óptico de caracteres (ocr) en el proceso de tabulación de registro de información de la asociación de padres de hogares comunitarios de bienestar familiar de la comuna siete de san josé de cúcuta análisis de volátiles en el proceso de fermentado de cacao, mediante el uso de una matriz multisensorial o nariz electrónica para el control de calidad del producto en norte de santander cúcuta procesamiento de datos implementado python para identificar clúster asociados a muestras de cacao seco sano e infectado con monilia en norte de santander análisis de la estructura intelectual y la evolución de la investigación en el concepto de universidad inteligente: un análisis bibliométrico modelado 3d aplicado a las plantas del vivero de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña análisis y control de humedad del suelo a través de un sistema soportado por sensores en el jardín botánico "jorge quintero arenas" de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña portable energy: desarrollo de un multigenerador eléctrico portátil a base de energía fotovoltaica y energía cinética efecto de la polaridad del solvente durante la electrodeposición de asfaltenos de petroleo extrapesado colombiano en presencia de un campo magnético y nanoparticulas magnéticas determinación del índice de compresión a partir de propiedades de plasticidad en los suelos cohesivos residuales de la ciudad de ocaña, norte de santander modelo dinámico lineal y no lineal de un dedo robótico para una prótesis de mano análisis y modelación del transito vehicular en las intersecciones semaforizadas de la avenida 10 del municipio de los patios, colombia gestion del alcance en proyectos de desarrollo de software desarrollo de una aplicación web para la asignación de citas, historias clínicas y facturación utilizando la metodología cmmi (capability maturity model integration) para el hospital de los patios técnicas de medición y análisis del fenómeno de envejecimiento en asfaltos y mezclas asfálticas análisis técnico y económico para evaluación de pavimento flexible entre método convencional y nueva tecnología desarrollo de un sistema embebido configurable para la adquisicíon y monitoreo de un proceso termico – neumatico utilizando una plataforma raspberry pi métodos para la recuperación de aceites lubricantes automotrices usados: revisión del estado de arte propuesta metodologica para la optimizacion de la producción en pequeñas empresas mineras de carbon en norte de santander diseño de un sistema de perfilación de férulas mediante el escaneo 3d de muñeca, brazo y tobillo para fines de impresión 3d evaluación de parámetros mecánicos y de durabilidad de una mezcla asfáltica tipo mdc-19 con inclusión de chamota como reemplazo en agregados de 3/8" simulación computacional del proceso de alivio de tensiones residuales en cilindros para glp identificación del tipo de mente de los estudiantes de primer semestre de ingeniería civil mediante el pensamiento tríadico en la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña desarrollo e implementación con herramientas tecnológicas de la información y comunicación (tic) para dar solución a requerimiento a diferentes sectores empresariales recuperación de oro desde minerales refractarios auroargentíferos usando una bacteria nativa químicamente compatible con acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans bancas paramétricas [diseño generativo de mobiliario] validación del modelo matemático de una bomba centrífuga barnes de 0.25 hp análisis de componentes principales en cromatogramas para diagnósticar cáncer de próstata análisis de las redes neuronales artificiales en función de base radial para ser empleadas en la extracción de bordes de imágenes aéreas análisis y estimación de la radiación solar en la ciudad de cúcuta usando estadística inferencial aplicación web para la administración de la infraestructura de red y telecomunicaciones del campus central de la universidad francisco de paula santander en la sede cucuta determinación del índice de compresión a través de las propiedades de plasticidad de los suelos de la ciudad de ocaña, norte de santander caracterización del docente y el estudiante de educación superior en la planificación, dinámica de la clase y evaluación caracterización física y funcional del intercambiador de calor con fines de detección y diagnostico de fallos competencias gerenciales de los gerentes de las empresas de del sector ladrillero de villa del rosario como ventaja competitiva comunicación vía bluetooth para la emulación del control de un sistema de iluminación en proteus professional 8.1 a través de una aplicación móvil desarrollo de un prototipo mecatrónico con realimentación háptica para un simulador de actividades de entrenamiento de la cirugía laparoscópica en animales caninos diagnóstico y análisis del impacto social del uso de dos tipos de infraestructura de vivienda de tipo horizontal en poblaciones vulnerables caso de estudio, cúcuta, colombia diseño de envolventes arquitectónicas paramétricas diseño de un sistema de emulación de movimiento robotizado de mano de bajo costo diseño de un sistema de medición de material particulado mediante un vehículo aéreo no tripulado diseño de un sistema de percepción del impacto de choques mecánicos y golpes en el cerebro dureza de recubrimientos de si-ti-zr fabricados por la técnica de sol-gel sobre sustratos de aluminio aa2024-t3 efecto del número de reynolds sobre la relación de coeficientes aerodinámicos de un aerogenerador sin aspas amplificador electrónico portátil con energía solar para el análisis de la variabilidad de la frecuencia cardiaca en campo estimación de la radiación solar utilizando redes de neuronas artificiales autoreparación del concreto y el impacto en el futuro de las construcciones evaluation of the use of biomaterials for the manufacture of biodegradable films alternatives for critical points of vehicular accident according to statistical analysis estudio de patología para la rehabilitación del teatro juan atalaya en san josé de cúcuta, colombia estudio de seguridad vial mediante la implementación de comparendos por medios técnicos y tecnológicos en la autopista san antonio, villa del rosario, colombia evaluación estimada de derrames de crudo ocasionados por acciones subversivas al oleoducto caño limón coveñas experiencias significativas en los procesos de movilidad académica en un programa de ingeniería industrial factores de riesgo de la desercion estudiantil del programa de ingenieria industrial en una universidad publica gerencia creativa para el desarrollo del marketing social gestión del riesgo frente a movimientos telúricos en construcción de edificaciones en san josé de cúcuta impacto socioeconómico y nivel de emprendimiento en los graduados de un programa de ingeniería industrial la educación inclusiva y las tecnologías en las prácticas pedagógicas medición de parámetros en líneas de transmisión con sistemas embebidos metodología del cálculo de la exergía en la chimenea de una caldera pirotubular de 10bhp metodología para la selección de perfiles aerodinámicos de aerogeneradores a bajo número de reynolds microstructure and morphology of wc-18co coatings obtained by thermal spray by flame modelo de simulación de eventos discretos, para mejorar los tiempos de espera en los servicios de urgencias de un hospital público modelo matematico de un intercambiador de calor tipo tubo y coraza pbx ip como herramienta de integración de servicios de comunicaciones para la ufps basado en las mejores prácticas de itil percepción empresarial del impacto de los trabajos de grado desarrollados por un programa de ingeniería industrial en el área metropolitana de cúcuta plataforma web para la gestión de protección y adopción de animales en condición de calle en la ciudad de cúcuta y su área metropolitana predicción del precio del petróleo mediante redes de neuronas artificiales propuesta de mejoramiento de las zonas de estacionamiento vehicular y de motos de la ufps cúcuta empleando simulación prototipo para control de asistencia académica de manera remota con tecnología rfid resistencia a la compresion de concretos con adicion parcial de polietileno de alta densidad simulación bidimensional del flujo de aire sobre un perfil aerodinámico sg6043 a bajos números de reynolds mediante la simulación computacional simulación de un alabe de aerogenerador para bajas potencias y velocidades software de registro de asistencia usando mecanismos de hardware libre con comunicación nfc "agile sheduling" generación automática de la planificación de la entrega "release planing" asignación de historias de usuario a los desarrolladores usando algoritmos genéticos la tecnología una alternativa creativa en el proceso enseñanza- aprendizaje en los deportes sobre ruedas caracterización espectroscópica y fisicoquímica de la gulupa passiflora edulis sims de la provincia de pamplona, norte de santander asociación entre el conocimiento de los factores de riesgo y las condiciones de salud vocal en docentes universitarios ansiedad, depresión y autoconcepto en mujeres diagnósticadas con cáncer de mama autoconcepto en adolescentes una mirada desde la migración - ii semestre de 2018 y i semestre de 2019 estilos de vida en jóvenes estudiantes de fisioterapia de dos universidades de bucaramanga, colombia diseño y aplicación de un programa de intervención en seguridad y salud en el trabajo, basado en los factores de riesgos laborales, en salones de belleza / peluquerías de cúcuta 2019 impacto del programa cuidado de enfermería a las puérperas y su recién nacido egresados de una institución de salud del municipio de cúcuta decálogo de seguridad vial para la disminución de los riesgo en los usuarios viales en una empresa ubicada en la intervención pedagógica mediada por las tics en la enseñanza y el aprendizaje del cuidado de personas con enfermedad crónica cuidado humanizado de enfermería desde la experiencia de los pacientes: metasíntesis en búsqueda de la humanización de la unidad de cuidados intensivos nivel de conocimiento sobre sífilis gestacional en mujeres gestantes que asisten a la unidad básica de comuneros, en el segundo trimestre del año 2019 la espiritualidad de los cuidadores en el contexto de la alta complejidad memoria histórica en los trabajadores de salud en la zona del catatumbo, un abordaje desde la bioética para la deliberación descripción del uso tradicional de plantas medicinales en el mercado del municipio de sardinata, norte de santander prevalencia de molestias osteomusculares y calidad de vida laboral en el personal de enfermería de un centro quirúrgico de la ciudad de cúcuta en el primer semestre de 2019 perfil cognitivo de los pacientes con trastorno afectivo bipolar activo y en remisión en el hospital mental rudesindo soto en el segundo trimestre del 2019 perspectiva del cuidador entrenado en pacientes con enfermedad renal cronica desde tres dimensiones estado serológico igg e igm frente a toxoplasma gondii y factores de riesgo relacionados, en gestantes de primer trimestre atendidas instituciones de salud de cúcuta, colombia análisis dimensional del riesgo percibido por la exposición a radiaciones ionizantes del activo intangible del sector salud ; International scientific commiteeI Prof. Ricardo Santiago Puca Molina Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia Austral, Argentina Prof. William J. Ugarte Guevara Universidad de Uppsala, Suecia Prof. Antoni Bosch Pujol Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, España Prof. Libardo Flórez Villamizar Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador, Venezuela Prof. Jimmy Jefferson Túllume Salazar Gerente General - ICACIT / Coordinador IEEE YP Region 9, Perú Prof. Maura Olivia García Pineda Universidad Tecnológica de Querétaro, México Prof. Carlos Humberto Sierra Becerra Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, México Prof. Ramona Moliné Escanilla Institute of Audit and IT-Governance Prof. Anderson Sandoval Amador Universidad Nacional del centro de la provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina Prof. Ely Dannier V. Niño Basque Center on Materials, Applications and Nanostructures (BCMaterials), Leioa, Spain; Fundation of Researchers in Science and Technology of Materials, Colombia. ; National scientific commitee Prof. Octavio Andrés González Estrada Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga Prof. Fredy Humberto Vera Rivera Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander, San José de Cúcuta Prof. Oscar Javier Rodríguez Riveros IEEE Colombia / Universidad de San Buenaventura, Bogotá D.C. Prof. Elkín Gélvez Almeida Universidad Simón Bolívar, San José de Cúcuta Prof. José José Barba Ortega Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá D.C. Prof. Hugo Fernando Castro Silva Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, Tunja Prof. Nelson Afanador García Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander seccional Ocaña ; Organizing commitee Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander- UFPS Jhan Piero Rojas Suarez Olga Marina Vega Angarita Judith Del Pilar Rodriguez Tenjo Liliana Marcela Bastos Osorio Nydia María Rincón Villamizar Mawency Vergel Ortega Edwin Alberto Murillo Ruiz Giovanni Mauricio Baez Sandoval Gloria Esperanza Zambrano Plata Jessica Lorena Leal Pabón Marling Carolina Cordero Díaz Andrea Cacique Dixon Alirio García Carrillo Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander - Seccional Ocaña Torcoroma Velasquez Perez Ana Melissa Rodríguez Chinchilla Lady Sánchez Jácome Nelson Fernando Gaona Díaz Didier Camilo Gaona Sánchez ; 6th ed
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Timothy Mitchell on Infra-Theory, the State Effect, and the Technopolitics of Oil
This is the first in a series of Talks dedicated to the technopolitics of International Relations, linked to the forthcoming double volume 'The Global Politics of Science and Technology' edited by Maximilian Mayer, Mariana Carpes, and Ruth Knoblich
The unrest in the Arab world put the region firmly in the spotlights of IR. Where many scholars focus on the conflicts in relation to democratization as a local or regional dynamic, political events there do not stand in isolation from broader international relations or other—for instance economic—concerns. Among the scholars who has insisted on such broader linkages and associations that co-constitute political dynamics in the region, Timothy Mitchell stands out. The work of Mitchell has largely focused on highly specific aspects of politics and development in Egypt and the broader Middle East, such as the relations between the building of the Aswan Dam and redistribution of expertise, and the way in which the differences between coal and oil condition democratic politics. His consistently nuanced and enticing analyses have gained him a wide readership, and Mitchell's analyses powerfully resonate across qualitative politically oriented social sciences. In this Talk, Timothy Mitchell discusses, amongst others, the birth of 'the economy' as a powerful modern political phenomenon, how we can understand the state as an effect rather than an actor, and the importance of taking technicalities seriously to understand the politics of oil.
