Numerous researches of the art of music in a regional aspect have become one of the priority directions of the Ukrainian musical science. It is an important constituent of an objective representation of musical artistic achievements in the national and foreign musical world. Elucidation of the musical process in villages, towns and cities of Ukraine (socio-locuses – V.Kulyk) is quite necessary for a revival of our national musical gains, which in the period of the Soviet musical historiography were analysed insufficiently. The topicality of regional researches lies in a possibility of reproducing the history of Ukrainian music in all its versatility and integrity in counterbalance to the typical for the previous decades fragmentariness. Investigation of forms and peculiarities of the music life of cities and towns of Ukraine, cognition of their sense relatedness in the context of peculiarities of the national mentality predetermines a basis for the scientific conception of regional scientific investigations of the present day Ukrainian musical science. The direction of the vectors of the Ukrainian philosophical, culturological, socio-aesthetical thought, ethnomusicology, musical sociology at regional problems is predetermined by the present day socio-political conditions of democratization and humanization of social relations in Ukraine, the possibility of cities, towns and settlements of every region on the basis of an all-national program to revive many arts traditions of the past days.In such a way it becomes possible to learn concrete facts about the locality which has its own historical and cultural value but is not adjusted to the generally accepted scheme. It is worth while to mention works by such culturologists as V.Chernets, V.Leontiyeva, V.Lychkovakh as well as the historians P.Tronko, G.Samoilenko, M.Vodzinsky in the row of key papers on theoretical aspects of regional problems. Many scientific papers, specifically, by M.Zahaikevich, K.Shamayeva, O.Kononova,T. Martynyuk, V. Kuzyk, B. Filtz,V. Mitlytska, L.Kyianovska, O.Vasyuta, A.Lytvynenko and O.Shapovalova are dedicated to the problems of moulding regional arts environment as a systemic organization of musical culture. The goal of the article is elucidation of some ethno-regional aspects of the Ukrainian musicology in the context of systemic understanding of the national musical legacy.Musical regionalistics, as a comparatively young branch of Ukrainian musicology, dwells at the stage of forming scientific and practical context. Historically, being built up in the 1960-ies within historical musicology at the beginning of the XXI century it became a complex direction of researches not only of the musical culture of majorcities, such as Kyiv, Kharkov, Lviv, Odessa, but also of small towns and villages of Ukraine, as "cultural socio-locuses" in which there exist artistic forms of creative activities of their inhabitants belonging to both professionals and amateurs: composers, singers, musical instrument players, choire, orchestra, dancing groups of educational and cultural establishments. The term belongs to the researcher V.Kuzyk, who for the first time adapts the theory of cultural localization on the national Ukrainian ground from the position of historical and political statehood.A considerable part of regional problems is the study of musical local lore, in the field of whose investigation lies finding and working out of local musical lore material (archives, mass media, publicism, private documents of cultural workers); interaction of the material-natural (architectural edifices, the landscape of the town) and spiritual and cultural (art traditions in a historical aspect, polyethnical structure of the population, renditorial and composer activities) factors in the musical surroundings of the town, as well as forms of participation of its citizens in local designs and arrangemnts (urban, regional, national, international competitions and festivals, fairs, concerts, calendar and folk ritual festivities). In such a way a revival of culture and arts connections of generations is exercised, whose natural evolution had been broken by the pre-programmed policy of the totalitarian epoch.In the categorial and conceptual sphere of music folklore the term "musical surroundings" is being widely spread. It is a totality of all the musical aspects of the culture of a town (village, region), which is formed due to the activities of professional and amateur musicians, representatives of the academic and folk musical culture.Undersnanding (comprehension) of its essence is conducive to the cognition of social experience of nations, historical and cultual memory of ethno-communities, gives an opportunity to find out local-regional peculiarities of musical life of certain socio-locuses. Symptoms of its formation and development are historical continuity in preservation of musical values; the dynamics of music movement in the dialectics of traditions and innovating; reproductive and creative activities of citizens directed on creating and dissemination of music aesthetic values ; existence of establishments of culture and education as places of materialization by subjects of musical creative activity (renditional and composer's). An essential factor of the musical environment is the musical art as a philosophical category of culture which influences the inner spiritual life of people, as a psychological necessity of the nation, indicator of social maturity, synthethizer of artistic experience.Thus, the regional direction of investigations of Ukrainian musicology at the present day stage is characterized by cognition of forms of music life of a small town, attracts researchers' attention by idiosyncratic manifestations offolk and professional creativeness in it, which organically and harmoniously fits in the all-national space of Ukraine,European and world musical culture. ; Стаття посвящена раскрытию составляющих региональной проблематики современного украинского музыковедения, среди которых музыкальное краеведение, музыкальная среда. Они являются основными в исследовании музыкальной культуры и искусства в большых и малых городах Украины. ; Стаття присвячена розкриттю складових регіональної проблематики сучасного українського музикознавства, серед яких музичне краєзнавство, музичне середовище. Вони є провідними в дослідженні музичної культури й мистецтва у великих та малих містах України.
La arquitectura de Josep Maria Fargas y Enric Tous surgió en unos años en que la industria de la construcción dentro de España presentaba un importante retraso respecto de los avances tecnológicos exhibidos en las construcciones de los países del centro de Europa y Estados Unidos. Fargas y Tous, en un intento por actualizar la arquitectura local, se embarcaron en una búsqueda de nuevas alternativas constructivas que dio como fruto la producción de obras con un profundo sentido de la cualidad estética de los materiales, basado en las nociones de precisión, claridad estructural y flexibilidad del sistema modular. De aquí destacan obras como la Casa Mestre (1956), la Tienda Georg Jensen (1958), la Casa Ballbé (1962) y la Fábrica Dallant (1963), que marcaron un periodo de producción inicial que posteriormente, con la apertura del mercado español y la llegada de las nuevas tecnologías, se vio desvirtuado por un manejo formalista de los nuevos medios. Las obras antes mencionadas, al momento de su aparición, se vieron enfrentadas a la oposición de la tendencia Realista, que a principios de los años sesenta comenzaba a adquirir mucha cohesión dentro de Cataluña, lo que llegó a poner en entredicho gran parte de los logros que la arquitectura moderna había alcanzado hasta ese momento y, de paso, el valioso aporte a la arquitectura local que Fargas y Tous estaban realizando. El alto grado de ideologización –incluso politización– en que había caído la arquitectura, tendió un velo conceptual sobre obras que se basaban simplemente en los aspectos más empíricos del proyecto de arquitectura. Para mayor infortunio, y por distintas circunstancias, tanto la Casa Mestre como la Tienda Georg Jensen, la Casa Ballbé y la Fábrica Dallant fueron desapareciendo como obras, por lo que su revisión se reduce actualmente al análisis de unos pocos planos y fotografías originales en blanco y negro. La tecnología actual permite reconstruir digitalmente estas obras, lo que abre la posibilidad de volver a experimentar –al menos de manera análoga a la realidad– la vivencia de sus espacios y también, como producto del propio proceso de reconstrucción, acceder a un análisis pormenorizado, desde el emplazamiento hasta el detalle constructivo, de los distintos criterios de configuración de la forma con que cada proyecto se llevó a cabo. Por lo tanto, la reconstrucción digital que aquí se propone es fundamentalmente un medio que posibilita la comprensión de los valores arquitectónicos más esenciales de obras de gran calidad, cuya revisión en profundidad se ha ido postergando en el tiempo, al parecer como consecuencia de la infravaloración con que la crítica las ha estigmatizado, y al mismo tiempo por el olvido y las limitaciones de cara a una investigación que comporta la extinción de estas obras. ; The architecture of Josep Maria Fargas (Barcelona, 1925) and Enric Tous (Barcelona , 1924); emerged in a period of years where Spain's construction industry showed an important delay in regards of the technological advances from the countries of central Europe and in the United States. Fargas and Tous, in an attempt to update the local atchitecture, entered on a quest of new constructive alternatives that ended up on the production of works with a deep sense of the aesthetic qualities of the materials, based on the notions of precision, structural clarity and flexibility of the modular system. From here we can distinguish works as the "Casa Mestre" (1956), the store "Georg Jensen" (1958), the "Casa Balbé" (1962) and the "Fábrica Dallant" (1963); that set a period of initial production that later, with the opening of the Spanish market and the advent of new technologies, became distorted by a formalist management of the new media. The already mentioned works, at the moment of their emergence, were faced to the opposition to the 'realistic' tendency that, at the beginning of the sixties decade, started to get a lot of cohesion inside Catalonia, what put the majority oft he achievements that the modern architecture had reachad so far in an injunction, and, also, the valuable input that Fargas and Tous were achieving to the modern architecture as well. The high grade of ideology that the architecture had fallen in lay a conceptual veil over the works that were based on the most empiric aspects of the architecture project. To more misfortune, and for different reasons, both the "Casa Mestre", the store "Georg Jensen", the "Casa Ballbé" and the "Fábrica Dallant", started disappearing as works, thus their review gets reduced nowadays to the analysis of a few plans and original photography in black and white. The current technologies allows to digitally reconstruct these works, what opens the possibllity to re-experience -at least in an analogous way to reality- the experience of their spots and also, as a product of its own process of reconstruction, get access to a detailed analysis of the different criteria of configuration of the way that each project got carried out. Therefore, the digital reconstruction that's proposed here, it's fundamentally a way that makes possible the comprehension of the most essential architectonic values of works of a great quality, whose profound review has been deferring in time, apparently as a consequence of the underestimating appraisals that have stigmatized them, and, at the same time because of the oblivion and the limitations that have faced an investigation that compromises the extinction of these works. That's how this investigation work it's centered in the obtaining of a series of unpublished pictures that made possible the route -this time from the computer- of four works that, besides their architectonic qualities, are bearers of an instructive quality that allows them to be valid and active until today. ; Postprint (published version)
La arquitectura de Josep Maria Fargas y Enric Tous surgió en unos años en que la industria de la construcción dentro de España presentaba un importante retraso respecto de los avances tecnológicos exhibidos en las construcciones de los países del centro de Europa y Estados Unidos. Fargas y Tous, en un intento por actualizar la arquitectura local, se embarcaron en una búsqueda de nuevas alternativas constructivas que dio como fruto la producción de obras con un profundo sentido de la cualidad estética de los materiales, basado en las nociones de precisión, claridad estructural y flexibilidad del sistema modular. De aquí destacan obras como la Casa Mestre (1956), la Tienda Georg Jensen (1958), la Casa Ballbé (1962) y la Fábrica Dallant (1963), que marcaron un periodo de producción inicial que posteriormente, con la apertura del mercado español y la llegada de las nuevas tecnologías, se vio desvirtuado por un manejo formalista de los nuevos medios. Las obras antes mencionadas, al momento de su aparición, se vieron enfrentadas a la oposición de la tendencia Realista, que a principios de los años sesenta comenzaba a adquirir mucha cohesión dentro de Cataluña, lo que llegó a poner en entredicho gran parte de los logros que la arquitectura moderna había alcanzado hasta ese momento y, de paso, el valioso aporte a la arquitectura local que Fargas y Tous estaban realizando. El alto grado de ideologización –incluso politización– en que había caído la arquitectura, tendió un velo conceptual sobre obras que se basaban simplemente en los aspectos más empíricos del proyecto de arquitectura. Para mayor infortunio, y por distintas circunstancias, tanto la Casa Mestre como la Tienda Georg Jensen, la Casa Ballbé y la Fábrica Dallant fueron desapareciendo como obras, por lo que su revisión se reduce actualmente al análisis de unos pocos planos y fotografías originales en blanco y negro. La tecnología actual permite reconstruir digitalmente estas obras, lo que abre la posibilidad de volver a experimentar –al menos de manera análoga a la realidad– la vivencia de sus espacios y también, como producto del propio proceso de reconstrucción, acceder a un análisis pormenorizado, desde el emplazamiento hasta el detalle constructivo, de los distintos criterios de configuración de la forma con que cada proyecto se llevó a cabo. Por lo tanto, la reconstrucción digital que aquí se propone es fundamentalmente un medio que posibilita la comprensión de los valores arquitectónicos más esenciales de obras de gran calidad, cuya revisión en profundidad se ha ido postergando en el tiempo, al parecer como consecuencia de la infravaloración con que la crítica las ha estigmatizado, y al mismo tiempo por el olvido y las limitaciones de cara a una investigación que comporta la extinción de estas obras. ; The architecture of Josep Maria Fargas (Barcelona, 1925) and Enric Tous (Barcelona , 1924); emerged in a period of years where Spain's construction industry showed an important delay in regards of the technological advances from the countries of central Europe and in the United States. Fargas and Tous, in an attempt to update the local atchitecture, entered on a quest of new constructive alternatives that ended up on the production of works with a deep sense of the aesthetic qualities of the materials, based on the notions of precision, structural clarity and flexibility of the modular system. From here we can distinguish works as the "Casa Mestre" (1956), the store "Georg Jensen" (1958), the "Casa Balbé" (1962) and the "Fábrica Dallant" (1963); that set a period of initial production that later, with the opening of the Spanish market and the advent of new technologies, became distorted by a formalist management of the new media. The already mentioned works, at the moment of their emergence, were faced to the opposition to the 'realistic' tendency that, at the beginning of the sixties decade, started to get a lot of cohesion inside Catalonia, what put the majority oft he achievements that the modern architecture had reachad so far in an injunction, and, also, the valuable input that Fargas and Tous were achieving to the modern architecture as well. The high grade of ideology that the architecture had fallen in lay a conceptual veil over the works that were based on the most empiric aspects of the architecture project. To more misfortune, and for different reasons, both the "Casa Mestre", the store "Georg Jensen", the "Casa Ballbé" and the "Fábrica Dallant", started disappearing as works, thus their review gets reduced nowadays to the analysis of a few plans and original photography in black and white. The current technologies allows to digitally reconstruct these works, what opens the possibllity to re-experience -at least in an analogous way to reality- the experience of their spots and also, as a product of its own process of reconstruction, get access to a detailed analysis of the different criteria of configuration of the way that each project got carried out. Therefore, the digital reconstruction that's proposed here, it's fundamentally a way that makes possible the comprehension of the most essential architectonic values of works of a great quality, whose profound review has been deferring in time, apparently as a consequence of the underestimating appraisals that have stigmatized them, and, at the same time because of the oblivion and the limitations that have faced an investigation that compromises the extinction of these works. That's how this investigation work it's centered in the obtaining of a series of unpublished pictures that made possible the route -this time from the computer- of four works that, besides their architectonic qualities, are bearers of an instructive quality that allows them to be valid and active until today. ; Postprint (published version)
Dievturība (dievturi - "God keepers", "people who live in harmony with God") is a newly created religious tradition having appeared in the second part of the 1920s – 1930s, its most essential source includes materials of Latvian folklore and folk traditions. These are interpreted by construing a religious ethical theory and creating a religion which is alternative to Christianity, with its own doctrine and rituals, and the conception of Latvianness in culture and politics. Latvianness is the most essential concept of cultural politics to which all activities of the dievturi are subjected (exaltation, family celebrations (krustabas, vedības (marriage), bedības (funeral)) as well as seasonal rituals, cultural historical excursions, tidying and spiritual restoration of the sacral sites (sacred places, castle mounds), folklore activities, article publications in mass media, summer thematic camps in the countryside marked by intensive mastering and cultivation of history and culture, celebration of Latvian public holidays and the most important remembrance days. Contemporary dievturi groups are seeking for new ideas in order to develop and popularize their conceptions, which can partly be characterized as a cultural political programme for theoretical (doctrine) and practical (exaltations, ceremonies, seasonal rituals) realization of Latvianness and its components. Within this publication, creativity means the system of ideas and values that promotes the development and perspectives of dievturi groups as well as includes them into a wider cultural political environment thus performing a culture-creating job. A special attention is paid to the essential ideas and values guiding the creativity of contemporary Latvian dievturi groups, making ample use of storyteller habitus, thus intentionally allowing the domination of group participant discourse. The two main directions of dievturi group participant creativity are the development of their doctrine (teaching) and the ritual practice (exaltations). These directions allow to attract wide attention of the society and mass media, new participants and supporters, to influence the political and cultural processes in Latvia. An important part in the doctrinal reflections of the dievturi, especially in the ritual practice (exaltations), has always been taken by Latvian literature writings. A selective choice of these supplement the textual canon of the dievturi continuing the tradition in line with "the mood of Latvian folk songs" and attributing a more modern shape and world outlook concepts to dievturi undertakings. The aim of an exaltation is always associated with the main cultural political concept of the dievturi – Latvianness, namely, to make Latvianness more active, to offer an opportunity to approach Latvianness, make efforts for deeper comprehension of it, being aware and living through it, although thematically it may be dedicated to separate components of Latvianness (people, land, language, God, Māra, Laima, work, virtues, human life, and the like). Also, the most essential ideas and values of dievturība – gender equality, domesticity, antiglobalism, ecology, traditional marriage formula, life style and appearance, environment (for example, use of Latvian language), music, art and literature priorities (classical and/or national music, use of local building materials and ornaments (all ornaments have been observed in Latvia's nature), writers, poets and playwrights who most precisely depict the "Latvian spirit" – derive from folk songs and the cultural concepts deriving thereof. Activity in the field of Latvianness (ethnicity conception) is in accord with the activity in favour of the future of the Latvian people, symbolical non-forgetting of culture correspond to generating of culture. This attributes a political and social dimension to the cultural activity of dievturi. Dievturība does not perform an official cultural politics of cultural values, heritage, traditions etc., this is a task for politicians; however, it is at least a marginal participant of the cultural political sphere. Placing ethnicity, or the Latvian discourse, at the centre of cultural politics encompasses the range of further impact when the seeming encapsulation within the margins of culture are replaced by reflections on Latvian economy, guidelines in education and science, health care system, axiological juxtaposition of the countryside and city. Also, the evaluation and criticism of the activity of the Christian Church by the dievturi is connected with the conception of Latvianness. Dievturi strongly disclaim Christianity and any chance of mutual cooperation (and also vice versa), protest against its monopoly position in Latvian society, consider Christianity a historically alien religion having been forced upon Latvians and demanding the status of a traditional religion in Latvia also for dievturība including, for example, the right to wed, to celebrate religious festivals. The results of field research do not allow to speak about dievturība today as a strong and united manifestation of Latvian religious experience and way of life. Rather, it is possible to register (after the decline of the movement at the end of the 1990s and at the beginning of the 2000s) a quite consistent and sufficiently active revival which is connected with the appearance of new persons and creative ideas among Latvian dievturi. The future events depend on the fact whether dievturi themselves would be able to solve the protracted inner inconsistencies and find a uniting grounds for further development of the movement. The article is based on the study results obtained during the 2006–2008 field research carried out in dievturi groups (interviews with group leaders, participants and individual representatives, transcripts of audio and video materials). The study was carried out with the financial support of the project "Society and lifestyles" and using its accepted methods – ethnographic description, semi-structured interviews and methods of visual anthropology (photography, filming) and instructions by the Ethical Commission (for example use of assumed names for storytellers).
