Thema dieser medizinhistorischen Arbeit ist die Bioergografie des Hamburger Ordinarius für Zahn-, Mund- und Kieferheilkunde und Mund-Kiefer-Gesichtschirurgen Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. h. c. Karl Schuchardt (1901-1985). Dessen 100.Geburtstag im Jahre 2001 gab Anlaß zu dieser Forschungsarbeit, welche unter Anleitung der Medizinhistorikerin Prof. Dr. Ursula Weisser und des Mund-Kiefer-Gesichtschirurgen Prof. Dr. Dr. Gerd Gehrke ausgearbeitet wurde. Schuchardt war nach dem zweiten Weltkrieg über zwei Jahrzehnte leitende Persönlichkeit der Mund-, Kiefer- und Gesichtschirurgie in Deutschland und eine internationale Fachgröße. In einer umfassenden historischen Würdigung werden sowohl sein persönlicher Lebensweg als auch seine wissenschaftlichen Leistungen unter Einbeziehung des allgemein- und medizinhistorischen Kontextes behandelt. Die Untersuchungen zum biografischen Teil nehmen vorrangig auf die 1920er bis 1950er Jahre Bezug. Ihnen liegen bisher unveröffentlichte schriftliche Quellen aus deutschen Archiven und Interviews mit Zeitzeugen, u. a. seiner Kinder und seines Neffen zugrunde. Berücksichtigung fanden Akten des Bundesarchivs in Berlin, des Staatsarchivs in Hamburg, des Archivs der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, des Universitätsarchivs in Freiburg i. Br., des Hamburgischen Architekturarchivs, des Kirchenbucharchivs Itzehoe, des Schularchivs der Kaiser-Karl-Schule in Itzehoe, der Archive des Universitätsklinikums Hamburg-Eppendorf in der Personalabteilung und im Institut für Geschichte der Medizin in Hamburg sowie graue Literatur aus der Bibliothek für Wissenschaftsgeschichte in Berlin. Schuchardts Werdegang wird in Zusammenhang gestellt mit dem Prozeß der zahnärztlichen Professionalisierung 1869-1952 und der Entwicklung des Fachgebietes Mund-, Kiefer- und Gesichtschirurgie nach dem ersten Weltkrieg. Näher beleuchtet werden dabei der in Deutschland erloschene Berufsstand der Dentisten, die Studienbedingungen an den Lehreinrichtungen für Zahnheilkunde der von Schuchardt besuchten Universitäten in Freiburg i. Br., Kiel und München und die Arbeitsschwerpunkte an den im zweiten Viertel des 20. Jahrhunderts gegründeten Berliner Kieferkliniken der Charité und des Rudolf-Virchow-Krankenhauses, wo er seine wissenschaftliche Laufbahn begann. Breiten Raum nimmt die Darstellung der institutionellen Zusammenführung der Nordwestdeutschen Kieferklinik mit der Hamburger Universitätsklinik für Zahn-, Mund- und Kieferkrankheiten (ZMK) nach 1945 unter Schuchardt ein. Besonderes Interesse galt auch seiner Tätigkeit als Sanitätsoffizier der Deutschen Wehrmacht und dem Schicksal seiner Ehefrau Dr. med. Eva Schuchardt geb. Ries (1900-1995), deren Eltern jüdischer Konfession waren. Wegen des Antisemitismus in Deutschland emigrierte Frau Schuchardt mit den beiden Kindern des Ehepaares 1939 in die USA. Schließlich wird Schuchardts Verbundenheit mit den bildenden Künsten, insbesondere seine Freundschaft mit dem Itzehoer Künstler Wenzel Hablik (1881-1934) sowie sein Grundentwurf für den Neubau der Nordwestdeutschen Kieferklinik 1953, gewürdigt. Im werkorientierten Teil, dem 165 Veröffentlichungen Schuchardts aus den 1930er bis 1970er Jahren zugrunde liegen, werden seine wissenschaftlichen Schwerpunkte herausgestellt und seine Leistungen eingeordnet. Es überwiegen Publikationen über plastische und wiederherstellende Chirurgie im Kiefer-Gesichtsbereich, besonders über Rundstiellappenplastiken. Hauptwerk ist seine 1944 als Buch erschienene Habilitationsschrift Der Rundstiellappen in der Wiederherstellungschirurgie des Gesichts-Kieferbereiches. Im Streben nach ästhetisch ausgewogenen Operationsergebnissen verstand er sich als Künstler. Er entwickelte ein Dermatom, Unterlippen-Kinnplastiken, die gestielte Fettplastik, modifizierte die Augenhöhlen-, Nasen- und Mundvorhofplastiken nach Ganzer, die Ohrmuschelplastik nach Pierce, die Hautschlaufenbildung nach Rang, die Plastiken bei Mund-Antrumverbindungen nach Rehrmann und nach Kazanjian und die Wangenrotation nach Esser. Weitere Schwerpunkte waren die Chirurgie der Lippen-Kiefer-Gaumenspalten, die Therapie von Frakturen des Gesichtsschädels, die orthopädische Chirurgie des Gesichtsschädels sowie die Diagnose und Therapie von Tumoren. Zwecks historischer Einordnung seiner Errungenschaften werden Abrisse der Geschichte der Brückenlappenplastik bei Lippen-Kiefer-Gaumenspalten, der intraoralen dentalen Schienenverbände und der orthopädischen Chirurgie des Gesichtsschädels gegeben. Zur Abrundung werden eine chronologische und eine thematisch geordnete Bibliografie der Veröffentlichungen Schuchardts sowie ein Verzeichnis der unter seinem Direktorat an der ZMK angefertigten Dissertationen, ein Verzeichnis von Jubiläumsartikeln und Nekrologen, die zu seiner Ehrung erschienen und fünf Tabellen zu Lehrveranstaltungen und Lehrenden im Fach Zahnheilkunde an der Universität Hamburg 1946-1970 vorgelegt. ; The subject of this doctoral dissertation is the bioergography of Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. h. c. Karl Schuchardt (1901-1985), maxillofacial surgeon and director of the Dental Institute and Clinic at the University of Hamburg from 1945 to 1970, the centenary of whose birth in 2001 prompted an investigation of his work. After the Second World War, Schuchardt became a leading expert in maxillofacial surgery in Germany and was one of the great international specialists. Research for the present work was carried out under the direction of the medical historian Prof. Dr. Ursula Weisser and the maxillofacial surgeon Prof. Dr. Dr. Gerd Gehrke. A critical study will reveal not only the surgeon's success, but also discusses Schuchardt's merits in research, academic life and hospital administration. His life history and career are placed in the political, social and medical context of his time. The biographical part concentrates on the three decades between 1920 and 1950. Extensive search in several archives and libraries all over Germany has yielded a multitude of relevant materials mostly unpublished. Sources from the following institutions have been consulted: Bundesarchiv (Berlin), Staatsarchiv der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg, Archiv der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Universitätsarchiv (Freiburg i. Br.), Hamburgisches Architekturarchiv, Kirchenbucharchiv (Itzehoe), Schularchiv der Kaiser-Karl-Schule (Itzehoe), Archiv des Universitätsklinikums Hamburg-Eppendorf of the personnel department as well as of the Institut für Geschichte der Medizin (Hamburg) and Bibliothek für Wissenschaftsgeschichte (Berlin). Interviews with Schuchardt's two children and his nephew helped to shed light on his multifaceted personality. The emigration of his wife, the medical doctor Eva Schuchardt, née Ries (1900-1995), who was of Jewish descent, and his children to the USA in 1939 in order to escape antisemitic persecution was the most tragic episode of his life. The process of dental professionalisation in Germany from 1869 to 1952 played a major role in his father´s career as a non-academic dentist. Thus, Schuchardt early became familiar with different models of dental education, which later qualified him to promote unification of the profession on an academic level. Descriptions of the programs of studies at the dental institutes at Kiel, Freiburg i. Br. and Munich elucidate the particulars of Schuchardt's dental education. Research for a doctoral dissertation in medicine at University at Kiel followed. His training as an oral surgeon is strongly related to the establishment of the first civil clinics of oral surgery at the Rudolf-Virchow-Krankenhaus and at the Charité in Berlin in the second quarter of the 20. century. Entering the speciality of maxillofacial surgery was a result of his mobilisation as military surgeon during the Second World War. After the war, Schuchardt distinguished himself as director of a clinic of oral surgery in Hamburg, Nordwestdeutsche Kieferklinik, which he, after his appointment as full professor of dentistry, united with the Dental Institute of the University of Hamburg. In addition, Schuchardt´s lifelong passion for the visual arts and architecture is acknowledged and exemplified by his friendship with the artist Wenzel Hablik (1881-1934) from Itzehoe and Schuchardt´s designing of a new hospital building for his Clinic of Oral Surgery in Hamburg in 1953. Schuchardt´s ergography contains 165 publications, most of them written in the four decades between 1930 and 1970. In addition, he edited 16 works. Among his publications those on plastic and reconstructive surgery are in the majority, and his studies on tube flap plasty occupy a spesial place. His doctoral thesis, published as monograph "Der Rundstiellappen in der Wiederherstellungschirurgie des Gesichts-Kieferbereiches" in 1944, was his most influential book. In his efforts to achive aesthetic results in plastic surgery, he saw himself as an artist. He invented a dermatome and developed methods for cheilomentoplasty and a tubed lipoflap plasty. He modified Ganzer´s orbitoplasty, nasoplasty and vestibuloplasty, Pierce´s auricoloplasty, Rang´s skin loop plasty attaching auricuolar protheses, Rehrmann´s and Kazanjian´s plasties to close oroantral communication and Esser´s buccorotation. Other major contributions Schuchardt´s concern management of cleft lip and palate, management of facial fractures, orthognatic surgery as well as diagnosis and treatment of facial tumours. The significance of his achievements is emphasized by placing them in the general history of the field with special emphasis on the development of Langenbeck´s palatorrhaphy, of dental splints and arch bars and of orthognatic surgery. Nine appendixes contain his bibliography, presented chronologically as well as by theme, a list of the doctoral dissertations completed during his directorship, a list of anniversery articles and obituaries and finally five tables of university courses on dentistry and oral surgery given at Hamburg University Dental Clinic during his directorship.
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The historical tensions between Chile and Bolivia are a regular topic on the international politics agenda of both countries and all South America. On October 1st of 2018, the International Court of Justice ruled in favor of Chile in the maritime lawsuit proclaiming that this country had no obligation to negotiate a sovereign exit to the sea for Bolivia. This litigation derived from the loss of access to the coasts and territories after the War of the Pacific (1879–1883). However, this was not the only water related conflict between the two countries. Following the ending of the Bolivian lawsuit Chile presented a case against Bolivia which will be the central topic of this article. This is a case for the spring's waters located in the Andean highlands at the height of the Chilean city of Antofagasta, known by the name of Silala. These waters arise from a series of springs born in Bolivia that transit by force of gravity, towards Chile. The case, which has been a recurrent subject for more than a century in the border relationship between Chile and Bolivia, was a source of interest amid the Bolivian lawsuit previously presented. Before the litigation was ended, Chile decided to present a lawsuit against Bolivia for the Silala waters conflicts to clarify the obligations of each state upstream (Bolivia) and downstream (Chile). To date the matter is still in court pending a ruling but it seems appropriate to make it known. This research is sustained from the social sciences because it analyzes an untold case in the studies of international relations in all South America. Despite all the advances in technology currently available, it has not been settled a typification of the nature of these waters that arise in the middle of the Andes. Another point to be made it is that beyond the outcome of the lawsuit, the definition by the International Court of Justice will set a precedent on the matter at a regional level regarding shared water resources. It is important to remember that this is not a lawsuit on borders but on shared resources. Consequently, the result could eventually act as an incentive or deterrent of future litigation in other South American territories. In that context, freshwater lawsuits in South America take a course of analysis and relevant focus. States are not capable of reaching an agreement. The problem lies less in a field related to water governance and more in a context of a foreign