Print version of this Talk (pdf)
What is, according to you, the biggest challenge / principal debate in current globally oriented studies? What is your position or answer to this challenge / in this debate?
I'm not myself interested in, or good at, big debates, the kinds of debates that define and drive forward an academic field. The reason for that is partly that once a topic has become a debate, it has tended to have sort of hardened into a field, in which there are two or three positions, and as a scholar you have to take one of those positions. In the days when I was first trained in Political Science and studied International Relations, that was so much my sense of the field and indeed of the whole discipline of political science. This is part of one's initially training in any field: it is laid out as a serious debate. I found this something I just could not deal with; I did not find it intellectually interesting which I think sort of stayed with me all the way through to where I am now. So although big debates are important for a certain defining and sustaining of academic fields and training new generations of students, it is not the kind of way in which I myself have tended to work. I have tended to work by moving away from what the big debates have been in a particular moment. My academic interests always started when I found something curious that interests me and that I try to begin to see in a different way.
However, I suppose with my most recent book Carbon Democracy (2011), in a sense there was a big debate going on, which was the debate about the resource curse and oil democracy. That was an old debate going back to the 70's, but had been reinvigorated by the Iraq war in 2003. But that to me is an example of the problem with big debates, because the terms in which that debate was argued back and forth—and is still argued—did not seem to make sense as a way to understand the role of energy in 20th century democratic politics. Was oil good for democracy or bad for democracy? The existing debate began with those as two different things—as a dependent or independent variable—so you would already determine things in advance that I would have wanted to open up. In general I'm not a good person for figuring out what the big debates are.
But I think, moving from International Relations as a field to 'globally oriented studies', to use your phrase, one of the biggest challenges—just on an academic level, leaving aside challenges that we face as a global community—is to learn to develop ways of seeing even what seem like the most global and most international issues, as things that are very local. Part of the problem with fields such as 'global studies', the term 'globalization', and other terms of that sort, is that they tend to define their objects of study in opposition to the local, in opposition to even national-level modes of analysis. By consequence, they assume that the actors or the forces that they're going to study must themselves be in some sense global, because that is the premise of the field. So whether it is nation states acting as world powers; whether it is capitalism understood as a global system—they have to exist on this plane of the global, on some sort of universal level, to be topics of IR and global studies. And yet, on close inspection, most of the concerns or actors central to those modes of inquiry tend to operate on quite local levels; they tend to be made up of very small agents, very particular arrangements that somehow have managed to put themselves together in ways that allow them take on this appearance and sometimes this effectiveness of things that are global. I'm very interested in taking things apart that are local, on a particular level, to understand what it is that enables such small things, such local and particular agents, to act in a way that creates the appearance of the global or the international world.
Now this relates back to the second part of your question, about substantive concerns that we face as a global community. When I was writing Carbon Democracy there was all this attention on the problem of 'creating a more democratic Middle East', as it was understood at the time of the Iraq war. It struck me that when debating this problem—of oil and democracy, of energy and democracy—we saw it as somehow specific to these countries and to the part of the world where many countries were very large-scale energy producers. We were not thinking about the fact that we are all in a sense caught up in this problem that I call carbon democracy, and that there are issues—whether it is in terms of the increasing difficulty of extracting energy from the earth, or the consequences of having extracted the carbon and put it up in the atmosphere—that we, as democracies, are very, very challenged by. Those issues—and I think in particular the concerns around climate change—when you look at them from the perspective of U.S. politics, and the inability of the U.S. even to take the relatively minor steps that other industrialized democracies have taken: this inaction suggests a larger problem of oil and democracy that needs explaining and understanding and working on and organizing about. I also think there is a whole range of contemporary issues related to energy production and consumption that revolve around the building of more egalitarian and more socially just worlds. And, again, those issues present themselves very powerfully as concerns in American politics, but are experienced in other ways in other parts of the world. I would not single out any one of them as more urgent or important than another, and I do think we still have a long struggle ahead of us here.
How did you arrive at where you currently are in your approach to issues?
Well, I had a strange training as a scholar because I kept shifting fields. I actually began as a student of law and then moved into history while I was still an undergraduate, but then became interested in political theory; decided that I liked it better than political science. But by the time I arrived in political science to study for a PhD, I had become interested in politics of the Middle East. This was partly from just travelling there when I was a student growing up in England, but I also suppose in some ways the events of the seventies had really drawn attention to the region. So the first important thing that shaped me was this constant shifting of fields and disciplines, which was not to me a problem—it was rather that there was a kind of intellectual curiosity that drove me from academic field to field. And so if there was one thing that helped me arrive at where I am, it was this constant moving outside of the boundaries of one discipline and trespassing on the next one—trying to do it for long enough that they started to accept me as someone who they could debate with. And I think all along that has been important to the kind of scholarship I do; yet therefore I would say where I currently am in my thinking about my field is difficult in itself to define. But I think it is probably defined by the sense that there are many, many fields—and it is moving across them and trying to do justice to the scholarship in them, but at the same time trying to connect insights from one field with what one can do in another field. I have always tried to draw things together in that sense, a sense that one can call an interdisciplinary or post-disciplinary sensitivity.
I think the other part of what has shaped me intellectually was that, in ways I explained before, I was always drawn into the local and the particular and the specific and I was never very good at thinking at that certain level of large-scale grand theory. So having found myself in the field of Middle Eastern politics in a PhD-program, and being told that it involves studying Arabic which I was very glad to do, I then went off to spend summers in the Arab world, and later over more extended periods of time for field research. But to me, Egypt and other places I've worked—but principally Egypt—became not just a field site, but a place where I have now been going for more than 30 years and where I have developed very close ties and intellectual relationships, friendships, that I think have constantly shaped and reshaped my thinking. And even when I am reading about things that are not specifically related to Egypt—the work I do on the history of economics, or the work I have done on oil politics that are not directly connected with my research on Egypt—I am often thinking in relation to places and people and communities there that have profoundly shaped me as a scholar.
So traveling across different contexts I'd say I have not developed a kind of set of theoretical lenses I take with me. Rather, I would say I have developed a way of seeing—I would not necessarily call it 'meta', I see it as much more as sort of 'infra': much more mundane and everyday. While I have this sort of intellectual history of moving across disciplines and social sciences in an academic way, there is another sort of moving across fields, another sensibility, and that sensibility provides me with a sense of rootedness or grounding. And that is a more traditional way of moving across fields, because whether when one is writing about contemporary politics or more historically about politics, one is dealing constantly with areas of technical concern of one sort or another, with specialist knowledge. Engaging with that expert knowledge has always provided both a political grounding in specific concerns and with a kind of concern with local, real-world, struggles on the ground. So that might have been things like the transformation of irrigation in nineteenth-century Egypt, or the remaking of the system of law; or it might be the history of malaria epidemics in the twentieth century, or the relationship between those epidemics and transformations taking place in the crops that were grown; or, more recently—and more obviously—of oil and the history of energy, and the way different forms of energy are brought out of the ground. And I should mention beside those areas of technical expertise already listed, economics as well: a discipline I was never trained in, but that I realized I had to understand if I was to make sense of contemporary Egyptian politics—just as much as I had to understand agricultural hydraulics or something of the petroleum geology as a form of technical expertise that is shaping the common world.
In sum, what keeps me grounded is the idea that to really make sense of the politics of any of those fields, one has got to do one's best to sort of enter and explore the more technical level—with the closest attention that one can muster to the technical and the material dimensions of what is involved—whether it is in agricultural irrigation, building dams or combating disease. And entering this level of issues does not only mean interviewing experts but arriving at the level of understanding the disease, the parasite, the modes of its movement, the hydraulics of the river, the properties of different kinds of oil... So as you can see it is not really 'meta', it really is 'infra' in the anthropological way of staying close to the ground, staying close to processes and things and materials.
What would a student need to become a specialist in IR or understand the world in a global way?
A couple of things. I think one is precisely the thing I just mentioned in answer to your last question: that is, the kind of interest in going inside technical processes, learning about material objects, not being afraid of taking up an investigation of something that is a body of knowledge totally outside one's area of training and expertise. So, if I was advising someone or looking for a student, I would not say there is a particular skill or expertise, but rather a willingness to really get one's hands dirty with the messy technical details of an area—and that can be an area of specialist knowledge such as economics, but also technical and physical processes of, for instance, mineral extraction. I think to me this is—for the kind of work I am interested in doing—enormously important.
The other thing that I would stress in the area of globally-oriented studies, is that one could think of two ways of approaching a field of study. One is to move around the world and gather together information, often with a notion of improving things, such as development work, human rights work, international security work. This entails gathering from one's own research and from other experts in the field, with a certain notion of best practices and the state of field, and of what works, and therefore what can then be moved from one place to another as a form of expert knowledge. Some people really want that mobile knowledge, which I suppose is often associated with the ability to generalize from a particular case and to establish more universal principles about whatever the topic is. And in this case one's own expertise becomes the carrying or transmission of that expert knowledge. One saw a lot of that around the whole issue of democratization that I mentioned before in the Middle East, around the Iraq war when experts were brought in. They had done democracy elsewhere in the world and then they turned up to do it in Iraq, and again following the Arab Spring.
Against that, to me, there is another mode of learning, which is not to learn about what is happening but to learn from. So to give the example, if there is an uprising and a struggle for democracy going on in the streets of Cairo, one could try and learn about that and then make it fit one's models and classify it within a broader range of series of democratizations across the world, or one could try and learn from it, and say 'how do we rethink what the possibilities of democracy might be on the basis of what is happening?' To me those are two distinct modes of work. They are not completely mutually exclusive, but I think people are more disposed towards one or the other. I have never been disposed, or good at, the first kind and do like the second, so I would mention that as the second skill or attitude that is useful for doing this sort of work.
In which discipline or field would you situate yourself, or would we have to invent a discipline to match your work?
I like disciplines, but I do not always feel that I entirely belong to any of them. That said, I read with enormous profit the works of historians, political theorist, anthropologists, of people in the field of science and technology studies, geographers, political economists and scholars in environmental studies. There are so many different disciplines that are well organized and have their practitioners from which there is a lot to learn! But conversely, I also think, in ways I have described already, there is something to be learnt for some people from working in a much more deliberately post-disciplinary fashion. The Middle East, South Asian and African Studies department to which I have been attached here in Columbia for about five years, represents a deliberate attempt by myself and my colleagues to produce some kind of post-disciplinary space. Not in order to do away with the disciplines, but to have another place for doing theoretical work, one that is able to take advantage of not being bound by disciplinary fields, as even broad disciplines—say history—tend to restrict you with a kind of positive liberty of creating a place where you can do anything you want—as long as you do it in an archive. I quite deliberately situate myself outside of any one discipline, while continuing to learn from and trespass into the fields of many individual disciplines. They range from all of those and others, because I am here among a community of people who are also philologists; people interested in Arabic literature and the history of Islamic science; and all kinds of fields, which I also find fascinating. The first article I ever published was in the field of Arabic grammar! So I have interests that fit in a very sort of trans-disciplinary, post-disciplinary environment and I thrive on that.
Yet doing this kind of post-disciplinary work is in a practical sense actually absolutely impossible. If only for the simple fact that if it is already hardly possible to keep up with 'the literature' if one is firmly situated within one field, then one can never keep up with important developments in all the disciplines one is interested in. There are some people that manage to do this and do it justice. My information about contemporary debates in every imaginable field is so limited; I do not manage to do justice to any field. In the particular piece of research I might be engaged in, I try to get quickly up to pace on what's going on, and I often come back again and again to similar areas of research. I am currently interested in questions around the early history of international development in the 1940's and 1950's, and that is something I have worked on before, but I have come back to it and I found that the World Bank archives are now open and there is a whole new set of literatures. I had not been keeping up with all of that work. It is hard and that is why I am very bad at answering emails and doing many of the other everyday things that one is ought to do; because it always seems to me, in the evening at the computer when one ought to be catching up with emails, there is something you have come across in an article or footnotes and before you know it you are miles away and it has got nothing to do with what you were working on at the moment, but it really connects with a set of issues you have been interested in and has taken you off into contemporary work going on in law or the history of architecture… The internet has made that possible in a completely new way and some of these post-disciplinary research interests are actually a reflection of where we are with the internet and with the accessibility of scholarship in any field only just a few clicks away. Which on the one hand is fascinating, but mostly it is just a complete curse. It is the enemy of writing dissertations and finishing books and articles and everything else!