In: Polesel , F 2016 , Modelling the Fate of Xenobiotic Trace Chemicals via Wastewater Treatment and Agricultural Resource Reuse . Technical University of Denmark, DTU Environment , Kgs. Lyngby .
Som et resultat af menneskelige aktiviteter er lægemidler og biocider allestedsnærværende i miljøet på sporstofniveau. Store mængder af disse stoffer, også kendt som miljøfremmede stoffer (på Engelsk XTCs: Xenobiotic Trace Chemicals), frigives dagligt fra: (i) husholdninger og sundhedsfaciliteter, som følge af indtagelse og bortskaffelse; (ii) dyrehold og tilsvarende faciliteter, som følge af dyrs indtagelse; og (iii) industrianlæg. En betydelig del af disse udledninger når frem til kommunale renseanlæg, hvor de miljøfremmede stoffer kun delvist bliver fjernet. I sidste ende udledes de miljøfremmede stoffer således til miljøet, f.eks. til ferskvandsområder der fungerer som recipienter for renseanlæg, hvor de udgør en trussel for levende organismer. Renseanlæg er blevet identificeret som en vigtig punktkilde for udledning af miljøfremmede stoffer til miljøet. På grund af det høje antal af markedsførte og forbrugt kemikalier, og de usikkerheder forbundet til prøveudtagning og analysemetoder, er der dog stadig store udfordringer forbundet med kvantificering af i hvor høj grad miljøfremmede stoffer bliver fjernet i forbindelse spildevandsrensning. Udvikling af robuste modelleringsværktøjer til at forudsige miljøfremmede stoffers skæbne i renseanlæg kan hjælpe med at overvinde denne udfordring. Men dybtgående forståelse af de mekanismer og processer, der styrer miljøfremmede stoffers fjernelse under spildevandsrensning, er stadig nødvendig. Målet med nærværende ph.d.-projekt var at udfylde huller i vores viden omkring modellering af miljøfremmed stoffers skæbne i renseanlæg og efterfølgende. Vi ville gerne forbedre forståelsen af miljøfremmede stoffers skæbne og dermed forbedre modellernes forudsigelsesevne: (i) ved processkalaen, med fokus på sorption og biologisk nedbrydning af miljøfremmede stoffer i biologiske renseanlæg; (ii) i fuldskala renseanlæg, hvor vi ville vurdere effekten af gendannelse og driften af renseanlægget på fjernelsesgraden; og (iii) i integrerede renseanlæg-landbrugssystemer. Forskellige modelleringsværktøjer, velegnede til hvert specifikt formål i undersøgelser, blev udviklet, udvidet eller anvendt innovativt. Følgende velkendte modeller blev anvendt: Activated Sludge Modelling framework for Xenobiotics (ASM-X); den generiske renseanlægsmodel SimpleTreat Activity; og den dynamiske jord-plante model til forudsigelse af kemikaliers skæbne i landbrugssystemer. Vi kombinerede eksperimentelle og modelbaserede observationer til at vurdere sorption af ioniserbare miljøfremmede stoffer til aktiveret slam og nedbrydning af miljøfremmede stoffer i "moving bed"-biofilmreaktorer (MBBRs). De fleste miljøfremmede stoffer er ioniserbare, og kan således være til stede i neutral og / eller ioniseret form i spildevand. Vi viste, at pH-betingelser, og i mindre grad, dosering af jernsalt til kemisk phosphorfjernelse, med sikkerhed påvirker faststof-væskepartitioneringen af det zwitterioniske antibiotikum ciprofloxacin i aktivt slam. Elektrostatiske interaktioner og kompleksdannelse er således dominerende sorptionsmekanismer. Vi observerede non-lineær sorption (n=0.62–1.33) under forskellige pH-, redox- og jernsalt doseringsforhold. Vi foreslog derfor en udvidelse til traditionelle sorptionsmodeller for ciprofloxacin og andre zwitterioniske miljøfremmede stoffer, som beskriver ionisering som funktion af pH og ændret sorptionspotentiale for ioniserede stoffer. Miljøfremmede stoffer findes typisk i spildevand i koncetrationsniveauer mellem ng L-1 og ug L-1, hvilket medfører at de ikke kan bruges som substrater for vækst. Vi vurderede effekten af primære metaboliske processer i MBBRs på fjernelse af miljøfremmede stoffer. Undersøgelsen blev udført ved at sammenligne kinetikken i pre-denitrificerende MBBRs kørt i enkelttrins- og tretrinskonfigurationer. Sidstnævnte konfiguration produceret en langvarig udsættelse af biofilmen for faldende belastning med COD, hvilket påvirkede kinetikken af heterotrof denitrifikation og nedbrydning af miljøfremmede stoffer. Vi fandt at nedbrydningskonstanten for en række miljøfremmede stoffer var afhængig af denitrifikationspotentialet i biofilmen, hvilket indikerer, at nedbrydning af miljøfremmede stoffer var en co-metabolisk proces. Der er beskrevet en række faktorer der påvirker fjernelsen af miljøfremmede stoffer i fuldskala renseanlæg. Relevant effekt kan tilskrives (i) faststoffers opholdstid i den biologiske rensningsproces; og (ii) dannelse af miljøfremmede stoffer via f.eks. delvis nedbrydning af menneskelige metabolitter. Mange miljøfremmede stoffer udskilles af mennesker i form af metabolitter, som efterfølgende kan omdannes til moderstoffet igen. I dette projekt vurderede vi effekten af gendannelse og faststofsopholdstid på sulfamethoxazols skæbne i fuldskala renseanlæg. Vi brugte en metode baseret på sammenligning af ASM-X modelforudsigelser med værdier fra litteraturen. Vores undersøgelse viste, at effekten af gendannelse under sekundær spildevandsrensning er bestemt af: (i) størrelsen af renseanlæggets opland, idet høj grad af gendannelse i kloaksystemet kan forventes i store oplande; og (ii) typen af opland (med eller uden hospital). Dette peger på anvendelsen af en integreret tilgang til miljøfremmede stoffers skæbne-vurdering i spildevandsssystemer (kloaksystemer og rensningsanlæg). Endvidere forudså vi og fandt forbedret fjernelse af sulfamethoxazol i renseanlæg der kører med faststofsopholdstider på mere end 16 dage. Ved faststofsopholdstider over denne værdi kan der forventes forbedrede nedbrydningskinetikker på grund af vækst i langsomtvoksende organismer (f.eks. specialiserede nedbrydere) eller på grund af blandede substratudnyttelsesstrategier. Miljøfremmede stoffer bliver som regel kun delvist nedbrudt i renseanlæg, og er derfor tilstede i udledninger fra renseanlæg og i spildevandsslammet. Udbringning af slam på marker og brug af renset spildevand eller ferskvand der modtager renset spildevand til kunstvanding af marker medfører i sidste ende optagelse af miljøfremmede stoffer i fødevareafgrøder. I dette projekt udviklede og afprøvede vi et generisk simuleringsværktøj til at forudsige miljøfremmede stoffers skæbne fra forbrug til optagelse i vinterhvede via nedbrydning i renseanlæg i en række geografiske scenarier i EU. Værktøjet kombinerede SimpleTreat Activity-modellen og den dynamiske jord-plante model, med særligt fokus på at forudsige skæbnen af ioniserbare stoffer. Ionisering har, som vist i vores første studie, store konsekvenser på faststof-væske partitioneringen, og på fordelingen ind i kornets væv. Vi udvalgte tre miljøfremmede stoffer som anvendes i store mængder, nemlig biocidet triclosan, det vanddrivende middel furosemid og antibiotikummet ciprofloxacin. Vi valgte tre reelle geografiske scenarier for områder i Den Europæiske Union og brugte gennemsnitlige forbrugsdata eller udledningsværdier fra forskellige EU-lande. Vi fandt at furosemid blev meget svagt nedbrudt i spildevandsrensning og blev signifikant akkumuleret i hvede. Optagelse af furosemid var større når udledning til jord-plante-systemet opstod via kunstvanding med ferskvand, i forhold til udbringning af slam. Set i lyset af de få eksperimentelle data indikerer vores modelberegninger et behov for uddybende undersøgelser af miljøfremmede stoffers skæbne i landbrugssystemer. Ophobning i fødevareafgrøder kan resultere i indirekte eksponering af mennesker for miljøfremmede stoffer via kosten; denne eksponering kan estimeres ved hjælp modelsimuleringer. Det præsenterede simuleringsværktøj kan således anvendes til pre-screening og prioritering af kemikalier samt til at undersøge betydningen af miljøfremmede stoffers emmisionsveje (f.eks. udbringning af gødning irrigation med behandlet spildevand) i forbindelse med akkumulering i fødevareafgrøder. ; As a result of widespread human activities, pharmaceuticals and biocides are ubiquitously present at trace levels in the environment. Large amounts of these substances, also identified as xenobiotic trace chemicals (XTCs), are released daily from: (i) households and healthcare facilities, following human consumption and disposal; (ii) husbandry and other analogous facilities, following veterinary consumption; and (iii) industrial facilities. A significant fraction of these emissions reaches municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), where XTCs undergo incomplete removal partly due to WWTP design limitations. These chemicals are thus eventually released to the environment, e.g. in freshwater bodies receiving WWTP effluents, representing a threat to living organisms. WWTPs have been generally identified as a major point source of XTC emissions to the environment. Nevertheless, due to the high number of marketed and consumed chemicals, and to the uncertainties associated to sampling and analytical methodologies, quantifying the elimination of XTCs during wastewater treatment still remains a challenge. Developing robust modelling tools to predict the fate of XTCs in WWTPs can help overcoming this challenge. However, in-depth understanding of mechanisms and processes, determining XTCs removal during wastewater treatment, is still required. This PhD thesis aimed at filling knowledge gaps in the field of XTC fate modelling during and beyond wastewater treatment. We aimed at improving the comprehension of XTC fate, and thus the predictive capabilities of fate models: (i) at process scale, with a focus on sorption and biological transformation of XTCs in biological treatment systems; (ii) in full-scale WWTPs, assessing the impact of retransformation and WWTP operation on XTC elimination; and (iii) in integrated WWTP-agricultural systems. Different modelling tools, suiting the specific purposes of our investigations, were developed, extended and/or innovatively applied. Fate models used as reference in this thesis include: the Activated Sludge Modelling framework for Xenobiotics (ASM-X); the generic WWTP model SimpleTreat Activity; and the dynamic soil-plant model for fate prediction in agricultural systems. Experimental and model-based observations were combined to assess sorption of ionizable XTCs onto activated sludge and XTC biotransformation in moving bed biofilm reactors (MBBRs). Most XTCs are in fact multispecies chemicals, being present in neutral and/or ionized form in wastewater. We demonstrated that pH conditions and, to a lesser extent, iron salt dosing for chemical phosphorus removal can significantly affect solid-liquid partitioning of the zwitterionic antibiotic ciprofloxacin onto activated sludge. Electrostatic interactions and complexation are thus dominating sorption mechanisms. Under a range of pH, redox and iron salt dosing conditions, non-linear sorption (n=0.62–1.33) was observed. Extensions to traditional partitioning models were accordingly proposed for ciprofloxacin and other zwitterionic XTCs, accounting for: (i) high non-linearity of XTC sorption; or (ii) ionization with changing pH and different sorption potential of ionized species. Furthermore, XTCs are typically present in ng L-1 to µg L-1 concentrations in wastewater, being referred to as non-growth substrates, and their biological degradation can be associated with microbial growth processes. In this PhD thesis, we assessed the influence of primary metabolic processes on XTC biotransformation in MBBR biofilm. Our investigation was performed by comparing biotransformation kinetics in pre-denitrifying MBBRs operated in single-stage and three-stage configurations. The latter configuration produced a prolonged biofilm exposure to organic electron donor (COD) loading and complexity tiered by segregated and integrated biofilm reactors, which significantly influenced kinetics of heterotrophic denitrification and XTC biotransformation. Biotransformation rate constants for a number of non-recalcitrant XTCs were found correlated to the denitrification potential of MBBR biofilm, suggesting that XTC degradation occurred via microbial co-metabolism. In addition, enhanced biotransformation kinetics was shown for a number of XTCs (sulfamethoxazole, erythromycin, atenolol) as compared to previous findings for conventional activated sludge. A number of factors have been described to influence the elimination of XTCs in full-scale WWTPs. Specifically, relevant impact was attributed to (i) solid residence time (SRT), at which biological treatment is operated; and (ii) the formation of XTCs due to, e.g., deconjugation of human metabolites. Many XTCs are in fact excreted by humans in the form of conjugates, which can undergo biotic retransformation to parent chemicals. In this PhD thesis, we specifically assessed the influence of retransformation processes and SRT on the fate of sulfamethoxazole in full-scale WWTPs. A methodology based on the comparison of ASM-X predictions and literature data was used. We demonstrated that the impact of retransformation during secondary wastewater treatment is determined by: (i) the size of WWTP catchments, with major in-sewer retransformation expected in large catchments; (ii) the type of catchment (hospital or urban catchment). This evidence accordingly suggests an integrated approach to XTC fate assessment in wastewater systems (sewer networks and WWTPs). Furthermore, improved elimination of sulfamethoxazole was found and predicted in WWTPs operated at SRT greater than 16 d. Beyond this critical SRT, enhanced biotransformation kinetics may occur due to the enrichment of slow-growing organisms (e.g., specialist degraders) or mixed substrate utilization strategies. This finding supported our experimental evidence of enhanced sulfamethoxazole biotransformation kinetics in denitrifying MBBRs. As a result of incomplete biodegradation in WWTPs, XTCs persist in effluents and sewage sludge. Reuse of municipal biosolids and treated wastewater or use of freshwater for agricultural purposes eventually leads to XTC uptake into food crops. In this PhD thesis, we developed and tested a generic simulation tool to predict the fate of XTCs from consumption, through wastewater treatment and eventually to the uptake by winter wheat for a number of geographical scenarios in the European Union. The tool combined was specifically addressed for fate prediction of ionizable XTCs (the biocide triclosan, the diuretic furosemide and the antibiotic ciprofloxacin). Furosemide was found rather persistent to wastewater treatment (removal efficiency ≤ 40%) and to further undergo significant accumulation in wheat. Uptake of furosemide was predicted to increase (+20% of emissions to soil) when emissions to the soil-plant system occurred via freshwater irrigation, as compared to soil amendment with biosolids. Due to the scarce availability of experimental data, our model predictions indicate the need of deepening investigations of XTC fate in agricultural systems. Accumulation in food crops may result in indirect human exposure to XTCs via dietary intake, which can be eventually estimated using model predictions. The presented simulation tool can thus be used for pre-screening and priority setting of chemicals, and to explore the impact of additional XTC emission pathways (e.g., manure application, irrigation with reclaimed WWTP effluent) in terms of food crop accumulation.