policy dispute. Technically the feud has been raised by Chile before the Court under this latter approach. However, the International Court of Justice could well fail based on the former. Among the objectives of this work is to confirm that the conflict over the use of the Silala waters expresses the absence of effective mechanisms for the resolution of controversies in the South American region. The argument presented by Karen Mingst sustain that the pressures on water are causing increasing conflicts in the States, which increasingly acquire international dimensions (pp. 484–485). A second objective is to recognize how the increasing judicialization of conflicts between Latin American countries in recent decades exposes a greater problem among States. The failure of integration processes or at least the partial uselessness of multilateralism in the foreign policy of the States requires a deep institutional consideration. Focusing on the object of study, it is necessary to emphasize that Chile has carried out a foreign policy approach based on respect for international treaties, non–interference in matters of other States and respect for International Law. In this framework Chile has reiterated that the waters of the Silala constitute a river, therefore, an international water resource shared with Bolivia in a basin, which is essential for the supply of some towns but especially for large–scale mining. Meanwhile Bolivia has gone through a quite different path in the international policy measures. On one hand, and since the rise of Evo Morales to power in 2006, it was insisted based on an independent study by the Bolivian engineer Antonio Bazoberry called 'The Myth of Silala' that these waters were a set of spring eyes in which case Bolivia would correspond the 100% of its usufruct even with retroactive effect. From this source the Bolivian Foreign Ministry declare that the Silala constituted a strategic natural resource which means that Chile has used these waters incorrectly. Based on this conclusion Bolivia would have the right to suspend the flow to Chile because the waters are not a river and the Chilean nation would be misusing them. Additionally, in the commemoration of the Day of the Sea on March 23rd of 2016, Bolivia authorities claimed that they would considering suing Chile in a second trial before the International Court of Justice. These acts were considered a threat by Chile, who in June of the same year presented the case at the Court the lawsuit to judge the nature and use of resource. The article exposes the scope and context that surrounds a conflict that has little scientific literature written in recent years. In this regard, and from the hypothesis that arises, the research shows that the use of freshwater, particularly of the Silala's waters, an aquifer that joins Chile and Bolivia, transcends water governance. This conflict is mainly related to the handling of the critical historical relationship between Chile and Bolivia, a relation that does not have these waters as the main pillar but rather the ancient maritime claim. This case is a judicialization of foreign policy as a means of conflict resolution. A mechanism that does not contribute to alliances between countries, instead is an evasive alternative due to the absence of relations that in the case of Chile and Bolivia have been interrupted since 1978. It will be addresses the origin of the conflict, the characteristics of these shared resources, the role of International Organizations, the presence of bilateral tensions and conflicts during the government of Evo Morales and the implications that these waters represent for both countries in this political–strategic territory. In this framework, the research is based on studies of the flow of slopes, aspects of the speeches that surround the dispute based on the press media appearances of both countries, official statements of the governments and complementary bibliography. ; Las tensiones históricas entre Chile y Bolivia son un tema constante en la agenda de la política internacional de ambos países y por cierto de América del Sur. El 1 de octubre de 2018, la Corte Internacional de Justicia falló a favor de Chile en el caso de la demanda marítima y declaró que este país no tenía obligación alguna de negociar una salida soberana al mar para Bolivia, derivado de la pérdida de acceso a las costas y territorios tras la Guerra del Pacífico (1879–1883). Sin embargo, este no era el único pleito por aguas entre los dos países. Detrás de la demanda boliviana, se produjo un pleito sucesivo, pero esta vez, una demanda de Chile contra Bolivia el año 2016. Se trata de las aguas de unos manantiales en el altiplano andino a la altura de la ciudad de Antofagasta de Chile, conocidas con el nombre del Silala, aguas que surgen en Bolivia y que transitan hacia Chile. La investigación demuestra que el uso de las aguas dulces, y en particular las del Silala, acuífero que une a Chile y Bolivia en la zona del Departamento de Potosí y la Región de Antofagasta en Chile, trasciende la gobernanza del agua y se relaciona con el manejo de la crítica relación histórica entre Chile y Bolivia. El texto explora el origen del conflicto, las características de estos recursos compartidos, el rol de los organismos internacionales, la presencia de las tensiones y conflictos bilaterales durante el gobierno de Evo Morales, y las implicancias que estas aguas representan para ambos países en el área político–estratégica.