What role does expertise, which is kind of a central term in underpinning much of the diverse work or topics you do, play in the historical unfolding of modern government?
That is a big question, so let me suggest only a couple of thoughts here. One is that modern government has unfolded—especially if one thinks of government itself as a wider process than just a state—through the development of new forms of expertise, which among other things define problems and issues upon which government can operate. This can concern many things, whether it is problems of public health in the 19th or 20th century; or problems of economic development in the 20th century; or problems of energy, climate change and the environment today. Again and again government itself operates—as Foucault has taught us—simultaneously as fields of knowledge and fields of power. And the objects brought into being in this way—defined in important ways through the development of expert knowledge—become in themselves modes through which political power operates. Thanks to Foucault and many others, that is a way of thinking or field of research that has been widely developed, even though there are vast amounts of work still to do.
But I think there is another relationship between modes of government and expertise, and this goes back to things I have been thinking about ever since I wrote an article about the theory of the state (The Limits of the State, pdf here) that was published in American Political Science Review a long time ago (1991). The point I made then, is that it is interesting to observe how one of the central aspects of modern modes of power is the way that the distinction between what is the state and what is not the state; between what is public and what is private, is constantly elaborated and redefined. So politics itself is happening not so much by some agency called 'state' or 'government' imposing its will on some other preformed object—the social, the population, the people—but rather that it concerns a series of techniques that create what I have called the effect of a state: the very distinction between what appears as a sort of structure or apparatus of power, and the objects on which that power works.
More recently one of the ways I have thought about this, is in terms of the history of the idea of the economy. Most people think of 'the economy' either as something that has always existed (and people may or may not have realized its existence) or as something that came into being with the rise of political economy and commercial society in the European 18th and 19th century. One of the things I discovered when I was doing research on the history of development, is that no economist talked routinely about an object called 'the economy' before the 1940's! I think that is a good example of the history of a mode of expertise that exists not within the operations of an apparatus of government but precisely outside of government.
If you look in detail at how the term 'the economy' was first regularly used, you find that it was in the context of governing the U.S. in the 1940's immediately after the Second World War. In the aftermath of the war there was enormous political pressure for quite a radical restructuring of American society: there were waves of strikes, demands for worker control of industries, or at least a share of management. And of course in Europe, similar demands led to new forms of economy altogether, in the building of postwar Germany and in the forms of democratic socialism that were experimented with in various parts of Western Europe. As we know, the U.S. did not follow that path. And I think part of the way in which it was steered away from that path, was by constructing the economy as the central object of government, coupled with precisely this American cultural fear of things where government did not belong. So this was radically opposed to how the Europeans related government to economy: European governments had become involved in all kinds of ways, deciding how the relation between management and labor should operate in thinking about prices and wages; instituting forms of national health insurance and health care; and the whole state management of health care itself... Now this was threatening to emerge in the U.S., and was emerging in many ways in the wartime with state control of prices and production. In order to prevent the U.S. from following the European path after the war, this object outside of government with its own experts was created: the economy. And the economists were precisely people who are not in government, but who knew the laws and regularities of economic life and could explain them to people. It is interesting to think about expertise both as something that develops within the state, but also as something that happens as a creation of objects that precisely represent what is not the state, or the sphere of government.
Your most recent book Carbon Democracy (2011) focuses on the political structures afforded, or engendered, by modes of extraction of minerals and investigates how oil was constitutes a dominant source of energy on which we depend. Can you give an example of how that works?
Let me take an example from the book even though I might have to give it in very a simplified form in order to make it work. I was interested in what appeared to be the way in which the rise of coal—the dominant source of energy in the 19th century and in the emergence of modern industrialized states—seemed to be very strongly associated with the emergence of mass democracy, whereas the rise of oil in the 20th century seemed to have if anything the opposite set of consequences for states that were highly dependent on the production of oil. I wanted to examine these relations between forms of energy and democratic politics in a way that was not simply some kind of technical- or energy determinism, because it is very easy to point to many cases that simply do not fit that pattern—and, besides, it simply would not be very interesting to begin with. But it did seem to me, that at a particular moment in the history of the emergence of industrialized countries—particularly in the late 19th century—it became possible for the first time in history and really only for a brief period, to take advantage of certain kinds of vulnerabilities and possibilities offered by the dependence on coal to organize a new kind of political agency and forms of mass politics, which successfully struggled for much more representative and egalitarian forms of democracy, roughly between the 1880's and the mid 20th century. In general terms, that story is known; but it had been told without thinking in particular about the energy itself. The energy was just present in these stories as that which made possible industrialization; industrialization made possible urbanization; therefore you had lots of workers and their consciousness must somehow have changed and made them democratic or something.
That story did not make sense to me, and that prompted me to research in detail, and drawing on the work of others who had looked even more in detail at, the history of struggles for a whole set of democratic rights. The accounts of people at the time were clear: what was distinctive was this peculiar ability to shut down an economy because of a specific vulnerability to the supply of energy. Very briefly, when I switched to telling the story in the middle of the 20th with oil, it is different: partly just because oil was a supplementary source of energy—countries and people now had a choice between different energy sources—but also because oil did not create the same points of vulnerability. There are fewer workers involved, it is a liquid, so it can be routed along different channels more easily; there is a whole set of technical properties of oil and its production that are different. That does not mean to say that the energy is determining the outcome of history or of political struggles, and I am careful to introduce examples that do not work easily one way or the other in the history of oil industry in Baku, which is much more similar to the history of coal or the oil industry in California for that matter. But you can pay attention to the technical dimensions in a certain way, and the to the sheer possibilities that arise with this enormous concentration of sources of energy—which reflects both an exponential increase in the amount of energy but also an unprecedented concentration of the sites at which energy is available and through which it flows—that you can tell a new story about democratic politics and about that moment in the history of industrialized countries, but also the subsequent history in oil-producing countries in a different way. That would be an example of how attention for technical expertise translates into a different understanding of the politics of oil.
This leads to my next question, which is how do you speak about materials or technologies without falling into the trap of either radical social reductionism or a kind of Marxist technological determinism? Do you get these accusations sometimes?
Yes, I think so, but more so from people who have not read my work and who just hear some talks about it or some secondary accounts. To me, so much of the literature that already existed on these questions around oil and democracy, or even earlier research on coal, industrialization and democracy, suffered from a kind of technical determinism because they actually did not go into the technical. They said: 'look, you've got all this oil' or 'look, you had all that coal and steam power' and out of that, in a very determinist fashion, emerged social movements or emerged political repression. This was determinist because such accounts had actually jumped over the technical side much too fast: talking about oil in the case of the resource curse literature, it was only interested in the oil once it had already become money. And once it was money, then it of course corrupts, or you buy people off, or you do not have to seek their votes. The whole question of how oil becomes money and how you put together that technical system that turns oil into forms of political power or turns coal into forms of political power, does not get opened up. And that to me makes those arguments—even though there is not much of the technical in them—technically very determinist. Because as soon as you start opening up the technical side of it, you realize there are so many ways things can go and so many different ways things can get built. Energy networks can be built in different ways and there can be different mixes of energy. Of course most of the differences are technical differences, but they are also human differences. It is precisely by being very attentive to the technical aspects of politics—like energy or anything else, it could be in agriculture, it could be in disease, it could be in any area of collective socio-technical life—that one finds the only way to get away from a certain kind of technical determinism that otherwise sort of rules us. In the economics of growth, for instance, there is this great externality of technological change that drives every sort of grand historical explanation. Technology is just something that is kept external to the explanatory model and accounts for everything else that the model cannot explain. That ends up being a terrible kind of technical determinism.
The other half of the question is how this might differ from Marxist approaches to some of these problems. I like to think that if Marx was studying oil, his approach would be very little different. Because if you read Marx himself, there is an extraordinary level of interest in the technical; that is, whether in the technical aspects of political economy as a field of knowledge in the 19th century, or in the factory as a technical space. So, conventional political economy to him was not just an ideological mask that had to be torn away so that you could reveal the true workings of capitalism. Political economy has produced a set of concepts—notions of value, notions of exchange, notions of labor—that actually formed part of the technical workings of capitalism. The factory was organized at a technical level that had very specific consequences. The trouble with a significant part of Marx's theories is that he stopped doing that kind of technical work and Marxism froze itself with a set of categories that may or may not have been relevant to a moment of 19th century capitalism. There is still a lot of interesting Marxist theory going on, and some of the contemporary Italian Marxist theory I find really interesting and profitable to read, for example. Some of the work in Marxist geography continues to be very productive. But at the same time there are aspects of my work that are different from that—such as my drawing on Foucault in understanding expertise and modes of power.
How come so many of the social sciences seem to stick so rigidly to the human or social side of the Cartesian divide? It seems to be constitutive of social science disciplines but on the other hand also radically reduces the scope of what it can actually 'see' and talk about.
I think you are right and it has never made much sense to me. I suppose I have approached it in two kinds of ways in my work. First, this kind of dualism was much more clearly an object of concern in some of the early work I published on the colonial era, including my first book, Colonising Egypt (1988), where I was trying to understand the process by which Europeans had, as it were, come to be Cartesians; had come to see the world as very neatly defined it into mind on the one hand and matter or on the other—or, as they tended to think of it, representations on the one hand and reality on the other. And I actually looked in some detail, at the technical level, at this—beginning with world exhibitions, but moving on to department stores and school systems and modern legal orders—to understand the processes by which our incredibly complicated world was engineered so as to produce the effect of this world divided into the two—of mind or representation or culture on the one hand, and reality, nature, material on the other.
Second, what were the effects, what were the repetitive practices, that made that kind of simple dualism seem so self-evident and taken for granted? All that early work still informs my current work, although I do not necessarily explore this as directly as I did. One of the things I try to do is avoid all the vocabulary that draws you into that kind of dualism. So, nowhere when I write, do I use a term like 'culture', because you are just heading straight down that Cartesian road as soon as you assume that there is some hermetic world of shared meanings—as opposed to what? As opposed to machines that do not involve instructions and all kinds of other things that we would think of as meaningful? So I just work more by avoiding some of the dualistic language; the other kind would be the entire set of debates—in almost every discipline of the social sciences—around the question of 'structure versus agency' which just doesn't seems to me particularly productive. And I have been very lucky, recently, in coming across work in the fields of science and technology studies, because it is a field of people studying machines, studying laboratories and studying people, a field that took nature itself as something to be opened-up and investigated. In taking apart these things, they realized that those kinds of dualisms made absolutely no sense. And they have done away with them in their modes of explanation quite a long time ago. So there was already a lot in my own work before I encountered Science and Technology Studies (STS) that was working in that direction; but the STS people have been at it for a long time and figured out a lot of things that I had only just discovered.
Can you explain why it seems that perhaps implicitly decolonization, or the postcolonial moment—which is understood within political science and in development literature as a radical moment of rupture in which a complete transfer of responsibility has taken place, instituted in sovereignty—is an important theme in your work?
I have actually been coming back to this in recent work, because I am currently looking again at that moment of decolonization in Egypt. The period after World War II, around the 1952 revolution and the debacle around the building and the financing of the Aswan Dam, constitutes a wonderful way to explore questions on how much change decolonization really engendered and to see how remarkably short-lived that sort of optimism about decolonization, meaning a transfer of responsibility and sovereignty, actually was. Of course decolonization did transfer responsibility and sovereignty in all kinds of ways, but then that was exactly the problem for the former colonial regimes: because, from their perspective, then, how were all the people who had profited before from things like colonialism to continue to make profits? The plan to build the High Dam at Aswan—although there has always been Egyptians interested in it—initially got going because of some German engineering firms… For them, there was no opportunity in doing any kind of this large-scale work in Europe at the time because of the dire economic situation there. But they knew that Egypt had rapidly growing revenues from the Suez Canal and so they got together with the British and the French, and said: let's put forward this scheme for a dam so that we can recycle those revenues—particularly the income from the Suez Canal, which was about to revert to Egyptian ownership—back into the pockets of the engineering firms, or of the banks that will make the loans and charge the fees. And that is where the scheme came from. Then the World Bank got involved, because it too had found it had got nothing to do in Europe in the way of development and reconstruction, so it invented this new field of development. And it became a conduit to get the Wall Street banks involved as well. And the whole thing became politicized and led to a rupture, which provided then the excuse for another group, the militarists, the MI6 people, to invade and try to overthrow Nasser. So just in the space of barely four years from that moment of decolonization, Egypt had been reinvaded by the French, the British, working with the Israelis, and had to deal with the consequences and the costs of destroyed cities and military spending. That is an example of how quickly things went wrong; but also of how part of their going wrong was in this desperate attempt by a series of European banks and engineering firms trying to recover the opportunities for a certain profit-making and business that they had enjoyed in the colonial period and now they suddenly were being deprived of.