Public transit systems differ from many other government enterprises in that they charge a fee, or fare, in much the way that private businesses charge for their services. Transit fares are typically of two sorts: flat or differentiated. For decades transportation scholars have argued in favor of flexible, differentiated transit fares, which vary by mode, distance, and/or time-of-day to reflect differences in the marginal costs of service provision (Cervero and Wachs 1982; Cervero 1981; Hodge 1995). Such fare policies, researchers contend, could greatly increase the efficiency, efficacy, and equity of transit service. Research on transit costs suggests that short, off-peak trips tend to be relatively inexpensive to provide, while longer, peak-period trips are more expensive (Taylor, Garrett, and Iseki 2000). Accordingly, varying fares to reflect these differences in costs would encourage passengers to consume more inexpensive-to-serve trips, and be more judicious in consuming more expensive-to-serve trips, thereby increasing the cost-effectiveness of transit service. Recent technological advances, particularly smart cards, have greatly reduced the operational and administrative obstacles to charging differentiated time- or distance-based fares. However, despite an established body of research on the potential benefits of flexible fares, relatively few transit agencies employ them, and over the past two decades many have actually moved away from variable fare structures and toward simpler fares by dropping zonebased fares. And while many U.S. transit agencies that have adopted smart card technology, very few of these adopting agencies have moved toward variable fares. The increasingly widespread implementation of smart farecards makes implementing variable pricing far easier and more reliable than in years past. As smart cards become more ubiquitous, will transit systems gradually reverse course and begin implementing differentiated fares? Will political and institutional resistance to variable pricing hold firm, suggesting that implementation was never the principal obstacle? Or have flat fares become so thoroughly inculcated in transit practice that most transit managers are unaware of the now decades old research on the benefits of differentiated fares? This report explores these questions. To better understand motivations for fare changes and the potential for implementing marginal cost pricing, we reviewed the literature on transit fares and pricing, conducted indepth interviews with California transit officials, and administered a nationwide survey of transit agency CEOs, planners and analysts, and board members on the goals that shape fare policies. Collectively, these interviews and survey find that, with respect to fare policies, transit agencies tend to be reactive to budgetary pressures and reluctant to change fare structures when changing fare levels. Despite this observed lack of strategic thinking with respect to fares, we do see in our survey data some, albeit limited, interest in distance- and time-based fares, especially among agencies that have or soon will introduce smart cards. But any opportunities to move toward differentiated fares created by smartcard adoption are constrained by an industry where simple, flat fares are the norm and were transit managers are risk-averse and seek to minimize public scrutiny and criticism. Smart cards, in other words, are a necessary but not sufficient means of fare innovation in public transit. Beyond this general observation, our interview and survey results collectively suggest three specific findings with respect to transit fare setting: 1. With respect to fare policies, transit agencies tend to be reactive to budgetary pressures and reluctant to change fare structures when changing fare levels. Our survey results find that systematic evaluations of fare policies are subject to and often displaced by the immediate needs of an agency's budget. Respondents indicated that the primary consideration for changing fares is budgetary need, implying a focus on near-term responses to fiscal shortfalls in setting fare policies. Changing fare policies to improve farebox recovery ratios, possibly through marginal cost pricing, which research suggests may improve a given agency's fiscal health over the long term received considerably less consideration. Rational (i.e., cost- or criteria-based) fare setting policies are viewed as important, but in practice the setting of transit fares appears to be almost exclusively budget-driven and fare increases are more often than not induced by fiscal crises. Because transit systems depend so heavily on subsidies, large swings in tax revenues – especially during the current, prolonged economic downturn – can make transit budgets volatile. When rising costs and/or cuts in subsidies threaten service, fare increases are often put on the table in conjunction with service cuts – at what some would argue is precisely the wrong time. While economists have long asserted the superiority of cost-based pricing on economic efficiency grounds, agency policy setting driven by near-term budgetary volatility almost certainly limits reflection on and adoption of such strategies. This finding also suggests that the crisis-induced and budget-driven fare setting processes may not themselves be the problem, but rather are a manifestation of unclear or contradictory goals. Clearly defined and congruent agency goals and objectives allow staff to work toward given objectives, and board members to defend their decisions in light of these v objectives. But given the often competing and contradictory goals for public transit (reduce congestion and emissions, serve the needs of the poor and disabled, keep subsidies low, provide quality employment for workers, keep fares low, etc.), goal-driven pricing of transit services has proven elusive. 2. There is some, albeit limited, interest in distance- and time-based fares, especially among agencies that have or soon will introduce smart cards. While scholars and researchers have long argued for transit pricing based on principles of economic efficiency, in practice, most agencies pursue fare policies that appear to favor administrative efficiency (e.g. keeping fare collection simple) and effectiveness (e.g. simple and low transit fares, unlimited use passes that reward frequent riders). Our survey results underscore that even with increasing technological ability to do so, a majority transit agencies are unlikely to implement distance-based or time-of-day pricing anytime in the near future. According to the American Public Transportation Association (APTA) (2012), 23 percent of transit operators nationwide currently employ some form of distance-based fare pricing and just 6 percent time of day pricing. While only 6 percent of the respondents to our survey who had recently adopted smart cards reported a move to time- or distance-based pricing as a result, nearly a quarter (24%) of those planning to adopt smart cards said that they expect to use them to implement some form of distance-based pricing, and fully 18 percent report the same for time-of-day pricing. This suggests that while resistance to variable pricing remains widespread, at least some of this resistance is likely due to the operational challenges of implementing differentiated pricing in the absence of smart cards. And as those operational vi challenges are reduced by smartcards, the longstanding trend away from differentiated fares may begin to reverse. 3. Transit agencies are risk-averse and seek to minimize public scrutiny of any fare changes. Our survey results emphasize that transit officials seek to ensure their actions avoid public scrutiny and negative publicity, which substantially inhibits implementing variable cost pricing for two reasons. First, implementing variable fare pricing in almost all cases would be a radical departure from the flat fare status quo, and would thus subject a transit agency to financial scrutiny, heightened media attention, and increased lawmaker inquiry – all of which transit officials report they seek to avoid. Secondly, the transit managers we surveyed report that any fare increases will subject their agency to public scrutiny. Concerns over the negative consequences of fare changes appear to be so embedded that transit managers report focusing far more on the riders they might lose from any fare changes than the riders they might gain by implementing, for example, variable fares. They are, in other words, highly loss averse. Finally, the transit agency representatives we interviewed collectively reported that they have generally not conducted market research on non-riders or on customer responses to alternative fare structures, and that they have little understanding of the likely ridership gains and losses that might accompany distance- or time-based pricing. But despite the many potential benefits of marginal cost-based transit pricing touted in the literature, our interviews found significant evidence of risk-aversion, goal obfuscation, and cost confusion among transit managers, as predicted by the literature on public administration. The interviews revealed, with sometimes surprising candor, how little some senior transit managers understand their costs of service provision and how they vary. This lack of cost comprehension may be the inevitable result of government agencies' mandate to maintain service without regard to cost or vice versa (Flam, Persson, and Svensson 1982). We hypothesize that transit agencies' mission ambiguity is a leading explanatory factor of the context in which a poor understanding of costs can persist. As has been argued in the literature, this lack of cost comprehension is manifest in the crude ways in which transit fares are set, despite advances in technology that can facilitate a movement away from costabstracted, flat, and uniform fares and toward the cost-specific fares that vary based that cost of service provided. Our findings also suggest that the crisis-induced and budget-driven fare setting processes may be not the cause, but the effect of unclear or altogether absent goals. Even when a de facto pursuit of transit fare pricing effectiveness is evident, the absence of explicit goals to which agency decision-makers can refer, can mean that necessary, routine incremental fare increases are deferred until a distracting and destructive budgetary crisis forces a much larger and more disruptive fare increase on riders. This research suggests that transit agencies could avoid the contentious, fraught, and high-stakes "crises" that currently is all but a sine qua non for raising fares, while offering "fairer" fares that could increase ridership and revenue. However, the transit agency officials we interviewed reported having little information about whether such practices actually affect transit's mode share. Several interviewees reported that they would expect to lose riders with any form of marginal-cost fare pricing, but had no idea whether or how they might gain additional riders under such a schema. Distance-based pricing, for example, could attract passenger for new, inexpensively priced short-trip riders who might have previously found $1.50 for a four block ride to be too much. The extent to which ridership would change depends on the urban context, economic conditions, traveler demographics, and so on; with information on these factors the ridership effects of fare structure changes could be estimated. Absent such information, any move to distance- or time-based pricing is a decidedly risky policy pursuit. Our interviewees also speculated that the larger the sources of operating and capital subsidies, the less likely it is that an agency's managers will focus on farebox recovery ratios. This argument, echoed in the literature (Vrooman 1978; Flam, Persson, and Svensson 1982; Pickrell 1989), suggests that public subsidies have the perverse effect of reducing costefficiency and promoting subsequent budgetary crises. Transit officials also report that in a world where driving is cheap and preferred, transit officials have little choice but to maintain low fares in order to encourage mode shift. Given this unlevel playing field, then, the non-pursuit of marginal cost pricing may be reasonable to expect. But it also suggests that transit officials should support pricing policies such as congestion tolling and parking pricing, which help to internalize the costs of driving. However, our survey results show that transit officials tend to oppose, or are at best lukewarm toward, efforts to pricing the externalities of automobile travel. Just four in 10 of those surveyed support market-rate pricing on on-street parking, and just 27 percent support high occupancy/ toll (HOT) lanes; this contrasts dramatically with seven in 10 who support increased carpooling.
En la actualidad los procesos de migración son foco de atención de numerosas disciplinas científicas e instituciones gubernamentales. El estudio del uso de plantas medicinales entre comunidades migrantes que habitan las urbes, también ha sido una temática que ha cobrado un interés creciente en la etnobotánica, especialmente por las diversas preocupaciones sanitarias que este fenómeno conlleva. El caso particular de la migración boliviana hacia Argentina es una de las más relevantes en nuestro país, con varias décadas de intercambios culturales en todo el territorio. Estos grupos en su nuevo lugar pueden recrear su herbolaria, armarse de estrategias para conseguir los recursos vegetales provenientes de su lugar de origen, incorporar nuevas especies y prácticas de la sociedad receptora o, bien, disminuir los usos o la riqueza de sus plantas medicinales. En este sentido es pertinente mencionar la medicina tradicional como eje principal y representativo del modo de vida de las comunidades del territorio andino. Esta práctica médica ancestral parte del concepto de enfermedad como un estado de desajuste interno empleando principalmente elementos vegetales para la cura. La Etnobotánica, ciencia que estudia la relación ser humano-planta, nos permite analizar en un entorno de ciudad el conocimiento botánico local (CBL) que surge en dichos contextos interculturales. Por otra parte, un concepto útil que permite analizar el cambio y la flexibilidad del CBL en comunidades inmigrantes sobre especies medicinales es la hibridación cultural. Se han propuesto como marcos teóricos el estudio de subprocesos distinguibles que tienen como finalidad visualizar, contextualizar y caracterizar de manera más profunda los procesos de hibridación en trabajos de etnobotánica urbana. Estos subprocesos pueden mostrar un enriquecimiento de la riqueza total de especies (fusión o yuxtaposición), re-utilización de recursos y/o prácticas en un nuevo ambiente (re-localización); mezcla de elementos vegetales tradicionales y nuevos para aumentar una acción terapéutica (recombinación), cambios y/o sustituciones de algún recurso (re-estructuración); agrupamientos internos en especies y prácticas (segregación espacial); novedades en la producción, circulación y consumo; y coexistencia simultánea de distintos universos simbólicos. Asimismo, entender los mecanismos de transmisión cultural del CBL de una población migrante resultan claves para comprender las hibridaciones posibles, dado que de esta forma se puede tener una visión más acabada de los procesos que dinamizan los saberes intercambiados entre los integrantes de la comunidad. En este sentido, esta tesis tuvo los principales objetivos: 1) Caracterizar los estudios de etnobotánica urbana, realizados tanto en poblaciones migrantes como no migrantes, respecto al uso de plantas medicinales y analizar los procesos de hibridación; 2) Documentar la riqueza de especies vegetales de valor medicinal de mayor importancia cultural, y las prácticas y valores asociados que siguen vigentes, o aquellos que cambiaron, en una comunidad migrante boliviana que reside actualmente en la ciudad de San Salvador de Jujuy; 3) Determinar las principales dolencias para las cuáles se utilizan plantas como recurso medicinal y si la consulta a especialistas andinos sigue vigente entre los migrantes; 4) Indagar las formas de obtención y ambientes de recolección del recurso vegetal; 5) Analizar las formas de aprendizaje y el tipo de transmisión de los conocimientos sobre plantas entre sus miembros; 6) Indagar en el ámbito escolar el CBL relacionado al uso de especies medicinales y las formas de adquisición de ese conocimiento. Para abordar los objetivos se aplicaron distintas estrategias metodológicas propias de la disciplina, como el análisis bibliográfico cuali-cuantitativo, trabajo de campo con adultos y niños, que incluyeron entrevistas y talleres participativos, y metodología botánica de gabinete para la determinación taxonómica de especies, que incluyó también técnicas micrográficas. Los datos se analizaron cualitativa y cuantitativamente, mediante la aplicación de índices y pruebas no paramétricas y de regresión multinomial dada la naturaleza categórica de la mayoría de las variables. En los capítulos I y II, III se presentan los antecedentes y principales marcos conceptuales de esta tesis, dando cuenta del proceso histórico de inmigración boliviana en Argentina y particularmente en la ciudad de San Salvador de Jujuy. En el capítulo IV correspondiente al primer objetivo de esta tesis, se estudiaron las herbolarias urbanas provenientes de la literatura internacional usando el concepto de hibridación cultural como marco teórico. Se detectaron 63 trabajos de la temática que poseen un rango temporal corto (1991-2016). Los principales resultados muestran que en las ciudades se utilizan alrededor de 531 especies medicinales, principalmente cosmopolitas. Existe un creciente interés en el estudio de herbolarias inmigrantes correspondiente al 33% (21 trabajos). Los procesos de mayor visibilidad en la literatura fueron las Novedades (29%), Relocalización (20%) y Fusión (19%). Al analizar estos artículos a través de una regresión multinomial se advierte en la bibliografía que las herbolarias urbanas con migrantes son menos proclives a fusionar con elementos vegetales exógenos y se advierten más relocalizaciones y restructuraciones en las plantas a utilizar. Mientras que la bibliografía focalizada en el sector de la sociedad urbana sin inmigrantes las fusiones son los procesos más mencionados.En el capítulo V, se desarrollan del segundo al sexto objetivo, que consiste en el trabajo de campo realizado en una comunidad boliviana que reside en un sector urbano-periurbano (Barrios Los Ladrilleros y Los Huaicos) de la ciudad de San Salvador de Jujuy, (Jujuy-Argentina) dedicada a la industria artesanal del armado de ladrillo. Los datos etnobotánicos fueron obtenidos mediante la aplicación de técnicas etnográficas como observación participante, entrevistas abiertas, semi- estructuradas, enlistados libres e historias de vida. Se entrevistaron 24 personas adultas, principalmente mujeres con experiencia en el uso de especies medicinales. Se relevaron 89 especies medicinales (44% nativas y 56% exóticas), de las que lograron mayor consenso Matricaria chamomilla, ?manzanilla? (62%) y Ruta chalepensis, ?ruda? (50%). Las familias Lamiaceas y Asteraceas fueron las más representativas. Se registraron 43 dolencias tratadas con plantas respetando las categorías émicas . La mejor representada fue destinada al tratar los ?dolores de estómago? (18%) y plantas que les ?hacen bien? (12,4%), consideradas como ?adaptógenas?. Se distinguieron distintos ambientes de colección: ?casa y alrededores? (46%), ?comercio? (23%), ?campo? (15%), ?huerta? (15%) y ?trae de Bolivia? (2%). Finalmente, el capítulo VI que corresponde al último objetivo de esta tesis, se analiza el conocimiento botánico local de niños bolivianos e hijos de bolivianos que residen en los barrios Los Ladrilleros y Los Huaicos de San Salvador de Jujuy. Mediante la metodología aula-taller, en una escuela estatal de la ciudad, se indagaron los saberes sobre plantas medicinales que forman parte de los niños y las formas de adquisición de ese conocimiento, así como también el rol que cumple la institución educativa como espacio de apertura a temas vinculados a la realidad local. Se emplearon técnicas propias de la metodología participativa que se utilizan en la indagación etnobotánica. Los resultados arrojaron 42 especies con fines medicinales siendo la especie de mayor frecuencia de uso Ruta sp. ?ruda? (67%). El modo más significativo de transmisión de este conocimiento fue vertical, a través de los abuelos y padres. A modo de conclusión, a nivel global, se puede decir que los migrantes en las ciudades tratan de reproducir sus prácticas con las mismas plantas que conocían en sus sitios de origen, mayormente cosmopolitas y de fácil obtención, sin poner en riesgo su salud con intoxicaciones o usos incorrectos de plantas nuevas. En todo caso, los peligros que sufren se refieren a los impedimentos existentes para que estos colectivos puedan obtener sus plantas y reproducir sus prácticas. En cambio, los trabajos de etnobotánica urbana generales mostrarían que su población no migrante es más proclive a fusionar sin conocimientos previos. A nivel local, en los inmigrantes bolivianos de San Salvador de Jujuy, su farmacopea está dada por una relocalización y reestructuración en su elenco de especies medicinales, tomando en cuenta la importancia de la huerta y casas y alrededores para abastecerse de las plantas de uso medicinal. Se manifiesta una reestructuración de su herbolaria debido a la percepción de procesos de desactivación de conocimientos. Por otra parte, las soluciones locales se basarían en la redundancia, y no en la versatilidad de su herbolaria. Con ello se aseguran su eficacia terapéutica en el tratamiento de enfermedades específicas con especies muy conocidas, de amplia distribución. Con respecto a lo que aprendieron los niños acerca del conocimiento botánico sobre el uso de las plantas medicinales, prevalece una transmisión del conocimiento botánico vertical, principalmente por vía materna. Esto reflejaría un conocimiento botánico con poca incorporación de información exógena, es decir, desde fuera del ámbito familiar. ; Migratory processes are currently attracting the attention of numerous scientific disciplines and governmental institutions. The study of medicinal plant use among migrant communities living in urban areas is also a topic of growing interest, especially because of diverse public health concerns that accompany this phenomenon. The particular case of the Bolivian migration to Argentina is one of the most relevant to our country, with a history of various decades of cultural exchange throughout the country. In their new environments these groups can recreate their herbal medicine, developing strategies to acquire plant resources from their country of origin, incorporate new species and practices from the receiving society, or decrease the use or richness of their medicinal plants. At this point it is important to mention that traditional medicine is a key factor, representative of the lifestyle of Andean communities. This ancestral medical practice is based on the concept of illness as a state of internal imbalance, and employs mainly plants as the means of treatment. Rom the perspective of ethnobotany, a science that studies the relationship between humans and plants, we can analyse the local botanical knowledge (LBK) that develops in intercultural contexts in an urban setting. A useful concept for the analysis of change and the flexibility of LBK in terms of medicinal species in immigrant communities is cultural hybridization. As a theoretical framework the study of distinguishable sub-processes has been suggested, as they can visualise, contextualise and characterise hybridization processes in urban ethnobotanical studies in a more profound way. These sub-processes can result in an increase in the total richness of species (fusion or juxtaposition), the reuse of resources and/or practices in a new environment (relocalisation), the blending of traditional and new plant elements to enhance therapeutic action (recombination), changes and/or substitution of a resource (restructuring), internal grouping of species and practices (spatial segregation), innovation in production, circulation and consumption, and the simultaneous coexistence of different symbolic universes. Understanding the mechanisms of cultural transmission of LBK in a migrant population is key to our comprehension of possible hybridization, since we can obtain a more complete picture of the processes involved in the exchange of wisdom between members of the community. The main objectives of this thesis were: 1) To characterise urban ethnobotanical studies on the use of medicinal plants, whether carried out in migrant populations or not, and analyse their processes of hybridization; 2) Document the richness of medicinal plant species which are of most cultural importance, and the associated practices and values 12 which are still maintained, and those which have changed, in a Bolivian migrant community currently residing in the city of San Salvador de Jujuy; 3) Determine the principal illnesses which are treated with plant resources and whether Bolivian migrants still consult Andean specialists; 4) Investigate how plant resources are acquired and identify the gathering environments used by Bolivian migrants; 5) Analyse the ways of learning and the type of transmission of plant knowledge used among community members; 6) Investigate LBK related to the use of medicinal species in a school context, and the methods of acquisition of this knowledge. In order to carry out this study different methodological strategies were applied which are commonly used in the discipline of ethnobotany, such as a quali-quantitative bibliographical analysis, fieldwork with adults and children, including interviews and participative workshops, and botanical laboratory methodology for the taxonomical definition of species, which also included micrographic techniques. The data obtained were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively, through the application of non-parametric indices and tests, and multinomial regression, given the categorical nature of most of the variables. In chapters I, II and III, background information and the main conceptual frameworks of this thesis are presented, taking into account the historical process of Bolivian migration into Argentina, and particularly the city of Jujuy. In chapter 4, corresponding to the first objective, urban herbal medicine in international literature is studied, using the concept of cultural hybridization as a theoretical framework The bibliographical research was carried out using the following search engines: Scielo (www.scielo.org), Scopus (www.scopus.com) and Google Scholar, and 63 studies with a short time span (1991-2016) were found on this subject. The main results show that approximately 531 medicinal species are used in cities, mainly cosmopolitan species. There is increasing interest in the study of immigrant herbolaria, corresponding to 33% (21 studies) of those found. The most frequently mentioned processes in the literature were Innovation (29%), Relocalisation (20%) and Fusion (19%). Analysis of these articles through multinomial regression revealed that the urban herbal medicine of migrants is less likely to undergo fusion with exogenous plant elements and contains little incorporation of new elements in the list of species used. Relocalisation and restructuring of the plants are found more commonly in these groups. In contrast, fusion is the most frequently mentioned process in the bibliography focusing on the sector of urban society without immigrants. 