International audience ; Dieser Artikel befasst sich mit den Publikationen der letzten zehn Jahre, die sich dem Monumentaldekor (Malerei und Mosaik) im Rom des 11. und 12. Jahrhunderts bzw. der Epoche der sogenannten gregorianischen Reform gewidmet haben. Nach einer einführenden Zusammenfassung der wesentlichen aktuellen Veröffentlichungen auf diesem Gebiet untersucht der Autor, wie die verschiedenen Thematiken bisher, unter Einbeziehung aktueller Forschungsperspektiven, in der Historiographie behandelt wurden: die Antike und das Kloster Montecassino; die Narration; die Atlantischen Bibeln; Bild und Schrift; die Theorie "reformierter" Kunst; die Auftraggeber. Daraufhin folgt die Analyse des 2006 erschienenen Corpus della pittura medievale romana, der ein bedeutendes Verbindungsglied zwischen älterer Forschung und neuen Fragestellungen darstellt. Der Text unterscheidet zwei grosse chronologische Sektionen, beide dem 11. und 12. Jahrhundert gewidmet, die nicht nur die wesentlichen Errungenschaften des Corpus herausstellen (stilistische und formelle Bezüge, Änderungen chronologischer Zuschreibungen, Untersuchungen verlorener Werke, thematische Aktualiserungen), sondern auch die Beiträge jüngster Publikationen und der aktuellen wissenschaftlichen Diskussion mit einbeziehen. Dabei dienen drei Fälle als Beispiele: das Gemälde auf Holz Das jüngste Gericht des Vatikan-Museums, der Bildzyklus der unteren Basilika von San Crisogono und die Malereien des unteren Kirchenschiffs von San Clemente. Für das 12. Jahrhundert stehen exemplarisch die Mosaike von San Bartolomeo all'isola, San Clemente und Santa Maria in Trastevere. Der Artikel schliesst mit der Analyse der noch erhaltenen Bildzyklen auf dem Gebiet des Latium, die durch ihre historischen und künstlerischen Motive der römischen Tradition entsprechen, und mit der Beziehung zwischen der "reformierten" Kunst Roms und der europäischen Kultur. ; This article discusses research undertaken over the past ten years on monumental decors (painting and mosaics) realized in Rome between the mid-11th century and the mid-12th century, otherwise known as the period of the « Gregorian reform ». After presenting a brief summary of the most significant recent art-historical publications on the subject, the text offers an analysis of the themes developed thus far in the bibliography on the subject: antiquity and the Monte Cassino; narrative; atlantic Bibles; writing and image; theory of "reformed" art; patrons. It then proposes an analysis of the Corpus della pittura medievale romana, published in 2006, which represents a fundamental link between previous studies and new orientations in research. The argument developed covers two time periods, the 11th and 12th centuries respectively, and presents not only the principal discoveries of the Corpus (stylistic and compositional comparisons, chronological shifts, examination of lost works, renewal of themes studied), but also the contribution of later publications and the ongoing critical debate. The article delves into three examples in particular: the wood-panel painting of the Last Judgment housed in the Musei Vaticani, the cycle of paintings from the lower basilica of San Crisogono, and paintings from the lower church of San Clemente. As for the 12th century, the article presents research undertaken on the mosaics of San Bortolomeo all'isola, San Clemente, and Santa Maria in Trastevere. It concludes with an analysis of cycles of imagery still preserved within the former territory of Latium – related, either through their subject matter or artistically, to the Roman tradition – and the connection between the "reformed" art of Rome and larger European culture. ; El artículo trata de las investigaciones publicadas a lo largo de la última década sobre las decoraciones monumentales (pinturas y mosaicos) realizadas en Roma entre mediados del siglo xi y mediados del siglo xii, esto es, la época de la denominada «Reforma gregoriana». Tras un breve repaso de las principales y más recientes publicaciones de historia del arte, el texto prosigue abordando los temas tratados por la historiografía hasta hoy, a la vez que va examinando las nuevas perspectivas de investigación: lo antiguo y Monte Cassino, la narración, las Biblias atlánticas, escritura e imagen, teoría del arte «reformado», los comanditarios. A continuación pasamos al análisis del Corpus della pittura medievale romana, publicado en 2006 y vínculo fundamental de los estudios anteriores con las nuevas perspectivas de investigación. Lo expuesto se organiza en dos grandes secciones cronológicas dedicadas respectivamente a los siglos xi y xii, las cuales presentan no sólo los principales descubrimientos del Corpus (relaciones estilísticas y formales, desplazamientos cronológicos, examen de las obras perdidas, actualizaciones temáticas), sino también la aportación de las publicaciones posteriores y del debate crítico en curso. El artículo se detiene específicamente en tres casos ejemplares: el cuadro sobre madera del Juicio Final conservado en los Museos Vaticanos, el ciclo pictórico de la basílica inferior de San Crisógono, y las pinturas de la iglesia inferior de San Clemente. Respecto al siglo xii, el texto aborda los mosaicos de San Bartolomeo all'isola, de San Clemente y de Santa María in Trastevere. Se concluye con un análisis de los ciclos pictóricos conservados en las tierras del Latium –vinculados, por razones históricas y artísticas, con la tradición romana– y de la relación entre el arte «reformado» de Roma y la cultura europea. ; Cet article traite des recherches publiées ces dix dernières années sur les décorations monumentales (peintures et mosaïques) réalisées à Rome entre le milieu du xie siècle et le milieu du xiie siècle, autrement dit à l'époque de ce qu'il est convenu d'appeler la « réforme grégorienne ». Après un bref compte rendu des principales publications d'histoire de l'art les plus récentes, le texte se poursuit avec le traitement des thèmes abordés par l'historiographie jusqu'à nos jours, tout en examinant les nouvelles perspectives de recherche : l'antique et le mont Cassin ; la narration ; les Bibles atlantiques ; écriture et image ; théorie de l'art « réformé » ; les commanditaires. On passe ensuite à l'analyse du Corpus della pittura medievale romana, publié en 2006, élément de liaison fondamental entre les études précédentes et les nouvelles perspectives de recherche. L'exposé s'organise en deux grandes sections chronologiques, respectivement consacrées au xie et au xiie siècle, qui présentent non seulement les principales découvertes du Corpus (rapprochements stylistiques et formels, déplacements chronologiques, examen des œuvres perdues, mises à jour thématiques), mais aussi l'apport des publications postérieures et du débat critique en cours. L'article s'attarde en particulier sur trois cas exemplaires : le tableau sur bois représentant le Jugement dernier, conservé aux Musei Vaticani, le cycle pictural de la basilique inférieure de San Crisogono et les peintures de l'église inférieure de San Clemente. Concernant le