Last question. Has your work helped you make sense of what is currently going on in Egypt and would you shine your enlightened light on that a bit? Not on the whole general situation but perhaps on parts which are overlooked or which you find particularly relevant.
May be in a couple of aspects. One of them is this kind of very uneasy and disjunctive assemblage relationship between the West and forms of political Islam. It sometimes seemed shocking and disturbing and destabilizing that the political process in Egypt led to the rise and consolidation of power of the Muslim Brotherhood. But of course the U.S. and other Western powers have had a very long relationship going back at least to the 1950's—if not before—with exactly these kinds of political forces or people who were locally in alliance with them, in places like Saudi Arabia. I have a chapter in Carbon Democracy that explores that relationship and its disjunctions. And I think it is important to get away from the notion that is just a sort of electoral politics and uneasy alliances, but it is actually the outcome of a longer problem. Both domestically within the politics in the Arab states, of how to found a form of legitimacy that does not seem to be based on close ideological ties with the West, but at the same time operates in such in a way, that in practical terms, that kind of alliance can work. So that would be one aspect of it, to have a slightly longer-term perspective on those kinds of relationships and how disjunctively they function.
The other thing, drawing it a little more directly on some of the work on democracy in Carbon Democracy, is that so much of the scholarship on democracy is about equipping people with the right mental tools to be democrats; the right levels of trust or interpersonal relations or whatever. There is a very different view in my book, that the opportunities for effective democratic politics require very different sets of skills and kinds of actions—actions that are much more as it were obstructionist, and forms of sabotage, quite literally, in the usage of the term as it comes into being in the early 20th century to describe the role of strikes and stoppages. These are, I attempt to show, the effective tools to leverage demands for representation in more egalitarian democratic politics. I have been very interested in the case of Egypt, in the particular places and points of vulnerability, that gave rise to the possibility of sabotage. For instance, one of the less noted aspects of the Egyptian revolution in general, was the very important role played by the labor movement; this was not just a Twitter or Facebook revolution, but that was important as well. Although the labor movement was very heavily concentrated in industries—in the textile industry—the first group of workers who actually successfully formed an independent union were the property tax collectors. And there is a reason for that: there was a certain kind of fiscal crisis of the state—which had to do with declining oil revenues and other things—and there was the attempt to completely revise the tax system and to revise it not around income tax—because there were too few people making a significant income to raise tax revenues—but around property taxes. And that was a point of vulnerability and contestation that produced not just some of the first large-scale strikes but strikes that were effective enough that the government was forced to recognize a newly independent labor movement. This case is an instance of how the kind of work I did in the book might be useful for thinking about how the revolutionary situation emerged in Egypt.
Timothy Mitchell is a political theorist and historian. His areas of research include the place of colonialism in the making of modernity, the material and technical politics of the Middle East, and the role of economics and other forms of expert knowledge in the government of collective life. Much of his current work is concerned with ways of thinking about politics that allow material and technical things more weight than they are given in conventional political theory. Educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he received a first-class honours degree in History, Mitchell completed his Ph.D. in Politics and Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University in 1984. He joined Columbia University in 2008 after teaching for twenty-five years at New York University, where he served as Director of the Center for Near Eastern Studies. At Columbia he teaches courses on the history and politics of the Middle East, colonialism, and the politics of technical things.
Related links:
Faculty Profile at Colombia University Read Mitchell's Rethinking Economy (Geoforum 2008) here (pdf) Read Mitchell's The Limits of the State: Beyond Statist Approaches and Their Critics (The American Political Science Review 1991) here (pdf) Read Mitchell's McJihad: Islam and the U.S. Global Order (Social Text 2002) here (pdf) Read Mitchell's The Stage of Modernity (Chapter from book 'Questions of Modernity', 2000) here (pdf) Read Mitchell's The World as Exhibition (Chapter from book 'Colonising Egypt' 1991) here (pdf)
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bhimanahalli-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 369 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 320 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 49 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 3 soil series and 3 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. Entire area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm). Entire area in the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface. Entire area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands. Entire area in the microwatershed is moderately (e2) eroded. An area of about 78 per cent soils are slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4) in soil reaction and about 9 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (8.4 - 9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the microwatershed is non saline (0.75). About 31 per cent area is low in available phosphorus, 52 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 4 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha). About 337 kg/ha). Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in an area of about 20 ppm) in 87 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 47 per cent area. Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 83 per cent area and deficient in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 74 per cent area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 320(87) - Sapota - - Maize - 320(87) Pomegranate - 320(87) Bajra - 320(87) Musambi 78(21) 242(66) Groundnut - - Lime 78(21) 242(66) Sunflower 78(21) 242(66) Amla 242(66) 78(21) Redgram - 204(55) Cashew - - Bengal gram 320 (87) - Jackfruit - - Cotton 320(87) - Jamun - 320(87) Chilli - 320 (87) Custard apple 320(87) - Tomato 78(21) - Tamarind - 320(87) Drumstick - 320(87) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 320(87) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 320(87) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SILENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The results indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Bhimanahalli-1 microwatershed among them 7 (20%) were marginal farmers, 9 (25.71%) were small farmers, 7 (20%) were semi medium farmers, 6 (17.14%) was medium farmers and 1 (2.86%) were large farmers. Apart from these 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The data indicated that there were 95 (61.69%) men and 59 (38.31%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of marginal farmers was 4, small farmer was 4, semi medium farmer was 4, medium farmers were 5, large farmers were 5 and for landless farmers it was 4. The data indicated that 24 (15.58%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 46 (46.10%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (32.47 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 9 (5.84%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that the Bhimanahalli-1had 43.51 per cent illiterates, 16.88 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.79 per cent of them had middle school education, 15.58 per cent of them had high school education, 7.14 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.65 per cent of them had ITI and 3.90 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 11.43 per cent of the household heads were general labours labourers and 5.71 per cent were in private services. The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 61.04 per cent of the household members, 6.49 per cent were general labours, 1.30 per cent of them were in private sector, 17.53 per cent of them were students and 9.09 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 55.56 per cent were agricultural general labour, 5.56 per cent were in private service and 22.22 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 89.66 per cent were agriculturist and 3.45 percent were in private sector, students and house wife respectively. In case of small farmers, 61.54 per cent of the household members were practicing agriculture and 12.82 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 70.97 per cent of the household members were practicing agriculture and 22.58 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers, 62.50 per cent of the household members were performing agriculture and 21.88 per cent of them were students. In case of large farmers 40 per cent of the household members were performing agriculture and 60 per cent of them were students. The result showed that 1.95 per cent of them participated in self help groups and 98.05 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Small farmers and semi medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Small farmers and semi medium farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions. 2 The results indicated that 45.71 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 20 per cent of them possess Pucca house, 28.57 per cent of them possess Semi Pacca house and 5.71 per cent of them possess thatched house. The results showed that 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 11.43 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 11.43 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 80 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 2.86 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and car respectively. The results showed that the average value of television was Rs.9142, mixer grinder was Rs.2250, refrigerator Rs.9000, motor cycle was Rs.60750, Car Rs.400000 and mobile phone was Rs.2006. Results showed 22.86 per cent of the households possess plough and bullock cart respectively, 2.86 per cent of them possess power tiller, 8.57 per cent of the households possess sprayer and tractor correspondingly and 5.71 per cent of the households possess weeder. The results showed that the average value of plough was Rs.4625; the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 23625, the average value of power tiller Rs. 25000, the average value of tractor Rs. 800000, the average value of Sprayer Rs.4666 and the average value of weeder Rs. 75. The results indicated that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.43 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess sheep and 8.57 per cent of the households possess poultry birds. In case of small farmers, 11.11 per cent of households possess bullock. In case of semi medium farmers, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullock, 14.29 per cent possess both local cow and sheep and 28.57 per cent of the households possess poultry birds. In case of medium farmers 50 of the households possess bullocks, 16.67 of the households possess local cow and 16.67 of the households possess poultry birds. The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.78, average own labour (women) available was 1.28, average hired labour (men) available was 12.69 and average hired labour (women) available was 13.50. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men and women available was 1.86, average hired labour (men) was 6.43 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.57. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.89, average own labour (women) was 1.22, average hired labour (men) was 9.56 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.22. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.71, average own labour (women) was 1.29, average hired labour (men) was 19.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 20. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2.33, average own labour (women) was 1.17, average hired labour (men) was 15 and average hired labour (women) 3 available was 15.83. In large farmers average own labour men and women available was 1, average hired labour (men) and hired (women) was 50 respectively. The results indicated that, 65.71 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 20 per cent of the farmers have opined that the hired labour was inadequate. The results indicated that, 2 person was migrated from micro watershed that belonged to marginal farmer category. Total migration in the micro watershed was only 1.30 per cent. The results indicated that, people have migrated on an average of 1200 Kms and average duration was 6 months. Marginal farmers have migrated 1200 kms and on an average for 6 months. The results indicated that, job/work was the only reason for migration for all the migrants. The results indicated that, households of the Bhimanahalli-1 micro-watershed possess 24.91 ha (49.53%) of dry land and 25.38 ha (50.47%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.46 ha (97.52 %) of dry land and 0.11 ha (2.48%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.70 ha (92.69%) of dry land and 0.92 ha (7.31 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 8.74 ha (62.85 %) of dry land and 5.17ha (37.15 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 13.92 ha (100%) of irrigated land and large farmer possess 5.26 ha (100 %) irrigated land. The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 367248.95 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 378061.23. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 537931.04 for dry land and Rs. 1764285.71 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 409958.51 for dry land Rs. 650000.01 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 222986.11 for dry land and Rs. 464213.00 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs.344751.38for irrigated land and in case of large farmers Rs. 304000 for irrigated land. The results indicated that, there were 2 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, canal was the major irrigation source for 28.57 per cent of the farmers and bore well was the source for irrigation which was found to be 5.71 per cent. The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 6.53 meters. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.11 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 0.92 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 5.17 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 6.88 ha of irrigated land. 4 The results indicated that, farmers have grown cotton (11.65 ha), groundnut (1.62 ha), Paddy (19.57 ha), Red gram (5.71 ha) and Sorghum (4.57 ha) in kharif season. Farmers have grown 6.11 ha of cotton and 0.97 ha of sorghum in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown cotton, paddy and sorghum. Small farmers have grown cotton, Paddy, Red gram and Sorghum. Similarly semi medium farmers have grown cotton, groundnut, paddy, redgram and sorghum. Medium farmers have grown cotton and paddy and large farmers grown only paddy. The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Bhimanahalli-1 microwatershed was found to be 99.81 per cent. In case of Marginal farmers, small farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers it was 100 per cent and in case of medium farmers it was 99.33 per cent. The results indicated that, 31.43 per cent of the households have bank account and 11.43 per cent of savings. Among marginal farmers 42.86 percent of them possess bank account and 28.57 per cent of them possess savings. 33.33 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 11.11 per cent of savings. Semi medium farmers possess 57.14 per cent of bank account and 14.29 per cent of savings accounts and large farmers possess 100 per cent of bank account. The results indicated that, 20 per cent of landless, 14.29 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 14.29 per cent semi medium, 33 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, 18.18 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank, 45.45 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank and 9.09 per cent have availed loan in SHGs/CBOs. The results indicated that, landless, marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large have availed Rs.100000, Rs. 300000, Rs.50000, Rs.53333.33, Rs.100000 and Rs. 200000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 123636.36. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production. The results indicated that, 100 percent of loan was taken from private credit was for construction-house, construction-cattle shed. Results indicated that 28.57 per cent of the households have partially paid their institutional loan and 71.43 per cent of the households have unpaid their institutional loan. Results indicated that 100 percent of the households have unpaid their private credit loan. Results indicated that 28.57 per cent of the farmers opined that the credit, which was taken from various institutes was helped them to perform timely agricultural 5 operations and also opined that institutes, they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time respectively. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 122743.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 135947.83. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 13204.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.11. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 26995.54. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46808.77. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 19813.23. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.73. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 69047.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62367.50. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -6680.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.9. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 16037.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41055.29. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 25018.28. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.56. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 35099.26. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69232.72. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 34133.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.97. The results indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder was adequate respectively. The results indicated that the average income from wage Rs.51714.29, agriculture Rs. 110028.57, non farm income Rs. 42.86 and goat farming was Rs. 1428.57. The results indicated that the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 8171.43 and agriculture was Rs. 25728.57. On an average the expenditure was found Rs.5434.57. The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 3 coconut trees and 3 Mango trees in their field. The results indicated that, households have planted 2 Eucalyptus, 109 Neem tree and 4 Banyan tree in the field. The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs.3285.17 for land development. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs.1111.11 for land development. Semi medium households have an average investment capacity Rs.15000 for land development. The results indicated that for 8.57 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from bank for land development. 