13 Chapter V deals with objectives 2 – 6, and describes fieldwork carried out in a Bolivian community residing in an urban-periurban sector (Los Ladrilleros and Los Huaicos neighbourhoods) of San Salvador de Jujuy (Jujuy -Argentina). Prior informed consent was obtained from participants, who were selected by means of opportunistic and snowball interviews. The ethnobotanical data were obtained through ethnographic techniques such as participant observation, open and semi-structured interviews, free listing and life histories. Of the 24 adults interviewed most were women with experience of medicinal plant species. A total of 89 medicinal plants were registered (44% were native and 56% exotic), and those with highest consensus were: Matricaria chamomilla, "manzanilla" (62%) and Ruta chalepensis, "ruda" (50%). The Lamiaceae and Asteraceae families being the most represented. Illnesses treated with plants numbered 43, respecting the emic categories . The most common ailment treated was "stomach pains" (18%). The next most common use category is associated with plants that "do one good" (12.4%), considered "adaptogens". Different plant gathering environments were identified: close to the house (46%), shops (23%), countryside (15%), vegetable garden (15%) and "brought from Bolivia" (2%). Finally, chapter VI deals with the last objective of this thesis, the analysis of LBK of Bolivian children and the children of Bolivians who live in the Los Ladrilleros and Los Huaicos neighbourhoods of San Salvador de Jujuy. Using classroom-workshop methodology in a state school in the city, we investigated the children's knowledge of medicinal plants, and the ways they had learned about them. We also analysed the role played by the educational institution in offering an opportunity to deal with subjects related to the local context. Participative methodology was used, as commonly employed in ethnobotanical investigation. Results revealed that 42 medicinal species were known by the children, the species with highest use frequency being Ruta sp. "ruda" (67%). The most important method of transmission of this knowledge was vertical, through grandparents and parents. In conclusion, on a global level it can be said that migrants in cities attempt to reproduce their practices with the same plants as they used in their places of origin, so as not to put their health at risk with toxic plants or incorrect usage. The dangers faced by the communities are associated with the difficulties they experience in the acquisition of their plants and reproduction of their practices. In contrast, general urban ethnobotanical 14 studies show that the non-migrant population is more likely to employ processes of fusion, with no previous knowledge. At a local level, the pharmacopoeia of the immigrant Bolivians in San Salvador de Jujuy is the result of relocalisation and restructuring of their medicinal species, taking into account the importance of vegetable gardens and the areas around their houses to provide a supply of plants with medicinal uses. The restructuring of their herbal medicine is due to their perception of processes of deactivation of knowledge. Local solutions are based on redundancy, and not on the versatility of their herbal medicine. In this way they are assured of effective therapies for the treatment of specific illnesses with very well known species, which have a wide distribution. Regarding the children's LBK related to medicinal species, the vertical transmission of knowledge is predominant, mainly by mothers. This is reflected in the children's knowledge having little exogenous information; that is, from outside their family. ; Fil: Acosta, Marina Eva. Universidad Nacional de Jujuy. Instituto de Ecorregiones Andinas. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Salta. Instituto de Ecorregiones Andinas; Argentina
The use of technology in public organizations in some African countries such as Gabon reflects a desire to improve quality of service for users and to make work processes more effective. Literature presents evidences that technological innovations in Western companies bring some advantages on both organizational and socio-professional levels, but also numerous negative impacts. The impact of technological change on occupational and organizational psychology in Public Administration in Gabon has not been studied yet. This thesis seeks to understand the impact of technologies on the Work-Related Quality of Life (WRQoL) factors and on psychological health and well-being in a larger governmental department. In this perspective, two studies (involving a mix of qualitative approaches with analysis and comprehension of their occupations, and of quantitative approaches with the measurement of the QWL and well-being), based on 91 senior civil servants, have been conducted, before and after the Ministry was computerised.The first study (T1) highlights the senior civil servants' socio-professional and psychosocial conditions prior to the implementation of new technologies. As such, semi-structured interviews show that senior civil servants do their jobs depending on the nature of their positions. Findings reveal particularly inflexible and hierarchical organisational conditions. The presence and the pregnance of the «clannish culture » also determine working arrangements and communicating, which is mainly characterized by community-based working relationships and where ethnicity and regional belonging play a major role. Furthermore, QWL survey data show a relatively low level of psychological well-being in senior civil servants even though they feel positively about their various work situations. The second study (T2) describes senior civil servants' socio-professional and psychosocial status six months following the implementation of new technologies. Our analyses show that the introduction of new technologies has led to big changes in work organisation, such as restructuring on the socio-professional, collective (a better collaboration and coordination), organizational (enhanced flexibility and initiatives) and personal (efficiency, reactivity and rapidity in carrying out administrative tasks) levels. Findings underline that senior civil servants set up new, more flexible plans of action when facing the inconsistencies revealed by the study. Statistical studies show that new technologies have a fairly positive impact on their psychological well-being. Devices also positively affect senior civil servants' flexibility in decision-making, but paradoxically lead to a relatively high psychological demand. Yet, senior civil servants see their working conditions as positive in the technological context. The national (clannish) culture, which persists even after the introduction of technological tools, seems to play a mediating and even moderating role in the use and the impacts of ICT (Information and Communications Technologies) on senior civil servants' psychological well-being and occupational health. To conclude, this thesis work provides key elements of reflection and analysis on the links between digitization of administrative activity and the concepts of QWL, well-being and health in public organizations of African developing countries such as Gabon. ; L'usage des technologies dans les organisations publiques des pays africains tels que le Gabon, traduit le désir d'innover dans le travail pour améliorer la qualité des services destinés aux usagers et pour rendre aussi plus efficace les processus de travail. La littérature fait état d'un certain nombre d'apports, mais aussi de nombreux revers que ces innovations technologiques peuvent avoir tant sur le plan organisationnel que socio-professionnel des entreprises occidentales. L'impact de ces mutations technologiques dans l'Administration publique au Gabon n'a pas encore été étudié du point de vue de la psychologie du travail et des organisations. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'appréhender l'impact des technologies sur les facteurs de qualité vie au travail (QVT); et sur le bien-être et la santé psychologique dans un grand établissement ministériel. Dans cette perspective, deux études (mixant des approches qualitatives d'analyse et de compréhension de l'activité et quantitatives de mesure de la QVT et du bien-être) sont réalisées: avant et après l'informatisation du Ministère sur une population de 91 cadres fonctionnaires. La première étude (T1) met en lumière la situation socioprofessionnelle et psychosociale des cadres fonctionnaires avant l'implémentation des technologies. À ce titre, les entretiens semi-directifs révèlent que les cadres fonctionnaires exercent les activités selon la nature leurs fonctions. Les observations montrent que les conditions d'organisation du travail apparaissent particulièrement rigides et hiérarchisées. La présence et la prégnance de la «culture clanique» déterminent également les modalités de collaboration et d'échange au travail; cela se caractérise notamment par des relations de travail de type communautaire où l'appartenance ethnique et/ou régionale joue un rôle prépondérant. Par ailleurs, les analyses sur la QVT indiquent que les cadres fonctionnaires présentent un niveau de bien-être psychologique relativement faible,mais perçoivent néanmoins positivement leurs différentes situations de travail. La seconde étude (T2) présente la situation socioprofessionnelle et psychosociale des cadres fonctionnaires six mois après l'implémentation des technologies. Nos analyses montrent que l'arrivée des technologies a engendré de profondes réorganisations sur le travail, réclamant des réajustements d'ordres socioprofessionnels, collectifs (collaboration et coordination plus importantes), organisationnels (marges de manœuvre et initiatives accrues) et personnels (efficacité, réactivité et rapidité dans l'exercice des tâches administratives). Les observations soulignent que les cadres fonctionnaires, confrontés à plusieurs contradictions révélées par l'analyse de leur système d'activité, mettent en place de nouvelles modalités d'action plus souples et flexibles. Les études statistiques indiquent que les technologies influencent plutôt positive ment leur bien-être psychologique. Les dispositifs affectent aussi positivement la latitude décisionnelle des cadres fonctionnaires, mais engendrent paradoxalement une demande psychologique relativement élevée. Pour autant, les cadres fonctionnaires perçoivent positivement leurs situations de travail en contexte technologique. La culture nationale (clanique) qui perdure avec l'arrivée des outils, semble jouer un rôle médiateur, voire modérateur dans l'usage et les impacts des TIC sur le bien-être psychologique et la santé au travail des cadres fonctionnaires. En définitive, ces travaux de thèse apportent les clés de réflexion et d'analyse sur les liens entre la digitalisation de l'activité administrative et les concepts QVT, de bien-être et de santé dans les organisations publiques des pays en voie de développement africains tels que le Gabon
The use of technology in public organizations in some African countries such as Gabon reflects a desire to improve quality of service for users and to make work processes more effective. Literature presents evidences that technological innovations in Western companies bring some advantages on both organizational and socio-professional levels, but also numerous negative impacts. The impact of technological change on occupational and organizational psychology in Public Administration in Gabon has not been studied yet. This thesis seeks to understand the impact of technologies on the Work-Related Quality of Life (WRQoL) factors and on psychological health and well-being in a larger governmental department. In this perspective, two studies (involving a mix of qualitative approaches with analysis and comprehension of their occupations, and of quantitative approaches with the measurement of the QWL and well-being), based on 91 senior civil servants, have been conducted, before and after the Ministry was computerised.The first study (T1) highlights the senior civil servants' socio-professional and psychosocial conditions prior to the implementation of new technologies. As such, semi-structured interviews show that senior civil servants do their jobs depending on the nature of their positions. Findings reveal particularly inflexible and hierarchical organisational conditions. The presence and the pregnance of the «clannish culture » also determine working arrangements and communicating, which is mainly characterized by community-based working relationships and where ethnicity and regional belonging play a major role. Furthermore, QWL survey data show a relatively low level of psychological well-being in senior civil servants even though they feel positively about their various work situations. The second study (T2) describes senior civil servants' socio-professional and psychosocial status six months following the implementation of new technologies. Our analyses show that the introduction of new technologies has led to big changes in work organisation, such as restructuring on the socio-professional, collective (a better collaboration and coordination), organizational (enhanced flexibility and initiatives) and personal (efficiency, reactivity and rapidity in carrying out administrative tasks) levels. Findings underline that senior civil servants set up new, more flexible plans of action when facing the inconsistencies revealed by the study. Statistical studies show that new technologies have a fairly positive impact on their psychological well-being. Devices also positively affect senior civil servants' flexibility in decision-making, but paradoxically lead to a relatively high psychological demand. Yet, senior civil servants see their working conditions as positive in the technological context. The national (clannish) culture, which persists even after the introduction of technological tools, seems to play a mediating and even moderating role in the use and the impacts of ICT (Information and Communications Technologies) on senior civil servants' psychological well-being and occupational health. To conclude, this thesis work provides key elements of reflection and analysis on the links between digitization of administrative activity and the concepts of QWL, well-being and health in public organizations of African developing countries such as Gabon. ; L'usage des technologies dans les organisations publiques des pays africains tels que le Gabon, traduit le désir d'innover dans le travail pour améliorer la qualité des services destinés aux usagers et pour rendre aussi plus efficace les processus de travail. La littérature fait état d'un certain nombre d'apports, mais aussi de nombreux revers que ces innovations technologiques peuvent avoir tant sur le plan organisationnel que socio-professionnel des entreprises occidentales. L'impact de ces mutations technologiques dans l'Administration publique au Gabon n'a pas encore été étudié du point de vue de la psychologie du travail et des organisations. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'appréhender l'impact des technologies sur les facteurs de qualité vie au travail (QVT); et sur le bien-être et la santé psychologique dans un grand établissement ministériel. Dans cette perspective, deux études (mixant des approches qualitatives d'analyse et de compréhension de l'activité et quantitatives de mesure de la QVT et du bien-être) sont réalisées: avant et après l'informatisation du Ministère sur une population de 91 cadres fonctionnaires. La première étude (T1) met en lumière la situation socioprofessionnelle et psychosociale des cadres fonctionnaires avant l'implémentation des technologies. À ce titre, les entretiens semi-directifs révèlent que les cadres fonctionnaires exercent les activités selon la nature leurs fonctions. Les observations montrent que les conditions d'organisation du travail apparaissent particulièrement rigides et hiérarchisées. La présence et la prégnance de la «culture clanique» déterminent également les modalités de collaboration et d'échange au travail; cela se caractérise notamment par des relations de travail de type communautaire où l'appartenance ethnique et/ou régionale joue un rôle prépondérant. Par ailleurs, les analyses sur la QVT indiquent que les cadres fonctionnaires présentent un niveau de bien-être psychologique relativement faible,mais perçoivent néanmoins positivement leurs différentes situations de travail. La seconde étude (T2) présente la situation socioprofessionnelle et psychosociale des cadres fonctionnaires six mois après l'implémentation des technologies. Nos analyses montrent que l'arrivée des technologies a engendré de profondes réorganisations sur le travail, réclamant des réajustements d'ordres socioprofessionnels, collectifs (collaboration et coordination plus importantes), organisationnels (marges de manœuvre et initiatives accrues) et personnels (efficacité, réactivité et rapidité dans l'exercice des tâches administratives). Les observations soulignent que les cadres fonctionnaires, confrontés à plusieurs contradictions révélées par l'analyse de leur système d'activité, mettent en place de nouvelles modalités d'action plus souples et flexibles. Les études statistiques indiquent que les technologies influencent plutôt positive ment leur bien-être psychologique. Les dispositifs affectent aussi positivement la latitude décisionnelle des cadres fonctionnaires, mais engendrent paradoxalement une demande psychologique relativement élevée. Pour autant, les cadres fonctionnaires perçoivent positivement leurs situations de travail en contexte technologique. La culture nationale (clanique) qui perdure avec l'arrivée des outils, semble jouer un rôle médiateur, voire modérateur dans l'usage et les impacts des TIC sur le bien-être psychologique et la santé au travail des cadres fonctionnaires. En définitive, ces travaux de thèse apportent les clés de réflexion et d'analyse sur les liens entre la digitalisation de l'activité administrative et les concepts QVT, de bien-être et de santé dans les organisations publiques des pays en voie de développement africains tels que le Gabon
El presente artículo de investigación tiene como objetivos: primero, describir las tendencias y los aspectos de la memoria narrada en sobrevivientes de la tragedia de 1985, a causa de la erupción del volcán Nevado del Ruiz, en Caldas y Tolima; segundo, conocer su incidencia en los modos de habitar de personas que actualmente viven en zonas de alto riesgo volcánico. La estrategia metodológica se apoyó en algunas técnicas e instrumentos empleados en el Proyecto Strengthening Resilience in Volcanic Areas (streva), caso Colombia, cuyo propósito fue comprender los procesos de recuperación social de actores comunitarios sobrevivientes de esa erupción. En el análisis hermenéutico-narrativo, a partir de los datos, se identificaron las narrativas como alternativas para conocer la historia, reinterpretar lenguajes y contextos, y marcar diferentes rutas que convoquen a la reivindicación del pasado.Finalmente, tres apartados evidencian las principales tendencias narrativas halladas en el análisis, apoyadas en discusiones teóricas de Blair (2005), Almanza (2012) y Narváez, Lavell y Pérez (2009): Memoria y victimización, Responsabilidades y zona de alto riesgo, y Afrontamiento y ciudadanía activa. Si bien, aún no se visibilizan prácticas comunitarias alrededor de la gestión del riesgo de desastres, se despliegan construcciones de memorias narradas, que aportan al renacer de la agencia social en cada uno de los territorios; así como memorias que enfatizan los escenarios de participación que han cumplido funciones de reconocimiento, en los ámbitos individual y colectivo, dignificando los modos de vida de cada sobreviviente; y comprensiones frente a los habitantes en alto riesgo, entre quienes el acto de vecindad puede tener un papel prospectivo en sí, de cuidado del otro y de sí mismo.Se concluye, que las personas sobrevivientes, participantes de la investigación, muestran una tendencia ante la memoria, conminada por el recuerdo, el dolor y la confusión, tanto en lo individual, como en lo colectivo e institucional. De igual forma los hallazgos develaron escenarios de participación política que aportan al fortalecimiento de las estrategias de afrontamiento individual y a la construcción de ejercicios de ciudadanía activa que, para el caso de Villamaría (Caldas), empieza a permear modos de vida de los habitantes en zona de alto riesgo. ; This research article has two purposes: first, to describe the tendencies and aspects of memory as narrated by the survivors of the 1985 tragedy of the eruption of the Nevado del Ruiz Volcano in Caldas and Tolima; second, to understand how this affects the lives of the persons who presently live in volcanic high risk zones. The methodological strategy used techniques and instruments employed in the Strengthening Resilience in Volcanic Areas (streva) Project, Colombia, aimed at understanding the social recuperation processes of the community actors who had survived that eruption.The hermeneutic-narrative analysis of data identified narratives as alternatives to know history, reinterpret languages and contexts and indicate different routes to vindicate the past. Finally, three sections evidence the main narratives found in the analysis, supported by the theoretical debates proposed by Blair (2005), Almanza (2012) and Narváez, Lavell and Pérez (2009 ): Memoria y victimización, Responsabilidades y zona de alto riesgo, y Afrontamiento y ciudadanía activa (Memory and Victimization, Responsibilitiesand High Risk Zones and Coping and Active Citizenry). Although no specific community practices arise from the analysis of disaster risk management, some narrated memories seem to unfold as a contribution to the regeneration of social agency in eachplace. This recognition of the individual and collective environments dignifies the lifestyles of each inhabitant and leads to comprehension towards each of the inhabitantsin high risk areas, with an awareness of the role of being a good neighbor, taking care of the other and oneself. The articles concludes that the survivors who participated in the investigationshowed a tendency towards memory mixed with recollection, pain and confusion, both individually as well as collectively and institutionally. The findings also revealed political participation scenarios that contribute to the strengthening of the strategies for individual coping and the construction of active citizenry that in the case of Villamaría (Caldas) begin to permeate the lives of the inhabitants of high risk zones. ; Este artigo de pesquisa tem como objetivos descrever as tendências e os aspectos da memória narrada em sobreviventes da tragédia de 1985, devido à erupção do vulcão Nevado del Ruiz, em Caldas e Tolima (Colômbia); conhecer sua incidência nos modos de habitar de pessoas que atualmente moram em áreas de alto risco vulcânico. A estratégia metodológica se apoiou em algumas técnicas e instrumentos empregados no projeto Strengthening Resilience in Volcanic Areas (Streva), caso Colômbia, cujo propósito foicompreender os processos de recuperação social de atores comunitários sobreviventes dessa erupção. Na análise hermenêutico-narrativa, a partir dos dados, identificaram-se asnarrativas como alternativas para conhecer a história, reinterpretar linguagens e contextos, e marcar diferentes caminhos que convoquem a reivindicação do passado. Finalmente, três seções evidenciam as principais tendências narrativas encontradasna análise, apoiadas em discussões teóricas de Blair (2005), Almanza (2012) e Narváez, Lavell e Pérez (2009): memória e vitimização, responsabilidades e área de alto risco, eenfrentamento e cidadania ativa. Embora não sejam vistas práticas comunitárias ao redor da gestão do risco de desastres, são desenvolvidas construções de memórias narradas que contribuem para o renascer da agência social em cada um dos territórios, bem como memórias que enfatizam os cenários de participação que cumpriram funções de reconhecimento nos âmbitos individual e coletivo, dignificando os modos de vida de cada sobrevivente; além de compreensões ante os habitantes em alto risco, entre os quais o ato de vizinhança pode ter um papel prospectivo em si, de cuidado do outro e de si mesmo. Conclui-se que as pessoas sobreviventes, participantes da pesquisa, mostram uma tendência ante a memória, cominada pela lembrança, pela dor e pela confusão, tanto noindividual quanto no coletivo e institucional. Assim mesmo, as constatações revelaram cenários de participação política que contribuem para o fortalecimento das estratégias de enfrentamento individual e para a construção de exercícios de cidadania ativa que, para o caso de Villamaría (Caldas), começa a permear modos de vida dos habitantes em área de alto risco.