xiie siècle, le texte aborde les mosaïques de San Bartolomeo all'isola, de San Clemente et de Santa Maria in Trastevere. Il se conclut par une analyse des cycles picturaux conservés sur le territoire du Latium – rattachés, pour des motifs historiques et artistiques, à la tradition romaine – et du rapport entre l'art « réformé » de Rome et la culture européenne. ; Questo articolo tratta delle ricerche pubblicate negli ultimi dieci anni sulle decorazioni monumentali (pitture e mosaici) realizzate a Roma tra la metà dell'xi e la metà del xii secolo, ovvero all'epoca di ciò che è convenzionalmente chiamato "riforma gregoriana". Dopo una rapida recensione delle più recenti pubblicazioni storico-artistiche sull'argomento, il testo prosegue con l'analisi dei temi abbordati dalla critica fino ai nostri giorni, esaminando allo stesso tempo le nuove prospettive di ricerca: l'antico e Montecassino; la narrazione; le Bibbie atlantiche; la scrittura e l'immagine; la teoria dell'arte "riformata"; i committenti. L'autore passa quindi all'analisi del Corpus della pittura medievale romana, pubblicato nel 2006, uno snodo fondamentale tra gli studi precedenti e le nuove traiettorie di ricerca. Il testo è organizzato in due grandi sezioni cronologiche, dedicate rispettivamente all'xi e al xii secolo, che presentano non soltanto le principali scoperte del Corpus (confronti stilistici e formali, spostamenti cronologici, esame delle opere perdute, aggiornamenti tematici), ma anche l'apporto delle pubblicazioni successive e del dibattito critico in corso. L'articolo si sofferma in particolare su tre casi esemplari: il dipinto su tavola raffigurante il Giudizio Finale conservato ai Musei Vaticani, il ciclo pittorico della basilica inferiore di San Crisogono e le pitture della chiesa inferiore di San Clemente. Per quanto riguarda il XII secolo, il testo affronta i mosaici di San Bartolomeo all'Isola, di San Clemente e di Santa Maria in Trastevere. L'articolo si conclude con un'analisi dei cicli pittorici conservati sul territorio laziale – ricollegati, per ragioni storiche e artistiche, alla tradizione romana – e del rapporto tra l'arte "riformata" di Roma e la cultura europea.
This Degree to supervise doctoral researches is presented in two volumes: the first is a summary note (322 pages, with notional and proper name indexes); the second brings together various articles, book chapters, statistical data and content analysis (215 pages). The first volume is itself divided into two parts: "Of Music and Poor's: synthesis and main results (1981-2007)", from pages 8 to 168, and "Anthropology of anger: grids of analysis, prospective reflection", from pages 170 to 269. A bibliography, classified into themes, has been deliberately made dense in references. Three chapters make up the first part of volume 1: "Prehistory of research and professional career", "The observation of underground musical phenomena and Identity minorities"; "Poor, poverty and social representations". Three others structure the following one: "The theorization of becoming an active minority"; "Cultures of resentment and current forms of mysticism" and "Conclusion: representations of poverty and work". As in any exercise of this kind, this synthesis of research (part 1) has been carried out with the aim of enriching the subject matter developed in already published writings, by drawing on new reading and by adding more precise notes or analyses, both for the work on popular music and for the work on social representations. In Chapter 1, a kind of professional autobiography is presented, which is related to the psychosocial and administrative issues of legitimation in research laboratories where a professional is a representative of a minority discipline (psychosociology). Since the end of the 1980s, we have been witnessing a complete reorganisation of the modes of professional integration and recognition of researchers. The obligation to join a single team, whatever the case, leads to an asymptotic career, especially if one is the bearer of a non-compliant research problem (monographic approach on a research object considered marginal in social psychology). Moreover, when the researcher does not belong to any of the dominant research disciplines of a university, one is faced with aporias and formidable professional and intellectual difficulties. In the end, this type of researcher is forced either into intra-organisational scientific marginality, by developing an invisible college of correspondents external to his or her working institution, or into the position of leadership or manager, by joining the pedagogical, administrative or scientific boards of his or her institution.The first chapter is devoted to the consequences of these structural constraints. A synthetic approach to surveys of popular music and a critical commentary on the vogue for ethno-methodological and apologetic research on these phenomena are then proposed (Chapter 2). This is because much has been written and published, both in France and abroad, on these "objects" of work, and we now find ourselves at a point where we are commenting on monographic empirical data and distancing ourselves from the work of certain researchers, activators of a fascinated theorising of these practices. A good part of this chapter is organised around this critical questioning and in defence of the so-called "acid state" model constructed during the thesis (1980-1986). Chapter 3 presents the complete data of a work, not yet published in a reference journal, of qualitative-quantitative research on the social representations of poverty. The approach to the 'poverty' subject is based on semi-directive interviews (80 subjects).An analysis of thematic content and lexicon, generated by an associative test, is also presented. Various elements are to be noted: the cognitive monopolisation effect of the terms "hunger" and "money" by poor subjects and the upper middle classes when asked to define the term "poverty" and the construction of the central core of poverty around the prototype of the homeless person, in the Paris region (implying a reduction in so-called "social" poverty and associated with modest socio-economic categories: immigrants, workers, employees, inhabitants of sensitive neighbourhoods). In chapter 