6 The results indicated that, cotton, Groundnut, Red Gram, and sorghum were sold to the extent of 100 per cent and Paddy was sold to the extent of 82.93 per cent. The results indicated that, 28.57 percent of the households have sold their produce to agents/ traders, 54.29 percent of the households sold their produce in local/village merchant and 2.86 per cent of the households sold their produce to regulated market. The results indicated that 11.43 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 74.29 per cent have used tractor. The results indicated that, 11.43 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 22.22 percent of small farmers, 14.29 percent semi medium farmers and 16.67 per cent of medium farmers. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing i.e. 100 per cent of marginal farmers, small farmers, semi medium farmers and medium farmers have showed interest in soil testing respectively. The results indicated that, 8.57 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, i.e. 28.57 per cent of marginal farmers, 14.29 per cent of semi medium farmers have adopted field bunding. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding opined that bunds are good. The results indicated that 8.57 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by their own. The results indicated that, 94.29 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 11.43 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the source for drinking water for 85.71 per cent of the households, 8.57 per cent of the households were using bore well and 5.71 per cent of the households were using lake/tank as a source of drinking water. The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light which was found to be 100 per cent. The results indicated that, 54.29 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 80 per cent of landless, 28.57 per cent of marginal, 66.67 per cent of small, 28.57 per cent of semi medium, 66.67 per cent of medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 91.43 per cent of the sampled household's possessed BPL card, 5.71 per cent of the sampled household's possessed APL card and 2.86 per cent of the sampled households not possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 80 per cent of the landless, 71.43 percent of the marginal, 88.89 per cent of the small, 71.43 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers. 7 The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fruits, milk, and meat were adequate for 97.14 per cent, 80 per cent, 71.43 per cent, 57.14 per cent, 94.29 per cent and 97.14 per cent of the households respectively. Fruits and eggs were adequate for 100 per cent of the households correspondingly. The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.86, pulses were inadequate for 20 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 28.57 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 2.86 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 42.86 per cent, milk was inadequate 5.71 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 2.86 per cent and meat was inadequate for 5.71 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 91.43 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (80%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (62.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (57.14%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80%), high rate of interest on credit (82.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (85.71%), inadequate extension services (40%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (77.14%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Abbagiri microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 721 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 86 per cent is covered by soils, 6 per cent by rock out crops,150 cm). An area of about 9 per cent has sandy surface, 64 per cent loamy soils and 13 per cent has clayey soils at the surface. About 27 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m). An area of about 5 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands, 81 per cent very gently sloping (1-3%) lands and 0.75%) in 75 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 43 per cent of the soils. Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 12 per cent of the soils. Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 55 per cent of the area. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 39 per cent of the area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area. The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 9 (1) 140(19) Pomegranate - 174(24) Maize 9 (1) 140(19) Guava - 147(20) Bajra 9 (1) 275(38) Jackfruit - 147(20) Redgram - 30(4) Jamun - 117(16) Bengal gram 9(1) 158 (22) Musambi - 174 (24) Groundnut - 325 (45) Lime - 174 (24) Sunflower - 57(8) Cashew - 309(43) Cotton - 149 (20) Custard apple - 562 (78) Chilli - 122(17) Amla - 562(78) Tomato 9(1) 113(15) Tamarind 38(5) Drumstick - 143 (20) Marigold - 122(20) Mulbery - 470(65) Chrysanthemum - 122(20) Mango - - Jasmine - 122 (17) Sapota - 147(20) Crossandra - 149(20) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Results indicated that 34 farmers were sampled in Abbagiri micro watershed among them 7 (20.59%) were marginal farmers, 15 (44.12 %) were small farmers, 4 (11.76 %) were semi medium farmers, 2 (5.88%) were medium farmers, 1(2.94%) was large farmer and 5 (14.71 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The data indicated that there were 142 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 79 (55.63%) men and 63 (44.37 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 3, marginal farmers and small farmers were 4, semi medium and medium farmers were 5 and large farmer was 10. On an average the family size was 4. The data indicated that 20 (14.08%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 73 (51.41 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 36 (25.35 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (9.15 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that the Abbagiri had 40.14 per cent illiterates, 0.70 per cent were functional literates, 26.06 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.56 per cent of them had both middle school, 14.79 per cent them had high school education, 4.93 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.70 per cent of them had degree education and 2.11 per cent them had others. The results indicated that, 55.88 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 35.29 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 8.82 per cent of the household heads were general labour. The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 45.07 per cent of the household members, 30.99 per cent were agricultural labourers, 7.75 per cent were general labours, 0.70 percent were in private sector, 12.68 per cent of them were students and 2.86 per cent of them were children. In case of landless households 14.29 per cent were agricultural labours, 64.29 per cent were general labourers and 21.43 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 39.29 per cent were both agriculturist and agricultural labour, 3.57 per cent of both were in private and 14.29 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 56.14 per cent of them were agriculturist, 22.81 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 3.51 per cent were general labour and 14.04 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 27.27 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 54.55 per cent were agriculture labour and 13.64 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 45.45 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 54.55 per cent of them were agriculture labours. In large farmers 100 per cent of them were doing agriculture. The results showed 100 per cent of the farmers have not participated in any local institutions. 2 The results indicated that 50 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 17.65 per cent of the households possess Pucca house and 32.35 per cent of them possess Thatched house. The results showed that, 82.35 per cent of the households possess TV, 67.65 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 23.53 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 35.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Auto and 91.18 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 7178, mixer grinder was Rs.1630, bicycle was Rs.1375, motor cycle was Rs.30416, Auto was Rs. 300000 and mobile phone was Rs.1537. Results showed about 23.53 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 44.12 per cent of them possess plough, 2.94 per cent of the households possess tractor, 32.35 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 91.18 per cent of the households possess weeder, 2.94 per cent of the households possess harvester and 11.76 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter. The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.17975; the average value of plough was Rs. 929, the average value of tractor was Rs. 300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 3125, the average value of weeder was Rs. 64, the average value of harvester was Rs. 48000 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3000. The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 35.29 per cent of the households possess local cow, 8.82 per cent of the households possess sheep and 2.94 per cent of the households possess goat. The data indicated that in case of marginal farmers, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullock and 42.86 per cent of household possess local cow. In case of small farmers, 46.67 per cent of households possess bullock, 26.67 per cent possess local cow, 13.33 per cent of the households possess sheep and 6.67 per cent possess goat. In case of semi medium farmers, 75 per cent of the households possess bullock and 50 per cent possess local cow. In medium farmers 50 per cent of the household possess bullock and 100 per cent of them have possess local cow. In case of large farmers 100 per cent of the farmers have possess bullock, local cow and sheep respectively. The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.79, average own labour (women) available was 1.61, average hired labour (men) available was 8.34 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.79. The data showed that in case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1, average own labour (women) was also 1.67, average hired labour (men) was 7.86 and average hired labour (women) available was also 3 7.86. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.73, average own labour (women) was 1.40, average hired labour (men) was 8.87 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.40. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.25, average own labour (women) was 1.50, average hired labour (men) was 9.25 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.75. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2.50, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 5 and average hired labour (women) available was 5. In large farmers average own labour men available was 4, average own labour (women) was 4, average hired labour (men) was 7 and average hired labour (women) available was 8. The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. The results indicated that, households of the Abbagiri micro watershed possess 33.19 ha (51.34 %) of dry land and 31.46 ha (48.66 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.98 ha (91.11 %) of dry land and 0.49 ha (8.89%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 19.29 ha (93.38 %) of dry land and 1.37 ha (6.62 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.02 ha (30.94 %) of dry land and 4.52 ha (69.06 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.90 (81%) of dry land and 1.62 ha (19%) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 23.47 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 307,206.44 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 724665.73. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 481,951.22 for dry land and Rs. 1,234,999.95 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 310,952.58 for dry land Rs. 1,023,076.96 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 296,400 for dry land and Rs. 531,182.79 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 173841.64 for dry land and was Rs. 494,000 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers the average land value was Rs. 340068.97 for irrigated land. The results indicated that, there were 9 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 26.47 per cent of the farmers. The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 22.32 meters. The results indicated that, in case of small farmers there was 1.37 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 3.71 ha of irrigated land, medium farmers were having 1.62 ha of irrigated land and large farmers were having 6.48 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 13.17 ha of irrigated land. 4 The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (8.66 ha), maize (21.52 ha), paddy (2.66 ha), groundnut (4.86 ha), navane (0.88 ha), red gram (1.29 ha) and sunflower (0.81 ha) in kharif season. Also grown groundnut (1.28 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, groundnut and paddy. Small farmers have grown bajra, maize, paddy, navane, red gram and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown Maize and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown bajra and maize. Large farmers have grown groundnut and paddy. The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Abbagiri micro watershed was found to be 80.20 per cent. In case of marginal, semi medium and large farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers the cropping intensity was 87.02 per cent and in medium farmers it was 43.75 per cent. The results indicated that, 91.50 per cent of the households have bank account and 50 per cent of the households have savings. Among marginal farmers 40 percent of them possess bank account and 20 per cent possess savings. 100 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 57.14 per cent of them possess savings. Semi medium farmers possess 100 per cent of bank account and 66.67 per cent possess savings. Medium category of farmers possesses 100 per cent of bank account and 50 per cent of them possess savings. 100 per cent of large farmers possess bank account. The results indicated that, 40 per cent of landless, 57.14 per cent of marginal, 66.67 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, 52.63 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank, 26.13 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank and 21.05 per cent have availed loan from money lender. The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers have availed Rs.152500, Rs. 128000, Rs. 260000, Rs. 360000 and Rs. 300000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 147894.74. The results indicated that, 89.47 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production. The results indicated that, agriculture production, income generating activities, purchase-vehicle and social functions like marriage reasons were the purpose for which marginal, small and semi medium farmers borrowed loan from private credit. About 25 percent of loan was taken for agriculture production, income generating activities, purchase-vehicle and social functions like marriage respectively. Results indicated that 10 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially, 80 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 10 percent of the households have fully paid their loan. 5 Results indicated that 75 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially and 25 percent of the households have unpaid their loan. The results indicated that 45 per cent of the households were opined that they were helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 25 per cent of farmers opined that higher rate of interest and 5 per cent of them opined that they forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time respectively. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 21127.54. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26854.61. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 5727.07, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.27. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 22389.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26497.78. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 4107.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.18. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 47014.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 106400.81. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 59386.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.26. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 46981.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63906.15. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 16924.70. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.36. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 31003.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55575.00. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 24571.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.79. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 22829.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 16311.32. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. -6517.75. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.71. The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 29.41 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The table indicated that, in case of landless, the average income from business Rs. 8000 and wage Rs. 52000. In case marginal farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.8571.43, business was Rs.11428.57, wage was Rs.5000, agriculture was Rs.44471.43 and dairy farm was Rs.3660.71. In small farmers, the average income from service/salary was Rs.11000, wage was Rs.18666.67, agriculture was Rs.43133.33, dairy farm was Rs.533.33 and goat farming was Rs.6000. In semi medium farmers the average income from business was 6 Rs.28750, wage was Rs.10000 and agriculture was Rs.72200. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs.9000, agriculture was Rs.67500 and dairy farm was Rs.1500. In case of large farmers the average income from wage was Rs.10000, agriculture was Rs.130000 and goat farming was Rs.60000. The results indicated that, in case of land less, the average expenditure from business Rs. 20000 and wage Rs. 30000. In marginal farmers, the average expenditure from business was Rs.30000, wage was Rs.1500, agriculture was Rs.23000 and dairy farm was Rs.5250. In small farmers, the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.32500, wage was Rs.5714.29, agriculture was Rs.20642.86, dairy farm was Rs.333.33 and goat farming was Rs.20000.In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from business was Rs.60000, wage was Rs.5000 and agriculture was Rs.28750. In medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.2000, agriculture was Rs.27500 and dairy farm was Rs.1000. In case of large farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.2000, agriculture was Rs.50000 and goat farming was Rs.5000. The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 23 coconut trees and 17 mango trees in their field and also planted 2 coconut trees in their back yard. The results indicated that, households have planted 23 teak trees, 38 neem trees, 3 tamarind tress, 2 pongamia and 4 banyan trees in their field. The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1117.65 for land development, Rs. 294.14 in irrigation facility, Rs.823.53 for improved crop production and Rs.264.71 for improved livestock management. The result showed that small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1066.67 for land development, Rs.800 for improved crop production and Rs.200 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5500 for land development, Rs. 2500 in irrigation facility, Rs.4000 for improved crop production and Rs.1500 for improved livestock management. The results indicated that for 14.71 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank for land development, 5.88 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loans for irrigation facility. For improved crop production 5.88 per cent of the households were dependent on own funds and 8.82 per cent of them dependent on soft loan. For improved livestock management 8.82 per cent of the households were dependent on own funds. The results indicated that, maize and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, groundnut, paddy and red gram were sold to the extent of 90.20 per cent, 93.64 per cent, 90.83 per cent and 71.43 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, 5.88 percent of the households have sold their produce to agent/traders, 73.53 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant,14.71 percent of the households sold their produce in 7 regulated markets and 8.82 percent of the households sold their produce to cooperative marketing Society. The results indicated that 2.94 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 55.88 per cent of them have used tractor and 44.12 per cent have used truck. The results indicated that, 35.29 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 42.86 percent of marginal farmers, 33.33 per cent of small farmers, 50 per cent of semi medium farmers, 50 percent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers. The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing. The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.02 per cent households and 2.94 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water. The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 55.88 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 60 per cent of landless, 100 per cent of marginal, semi medium, medium and large farmers and 13.33 small farmers had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.94 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 47.06 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 14.29 percent of the marginal, 33.33 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium, medium and large farmers respectively. The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 94.12 per cent, 67.65 per cent, 23.53 per cent, 44.12 per cent, 47.06 per cent, 52.94 per cent, 64.71 per cent and 50 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 5.88 per cent, 32.35 per cent, 73.53 per cent, 55.88 per cent, 52.94 per cent, 47.06 per cent,35.29 per cent and 50 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the households experienced by lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint and wild animal menace on farm field, frequent incidence of pest and diseases (67.65%), inadequacy of irrigation water (58.82%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (79.41%), high rate of interest on credit (73.53%), low price for the agricultural 8 commodities (79.41%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (61.76%), inadequate extension services (55.88%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (85.29%), less rainfall (8.82%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (2.94 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chik Sulikeri microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 540 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 93 per cent is covered by soils, 5 per cent by rock outcrops and 2 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 18 soil series and 35 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm). About 4 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 36 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 54 per cent clayey soils at the surface. About 23 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 13 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 73 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping(1-3% slope) lands and 7 per cent area of microwatershed has gently sloping (3-5% slope) lands. An area of about 52 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 41 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded. An area of about 0.75%) in 15 per cent area. An area of about 93 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area of about 33 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 5 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) and 16 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content. Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content. An area of about 25 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content. The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 24(4) 188(35) Sapota 15(3) 65(12) Maize 15(3) 198(37) Pomegranate 15(3) 97(18) Bajra 37(7) 235(44) Guava 15(3) 65(12) Groundnut 37(7) 227(42) Jackfruit 15(3) 65(12) Sunflower 24(4) 60(11) Jamun - 111(20) Cotton 9(2) 204(38) Musambi 24(4) 88(16) Red gram 15(3) 69(13) Lime 24(4) 88(16) Bengalgram 13(2) 218(40) Cashew 13(2) 52(9) Chilli 15(3) 151(28) Custard apple 59(11) 294(54) Tomato 15(3) 151(28) Amla 59(11) 294(54) Brinjal 36(7) 216(40) Tamarind - 61(11) Onion 36(7) 164(30) Marigold 15(3) 198(37) Bhendi 36(7) 216(40) Chrysanthemum 15(3) 198(37) Drumstick 28(5) 136(25) Jasmine 15(3) 166(31) Mulberry 28(5) 155(29) Crossandra 15(3) 141(26) Mango - 29(5) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMU s by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY Results indicated that 37 farmers were sampled in Chik Sulikeri micro watershed among them 5(13.51%) were landless, 4 (10.51%) were marginal farmers, 15 (40.54%) were small farmers, 7 (18.92%) were semi medium farmers, 5 (13.51%) were medium farmers and 1 (2.70%) were large farmers. The data indicated that there were 101(59.06%) men and 70 (40.94%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 3, marginal, small, medium and large farmers' was 5b and semi medium farmers' was 6. The data indicated that, 29 (16.97%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 80 (46.78%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (29.82%) were in 36-60 years of age and 11(6.43 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Chik Sulikeri had 37.43 per cent illiterates, 44.44 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.17 per cent of them had middle school education, 6.43 per cent of them had high school education, 5.26 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.17 per cent of them did diploma, 2.34 per cent of them had degree education and 1.75 persons were doing others. The results indicate that, 91.89 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 8.11 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 25.73 per cent of the household members, 51.46 per cent were agricultural laborers, 20.47 per cent were students and 1.17 housewives and children. In case of landless farmers, 21.43 per cent were doing agriculture, 64.29 per cent were agricultural laborers, and 14.29 per cent were housewives. In case of marginal farmers 26.32 per cent were agriculturists, 31.58 per cent were agricultural laborers and 36.84 per cent were students. In case of small farmers, 28.99 per cent were agriculturists, 53.62 per cent were agricultural laborers and 17.39 per cent were students. In case of semi medium farmers, 25.64 per cent were agriculturists, 48.72 per cent were agricultural laborer and 23.08 per cent were students. In case of medium farmers, 20 per cent were agriculturists, another 60 per cent were agricultural laborers and 20 per cent were students. In large farmers 20 per cent were agriculturists, another 40 per cent were agricultural laborers and 40 per cent were students. The results show that 100 per cent of the populations in the micro watershed have not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 13.51 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 75.68 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 10.81 per cent of them possess Pucca house. The results shows that 89.19 per cent of the households possess TV, 67.57 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 32.43 per cent of the households possess 2 bicycle, 37.84 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 97.30 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results showed that the average value of television was Rs.4151, mixer grinder was Rs.1396, motor cycle was Rs.1500 and mobile phone was Rs.31285 and mobile was Rs.1472. The data showed that, about 10.81 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 18.92 per cent of them possess plough and sprayer, 94.59 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.70 per cent of them possess harvester and chaff cutter respectively. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18250, plough was Rs.1250, the average value of weeder was Rs. 23, the average value of sprayer was Rs.4571, the average value of harvester was Rs.45000 and the average value of chaff cutter Rs.3000. The results indicate that, 16.22 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 24.32 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.70 per cent of the households possess buffalo and sheep respectively. In case of marginal households, 25per cent possess local cow. Among small farmers, 33.33 per cent of the households possess bullock and 26.67 per cent possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 14.29 per cent of households possess bullock, 28.57 per cent of households possess local cow and 14.29 per cent of households possess buffalo. In medium farmers 20 per cent local cow and in large farmers 100 per cent of the household possess local cow. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 9.19, average own labour (women) available was 5.66, average hired labour (men) available was 8.05 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.13. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 31, average own labour (women) was 16, average hired labour (men) was 7 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.25. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.81, average own labour (women) was 1.69, average hired labour (men) was 9.27 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.63. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 25, average own labour (women) was 15.71, average hired labour (men) was 11.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.57. In case of medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.20, average own labour (women) was 2.60, average hired labour (men) was 9 and average hired labour (women) available was 10. In case of large farmers, average own labour men available was 1, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 7 and average hired labour (women) available was 8. 3 The results indicate that, 8.11 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 94.59 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Chik Sulikeri micro watershed possess 22.83 ha (35.54%) of dry land and 41.42 ha (64.46%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.06 ha (80.95%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (19.05%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 13.89 ha (77.44%) of dry land and 4.05 ha (22.56%) of irrigated land. Semi medium possess 6.88 ha (52.80%) of dry land and 6.15 ha (47.20%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 12.52 ha (100%) of irrigated land, large farmers possess 3.64 18.21 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 262,672.81 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 183,427.89. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 435,882.36 for dry land and was Rs. 1,029,166.63 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 251,893.94 for dry land and Rs. 592,800. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 232,470.59 for dry land and Rs. 325,000 for irrigated land. In case of medium and large famers, the average irrigated land value was Rs. 215,546.22 and Rs. 220,000 respectively. The results indicate that, there were 17 functioning and 16 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45.95 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 77.04 meters. The results indicate that, marginal farmers were having 0.40 ha irrigated land, small farmers were having 3.24 ha of irrigated land, semi medium were having 9.39 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers had irrigated area of 12.52 ha and large farmers were having 1.62 ha of irrigated land respectively. On an average there was 27.17 ha of irrigated land. The results indicate that, farmers have grown groundnut (17.05 ha), maize (12.55 ha), bajra (4.05 ha), paddy (3.68 ha), navane (3.24 ha), mango (1.62 ha), sorghum (1.30 ha), horsegram (1.21 ha), groundnut (1.21 ha), cotton (0.81 ha) and tomato (0.40 ha) in kharif season and also grown groundnut (1.21 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, navane and tomato. Small farmers have grown groundnut, bajra, paddy, navane, horsegram and cotton. Semi medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize, bajra, navane and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize and paddy. Large farmers have grown mango. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chik Sulikeri micro watershed was found to be 88.79 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 98.36 per cent, for small farmers it was 99.54 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 4 89.11 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 72.90 per cent and in large farmers it was 100 per cent. The results indicate that, 86.49 per cent of the households have bank account and 86.49 per cent of the households have savings. The results indicate that, 86.49 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 31771.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34174.67. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 2403.04, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 35771.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48158.68. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 12387.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 27138.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33379.73. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 6240.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 14751.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32604. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. 17852.18. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.21. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 43450.70. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 73850.81. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 30400.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.7. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 48854.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 25245.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.52. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 45006.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 53793.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.2. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 19144.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25177.99. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 6033.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.32. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 30875.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 203775. The net income from 5 mango cultivation was Rs. 172899.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:6.6. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 141928.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 137399.96. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -4528.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.97. The results indicate that, 21.62 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 13.51 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. Around 2.70 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicate that, in landless farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 103,000, in marginal farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 27,500 and agriculture was Rs.42837.50. In small farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs. 2000, wage was Rs.22333.33, agriculture was Rs.71713.33 and dairy farm was Rs.5060.67.In semi medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 32,142.86, agriculture was Rs. 71,542.86 and dairy farm was Rs. 1,285.71. In medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 19400 and agriculture was Rs. 298400 and dairy farm was Rs. 600. In large farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 10000 and agriculture was Rs. 30000. The results indicate that, in land less farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs. 42000. In marginal farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.8333.33 and agriculture was Rs. 23,750. In small farmers the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.20000, wage was Rs.9000, agriculture was Rs.32266.67 and dairy farm was Rs.6600. In semi medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.9500, agriculture was Rs.31428.57 and dairy farm was Rs.2000. In medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.9,250, agriculture was Rs. 59,000 and dairy farm was Rs.1000. In large farmers the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.5000 and agriculture was Rs.10000. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 areca nut, 11 coconut and 607 mango trees in their field and also planted 2 coconut trees in their back yard. The results indicate that, households have planted 3 teak trees and 43 neem trees in their field and 1 neem trees in their backyard. The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7243.24 for land development, Rs. 2513.51 in irrigation facility and 162.16 for improved crop production. Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7000 for land development. Small farmers have an average 6 investment capacity of Rs. 7866.67 for land development, Rs. 3066.67 in irrigation facility and Rs.400 for improved crop production. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8571.43 for land development and Rs. 3285.71 in irrigation facility. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10,400 for land development and Rs. 3,200 in irrigation facility. large farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10,000 for land development and Rs. 8,000 in irrigation facility. The results indicate that, for land development, 31.58 per cent of the farmers were dependent on government subsidy and 42.11 per cent of the farmers were dependent on loan from bank. For irrigation facility 15.79 per cent of the farmers were dependent on government subsidy and loan from bank respectively. For improved crop production 2.63 per cent of the farmers were dependent on loan from bank. The results indicated that, bajra, cotton, horsegram, maize, mango, navane, paddy, sorghum and tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut was sold to the extent of 95.50 per cent. The results indicated that, about 8.11 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in agent/traders. 91.89 per cent farmers also sold their produce in cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that, 2.70 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, and 97.30 per cent have also used tractor. The results indicated that, 62.61 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 50 per cent of marginal farmers, 80 per cent of small farmers, 57.14 per cent of semi medium farmers, 80 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 75.68 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 89.19 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 10.81 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used fire wood as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 51.35 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of the landless, marginal, medium and large farmers, 13.13 per cent of small farmers and 28.57 per cent of the semi medium farmers. The results indicated that, 97.30 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.70 per cent did not possess PDS card. 7 The results indicated that, 64.