This research article has two purposes: first, to describe the tendencies and aspects of memory as narrated by the survivors of the 1985 tragedy of the eruption of the Nevado del Ruiz Volcano in Caldas and Tolima; second, to understand how this affects the lives of the persons who presently live in volcanic high risk zones. The methodological strategy used techniques and instruments employed in the Strengthening Resilience in Volcanic Areas (streva) Project, Colombia, aimed at understanding the social recuperation processes of the community actors who had survived that eruption.The hermeneutic-narrative analysis of data identified narratives as alternatives to know history, reinterpret languages and contexts and indicate different routes to vindicate the past. Finally, three sections evidence the main narratives found in the analysis, supported by the theoretical debates proposed by Blair (2005), Almanza (2012) and Narváez, Lavell and Pérez (2009 ): Memoria y victimización, Responsabilidades y zona de alto riesgo, y Afrontamiento y ciudadanía activa (Memory and Victimization, Responsibilitiesand High Risk Zones and Coping and Active Citizenry). Although no specific community practices arise from the analysis of disaster risk management, some narrated memories seem to unfold as a contribution to the regeneration of social agency in eachplace. This recognition of the individual and collective environments dignifies the lifestyles of each inhabitant and leads to comprehension towards each of the inhabitantsin high risk areas, with an awareness of the role of being a good neighbor, taking care of the other and oneself. The articles concludes that the survivors who participated in the investigationshowed a tendency towards memory mixed with recollection, pain and confusion, both individually as well as collectively and institutionally. The findings also revealed political participation scenarios that contribute to the strengthening of the strategies for individual coping and the construction of active citizenry that in the case of Villamaría (Caldas) begin to permeate the lives of the inhabitants of high risk zones. ; El presente artículo de investigación tiene como objetivos: primero, describir las tendencias y los aspectos de la memoria narrada en sobrevivientes de la tragedia de 1985, a causa de la erupción del volcán Nevado del Ruiz, en Caldas y Tolima; segundo, conocer su incidencia en los modos de habitar de personas que actualmente viven en zonas de alto riesgo volcánico. La estrategia metodológica se apoyó en algunas técnicas e instrumentos empleados en el Proyecto Strengthening Resilience in Volcanic Areas (streva), caso Colombia, cuyo propósito fue comprender los procesos de recuperación social de actores comunitarios sobrevivientes de esa erupción. En el análisis hermenéutico-narrativo, a partir de los datos, se identificaron las narrativas como alternativas para conocer la historia, reinterpretar lenguajes y contextos, y marcar diferentes rutas que convoquen a la reivindicación del pasado.Finalmente, tres apartados evidencian las principales tendencias narrativas halladas en el análisis, apoyadas en discusiones teóricas de Blair (2005), Almanza (2012) y Narváez, Lavell y Pérez (2009): Memoria y victimización, Responsabilidades y zona de alto riesgo, y Afrontamiento y ciudadanía activa. Si bien, aún no se visibilizan prácticas comunitarias alrededor de la gestión del riesgo de desastres, se despliegan construcciones de memorias narradas, que aportan al renacer de la agencia social en cada uno de los territorios; así como memorias que enfatizan los escenarios de participación que han cumplido funciones de reconocimiento, en los ámbitos individual y colectivo, dignificando los modos de vida de cada sobreviviente; y comprensiones frente a los habitantes en alto riesgo, entre quienes el acto de vecindad puede tener un papel prospectivo en sí, de cuidado del otro y de sí mismo.Se concluye, que las personas sobrevivientes, participantes de la investigación, muestran una tendencia ante la memoria, conminada por el recuerdo, el dolor y la confusión, tanto en lo individual, como en lo colectivo e institucional. De igual forma los hallazgos develaron escenarios de participación política que aportan al fortalecimiento de las estrategias de afrontamiento individual y a la construcción de ejercicios de ciudadanía activa que, para el caso de Villamaría (Caldas), empieza a permear modos de vida de los habitantes en zona de alto riesgo. ; Este artigo de pesquisa tem como objetivos descrever as tendências e os aspectos da memória narrada em sobreviventes da tragédia de 1985, devido à erupção do vulcão Nevado del Ruiz, em Caldas e Tolima (Colômbia); conhecer sua incidência nos modos de habitar de pessoas que atualmente moram em áreas de alto risco vulcânico. A estratégia metodológica se apoiou em algumas técnicas e instrumentos empregados no projeto Strengthening Resilience in Volcanic Areas (Streva), caso Colômbia, cujo propósito foicompreender os processos de recuperação social de atores comunitários sobreviventes dessa erupção. Na análise hermenêutico-narrativa, a partir dos dados, identificaram-se asnarrativas como alternativas para conhecer a história, reinterpretar linguagens e contextos, e marcar diferentes caminhos que convoquem a reivindicação do passado. Finalmente, três seções evidenciam as principais tendências narrativas encontradasna análise, apoiadas em discussões teóricas de Blair (2005), Almanza (2012) e Narváez, Lavell e Pérez (2009): memória e vitimização, responsabilidades e área de alto risco, eenfrentamento e cidadania ativa. Embora não sejam vistas práticas comunitárias ao redor da gestão do risco de desastres, são desenvolvidas construções de memórias narradas que contribuem para o renascer da agência social em cada um dos territórios, bem como memórias que enfatizam os cenários de participação que cumpriram funções de reconhecimento nos âmbitos individual e coletivo, dignificando os modos de vida de cada sobrevivente; além de compreensões ante os habitantes em alto risco, entre os quais o ato de vizinhança pode ter um papel prospectivo em si, de cuidado do outro e de si mesmo. Conclui-se que as pessoas sobreviventes, participantes da pesquisa, mostram uma tendência ante a memória, cominada pela lembrança, pela dor e pela confusão, tanto noindividual quanto no coletivo e institucional. Assim mesmo, as constatações revelaram cenários de participação política que contribuem para o fortalecimento das estratégias de enfrentamento individual e para a construção de exercícios de cidadania ativa que, para o caso de Villamaría (Caldas), começa a permear modos de vida dos habitantes em área de alto risco.
[spa] Investigación histórica y etnográfica en el espacio simbólico y ceremonial más emblemático de la ciudad de Lisboa: O Rossio. Tratamos de agotar sus elementos físicos, relacionales y simbólicos, siguiendo varias escalas de análisis, en una interpretación general de la sociedad lisboeta. 1-("Presentación del Objeto de Estudio"): se introducen las fuentes teóricas generales que atraviesan el texto, centradas en la antropología urbana y en la problemática del espacio en tanto que producción social. Asimismo, desarrollamos una breve historia de la Praça do Rossio para proporcionar la medida de su importancia y las funciones que desempeña en el marco de la ciudad. 2-("Culturas de la Miseria, Miserias de la Cultura"): Empezamos con un primer ensayo etnográfico sobre las técnicas interactivas y las dramaturgias de la pobreza en Rossio. A modo de estudio comparativo, sigue una crítica a las políticas de governabilidad urbana en Barcelona, especialmente beligerantes ante la visibilidad de la miseria. Cerramos el bloque repasando las controversias relativas a la construcción identitaria portuguesa y su "excesso de diagnóstico", donde creemos localizar el núcleo discursivo de una cierta familiaridad con la subjetivación de la pobreza. 3-("Los Espacios y sus hombres"): Un pequeño capítulo sobre las metodologías y los protocolos etnográficos utilizados, da paso al análisis socioespacial "delimitado" de la Praça do Rossio. Se emprende aquí una revisión espacial de las 12 áreas en que dividimos la plaza, con el fin de conocer sus atributos en profundidad, descubriendo las relaciones que se establecen con su entorno constituyente -visible e invisible-, y dando lugar a las primeras reflexiones sobre el papel de Rossio en tanto que dispositivo sociourbano modular. Los mapas y diagramas ayudan a la comprensión microsocial de las trayectorias, las apropiaciones y las logicas socioespaciales que tienen lugar en la plaza. Profusamente conocido ya el espacio y sus derivaciones, en los bloques cuarto y quinto se tratan las profundas relaciones de la plaza con la evolución de la ciudad, tomando el terremoto de 1755 como acontecimiento sociourbanístico central. 4-("La fisura pombalina I: la imaginación patrimonial"): Presentamos una breve etnografía del comercio informal en Rossio, descubriendo su estrecha vinculación con procesos de patrimonialización contemporáneos, especialmente la folclorización de Alfama y el proceso político de control sobre las festas de Lisboa. En él descubrimos que los erasmus de Alfama reproducen el imaginario pintoresquista de los estudios olisipográficos, en procesos que se operan a través de la sublimación del comercio informal. Las variaciones históricas en la adscripción topológica de las prácticas de mercadeo, así como las particularidades de su versión patrimonial reificada, nos conducen a la cuestión del terremoto, cuando en la Rossio del comercio informal tenga lugar la reconfiguración forzada de la ciudad entera. 5-("La fisura pombalina II: la deriva urbana"): Nos centramos en las funciones morfológicas y simbólicas de Rossio en tanto que pieza articuladora del urbanismo lisboeta en general: siguiendo la pista anterior, ahondamos en el significado último de la intervención del Marqués después del seísmo de 1755. Un estudio de caso sobre la apropiación lusoafricana en una esquina de Rossio, nos permite profundizar en las consecuencias sociomorfológicas del terremoto: la "fisura pombalina" conduce, mediante dos "movimientos" simultáneos, a la bipolarización urbanística actual. Finalmente, analizaremos varios procesos recientes de capitalización en el centro de la ciudad, reconociendo asimismo el papel de diferentes actores sociales en la intervención urbana. ¿Sigue la Praça do Rossio conservando aquella inercia que la caracteriza más allá de "brechas" y "fisuras"?, ¿cuál es su papel en la articulación sociourbana de la ciudad?, ¿sigue siendo O Rossio un rossio, es decir, un espacio de apropiación colectiva marcado por la confluencia de las energías societarias? ; [eng] The present historical and ethnographic research is focused on the most emblematic space in Lisbon's downtown, Praça do Rossio. The comprehension of its historical function and cultural significance is explored by the following arguments and study cases: 1- The state of art on urban anthropology and an introduction to the social and political history of this emplacement. 2- An essay about beggar's performance and poverty visibility on Lisbon's streets, regarded as a discursive effect based on Portuguese identity construction, in contrast to Barcelona's anti-poor governance strategies. 3- An in-depth description of every single material element and detail from square's morphological composition, that lead us to consider Rossio both as a relationship playground and as historical emplacement. Besides, this chapter includes maps and diagrams showing the complexity of appropriations and circulations, as well as ethnographic insights and cultural issues. With all morphological details displayed, and with a large cultural square's acknowledgment, chapters 4 and 5 introduce the core of interpretation, allowing us to comprehend the urban and social function of Rossio through the most critical urban event in Lisbon's history: The 1755 earthquake. First, in chapter 4, informal economy and its liturgical dramatizations on Santos Populares city feasts -stated by olisipography's nineteenth-century discourses- are analyzed as an heritagization process. Rossio was the heart of the historical street-vendor practices, symbolized in current hegemonic city representations. Secondly, in chapter 5 the daily Portuguese-Africans meetings on Rossio Largo's corner are analyzed and considered as a symbol of the preservation of square's communicative and political functions. Summarizing the urban history of the city -and the social characterization, problems and representations of different neighborhoods-, Rossio is found to be the center of the politico-cultural and socio-morphological phenomena which is called "pombaline's fissure": the symbolic and material displacement caused by 1755 urban disaster and its later reconstruction, that reorganizes the axis between the bourgeois and the popular city. The theoretical and methodological approach of urban and social anthropology, as well as all this data collection, allow us to argue that Rossio performs a function as an urban hinge, articulating the city's sociospatial bipolarization and its symbolic representations.