4, a common theoretical and pragmatic distinction on the forms of seeking social recognition is formulated: socialisation through "identity" and socialisation through the elaboration of a work or "vocational achievement". A study model based on this elementary distinction, aiming to make this comparison operational and referring to highly differentiated social and political movements, would make it possible to better understand the evolution of contemporary societies with regard to the problems of managing cultural identifications and therefore of social integration and the construction of individuality. A study of the emergence of a constellation of heterodox and anomic behaviours is formulated. In chapter 5, the nature and form of mystical states during this historical and contemporary, strange phase of postmodernity are questioned. Trance, rage, social representations of the self, modified states of consciousness, ritualisations and aesthetics of violence, blasphemy and protest are all keys to entry and analysis to apprehend a teeming cultural reality. We then question the meaning of the invention of polymorphic collective emotions, by taking up a classic theme of research on the consequences of moral and communicational deregulation (on the Durkheimian and Mertonian anomie) in European societies. Chapter 6, of a conclusive type, focuses on the exposition of two research perspectives: the social representations of work and those of poverty. A few final comments on the importance of user-friendly and institutionalised interdisciplinarity punctuate the book. In this volume of HDR, the aim is to propose various lines of work and directions for reflection in a research design, confronted with various organisational and contemporary demands and focused on societal and current issues. The importance of the psycho-sociological analysis of interactions and behaviours has been affirmed throughout this professional biography and this prospective synthesis. ; L'habilitation à diriger les recherches se présente en deux tomes : le premier correspond à une note de synthèse (322 pages, avec index notionnels et de noms propres) ; le second rassemble divers articles, chapitre d'ouvrages, données statistiques et d'analyse de contenu (215 pages). Le premier volume est lui-même divisé en deux parties : « De la musique et des pauvres : bilan et principaux résultats (1981-2007) », de la page 8 à 168, et « Socio-anthropologie de la rage : grilles d'analyse, réflexion prospective », de la page 170 à 269. Une bibliographie, classée en thèmes, a été volontairement rendue dense en références. Trois chapitres composent la première partie du tome 1 : « Préhistoire de la recherche et parcours professionnel », « L'observation des phénomènes musicaux underground » et « Des minorités identitaires : pauvres, pauvreté et représentations sociales ». Trois autres structurent la suivante : « La théorisation du « devenir minorité active », « Cultures du ressentiment et formes actuelles du mysticisme » et « Conclusion : représentations de la pauvreté et du travail ». Comme dans tout exercice de ce genre, cette synthèse des recherches (partie 1) a été faite avec le souci d'enrichir le propos développé dans des écrits déjà publiés, en puisant dans de nouvelles lectures et par l'ajout de notes ou d'analyses plus précises, tant pour les travaux concernant les musiques populaires que pour ceux qui ont trait aux représentations sociales. Dans le chapitre 1, on se livre à une sorte d'autobiographie professionnelle, mise en rapport avec les enjeux psychosociaux et administratifs de légitimation dans des laboratoires de recherche où un professionnel est représentant d'une discipline minoritaire (psychosociologie). On assiste, en effet, depuis la fin des années 1980 à une réorganisation complète des modes d'insertion et de reconnaissance professionnels des chercheurs. L'obligation d'intégrer une seule équipe, quel que soit le cas de figure, conduit à suivre une carrière asymptotique surtout si l'on est porteur d'une problématique de recherche non conforme (approche monographique sur un objet de recherche jugé marginal en psychologie sociale). De plus, quand le chercheur n'appartient à aucune des disciplines de recherche dominantes d'une université, on se retrouve devant des apories et des difficultés professionnelles et intellectuelles redoutables. Ce type de chercheur est, d'une certaine manière, acculé soit à la marginalité scientifique intra-organisationnelle, en développant un collège invisible de correspondants externes à son institution de travail, soit à la position de leadership ou de manager, en entrant dans les conseils d'administration pédagogiques, administratifs ou scientifiques de son établissement. C'est aux conséquences de ces contraintes structurales qu'est consacré le premier chapitre. On propose ensuite (chapitre 2) une approche synthétique des enquêtes effectuées sur les musiques populaires et un commentaire critique de la vogue des recherches ethnométhodologiques et apologétiques sur ces phénomènes. C'est parce qu'on a beaucoup écrit et publié, tant en France qu'à l'étranger, sur ces « objets » de travail et que l'on se retrouve désormais à un moment de commentaire des données empiriques monographiques et de prise de distance par rapport aux travaux de certains chercheurs, activateurs d'une théorisation fascinée de ces pratiques. Une bonne partie de ce chapitre est organisé autour de ce questionnement critique et à la défense du modèle dit de l' « état acide » construit lors de la thèse (1980-1986). Dans le chapitre 3, il s'agit de présenter les données complètes d'un travail, non encore publié dans une revue de référence, d'une recherche qualitative-quantitative sur les représentations sociales de la pauvreté. L'approche de l'objet « pauvreté » est faite par entretiens semi-directifs (80 sujets). Une analyse de contenu thématique et du lexique, généré par un test associatif, est aussi présentée. Différents éléments sont à noter : l'effet d'accaparement cognitif des termes « faim » et « argent » par les sujets pauvres et les classes moyennes supérieures quand on leur demande de définir le terme « pauvreté » et la construction du noyau central de la pauvreté autour du prototype du sans-abri, en région parisienne (impliquant une minoration de la pauvreté dite « sociale » et associées aux catégories socio-économiques modestes : immigrés, ouvriers, employés, habitants des quartiers sensibles). Dans le chapitre 4, une distinction théorique et pragmatique courante sur les formes de recherche de reconnaissance sociale est formulée : la socialisation par l'« identité » et celle par l'élaboration d'une œuvre ou d'un « accomplissement vocationnel ». Un modèle d'étude fondé sur cette distinction élémentaire, visant à rendre opérationnelle cette comparaison et renvoyant à des mouvements sociaux et politiques très différenciés, permettrait de mieux appréhender l'évolution des sociétés contemporaines quant aux problématiques de gestion des identifications culturelles et donc d'intégration sociale et de construction de l'individualité. Une problématique d'étude de l'émergence d'une constellation de conduites hétérodoxes et anomiques est formulée. Au chapitre 5, c'est la nature et la forme des états mystiques, durant cette phase historique et contemporaine, étrange de postmodernité, qui sont questionnées. Transe, rage, représentations sociales du soi, états modifiés de la conscience, ritualisations et esthétiques de la violence, des blasphèmes et de la contestation, sont autant de clés d'entrée et d'analyse pour appréhender une foisonnante réalité culturelle. On questionne alors le sens de l'invention d'émotions collectives polymorphes, en reprenant une thématique classique de recherche sur les conséquences de la dérégulation morale et communicationnelle (notamment sur l'anomie durkheimienne et mertonienne) dans les sociétés européennes. Le chapitre 6, de type conclusif, est axé sur l'exposition de deux perspectives de recherche : les représentations sociales du travail et celles de la pauvreté. Quelques commentaires finaux sur l'importance d'une interdisciplinarité conviviale et institutionnalisée ponctuent l'ouvrage. Dans ce volume d'HDR, il s'agit de proposer diverses pistes de travail et orientations de réflexion dans un design de recherche, confronté à divers exigences organisationnelles et contemporaines et centré sur des problématiques sociétales et actuelles. L'importance de l'analyse psychosociologique des interactions et des conduites a été affirmée tout au long de cette biographie professionnelle et de cet écrit de synthèse prospective.
This Degree to supervise doctoral researches is presented in two volumes: the first is a summary note (322 pages, with notional and proper name indexes); the second brings together various articles, book chapters, statistical data and content analysis (215 pages). The first volume is itself divided into two parts: "Of Music and Poor's: synthesis and main results (1981-2007)", from pages 8 to 168, and "Anthropology of anger: grids of analysis, prospective reflection", from pages 170 to 269. A bibliography, classified into themes, has been deliberately made dense in references. Three chapters make up the first part of volume 1: "Prehistory of research and professional career", "The observation of underground musical phenomena and Identity minorities"; "Poor, poverty and social representations". Three others structure the following one: "The theorization of becoming an active minority"; "Cultures of resentment and current forms of mysticism" and "Conclusion: representations of poverty and work". As in any exercise of this kind, this synthesis of research (part 1) has been carried out with the aim of enriching the subject matter developed in already published writings, by drawing on new reading and by adding more precise notes or analyses, both for the work on popular music and for the work on social representations. In Chapter 1, a kind of professional autobiography is presented, which is related to the psychosocial and administrative issues of legitimation in research laboratories where a professional is a representative of a minority discipline (psychosociology). Since the end of the 1980s, we have been witnessing a complete reorganisation of the modes of professional integration and recognition of researchers. The obligation to join a single team, whatever the case, leads to an asymptotic career, especially if one is the bearer of a non-compliant research problem (monographic approach on a research object considered marginal in social psychology). Moreover, when the researcher does not belong to any of the dominant research disciplines of a university, one is faced with aporias and formidable professional and intellectual difficulties. In the end, this type of researcher is forced either into intra-organisational scientific marginality, by developing an invisible college of correspondents external to his or her working institution, or into the position of leadership or manager, by joining the pedagogical, administrative or scientific boards of his or her institution.The first chapter is devoted to the consequences of these structural constraints. A synthetic approach to surveys of popular music and a critical commentary on the vogue for ethno-methodological and apologetic research on these phenomena are then proposed (Chapter 2). This is because much has been written and published, both in France and abroad, on these "objects" of work, and we now find ourselves at a point where we are commenting on monographic empirical data and distancing ourselves from the work of certain researchers, activators of a fascinated theorising of these practices. A good part of this chapter is organised around this critical questioning and in defence of the so-called "acid state" model constructed during the thesis (1980-1986). Chapter 3 presents the complete data of a work, not yet published in a reference journal, of qualitative-quantitative research on the social representations of poverty. The approach to the 'poverty' subject is based on semi-directive interviews (80 subjects).An analysis of thematic content and lexicon, generated by an associative test, is also presented. Various elements are to be noted: the cognitive monopolisation effect of the terms "hunger" and "money" by poor subjects and the upper middle classes when asked to define the term "poverty" and the construction of the central core of poverty around the prototype of the homeless person, in the Paris region (implying a