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.30 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 54.05 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 35.14 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 48.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 78.38 per cent, milk was adequate for 54.05 per cent, eggs were adequate for 54.05 per cent and meat was adequate for 5.41 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.70 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 45.95 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 56.76 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 45.95 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 24.32 per cent, milk was inadequate for 13.51 per cent and eggs were inadequate for 16.22 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 75.68 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (64.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (29.73%), inadequacy of irrigation water (16.22%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (43.24%), high rate of interest on credit (8.11%), low price for the agricultural commodities (16.22%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (13.51%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (24.32%), less rainfall (40.54%) inadequate extension services (24.32%) and source of agri technology information (13.51). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gasaladoddi microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 536 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 80 per cent is covered by soil, 17 per cent by rock outcrops and 3 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below The soils belong to 16 soil series and 36 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils. About 8 per cent sandy, 54 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 18 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface. About 17 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 5 per cent is nearly level (0-1%), 72 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) and 3 per cent is gently sloping (3-5%) lands. An area of about 22 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 58 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 37 per cent is slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5), 37 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 5 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 1 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) in reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 80 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 68 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 12 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 32 per cent of the soils. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 80 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 50 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 3(1) 121(21) Sapota 5(1) 118(22) Maize - 161(30) Pomegranate 5(1) 134(25) Bajra 33(6) 252(46) Musambi 9(2) 131(24) Groundnut 39(7) 254(47) Lime 9(2) 131(24) Sunflower 3(1) 51(9) Amla 39(7) 286(53) Redgram - 54(10) Cashew 5(1) 140(26) Bengal gram 3(1) 157(29) Jackfruit 5(1) 118(22) Cotton 3(1) 120(22) Jamun - 140(26) Chilli - 107(19) Custard apple 42(8) 283(52) Tomato - 107(19) Tamarind - 21(4) Brinjal 39(7) 152(28) Mulberry 5(1) 212(40) Onion 33(6) 141(26) Marigold - 123(22) Bhendi 33(6) 157(29) Chrysanthemum - 123(22) Drumstick 5(1) 106(20) Jasmine - 107(19) Mango - 18(3) Crossandra - 110(20) Guava 5(1) 118(22) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY Results indicated that, 47 farmers were sampled in Gasaladoddi microwatershed among them 10 (21.28%) were marginal farmers, 15 (31.91 %) were small farmers, 14 (29.79 %) were semi medium farmers, 3 (6.38%) were medium farmers and 5 (10.64 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The data indicated that there were 259 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 137 (52.90%) men and 122 (47.10 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 4, marginal farmer was 6, small, semi medium and medium farmers were 5. The data indicated that 59 (22.78%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 128 (49.42 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 52 (20.08 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 20(7.72%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that the Gasaladoddi had 28.96 per cent illiterates, 35.14 per cent of them had primary school education, 11.97 per cent of them had middle school, 13.13 per cent them had high school education, 5.41 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.77 per cent of them had ITI education and masters and 1.93 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicated that, 78.72 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 8.51 per cent of them were agricultural labour, 6.38 per cent of the household heads were general labours and 2.13 per cent were in government service. The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 66.80 per cent of the household members, 3.09 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.70 per cent were general labours, 0.39 per cent were in government service,0.77 per cent housewives, 1.93 per cent were children and 23.17 per cent of them were students. In case of landless farmers, 23.81 per cent were agricultural labour and 33.33 per cent were general labour and student respectively. In case of marginal farmers 65.08 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 3.17 per cent of them were agriculture labour and 26.68 per cent of them were students. In small farmers 71.08 per cent of them were doing agriculture and 27.71 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 79.49 per cent of them were agriculturist, and 14.10 per cent of them were students. In medium farmers 78.57 per cent of them were agriculturist and 14.29 per cent of them were doing other work. The results showed that 100 per cent of households have not participated in any local institutions. The results indicated that 40.43 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 29.79 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 4.26 per cent of the households possess Pacca house. The results showed that, 85.11 per cent of the households possess TV, 78.72 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 29.79 per cent of the households possess 2 bicycle, 40.43 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 95.74 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 6,475, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,305, bicycle was Rs. 1,285, motor cycle was Rs. 38,600 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,408. Results showed that about 31.91 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 40.43 per cent of them possess plough, 2.13 per cent of the households possess tractor, 23.40 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 78.72 per cent of the households possess weeder and 2.13 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter. The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 27,733; the average value of plough was Rs. 1,354, the average value of tractor was Rs. 700,000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 4,272, the average value of weeder was Rs. 30 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3,000. The results indicated that, 38.30 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 27.66 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.13 per cent of the households possess buffalo and sheep respectively. 40 per cent of the marginal farmers possess bullock. In case of small farmers, 40 per cent of the households possess bullock and 3.33 per cent of the households possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 50 per cent of households possess bullock and 42.86 per cent possess local cow. In case of medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the households possess local cow and 33.33 per cent of the households possess bullock and buffalo respectively. The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 10.68, average own labour (women) available was 6.73, average hired labour (men) available was 10.73 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.12. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was also 1.80, average hired labour (men) was 9.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.60. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 13.73, average own labour (women) was 8.47, average hired labour (men) was 11.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.20. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.23, average own labour (women) was 2.08, average hired labour (men) was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.08. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 61, average own labour (women) was 34.67, average hired labour (men) was 15 and average hired labour (women) available was 15. The results indicated that, 85.11 per cent of the household opined that the hired labour was adequate and 2.13 per cent of them opined that hired labour was inadequate. The results indicated that, 1 person was migrated from micro watershed that belonged to marginal farmer category. Total migration in the micro watershed was only 0.39 per cent. 3 The results indicated that, people have migrated on an average of 10 Kms and average duration was 10 months. Semi medium farmers have migrated 10 kms and on an average for 10 months. The results indicated that, job/work was the only reason for migration for all the migrants. The results indicated that, households of the Gasaladoddi microwatershed possess 30.84 ha (53.50%) of dry land and 26.80ha (46.50%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.14ha (80.79%) of dry land 1.22ha (19.21%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 15.28 ha (83.26%) of dry land and 3.07ha (16.74%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 10.42 ha (40%) of dry land and 15.63ha (60%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.88ha (100%) of the irrigated land. The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 340,354.33 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 522,198.73. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 855,748.04 for dry land and Rs. 1,390,397.36 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 242,028.60 for dry land Rs. 1,106,455.88 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 230,303.03 for dry land and Rs. 498,989.90 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 159,823.53 for irrigated land. The results indicated that, there were 10 defunctioning and 22 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, there were 1 defunctioning and 1 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 46.81 per cent of the farmers and 2.13 per cent were using open well as a source of irrigation. The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 42.78 meters and open well was 0.65 meters. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 1.22 per cent of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 3.07 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 19.04 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 6.07 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 29.41 ha of irrigated land. The results indicated that, farmers have grown maize (31.01ha), groundnut (7.90 ha), bajra (4.14 ha), cotton (1.88 ha), paddy (3.33 ha), sunflower (2.51 ha) and cotton (0.40 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers have grown maize and paddy. Small farmers have grown maize, groundnut, bajra, sunflower and cotton. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, groundnut, bajra and paddy. Medium farmers have grown maize, groundnut and bajra. 4 The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Gasaladoddi microwatershed was found to be 76.96 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers it was 93.37, in semi medium farmers it was 65.16 and in medium farmers it was 72.22 per cent. The results indicated that, 70.21 per cent of the households have bank account. 80 percent of landless, 100 marginal, 66.67 per cent small and 64.29 semi medium farmers possess bank account respectively. The results indicated that, 40 per cent of landless, 60 per cent of marginal, 6.67 per cent of the small and 28.57 per cent of semi medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, 5.56 per cent have availed loan from friends/relatives and money lender respectively. The results indicated that, landless farmers availed Rs.25000. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 2777.78. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 32578.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33910.98. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 1332.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.04. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 76846.27. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75018.72. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -1827.55. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.98. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 92106.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37235.25. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -54871.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.4. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 27964.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20417.92. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -7546.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.73. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 19607.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 53768.81. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 34161.23. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.74. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 59113.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 88920. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 29806.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.5. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 58431.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 91584.65. The net income from 5 paddy cultivation was Rs. 33153.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.57. The results indicated that, 68.09 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 19.15 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 52800. In marginal farmers the average income from business was Rs.2000, wage was Rs. 37,500 and agriculture was Rs. 29,340. In small farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 25,866.67, agriculture was Rs. 64,640 and dairy farm was Rs. 500. In semi medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 15,714.29, wage was Rs. 15,928.57, agriculture was Rs. 85,357.14 and dairy farm was Rs. 1,142.86. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 11,666.67, agriculture was Rs. 95,000 and dairy farm was Rs.1833.33. The results indicated that, in marginal farmers the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs.12000 and goat farming was Rs.8000. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 1,166.67, agriculture was Rs. 33,933.33 and dairy farm was Rs. 500. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 50,000, wage was Rs. 1,833.33, dairy farm was Rs. 1,125 and agriculture was Rs. 35,142.86. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 7,000, agriculture was Rs. 40,000 and dairy farming was Rs. 1250. The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 2 cocoa, 65 coconut, 2 guava and 16 mango trees in their field and also planted 2 coconut trees in their back yard. The results indicated that, households have planted 51 teak, 85 neem, 3 tarmind trees and 5 banyan trees in their field. The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4276.60 for land development, Rs. 1425.53 in irrigation facility, Rs.2808.51 for improved crop production and Rs.829.79 for improved livestock management. Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5800 for land development, Rs.3700 for improved crop production and Rs.800 for improved livestock management. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3733.33 for land development, Rs. 1600 in irrigation facility, Rs.2800 for improved crop production and Rs.400 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6214.29 for land development, Rs. 3071.43 in irrigation facility, Rs.3785.71 for improved crop production and Rs.1785.71 for improved livestock management. The results indicated that, for land development, 40.43 per cent of the farmers were depending on government subsidy and 2.13 per cent were depending on loan from the bank. 19.15 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy 6 for irrigation facility. Similarly for improved crop production, 42.55 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy and 2.13 per cent were depending on loan from the bank and 21.28 per cent were depending on loan from the bank for improved live stock management. The results indicated that, bajra, cotton, paddy and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut and maize were sold to an extent 95.38 per cent and 99.88 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, 6.38 percent of the households have sold their produce to agents/ traders and regulated market respectively and 100 per cent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant. The results indicated that 6.38 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 80.85 per cent of them have used tractor and 36.17 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport. The results indicated that, 46.81 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 80 percent of marginal farmers, 40 per cent of small farmers and 57.14 per cent of semi medium farmers. The results indicated that, 63.83 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing including 100 per cent of marginal farmers, 73.33 per cent of the small farmers and 64.29 per cent of the semi medium farmers. The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 2.13 per cent of them used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 59.57 per cent and 44.68 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water. The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 17.02 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 40 per cent of landless, 20 per cent of marginal, 13.33 per cent of small, 7.14 per cent of the semi medium and 33.33 per cent of the medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 93.62 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 2.13 per cent of the sampled households does not possessed BPL card and 4.26 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL card. The results indicated that, 23.40 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 20 per cent of the landless, 30 percent of the marginal, 13.33 per cent of the small, 14.29 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers. The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 97.87 per cent, 87.23 per cent, 25.53 per cent, 82.98 per cent, 2.13 per cent, 72.34 per cent, 48.94 per cent and 44.68 per cent respectively. 7 The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseed; vegetables, fruits and milk were inadequate for 4.26 per cent, 10.64 per cent, 40.43 per cent, 10.64 per cent, 65.96 per cent and 21.28 per cent of the households respectively. The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil problem was experienced by 29.79 per cent of the households, and wild animal menace on farm field was experienced by 61.70 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases was experienced by 63.83 per cent of the farmers, inadequacy of irrigation water was experienced by 25.53 per cent of the households, high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was experienced 55.32 per cent and high rate of interest on credit was experienced by 17.02 per cent of the farmers, low price for the agricultural commodities was experienced by 42.55 per cent of the farmers, lack of marketing facilities in the area was experienced 34.04 per cent of the households, inadequate of extension services experienced by 38.30 per cent of the households, lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market was experienced by 53.19 per cent of the households, less rainfall was experienced by 36.17 per cent and of the farmers and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) 4.26 per cent of the households. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Belur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 566 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. Entire area is covered by soil and 150cm) soils. About 9 per cent loamy (sandy clay loam) and 91 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface. About 44 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 8 per cent area in the microwatershed is nearly level (0-1%) and 92 per cent very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 28 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 72 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 4 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 10 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 19 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 38 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 29 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in 13 per cent area of the soils. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 4 per cent area of the soils. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 52 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper is sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 209(37) 244(43) Sapota - 114(20) Maize 61(11) 393(69) Pomegranate - 356(63) Bajra 126(22) 331(59) Musambi 90(16) 256(45) Groundnut 41(7) 82(15) Lime 90(16) 256(45) Sunflower 90(16) 245(43) Amla 103(18) 370(66) Redgram - 305(54) Cashew 61(11) 52(9) Bengal gram 148(26) 296(52) Jackfruit - 114(20) Cotton 148(26) 306(54) Jamun - 164(29) Chilli 62(11) 74(13) Custard apple 251(44) 222(40) Tomato 62(11) 51(9) Tamarind - 135(24) Brinjal 103(18) 360(64) Mulberry - 303(54) Onion 41(7) 72(13) Marigold 61(11) 392(69) Bhendi 41(7) 422(75) Chrysanthemum 61(11) 392(69) Drumstick - 345(61) Jasmine 61(11) 160(28) Mango - 22(4) Crossandra 61(11) 99(17) Guava - 113(20) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY Results indicated that, 35 farmers were sampled in Belur-2 microwatershed among them 6 (13.95%) were marginal farmers, 12 (30.23 %) were small farmers, 11 (25.58 %) were semi medium farmers, 1 (2.33%) were medium farmers and 6 (13.95 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The data indicated that there were 188 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 100 (53.19%) men and 88 (46.81 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 4.67, marginal farmer was 3.85, small farmer was 4.6, semi medium farmers were 4.45 and medium and large farmers were 5. The data indicated that 26 (13.83%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 85 (45.21 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 58 (30.85 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (10.11%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that the Belur-2 had 27.66 per cent illiterates, 32.98 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.91 per cent of them had middle school, 15.43 per cent them had high school education, 8.51 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.53 per cent of them had ITI education and 3.19 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicated that, 83.72 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 13.95 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 2.33 per cent of the household heads were others. The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 29.26 per cent of the household members, 44.15 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.13 per cent were general labours and 1.06 per cent were in private sector, 0.53 per cent were in government service, 2.66 per cent were housewives and children's and 15.43 per cent of them were students. In case of landless farmers 57.14 per cent of them were agriculture labours, 14.29 per cent were general labours and 10.71 per cent of them were students. In case of marginal farmers 32 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 48 per cent of them were agriculture and 16 per cent of them were students. In small farmers 32 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 30.36 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 8.93 per cent were children and 17.86 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 28.57 per cent of them were agriculturist, 53.06 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 2.04 per cent of them were in private service. and 16.33 per cent of them were students. In medium farmers 60 per cent of them were agriculturist, 20 per cent of them were government service and 20 per cent of them were doing other work. The results showed that 1.06 per cent of them participated in Sthree Shakthi Sangha and 98.94 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless, 2 marginal, semi medium and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Small farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions. The results indicated that 6.98 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 83.72 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 9.30 per cent of the households possess Pacca house. The results showed that, 88.37 per cent of the households possess TV, 79.07 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 55.81 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 44.19 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.33 per cent of them possess tempo and 86.05 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 3526, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1188, bicycle was Rs.1041, motor cycle was Rs.48684, Tempo was Rs.2000, Edge shear was Rs.3000 and mobile phone was Rs.1093. Results showed that, about 16.28 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 25.58 per cent of them possess plough, 2.33 per cent of the households possess tractor, 11.63 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 79.07 per cent of the households possess weeder and 9.30 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter. The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.17428; the average value of plough was Rs. 911, the average value of tractor was Rs. 300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 20200, the average value of weeder was Rs. 36 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 2175. The results indicated that, 23.26 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 6.98 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.33 per cent of the households possess crossbreed cow, 4.65 per cent of the households possess sheep and 9.30 per cent of the households possess buffalo and goat respectively. 16.67 per cent of the landless farmers possess sheep and goat respectively. In case of marginal farmers, 15.38 per cent of the households possess local cow and 7.69 per cent of the households possess local cow, crossbreed cow and goat respectively. In case of small farmers, 25 per cent of households possess bullock and 8.33 per cent possess local cow, buffalo, sheep and goat correspondingly. In case of semi medium farmers, 45.45 per cent of the households possess bullock and 9.09 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo respectively. 100 per cent of the medium farmers possess goat. The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.59, average own labour (women) available was 1.39, average hired labour (men) available was 7.70 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.11. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.69, average own labour (women) was also 1.38, average hired labour (men) was 6.08 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.08. In case of small farmers, average 3 own labour men available was 1.54, average own labour (women) was 1.50, average hired labour (men) was 7.08 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.25. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.55, average own labour (women) was 1.27, average hired labour (men) was 10.55 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.73. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1. The results indicated that, 9.30 per cent of the household opined that the hired labour was adequate and 76.74 per cent of them opined that hired labour was inadequate. The results indicated that, households of the Belur-2 microwatershed possess 28.99 ha (62.56%) of dry land and 17.35 ha (37.44 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.55 ha (89.66%) of dry land 0.87 ha (10.34%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 15.78 ha (94.73%) of dry land and 0.88 ha (5.27%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 5.67 ha (32.15%) of dry land and 11.95 ha (67.85%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 3.64 ha (100%) of the irrigated land. The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 298,275.86 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 403,406.44. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 423,806.96 for dry land and Rs. 1,033,953.50 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 256,631.61 for dry land Rs. 569,124.40 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land and Rs. 392,992.56 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for irrigated land. The results indicated that, there were 14 defunctioning and 15 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 34.88 per cent of the farmers. The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 23.09 meters. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.87 per cent of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 1.28 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 12.10 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 3.64 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 17.90 ha of irrigated land. The results indicated that, farmers have grown maize (19.93ha), onion (8.51 ha), groundnut (5.81 ha), sunflower (2.43 ha), cotton (1.88 ha), Red gram (1.83 ha), sorghum (1.62 ha), bajra (0.97 ha), banana (0.4 ha) and green gram (0.4 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, groundnut, sunflower, cotton, red gram and bajra. Small farmers have grown maize, onion, groundnut, sunflower 4 and green gram. Small farmers have grown maize, onion, cotton, red gram, sorghum and banana. Medium farmers have grown only maize. The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Belur-2 microwatershed was found to be 82.12 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 95.19 per cent, in small farmers it was 89.92, in semi medium farmers it was 69.54 and in medium farmers it was 100 per cent. The results indicated that, 69.77 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings respectively. 92.31 percent of marginal, small and large farmers possess both bank account savings respectively. In small farmers 66.67 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 90.91 per cent of possess bank account and savings respectively. The results indicated that, 92.31 per cent of marginal, 66.67 per cent of small and 90.91 per cent of semi medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 32679.41. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35141.18. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 2461.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 32679.41. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35141.18. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 2461.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 92106.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37235.25. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -54871.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.4. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 49544.52. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37461.67. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -12082.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.76. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 6593.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 18278. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 11684.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.77. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 43774.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41990. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. -1784.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 31943.56. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 132285.50. The net income from 5 onion cultivation was Rs. 100341.94. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.14. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 26042.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42306.47. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 16263.55. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.62. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 38511.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 79607.03. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 41095.63. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.07. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Banana was Rs. 89684.87. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 247000. The net income from Banana cultivation was Rs. 157315.13. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.75. The results indicated that, 18.60 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 11.63 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and 18.60 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 27000. In marginal farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.7384.62, wage was Rs. 30384.62, agriculture was Rs. 32015.38 and dairy farm was Rs. 5230.77. In small farmers the average income from business was Rs. 1000, wage was Rs. 21166.67, agriculture was Rs. 43470.83 and dairy farm was Rs. 1166.67. In semi medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 16272.73, wage was Rs. 22454.55, agriculture was Rs. 187236.36 and dairy farm was Rs.363.64. In medium farmers the average income from business was Rs. 6000 and agriculture was Rs. 375000. The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 25000, farm income was Rs.500 and goat farming was Rs.5000. In marginal farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.9090.91, agriculture was Rs.16307.69 and dairy farm was Rs.9333.33. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from business was Rs. 4000, wage was Rs. 11500, agriculture was Rs. 28727.27 and dairy farm was Rs. 2000. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.40500, wage was Rs. 8375, dairy farm was Rs.2000 and agriculture was Rs. 60090.91. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from business was Rs.4000, agriculture was Rs. 50000 and goat farming was Rs. 2000. The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 34 coconut trees in their field and also planted 1 coconut tree in their back yard. 6 The results indicated that, households have planted 1 eucalyptus, 5 teak, 58 neem, 1 tarmind tree, 3 pongamia trees and 1 banyan tree in their field and also planted 2 neem tree in their back yard. The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4744.19 for land development, Rs. 441.86 in irrigation facility and 302.33 Rs.2714.29 for improved crop production. Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6846.15 for land development, Rs. 769.23 for irrigation facility and Rs.384.62 for improved crop production. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3666.67 for land development, Rs. 83.33 in irrigation facility and Rs.666.67 for improved crop production. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6454.55 for land development and Rs. 727.27 in irrigation facility. The results indicated that, for land development, 31.11 per cent of the farmers were depend on government subsidy, 22.22 per cent were depend on loan from the bank. 4.44 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy and 8.89 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank for irrigation facility. Similarly for improved crop production, 4.44 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy. The results indicated that, cotton, onion and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, banana, groundnut, maize and red gram were sold to an extent 13.04 per cent, 90 per cent, 68.75 per cent, 99.77 per cent and 88.89 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, 2.33 percent of the households have sold their produce to agents/ traders, 16.28 per cent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 74.42 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 2.33 percent of the households sold their produce in cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that 18.60 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 72.09 per cent of them have used tractor and 2.33 per cent have used bus as a mode of transport. The results indicated that, 34.88 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 46.15 percent of marginal farmers, 33.33 per cent of small farmers and 45.45 per cent of semi medium farmers. The results indicated that, 65.12 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing including 92.31 per cent of marginal farmers, 58.33 per cent of the small farmers and 81.82 semi medium farmers. The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 90.70 per cent and 11.63 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water. 7 The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 46.51 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, semi medium and medium farmers, 7.69 per cent of marginal and 8.33 per cent of small farmers had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 93.02 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 6.98 per cent of the sampled households does not possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 60.47 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 50 per cent of the landless, 69.23 percent of the marginal, 50 per cent of the small, 63.64 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers. The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 53.49 per cent, 51.16 per cent, 39.53 per cent, 58.14 per cent, 51.16 per cent, 48.84 per cent and 9.30 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, pulses, oilseed; vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 46.51 per cent, 48.84 per cent, 60.47 per cent, 27.91 per cent, 23.26 per cent, 27.91 per cent and 6.98 per cent of the households respectively. The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil problem was experienced by 72.09 per cent of the households, and wild animal menace on farm field was experienced by 62.79 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases was experienced by 27.91 per cent of the farmers, inadequacy of irrigation water was experienced by 13.95 per cent of the households, high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was experienced 44.19 per cent and high rate of interest on credit was experienced by 13.95 per cent of the farmers, low price for the agricultural commodities was experienced by 18.60 per cent of the farmers, lack of marketing facilities in the area was experienced 16.28 per cent of the households, inadequate of extension services experienced by 11.63 per cent of the households, lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market was experienced by 34.88 per cent of the households, less rainfall was experienced by 51.16 per cent and of the farmers and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) 11.63 per cent of the households. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project