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Bento and booksWith all of my writing and translating about Spinoza and Marx as of late I am embarrassed to admit that there is a moment of their encounter that I have overlooked. The passage in question is in Chapter Eleven of Volume One of Capital (and I am indebted to Nick Nesbitt for pointing it out). In that passage Marx writes, "Vulgar economics, which like the Bourbons 'has really learnt nothing,' relies here as mere semblance as opposed to the law which regulates and determines the phenomena. In anthesis to Spinoza, it believes that 'ignorance is a sufficient reason."In the original:"Die Vulgärökonomie, die 'wirklich auch nichts gelernt hat,' pocht hier, wie überall, auf den Schein gegen das Gesetz der Erscheinung. Sie glaubt im Gegensatz zu Spinoza, daß 'die Unwissenheit ein hinreichender Grund ist". The notes to the Penguin edition points towards the Appendix to Part One of the Ethics as the source to this reference. If we followed that recommendation we might look at the following passage. "Nor ought we here to pass over the fact that the followers of this doctrine, who have wanted to show off their cleverness in assigning the ends of things, have introduced-to prove this doctrine of theirs-a new way of arguing: by reducing things, not to the impossible, but to ignorance. This shows that no other way of defending their doctrine was open to them. For example, if a stone has fallen from a roof onto someone's head and killed him, they will show, in the following way, that the stone fell in order to kill the man. For if it did not fall to that end, God willing it, how could so many circumstances have concurred by chance (for often many circumstances do concur at once)? Perhaps you will answer that it happened because the wind was blowing hard and the man was walking that way. But they will persist: why was the wind blowing hard at that time? why was the man walking that way at that same time? If you answer again that the wind arose then because on the preceding day, while the weather was still calm, the sea began to toss, and that the man had been invited by a friend, they will press on-for there is no end to the questions which can be asked: but why was the sea tossing? why was the man invited at just that time? And so they will not stop asking for the causes of causes until you take refuge in the will of God, that is, the sanctuary of ignorance.Similarly, when they see the structure of the human body, they are struck by a foolish wonder, and because they do not know the causes of so great an art, they infer that it is constructed, not by mechanical, but by divine, or supernatural art, and constituted in such a way that one part does not injure another. Hence it happens that one who seeks the true causes of miracles, and is eager, like an educated man, to understand natural things, not to wonder at them, like a fool, is generally considered an impious heretic and denounced as such by those whom the people honor as interpreters of Nature and the gods. For they know that if ignorance is taken away, then foolish wonder, the only means they have of arguing and defending their authority, is also taken away."A great deal could be said about this connection of the critique of political economy and the appendix. One could connect this point to capitalism as religion, or the religion of daily life as André Tosel puts it, but it is also worth pointing out that Marx's emphasis on ignorance is very different than thinking of ideology as having some sort of epistemic content, even if it is a distorted one. I think that Althusser has probably gone the farthest in positing ideology not as a set of ideas, but as some sense a relation to those ideas through the subject, an idea which is of course indebted to Spinoza. I would like to suggest a different direction of this particular intersection of Marx and Spinoza, one oriented not towards a theory of ideology, but of agnotology, towards a study of ignorance. I realize that the division between ideology, often defined as a kind of false knowledge, and what agnotology studies, ignorance is thin enough to be nonexistent. Many would claim that ideology is ignorance and those agnotology and ideology critique are two names for the same thing. Moreover agnotology is a relatively niche and undeveloped area of inquiry. Much of the work that does is exists is oriented towards empirical contributions to the sociology of knowledge, such as the work on the famous campaigns by tobacco companies and oil companies to foster doubt in the carcinogenic effects of cigarettes and the reality of global warming. Posing the problem of agnotology through Marx and Spinoza suggests a way to think the production of ignorance not through the campaigns of public relations, but the way in which social relations produce ignorance of their own conditions. Franck Fischbach's little book on Marx follows a suggestive examination in this direction. As Fischbach argues, Marx and Engels' The German Ideology can be understood to be a text about the fragmentation of knowledge with the division of labor: the order and connection of ideas follows the order and connection of things. Framed in this way it is possible to see continuity from the concept ideology the theory of fetishism. Capitalist society is one in which there is increasing division between production and consumption. As Marx writes, "the taste of the porridge does not tell you who grew the oats, no more does this simple process tell you of itself what are the social conditions under which it is taking place, whether under the slave-owner's brutal lash, or the anxious eye of the capitalist, whether Cincinnatus carries it on in tilling his modest farm or a savage in killing wild animals with stones." This ignorance is not just a lack, thought as much as nature abhors a vacuum. The absence of knowledge of the real conditions becomes the basis for the projection of all kinds of qualities, from the commodity's value to its meaning and importance within the semiotics of consumer society. As Deleuze and Guattari write, elevating Marx's comments about porridge into a general epistemological thesis:"Let us remember once again one of Marx's caveats: we cannot tell from the mere taste of the wheat who grew it; the product gives us no hint as to the system and relations of production. The product appears to be all the more specific, incredibly specific and readily describable, the more closely the theoretician relates it to ideal forms of causation, comprehension, or expression, rather than to the real process of production on which it depends."Or, as Spinoza argued, our ignorance about the causes of things is refracted through our awareness of our own desires so much so that we "take our desires for reality," to twist an old May '68 slogan. Our own perceptions become the basis for truth. As Marx states above, appearance replaces reality. The danger of making such a direct connection between social division and epistemic fragmentation is that such theses often imply a restoration of some kind of wholeness, a dream of a society without divisions and fragmentation which would also be a restoration of knowledge. Such a society has not existed since some went to hunt and others went to gather, if ever. The passage about porridge from Marx even makes this clear, fetishism might have begun with the commodity form but ignorance of the conditions of production are much older. If there can be no return to wholeness, some restoration of our knowledge, ourselves, and society, then knowledge must be a construction. The question is how to structure society so that the divisions and diversity of tasks and productive activities necessary for human survival become the basis for an increase of our knowledge rather the condition for the production of stupidity.
A STUDY ON THE RELEVANCE OF MATERIALS IN ENGLISH TEXTBOOK "BRIGHT" FOR SEVENTH GRADERS OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL PUBLISHED BY ERLANGGA TO 2013 CURRICULUM Halimatul Kamila English Study Program, FBS, Surabaya State University halimatulkamila@gmail.com Ririn Pusparini, S.Pd., M.Pd. Lecturer of English Study Program, FBS, Surabaya State University rrn.puspa@gmail.com Abstract The Indonesia government has developed English standard competence which is stated in curriculum as the standard of teaching and learning English process. According to the curriculum, material is one of the important factors for determining the success of the teaching and learning process. The material which is usually used is in the form of textbook. Textbook must be in line with the components stated in curriculum. Although there are many textbooks that are claimed as a suitable material for 2013 Curriculum, it is not a guarantee that the textbook is relevant to the standard competences of the curriculum. An analysis to a textbook is needed, moreover after the new curriculum was launched. Based on the background of the case above, this study is conducted: 1) to analyze the relevance of the materials with the cognitive aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence, 2) to analyze the relevance of the materials with the psychomotor aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence. This study was designed in descriptive qualitative research because the object of the study was a documented book. Moreover, as the data was in the form of words and documents, so the data were analysed qualitatively. The instrument used to collect the data is observation in the form of checklists. After being analyzed, it is found that some of the materials are not relevant with the cognitive and psychomotor aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence. However, there are more materials which relevant with with the 2013 English Standard Competence than the materials which not. Thus, it can be concluded that the materials in this textbook are quite relevant with 2013 curriculum, especially with the cognitive and the psychomotor aspects. Therefore, this textbook is appropriate with the 2013 curriculum and suitable to be used in order to help the teaching and learning process in the classroom. Keywords: analysis, relevance, materials, textbook, the 2013 Curriculum. Abstrak Pemerintah Indonesia telah mengembangkan standar kompetensi Bahasa Inggris yang disampaikan dalam kurikulum sebagai acuan dalam proses belajar mengajar. Berdasarkan kurikulum, bahan pelajaran adalah saah satu faktor penting untuk menentukan suksesnya proses belajar mengajar. Bahan pelajaran yang umum digunakan adalah buku teks. Buku teks yang digunakan harus sesuai dengan komponen-komponen yang disampaikan dalam kurikulum. Meski banyak buku teks yang telah dinyatakan sebagai bahan pelajaran yang sesuai dengan Kurikulum 2013, tidak menjadi jaminan bahwa buku teks tersebut relevan dengan standar kompetensi dalam kurikulum. Analisis terhadap buku teks sangat dibutuhkan, terutama setelah diluncurkannya kurikulum baru. Berdasarkan latar belakang tersebut, penelitian ini dilaksanakan: 1) untuk menganalisis kecocokan antara bahan pelajaran dalam buku teks "Bright" dengan aspek kognitif yang terdapat dalam Standar Kompetensi Bahasa Inggris 2013, 2) untuk menganalisis kecocokan antara bahan pelajaran dalam buku teks "Bright" dengan aspek psikomotor yang terdapat dalam Standar Kompetensi Bahasa Inggris 2013. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah deskriptif kualitatif karena objek yang menjadi bahan penelitian adalah buku. Selain itu, data penelitian dianalisis secara kualitatif karena data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini berbentuk dokumen. Instrumen yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah observasi dalam bentuk checklists. Setelah dianalisis, ditemukan bahwa beberapa bahan pelajaran di dalam buku teks tidak relevan dengan aspek kognitif dan psikomotor yang terdapat dalam Standar Kompetensi Bahasa Inggris 2013. Akan tetapi, lebih banyak bahan pelajaran yang sesuai dengan Standar Kompetensi Bahasa Inggris 2013 daripada yang tidak sesuai. Jadi, dapat disimpulkan bahwa bahan pelajaran dalam buku teks ini cukup relevan dengan kurikulum 2013, terutama dengan aspek kognitif dan psikomotor. Oleh karena itu, buku teks ini sesuai dengan kurikulum 2013 dan layak digunakan untuk membantu proses belajar mengajar di dalam kelas. Kata Kunci: analisis, relevansi, bahan pelajaran, buku teks, kurikulum 2013. INTRODUCTION English plays a very important role as a means of communication. It is because English is an international language that can be used for international communication. Knowing that English as an international language is necessary in facing globalization, English as a foreign language is being taught and learnt in many countries, included in Indonesia. As the main foreign language in this country, English has become a compulsory subject in Junior High School until Senior High School. Indonesia government has implemented English into the academic curriculum. The government has developed English standard competence which is stated in curriculum as the standard of teaching and learning English process. Curriculum is made based on the Indonesian learners' need and is developed to achieve the certain aim of education. Because of the development of the human needs, especially in education field, the Indonesian government always trying to make a better standard for teaching and learning process. As stated by Nunan (2003:5) that "For many years, the goal of language pedagogy was to find the right method." That is why, Indonesian government especially the National education department develops a new curriculum as the new standard for teaching and learning process. Recently, by Peraturan Pemerintah 32/2013, the educational system of Indonesia has launched Kurikulum 2013. Kurikulum 2013 is a school based curriculum, it is an operational curriculum which is constructed, developed, and implemented by each education unit (school). The purpose of the 2013 Curriculum is to draw up the next generations of Indonesia to be a religious, productive, creative, and innovative citizen who could contribute for the social life in the Indonesia and social life in all over the world (Permendikbud Nomor 68 Tahun 2013). The English standard competences in 2013 Curriculum are conducted in particular purposes, they are: the purpose of affective aspects, cognitive aspects, and psychomotor aspects (Amri, 2013:39). Affective is the aspect which related to emotion, feeling and attitude. Cognitive is the aspect which related to knowledge. While psychomotor aspect is related to motor skill. According to the curriculum, material is also important in creating a good teaching and learning process. Material is one of the factors for determining the success of the teaching and learning process. The material which is usually used is in the form of textbook. In fact, mostly Indonesian teachers use textbook in delivering the material. Textbook is one of the learning materials that can be used by teacher and students in order to help the teaching and learning process in the classroom (Tomlinson, 2003). Textbook is an important component in the process of teaching and learning. It is because textbook can be a main resource for the teachers in guiding them in the teaching and learning activity. Textbook must be in line with the components stated in curriculum. However, selecting a textbook is not an easy job for the teachers. They should be careful in choosing an appropriate textbook, it is a textbook which supports the implementation of the curriculum. As Byrd (2001) says, textbook evaluation should be viewed in terms of the relevance between the textbook and the curriculum. Although there are many textbooks that are claimed as a suitable material for 2013 Curriculum, it is not a guarantee that the textbook is relevant to the standard competences of the curriculum. Based on the explanation above, textbook analysis is one of the efforts that can be done in determining whether a textbook is appropriate with the curriculum or not. An analysis to a textbook is still needed, moreover after the new curriculum was launched. Thus, this study was conducted to analyse the materials in English textbook for seventh graders entitled "Bright" published by Erlangga. In this study, the researcher wanted to find out the relevance of the materials in the textbook to the 2013 English Standard Competence. Based on the elaboration above, the objectives of this study are formulated as follow: 1. To analyse the relevance of the materials with the cognitive aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence. 2. To analyse the relevance of the materials with the psychomotor aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence. Curriculum Teaching and learning process in a school is performed based on the curriculum. The curriculum is designed by the government, so that everyone could get same experience in education (Ali, 2009:1). The Indonesian government defines curriculum as a set of plan and systematization of aims, contents, materials as the guidance in the process of teaching and learning to achieve the certain goal (Permendikbud Nomor 68 Tahun 2013). According to Ali (2009:15), curriculum has a strong influence in the process of teaching and learning. The curriculum as the plan for learning contains of some aspects and purposes which are related to the teaching and learning activity. In the curriculum, also contain the objectives of the study which should be achieved by the learners. Therefore, the good teaching and learning process should be performed based on the curriculum. Oliver (1977:329) states that as the product of the thinking and action of human beings, curriculum should be improved. As the ideas of people change, as people's actions change, so does curriculum. Curriculum is developed based on the objectives and the learners' need. Therefore, the Indonesian government can change and improve the curriculum, if the previous curriculum is not suitable with the objectives and Indonesian learners' need. Recently, by Peraturan Pemerintah 32/2013, the educational system of Indonesia has launched Kurikulum 2013. The 2013 Curriculum The 2013 Curriculum is a school based curriculum, it is an operational curriculum which is constructed, developed, and implemented by each education unit (school) since 2013. The 2013 Curriculum is legalized by Ministry of National Education in 2013. The 2013 Curriculum contains of the plan for teaching and learning process, the rules of objectives and materials, and the method used in the process of teaching and learning (Permendikbud Nomor 68 Tahun 2013). The 2013 Curriculum is designed in three aspects, they are: affective, cognitive, and psychomotor. Affective aspects encourage students to; accept, perform, appreciate, and inspire. Cognitive aspects encourage students to; comprehend, apply, analyse, and evaluate. While psychomotor aspects encourage students to; observe, ask, try, find reasons, present, and compose (Permendikbud Nomor 65 Tahun 2013). The learning stages that are emphasized in the 2013 Curriculum are: 1) observing; the students collect the information, 2) questioning; the students are stimulated to question how the phenomena happen, 3) experimenting; the students try to apply the knowledge through some practice given by the teacher, 4) associating; the students try to relate the phenomena to the previous knowledge, and 5) communicating; the students tell others about their finding. The 2013 English Standard Competence contains some English basic competences which cover all of the English materials. According to the 2013 Curriculum, English Standard Competence contains two kinds of competences, they are: core competences and basic competences. Core competence is divided into four objectives. The first and second objectives emphasize on affective domain. The third objectives emphasize on cognitive domain, and the forth objectives emphasize on psychomotor domain. Each of the core competence is divided into basic competences which are used as a guideline in developing learning materials (Permendikbud Nomor 68 Tahun 2013). The Three Domains of Learning According to Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia (1973), objectives of study could be placed in one of three major domains, they are: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. Bloom et al. (1956) in Ali (2009:78-81) explains about those three domains as follows: Cognitive Cognitive domain related to the learner's thinking. This objective emphasizes remembering or reproducing something which has been learned. Cognitive objectives vary from simple recall of material learned to highly original and creative ways of combining and synthesizing new ideas and materials. Bloom et al. (1956) states the learning level of cognitive domain, they are: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Anderson (2001) revises the cognitive domain in the learning taxonomy and made some changes. The most prominent changes are: 1) the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms, and 2) slightly rearranging them. The revised cognitive domain are: remembering, understanding, applying, analysing, evaluating, and creating. Affective Affective domain related to the learner's attitude. This objective emphasizes a feeling, an emotion, or a degree of acceptance or rejection. Affective objectives vary from simple attention to selected phenomena to complex. Krathwohl et al. (1973) mentions the affective domain as: receive, respond, value, organise or conceptualize values, and internalize or characterise values. Psychomotor Psychomotor domain related to the learner's skill. This objective emphasizes some muscular or motor skill, some manipulation of material and objects, or some acts which requires a neuromuscular co-ordination. Dave (1975) mentions the psychomotor domain as: imitation, manipulation, precision, articulation, and naturalization. Textbook Textbook is an important component in the process of teaching and learning. It is because textbook can be a main resource for the teachers in guiding them in the teaching and learning activity. However, selecting a textbook is not an easy job for the teachers. They should be careful in choosing an appropriate textbook. Byrd (2001) explains the criteria that should be used in evaluating and choosing a good textbook. They are: 1. The fit between the material and the curriculum Curriculum is a guidance of teaching and learning process, including the purposes of the program and the teaching procedures. Therefore, the fit between the material and the curriculum would help the students to achieve the goal of the program. 2. The fit between the material and the students Textbook is used by the students. Therefore, the materials should be fit with the students' needs, so that they can learn the materials effectively. 3. The fit between the material and the teacher Textbook is used by the teacher. Therefore, the materials in the textbook should help the teacher in organizing the process of teaching and learning effectively. Textbook is often used in schools, and schools follow the curriculum designed by the government to guide the teachers in developing the objectives of teaching and learning activities. Therefore, Tarigan and Tarigan (1990:22) add that a good textbook should be relevant with the curriculum. Textbook is very important in supporting teaching and learning process. Therefore, a textbook must be in line with the components stated in the curriculum. The materials in the textbook should be designed based on the competences stated in curriculum. A textbook should support the curriculum to achieve the instructional objectives. A textbook should support the three domains that become the objectives of the 2013 English Standard Competence, they are: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. RESEARCH METHOD This research is concerned in analysing the relevance of materials in the English textbook entitled "Bright" published by Erlangga to the 2013 Curriculum. Whether the textbook presents the purposes of the 2013 English standard competence or not. Since this study dealt with analysis of the content of textbook especially the materials, the data were analysed qualitatively, without any statistical calculation. As Ary et al. (2010:424) states that qualitative researcher deals with data that are in the form of words or pictures rather than numbers and statistics. Moreover, as the data was in the form of words and documents, so the data were analysed qualitatively. The data of this study is an English textbook entitled "Bright" for seventh graders of Junior High School published by Erlangga. The data are in the form of documented materials existing in the textbook. The materials are divided into some activities. The data were analysed in order to answer the research problems stated in Chapter I. There are several instruments which were needed to collect the data. According to Ary et al. (2010:421), the primary instrument used for collecting the data in qualitative research is the researcher him- or herself, often collecting the data through direct observation or interviews. So, the first instrument for this study is the researcher herself, and the second instrument is observation in the form of checklists. They are two kinds of checklist that were applied to answer the research questions. First, the checklist used to analyse the relevance of the materials with the cognitive aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence. Second, the checklist used to analyse the relevance of the materials with the psychomotor aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence. The technique used to collect the data in this study was by conducting an observation. The observation dealt with all of the materials in the textbook and the relevance of it based on 2013 Curriculum. The researcher observed the data by using observation checklist. The observation was done through several steps. First, the researcher determined the textbook which is going to be analysed. Second, the researcher read and observed the materials of the textbook carefully. Third, the researcher compared the materials in the textbook with the 2013 English Standard Competence using checklist in order to know the relevance between the materials on the textbook to the 2013 English Standard Competence. The last, the researcher collected the data then analysed them. The data of this study were collected from English textbook entitled "Bright" for seventh graders of Junior High School published by Erlangga. In analysing the data, some steps were taken, they are: The researcher analysed the relevance of the materials with the cognitive aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence. The researcher analysed the relevance of the materials with the psychomotor aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence. The researcher described and elaborated the findings of the analysis. The researcher determined the conclusion. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The Presentation of the textbook entitled "Bright" "Bright" is an English textbook designed for seventh graders of junior high school. This textbook also designed to support the process of teaching and learning and it is developed for the compatibility to the 2013 English Standard Competence. "Bright" is printed in 196 pages. These pages are added with the preface, table of contents, feature of the textbook, mini dictionary, appendix, bibliography, and spaces for students' notes. In total, there are 204 pages printed on this textbook. There are eight units presented in this textbook. In the first semester, the students will learn unit 1 to unit 4; and the rest of it will be taught for the next semester. On each unit, the textbook provides fun corner and reflection table. In the fun corner, the authors give riddle question. For the reflection table, the students could use it after learning each unit as the reflection what they are good at, what they are ok at, and what they are bad at. Furthermore, for each unit in this book is divided into two parts: Listening and Speaking Activities and Reading and Writing activities. The first part focuses on listening and speaking skills. The latter part focuses in reading and writing. Expressions, grammar, explanations, and specific vocabularies that the students need for each activity and the students need to know are introduced and presented at the beginning of the activities, so that the students could understand the materials better. The Relevance of the materials in the textbook entitled "Bright" with the 2013 English Standard Competences Here are the tables to present the final result of the analysis to check the relevance of the materials in this textbook with the 2013 English Standard Competence. The researcher analysed the relevance of the materials based on the third and fourth basic competences. The Relevance of the Materials with the Cognitive Aspects Table 1. The Conformity of Textbook Materials to the Third Basic Competence The Relevance The Third Basic Competence Relevant Sub-basic competence 3.1.1, 3.1.3, 3.1.4, 3.2.1, 3.2.2, 3.3.1, 3.3.2, 3.3.3, 3.3.4, 3.3.5, 3.4.2, 3.5.2, 3.6.1, 3.6.2 Partly relevant Sub-basic competence 3.1.2, and 3.4.1 Not relevant Sub-basic competence 3.5.1, and 3.5.3 According to the table above, it can be seen that there are some materials which are relevant, partly relevant, and not relevant with the third sub-basic competence. The materials which relevant with the sub-basic competence are be able to fulfil the purposes of the topic, language features, and social functions that are intended to be achieve by the students. While the materials which not relevant the sub-basic competence are not be able to fulfil all of the purposes of the topic, language features, and social functions that are stated in the third sub-basic competence. There are two materials which partly relevant with the third sub-basic competence, they are: the 3.2.1 and 3.4.1 sub-basic competence. The 3.1.2 sub-basic competence is comprehending social functions, text structures, and language features in leave taking expressions and the responses according to the contexts. Leave taking expression is becoming one part of the greeting material and not being explained in-depth. Only few examples of leave taking expression occur in the table of greeting and the responses. There are not exercises for the leave taking expression, so that the social functions cannot be achieved. Thus, the materials are partly relevant with the 3.1.2 sub-basic competence. The textbook does have material of personal informtion that is stated in the 3.4.1 sub-basic competence. The goal of the competence is the students will be able to comprehend social functions, text structures, and language features from spoken text to mention personal information, while the material of personal information in the textbook is presented in the form of written texts and examples. Therefore, the materials are partly relevant with the 3.1.2 sub-basic competence. The Relevance of the Materials with the Psychomotor Aspects Table 1. The Conformity of Textbook Materials to the Fourth Basic Competence The Relevance The Fourth Basic Competence Relevant Sub-basic competence 4.1.1, 4.1.3, 4.1.4, 4.2.1, 4.3.1, 4.3.2, 4.3.3, 4.3.4, 4.3.5, 4.4.2, 4.5.2, 4.6.2, 4.7.2 Partly relevant Sub-basic competence 4.1.2, 4.4.1, 4.5.1, 4.7.1 Not relevant Sub-basic competence 4.2.2, 4.6.1, 4.6.3 According to the table above, it can be seen that there are some materials which are relevant, partly relevant, and not relevant with the fourth sub-basic competence. The materials which relevant with the sub-basic competence are be able to fulfil the indicators that are intended to be done by the students. While the materials which not relevant the fourth sub-basic competence are not be able to fulfil all of the indicators that are stated in the fourth sub-basic competence. There are four materials which partly relevant with the fourth sub-basic competence, they are: the 4.1.2, 4.4.1, 4.5.1, and 4.7.1 sub-basic competence. The textbook does have material of personal informtion that is stated in the 4.1.2 sub-basic competence. The goal of the competence is the students will be able to constructing spoken text in the form of leave taking with the appropriate social functions, text structures, and language features according to the contexts. However, the material of leave taking expression in this textbook is becoming one part with the greeting material. So the leave taking material is not being explained in-depth. Thus, there is no exercise that could help the students to achieve the goal of 4.1.2 sub-basic competence. Therefore, the materials in the textbook are partly relevant with the sub-basic competence. The goal of the sub-basic competence 4.4.1 is the students will be able to comprehend the meaning of spoken information. While the exercise and the example of personal information in the textbook is in the form written text. Therefore, the indicators cannot be fulfilled and the materials in the textbook are partly relevant with the sub-basic competence. The goal of the sub-basic competence 4.5.1 is the students will be able to construct spoken text for mentioning personal information with the appropriate social functions, text structures, and language features according to the contexts. The textbook does have material of personal information in unit 1. While the exercise of personal information in the textbook is intended to make students be able to construct personal information in the form written text. Therefore, the indicators cannot be fulfilled and the materials in the textbook are partly relevant with the sub-basic competence. The textbook contains of the sub-basic competence 4.7.1. The purpose of the materials is to construct written text in the form of labels with the appropriate language features according to the contexts.This textbook provide exercises about labels. However, there is no activity that aims students to construct their own labels. The materials cannot fulfil the indicators stated. Thus, this textbook does not provide activity to construct written labels. Therefore, the material in the textbook is not relevant with the sub-basic competence and the materials in the textbook are partly relevant with the sub-basic competence. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS Conclusions This study is intended to analyse the relevance of materials in English textbook for seventh graders entitled "Bright" published by Erlangga to the 2013 English Standard Competence. The researcher analysed the materials relevance to the cognitive and the psychomotor domains. From the analysis, it can be concluded that the English textbook "Bright" is quite relevant with the 2013 English Standard Competence. The materials in the textbook are quite relevant with the cognitive aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence. According to the tables presented in the chapter four, the third basic competences which objectives emphasize on cognitive domain are quite relevant with the 2013 English Standard Competence. There are sixteen tables for the third basic competences. There are twelve tables which show the materials are relevant with the basic competences, these materials could fulfil objectives of the main topics, language features, and social functions stated. There are two tables which show the materials partly relevant with the basic competences, these materials could only fulfil one objective or two objectives stated. There are only two tables that show the materials are not relevant with the competences stated, these materials cannot fulfil all of the objectives. The forth basic competences which objectives emphasize on psychomotor domain are also quite relevant with the 2013 English Standard Competence. There are eighteen tables for the fourth basic competences. There are eleven tables which show the materials are relevant with the basic competences, these materials could fulfil all of the indicators. There are four tables which show the materials partly relevant with the basic competences, these materials occur in the textbook but cannot fulfil the indicators stated. There are only three tables that shows the materials are not relevant with the basic competences stated in the 2013 curriculum, these materials do not occur in the textbook. According to the elaboration above, the materials in this textbook are quite relevant with 2013 curriculum, especially with the cognitive and the psychomotor aspects. There are more materials which relevant with the 2013 English Standard Competence than the materials which not. Therefore, this textbook is appropriate with the 2013 curriculum and suitable to be used in order to help the teaching and learning process in the classroom. Suggestions After finishing this research, the researcher would like to give suggestion for the teacher, the textbook writer, and the next researcher. The first suggestion is for the teachers, the teachers should be careful and selective in choosing the textbook to be used in helping them in the teaching and learning activities. They should choose textbooks that contain materials appropriate with the curriculum. The selected textbook should support the curriculum to achieve the instructional objectives. For the textbook writers, they have to follow certain criteria in developing the materials. The materials should be in line with the English Standard Competence stated in the curriculum. Moreover, the materials should be able to fulfil all of the indicators, the objective of the main topics, the objective of the language features, and the objective of the social functions related to the competences. Thus, the textbook will be relevant with the curriculum and appropriate to be used by teachers and students. For the next researcher, they can conduct the study which is intended to analyse the relevance of the materials of the same textbook to the 2013 curriculum and focuses on the activities that intended to be taught in the second semester. Otherwise, the next researcher can study other textbook with the different grade of the study and analyse the relevance of the materials to the 2013 curriculum. REFERENCES Ali, Muhammad. 2009. Pengembangan Kurikulum di Sekolah. Bandung: Sinar Baru Algensindo. Amri, Sofan. 2013. Pengembangan dan Model Pembelajaran dalam Kurikulum 2013. Jakarta: Prestasi Pustaka Publisher. Anderson, Lorin W. & Krathwohl, David R. 2001. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: a Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy. New York: Longman Publishing. Ary, Donald. et al. 2010. Introduction to Research in Education. Canada: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Bloom B. S. 1956. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc. Byrd. 2001. Textbook: Evaluation for Selection and Analysis for Implementation. In M. Celce-Murcia (Eds.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (3rd ed., pp. 415-427). US: Heinle & Heinle. Dave, R. H. 1975. Developing and Writing Behavioral Objectives. (R. J. Armstrong, ed.). Tucson, Arizona: Educational Innovators Press. Kementrian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. 2013. Kurikulum 2013: Kompetensi Dasar Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP)/ Madrasah Tsanawiyah (MTs). Jakarta: Mendikbud. Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., and Masia, B. B. 1973. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. London: Longman Group Ltd. Nunan, David. 2003. Practical English Language Teaching. Singapore: McGraw Hill. Oliver, Albert. I. 1977. Curriculum Improvement: A Guide to Problems, Priciples, and Process, Second Edition. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers. Tarigan, H. G and Tarigan, D. 1990. Telaah Buku Teks Bahasa Indonesia. Bandung: Angkasa. Tomlinson, Brian. 2003. Developing Materials for Language Teaching. London: Continuum.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS THE MEDIUM IN TEACHING SCIENCE TO THE EIGHT GRADERS OF "KELAS UNGGULAN" AT MTSN KEDIRI II Ana Khoirun Nikmah English Education Department, Language and Arts Faculty, Surabaya State University. Email: nikmeh08@gmail.com Rahayu Kuswardani, S.Pd, M.Appl English Education Department, Language and Arts Faculty, Surabaya State University. Abstrak Sesuai dengan program kelas unggulan, kelas yang semula hanya menerapkan proses kegiatan belajar mengajar dengan menggunakan Bahasa Indonesia sekarang diharapkan bisa menggunakan Bahasa Inggris dalam kegiatan belajar mereka, baik itu dalam hal mengajar maupun dalam pengajaran sesui materi pelajaran. Ini merupakan tantangan bagi seorang guru dalam menghadapi system pembelajaran seperti itu. Kompetensi dan keahlian guru yang baik sangat dibutuhkan dan juga dalam keseluruhan standar pengurangan Bahasa Inggris. Selain itu, system pembelajarn ini juga tidak semudah yang kita pikir. Mereka diharuskan belajar ilmu pengetahuan menggunakan Bahasa Inggris sebagai media proses belajar mengajar padahal mereka juga masih belajar Bahasa Inggris. Oleh karena itu, dalam penelitian ini, penelti melakukan penelitian yang bertujuan untuk memahami masalah diantara keahlian guru Bahasa Inggris dalam menguasai Bahasa Inggris ketika mengajar ilmu pengetahuan dan masalah siswa dalam memahami ilmu pengetahuan yang menggunakan Bahasa Inggris. Dari latar belakang yang sudah disebutkan tersebut, peneliti tertarik untuk melakukan penelitian berdasarkan situasi yand terjadi dengan judul "The Implementation of English Language as the Medium in Teaching Science to the Eight Graders of "Kelas Unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II". Obyek penelitian dala penelitian ini adalah kompetensi gur ilmu pengetahuan dalam mengajar ilmu pengetahuan dengan menggunakan media Bahasa Inggris dan penerapannya dalam kegiatan belajar mengajar, masalah yang dihadapi guru ilmu pengetahuan selama kegiatan belajar mengajar di kelas delapan pada kelas unggulan MTsN Kediri II. Penelitian ini menggunakan penelitian deskripif kualitatif. Sedangkan subjek penelitian ini adalah kelas delapan pada kelas unggulan MTsN Kediri II. Dalam pengumpulan data, peneliti menggunakan dua instrument, yaitu catatan observasi dan wawancara. Catatan observasi dilakukan untuk mengetahui kompetensi guru dalam mengembangkan kemampuan Bahasa Inggrisnya dalam proses belajar mengajar. Sedangkan wawancara dilakukan untuk mengetahui usaha-usaha guru yang telah dilakukan mengembangkan dan mengatasi masalah dalam penggunaan Bahasa Inggris sebagai media pembelajaran. Berdasarkan observasi yang telah dilakukan, peneliti menyimpulkan bahwa kompetensi guru dalam berbahasa inggris harus dikembangkan, terutama kosakata dan strukturnya. Sedangkan dari hasil wawancara, peneliti mengetahui bahwa guru ilmu pengetahuan kelas delapan pada kelas unggulan MTsN Kediri II selalu mengembangkan kompetensinya untuk mengatasi masalah dalam kegiatan belajar mengajar dengan cara mengikuti kursus Bahasa Inggris dan bekerjasama dengan sebuah tempat kursus Bahasa Inggris di Kampung Inggris, Pare. Karena masalah utama di dalam kelas adalah penggunaan Bahasa Inggris pada guru dan pemahaman para murid, maka materi ilmu pengetahuan diberikan dengan tetap menggunakan Bahasa Inggris sebagai medianya. Keyword: kemampuan guru ilmu pengetahuan dalam berbahasa inggris pada "kelas unggulan" Abstract The term of "kelas unggulan", which has been using teaching and learning in bahasa Indonesia is expected to perform effectively in English, to teach and acquire subject specific knowledge. It is one of challenges of teacher to face this reality. Good teacher's competency and proficiency are needed and also overall declining standard of English. In the other hand it is not as simple as everyone think. They have to learn science using English as the medium of teaching and learning process whereas they also still learning English. Therefore, to understand the problem between the English teacher's proficiency in mastery English language to teach science and the problem with the students understanding science in English. From the background above the researcher is interested in conducting research related to the situation, entitled "The Implementation of English Language as the Medium in Teaching Science to the Eight Graders of "Kelas Unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II".The objective researches of this study are the science teacher competency in explaining science using English as the medium and the implementation of it, the problem faced by science teacher during teaching and learning process at Eight Graders in "kelas unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II. This research use descriptive qualitative research while the subject is Eight Graders in "kelas unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II. In collecting data the researcher use two instruments, they are observation field note and interview. The observation field note is used to know the teacher competency in improving her English while teaching and learning process. And the interview is used to know the effort of the teacher in improving and also facing the problem in using English as the medium of instruction. Based on the observation, the researcher concludes that the teacher's competency in English needs to be improved, especially in vocabularies and structure. Then, from the interview the researcher knows that the science teacher of Eight Graders in "kelas unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II always improve her competency just to overcome the problem in teaching and learning process by taking English course and doing cooperation with one of big English course in kampong English, Pare. Because the main problems in the class are the English teacher and the students understanding the science material given using English as the medium. Keyword: Science Teacher's competency in English in "kelas unggulan" INTRODUCTION In the current era of globalization, English language plays an important role in international communication. All of the aspects on live, like technology, economic, politic, art, education etc. use English Language to communicate. For example, in technology, we all know that Yamaha product is made in Japan. But when we read the direction note of Yamaha product, we will find some technical term used is English Language. We also can find this case in economic aspect. In a free market, if there are two seller were not come from English doing transaction, they will decide to use English Language to talk each other. So that is not surprising that English Language is known as the international language. In fact some countries in this world use English language to be their national language, like Singapore. And the other countries use English language as their second language besides their own national language. But in our country, Indonesia is still included in a country that used English as the foreign language. So that way is aware of along with the globalization, the need for an English language skill is increasingly apparent. Therefore, it is not surprising that experts who are involved in education feel the need to provide intensive English lessons and continuing English education to the students in middle school even since the children were still sitting in elementary school. Secondary school level has a lot of junior and senior high school who offer to pioneer international standard school and has a lot of schools that obtain international school status. The schools, which obtain international status, prepare their students for the future so that they can compete globally. Recognizing the importance of quality in education and a desire to catch up education set back with other countries, governments are encouraged to perform a major breakthrough in the field of education by designing international school. The government wants to promote educational programs in the country by turning national schools into international standard schools. Schools must make an effort to improve the quality of teaching and teachers' so that teachers' quality will not be left behind. One of the schools that used international standard is MTsN Kediri II. MTsN Kediri II is a junior high school located in Kediri, East Java. It is included one of the favorite school in Kediri because almost of their students are smart enough and often be the winner in Olympiad. Since some years ago besides use national curriculum, this school also use international standard in their education. Because of that, they divided their class into some kinds of class. That is regular and kelas unggulan. Regular class is a class that use national curriculum in their teaching learning process. In other hand, the kelas unggulan is a class based on international standard. In kelas unggulan, some subjects such as Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Economics should be conducted in English or in a bilingual classroom learning environment. Bilingual education involves teaching academic content in two languages that is, in a native and secondary language with varying amounts of each language used in accordance with the program model. It is an educational approach that not only allows students to master academic content material, but also become proficient in two languages. It is an increasingly valuable skill in the early twenty-first century. It is the program which is intended to help children to keep up with their peers in subject such as math, science and social studies while they study English (Maria. 2001). The purpose of bilingual instruction is to increase academic achievement by using the student's home language as the main communication medium. Bilingual instruction involves the use of two languages for instructions for part or all of the activities within the classroom. One language is English and the other language is the student's home language that is the language spoken in the home. English is taught as a second language (James. 1988). Whether teaching a transitional class, a maintenance class, or a two ways bilingual class, the main difference from a monolingual class is the balance in using of the two languages. A second variable which affects the process of classroom organization is who teaches: a team, a teacher and an aide or one teacher alone. The third variable comes from the structure of the program model. There are the three major variations in classroom design which effect use of the two languages in a bilingual classroom. The first is The concurrent approach. In this approach A teacher using concurrent approach may use both languages interchangeable in a teaching content are or two teachers may team teach one lesson, each modeling a different language. The second is Pre-view-pre-view. It involves three steps in a team teaching situation: an introduction to the lesson is first given by one instructor in one language. The lesson is then presented in the other language by the second instructor. Review and reinforcement of the lesson takes place with the whole class using the two languages interchangeably in a concurrent approach, or the class is divided into dominant- language groups, led by each teacher separately. The last approach is Alternate language approach. Clearly structures a separation between the two languages. But for student is so limited proficiency in one of the language instruction, the language chosen for content area instruction can involve complex decision. In early stages, student should receive science lesson in their first language, but as they develop increasing proficiency in a second language, they may introduced to an increasing amount of science instruction in their second language. In the school that uses bilingual classroom system, the teacher must have two levels of language skills sufficient to be able to teach bilingual classes. But here, Sheelagh and Cristine (2007:6) divided two different types of teachers who have very different needs-the expertise of the language may not be shared by the content and vice versa. The first is Teacher of English who now has to teach another subject through English, rather than just teaching the language. And the other is subject teacher who now have to teach their subject through English. In this research, the researcher study about the second type of CLIL, that is subject teacher who now have to teach their subject through English, exactly science teacher. As Henderson and Wellington (2001:23) said that whilst research shows that one of major difficulties in learning science is learning the language of science, to experience the teaching and learning process would suggest that science teachers often consider the use of English in Biology lesson to be of marginal relevance to the learning of science (Henderson & Wellington. 2001:23) . They further add that in general, teachers who teach content do not recognize languages learning opportunities. If there is any effort at all in incorporating language development, they just concentrate on vocabulary development. John (1997:17) also said that some science teachers hope that the vocabulary of science will be recognized by the students as a key to its comprehension and appreciation. The teacher also must make avert efforts to interpret the nature of Biology lesson and the habits of learning Biology through its language or vocabulary. So we can conclude that science teacher must be competence in the both od the biology subject and English Language. The problem that we find in the reality is one cannot confirm that the subject teachers are able to become a bilingual who is ready to teach in two languages, Indonesian and English. How long does it take for a teacher to be ready to teach bilingual? In addition, the level of bilingual skills to a certain level is needed or that must be achieved by a teacher to be able to teach bilingual classes. Those subject teachers mostly of are not graduates of English Education, so maybe they will find difficulty in explaining their material in English. Therefore, the researcher wanted to conduct a research which intends to describe this phenomenon, the implementation of English language as the medium in teaching scdience at eight grade in "kelas Unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II. By conducting this study, the researcher has purpose to find out the implementation of English language in teaching science for eight graders and the teacher's problems faced during classroom teaching and learning. By knowing the fact or the result of the study, the researcher hoped it will give meaningful contribution for The teacher who uses English, especially science teacher in "kelas unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II, can improve their ability in English and the quality of teaching and learning process, and also the result is expected to contribute development of teaching science by using English in "kelas unggulan" at MTsN Kediri. It is also expected to give meaningful contribution for Indonesian government. It is hoped that the government can consider about the programs to make Indonesia to become international level in education by using English in the process of teaching and learning process. According to the government it can make the education in Indonesia becomes better than before to the international level, people argue that it does not make better education in Indonesia, but it can make the education. Worse, since the students face more problems in their study due to their English ability is still poor. This phenomenon makes the researcher puts her interest to conduct research about it. The researcher questions: (1) how is the implementation of English language in teaching science for eight grader? (2) What problems do the teachers face during classroom teaching and learning? METHOD Based on the research question and the objective of the study, the researcher used descriptive qualitative. Gay (1992) explained that Descriptive research involves collecting data in order to answer questions concerning the current statues of the subject of the study). In this study, the researcher described the implementation of English language as the medium in teaching scdience at eight grade in "kelas Unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II. She concentrated on the biology class activity and the biology teacher herself. In this research, the researcher chose descriptive qualitative as the research design based on two reasons, which are the objective of this study is to describe the implementation of English language as the medium in teaching scdience at eight grade in "kelas Unggulan" at MTsN Kediri II and there is no treatment in this study. The subject of this study was the biology teacher of "kelas unggulan" in the 8th at MTsN Kediri II. The researcher chose the biology teacher because three reason. For the first, there are many students who favor Biology lesson. They like biology subject because biology is the easiest among Physic, Chemistry and Biology. The second reason is Biology lesson has a few things to be discussed about numerical, but it has many explanations. To give explanation a material in the Biology, teachers have to explain more. It means the teacher should make long sentences and more languages especially English. And the las reason is there is another language that is in Biology discussion, that is Latin language. Every plant or animals has Latin name, so students have to understand which Latin language is and which is English. This study is taken place in the 8th "kelas unggulan" and the teacher's office. For the first day, the researcher observes the condition of the school and the Biology teacher's when she was teaching in the classroom. The researcher recorded the teaching and learning process using vidio camera and tape recorder. And on the next day, the researcher came to the teacher office, actually on the biology teacher's room to interview her. The interview was used to find the data form the Biology teacher. The purpose of this interview was also to find out the information about teacher's efforts in developing the English language competency and to find out what the problems she usually faced during teaching and learning Biology by using English language. After knowing the problem, researcher could infer reasonable solution to solve the problems that were faced by the teacher. The data of this study is the condition of the biology class on 8th "kelas unggulan" in MTsN Kediri II. It included the teacher's competence in giving oral instruction by using English language in her Biology science class, for example asking question in English, giving opinion, giving explanation in English and the students' expression and utterance during teaching leraning activity. The other data is teachers' answer in the form of utterances and expressions given by the teachers during interview sessions which are transcribed into written form. Besides the result of the researcher's observation, the source of the data is the biology teacher herself. In this research, all of the data were collected by using observation field note and interview, were analyzed inductively in order to answer research questions stated in chapter one. The first step was accumulating the data recorded from the result of class observation and the answer of biology teachers through interview given. After all of data accumulated, the researcher studied the data well, she described them by classifying into the finding based on the research question. In addition, all the data were collected thoroughly as happened in the reality. RESULT AND DISCUSSION This chapter presents the result and discussion of the study as the answers for the research questions: (1) how is the implementation of English language in teaching science for eight grades? (2) What problems do the teachers face during classroom teaching and learning? Result Here, the researcher explained about the first and second day observation done by the researcher. On the first day observation, the researcher observed the condition on 8th kelas unggulan of MTsN Kediri II. In the first observation, the researcher noticed some facts happened in their teaching learning activities. Those are: (a) when the teacher explains the material by using English, her explanation is difficult to be understood by her students. (b) The science teacher of "kelas unggulan" in MTsN Kediri II does not always use English in explaining science material. (c) When the teacher wanted to explain about the material, she was consuming too much time to find the proper words makes the students waiting for long time, and also makes them getting bored. (d) the teacher often feels nervous and automatically, she cannot control her speaking, especially in pronunciation and vocabulary. In term of pronunciations, the researcher finds some words mispronounced words form, it was pronounced this word as like forem. In the word size, it is pronounced with sez. (e) The teacher thinks that the use of translation method make the students understands the material well. So that, in the most of the time she explains the material by using mother tongue then translate in to the English. (f) Because the teacher is fully aware that she is not teaching language at all but teaching science. So, she thinks that it's not to importance to make her English perfect. It is better to teach real science rather than just focusing on the students' English skills. (g) There are three languages used in the class there are (Indonesia, Javanese and English). But the biggest portion, about eighty percent used Indonesian. On the second day of this research, the researcher done interview the biology teacher of 8th "kelas unggulan" in MTsN Kediri II. From the interview which was done on May 23th 2013, the researcher tried to analyzes the teacher efforts in improving her skills in English language. There was one teacher who was interviewed by the researcher. Mrs Zahra', she is science teacher in the eighth graders of MTsN Kediri II. Science Teacher stated that, actually, she has already tried her best effort in improving English skills. It was done by practicing the speaking skill with her daughter and son at home. Her children convinced their mother that if she always does not speak English continuously and regularly as her daily habit, it will really improve her English. Besides the effort or practice she does at home, she also joins the English course which is hosted by the school in cooperation with one of good English course in Pare. These are proves that both school wants to improve the English ability so that she teaches science by using English confidently. Besides that, the school also held TOEFL and TOEIC test to know whether the competency of the teacher has improved or not. The Teacher's Competency in using English as the Medium of Teaching Science Teacher ability plays important role in delivering new knowledge and skills to students. If the teacher wants to be regarded as excellent and competent teachers by parents based of the excellent academic achievement of the student the teacher have to works hard to get it. In the implementation of the teaching Science in English in kelas unggulan, teacher's competency in teaching the subject is really needed, it include in the way the teacher teaching, teaching strategy, etc. This is so because many of our teachers today have had very little exposure to the subjects in English. In this research, the researcher explained about science teachers' competency which contains the ability to ask question in English, the ability to use oral instruction in English and the ability to give opinion in English. The Teacher's Ability in Questioning Student In the teaching and learning process in teaching science by using English as the language medium, the science teacher of Kelas unggulan at MTsN Kediri II is expected to be able to ask question to their students about the material that she had explained by using English. If it runs well, of course, it will make the students motivated during question and answer session. However, the teacher which is expected to be a model that has perfect examples how to ask thing in English did not do so. So that way, their students also answer the question in mixed language. Based on the observation done by the researcher, the researcher conclude that the science teachers in Kelas unggulan of eight graders of MTsN Kediri II still use translation method, that she use both English and Indonesia in asking question. This condition happened because both of the teacher and student do not master English well. To her observation, both the kelas unggulan students and the teacher are have not ready to use English one hundred percent yet in the class. Even though the researcher had to agreed that the use of English one hundred percent is too difficult for students, simply because the science language is different from the English that the students are studying during English class, the teacher as the important point should push herself to use English as close as possible at least they have to reach 75% during the teaching and learning process especially in asking question. Of course, the English foreign learners or English second learners will get some difficulties to express science term in English, but they have to work hard if they really want to make the bilingual runs well. The Teacher's Ability in Giving Oral Instruction by Using English In the process of teaching and learning science using English as the language medium, the science teachers of MTsN Kediri II always tried to give oral instruction to her students beside the written instruction. These two important are things which cannot be separated one by one. It is important to oral instruction during the teaching learning process, because without oral instruction the communication in the class between teacher and students cannot runs well. In this case, as a science teacher does oral instruction to help her students to understand the task easily. However, the simple interaction only done in Indonesian language, not in English because, the teacher still has difficulty to make simple interaction by using English. Based on the result of observation, the researcher concluded that the science teacher of MTsN Kediri II tried to maximize her ability in using oral instruction in English even though it is not grammatically correct. She tried and sometimes she mixed it with Indonesian. The problem is of mixing the language because, she still uses Indonesian quite a lot when giving her oral instruction. Based on the researcher observation, the science teacher of Kelas unggulan should master the art of giving oral instruction in English to communicate with their students if she wants to make the class become the real bilingual or international standard class. The Teacher's Ability in Giving Opinion to the Students Teaching through another language for some subjects may have cause a language problem. It happens in this class also when the teacher expresses her opinion in English; she mixed it with Indonesian language. Seems that she still find difficulties. It can be frustrated for the teacher to teach subject that have different language vocabularies, especially science subject. The language for science is different from the English language which students use in English class activities. Vocabulary in Science class has special syntactic structures. Making inferences in science subject meaning give all contribute to the difficulties of many other subject subjects which use English so. The selected teacher who teaches science by using English as the language medium of interaction for Eight graders in MTsN Kediri 2 has tried to maximize her ability in using English. During classroom activities the science teacher sometimes mixed the language when she was giving her opinion to the students. The Teacher's Efforts in Improving her English Teaching Skills From the observation and the interview that has been conducted, the researcher finds some mistakes of the science teacher in expressing sentences and words in spite of her mistakes. The mistakes include the teacher still tries her best effort to use English in explaining all the science materials. In the contrary to the teacher's effort, most of the mispronouncing the words and mixing the languages between English and Indonesian, students are still difficult to handle the maximum usage of English. They have to understand the science material in English is a big challenge to them. Therefore, to maximize her students' difficulty and to overcome the challenge, teacher uses Indonesian in some of explanations. Based on the result of observation, it can be concluded that sometimes the science teacher mixed the language or does not use English at all when she was not sure with the English Especially, if the teacher who does not have a good competency with her English language. The requirements to use English can be serious problem. From the interview that has been done the researcher find some facts that: First, the science teacher doesn't have good ability in speaking English or explain the science term correctly in English. Based on that, she gets difficulties in delivering the content to the students. Second, seems that science teacher is not too familiar with the terminologies and science terms in the English language due to her minimal exposure for learning and teaching science in the English language. Since the school supports the Implementation English in science class. The teachers' competency in teaching subject needs to be improved immediately. It is so because many of science teachers in that school have had very little experience in exposure English as the language medium in the classroom especially for the class that is chosen as kelas unggulan. The Problems Faced by the Teacher During Teaching and Learning Process There were some problems faced by science teacher of Kelas unggulan in MTsN Kediri II during teaching and learning Science by using English. The main problem of successful in using English in kelas unggulan is from the students' ability to understand the material which is presented in English. This fact is also confirmed by the science teacher, Mrs. Zahra' who is the teacher of science in "kelas unggulan" of MTsN Kediri II for class said that her problem during classroom explanation when she was teaching science refer to the language competency of their students in order to understand the science language in English. She stated if the students did not understand the language, it shows that they also would not be able to do the science task correctly. The solution of this problem according to her is giving some vocabularies continuously to the students who have the difficulties in understanding the science language. One more thing that in MTsN Kediri II there are some teams which is have quite good members who has cooperation with an English course in Pare. It was had been for about 3 months. So, it means the groups still in the process of improvement. The science teacher who has a team teaching in the process of teaching science for the class of Kelas unggulan have the different problem. She said that the problem which is occurred in the process of teaching science not only the language problem but also less motivation and participation of the students to follow the class activities. The solution according to her is using different kind of teaching strategies and giving motivation to their students in every meeting. From the statement above, it can be known that every science teachers who teach using English have their own problems, and they also have their own solution to improve the skill of their students in science, besides the using various kind of learning strategies which will make the teaching learning process enjoy full. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion Based on the finding of data analysis and discussion in previous chapter, the researcher drew a conclusion: First, from the result of the research analysis, it is proved that the students' understanding of science's class taught by using English as the medium of teaching and learning science process still have no improvements, and based on the result of research question by using interview, shows that using of English as medium of teaching and learning process is not quite effective for of MTsN Kediri II. It's not because of just the teacher's ability, but also the students' English especially in understanding the words or vocabulary influence the result of learning, and in this school there are still some reasons that make the school has not been ready in applying English in teaching science, seen from the teacher's English ability and also the lack of the students' vocabulary on the lesson. Second, the use of English as the medium of teaching and learning science process in the science class makes the students are unable to enjoy their learning activities as well as the technique of the teacher use is not quite attracting them, and they can not understand the English teacher's explaination well. It seems that the teacher's technique cannot help them reduce the students' anxiety of learning. In addition, it cannot make them feel comfortable in learning to lead them to be better in learning. Meanwhile the goal of applying English in teaching science is that the students have to be brave to say or to express their idea in English, and the teacher's motivation is to make them confident to share the ideas. Third, the use of English as the medium of teaching and learning science process to the eight graders of MTsN Kediri II cannot seem to change the atmosphere of the classroom and is also unable to broaden their knowledges. Actually, it offers much wider range of language opportunities but what has happened there, the students have more difficulties in expressing the ideas, the correct vocabulary and sentences. Fourth, the use of English as the medium of teaching and learning science has made the class less active. The students do not have great willingness to participate without being forced by the teacher and they are still afraid of making mistakes in expressing the ideas. Fifth, the use of English as the medium of teaching and learning science makes the students less motivated in learning and are easier to grasp the lesson. Based on the observation has been done by the researcher there are just few students who have a bravery to express their ideas. Sixth, the other problems the students face are mostly in expressing ideas in English and lack of confidence and vocabulary. Suggestions The success in teaching not only depends on the lesson program, but also what is more important is how the teacher presents the lesson and uses various techniques to manage the class more lively and enjoyable. Regarding to the teaching science by using English as the medium of teaching and learning process, the writer gives some suggestion for the teacher. The science teacher should choose the materials that are appropriate and not too difficult for the students, the teacher should make sure that the students have fully understanding and enough information they need before assigning English as the medium of teaching science to the students, the teacher should keep controlling the student activities, the teacher should present the language in an enjoyable, relaxed and understandable way in order to make the students are attracted and enjoyed the science materials in English. Besides, the researcher suggests to the students. The students are hoped not to be shy in expressing the idea in English, to be active and creative in enriching their vocabulary, to use English when they practice or express the ideas although it is hard for them, the students should take part in teaching and learning process since being active in the class is needed. REFERENCES Collier, Virginia P. A Synthesis of Studies Examining Long-Term Language Dellar, Sheelagh and Christine Pierce. 2007. Teaching Other Subject Through English. New York: Oxford University Press. Page 6-7 Estela, Brisk, Maria. 2001. Bilingual Education from Compensatory to Quality Schooling. New Jersey London : Baston University Gay, L.R. 1992. Education Research Competencies for Analysis and Application Fourth Edition. New York: Florida International Universities Honbry,A S. 1995. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English Fifth Edition. Walton Street: Oxford University Press. Page 595 James, H. 1992. Education Research. 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