reduction in so-called "social" poverty and associated with modest socio-economic categories: immigrants, workers, employees, inhabitants of sensitive neighbourhoods). In chapter 4, a common theoretical and pragmatic distinction on the forms of seeking social recognition is formulated: socialisation through "identity" and socialisation through the elaboration of a work or "vocational achievement". A study model based on this elementary distinction, aiming to make this comparison operational and referring to highly differentiated social and political movements, would make it possible to better understand the evolution of contemporary societies with regard to the problems of managing cultural identifications and therefore of social integration and the construction of individuality. A study of the emergence of a constellation of heterodox and anomic behaviours is formulated. In chapter 5, the nature and form of mystical states during this historical and contemporary, strange phase of postmodernity are questioned. Trance, rage, social representations of the self, modified states of consciousness, ritualisations and aesthetics of violence, blasphemy and protest are all keys to entry and analysis to apprehend a teeming cultural reality. We then question the meaning of the invention of polymorphic collective emotions, by taking up a classic theme of research on the consequences of moral and communicational deregulation (on the Durkheimian and Mertonian anomie) in European societies. Chapter 6, of a conclusive type, focuses on the exposition of two research perspectives: the social representations of work and those of poverty. A few final comments on the importance of user-friendly and institutionalised interdisciplinarity punctuate the book. In this volume of HDR, the aim is to propose various lines of work and directions for reflection in a research design, confronted with various organisational and contemporary demands and focused on societal and current issues. The importance of the psycho-sociological analysis of interactions and behaviours has been affirmed throughout this professional biography and this prospective synthesis. ; L'habilitation à diriger les recherches se présente en deux tomes : le premier correspond à une note de synthèse (322 pages, avec index notionnels et de noms propres) ; le second rassemble divers articles, chapitre d'ouvrages, données statistiques et d'analyse de contenu (215 pages). Le premier volume est lui-même divisé en deux parties : « De la musique et des pauvres : bilan et principaux résultats (1981-2007) », de la page 8 à 168, et « Socio-anthropologie de la rage : grilles d'analyse, réflexion prospective », de la page 170 à 269. Une bibliographie, classée en thèmes, a été volontairement rendue dense en références. Trois chapitres composent la première partie du tome 1 : « Préhistoire de la recherche et parcours professionnel », « L'observation des phénomènes musicaux underground » et « Des minorités identitaires : pauvres, pauvreté et représentations sociales ». Trois autres structurent la suivante : « La théorisation du « devenir minorité active », « Cultures du ressentiment et formes actuelles du mysticisme » et « Conclusion : représentations de la pauvreté et du travail ». Comme dans tout exercice de ce genre, cette synthèse des recherches (partie 1) a été faite avec le souci d'enrichir le propos développé dans des écrits déjà publiés, en puisant dans de nouvelles lectures et par l'ajout de notes ou d'analyses plus précises, tant pour les travaux concernant les musiques populaires que pour ceux qui ont trait aux représentations sociales. Dans le chapitre 1, on se livre à une sorte d'autobiographie professionnelle, mise en rapport avec les enjeux psychosociaux et administratifs de légitimation dans des laboratoires de recherche où un professionnel est représentant d'une discipline minoritaire (psychosociologie). On assiste, en effet, depuis la fin des années 1980 à une réorganisation complète des modes d'insertion et de reconnaissance professionnels des chercheurs. L'obligation d'intégrer une seule équipe, quel que soit le cas de figure, conduit à suivre une carrière asymptotique surtout si l'on est porteur d'une problématique de recherche non conforme (approche monographique sur un objet de recherche jugé marginal en psychologie sociale). De plus, quand le chercheur n'appartient à aucune des disciplines de recherche dominantes d'une université, on se retrouve devant des apories et des difficultés professionnelles et intellectuelles redoutables. Ce type de chercheur est, d'une certaine manière, acculé soit à la marginalité scientifique intra-organisationnelle, en développant un collège invisible de correspondants externes à son institution de travail, soit à la position de leadership ou de manager, en entrant dans les conseils d'administration pédagogiques, administratifs ou scientifiques de son établissement. C'est aux conséquences de ces contraintes structurales qu'est consacré le premier chapitre. On propose ensuite (chapitre 2) une approche synthétique des enquêtes effectuées sur les musiques populaires et un commentaire critique de la vogue des recherches ethnométhodologiques et apologétiques sur ces phénomènes. C'est parce qu'on a beaucoup écrit et publié, tant en France qu'à l'étranger, sur ces « objets » de travail et que l'on se retrouve désormais à un moment de commentaire des données empiriques monographiques et de prise de distance par rapport aux travaux de certains chercheurs, activateurs d'une théorisation fascinée de ces pratiques. Une bonne partie de ce chapitre est organisé autour de ce questionnement critique et à la défense du modèle dit de l' « état acide » construit lors de la thèse (1980-1986). Dans le chapitre 3, il s'agit de présenter les données complètes d'un travail, non encore publié dans une revue de référence, d'une recherche qualitative-quantitative sur les représentations sociales de la pauvreté. L'approche de l'objet « pauvreté » est faite par entretiens semi-directifs (80 sujets). Une analyse de contenu thématique et du lexique, généré par un test associatif, est aussi présentée. Différents éléments sont à noter : l'effet d'accaparement cognitif des termes « faim » et « argent » par les sujets pauvres et les classes moyennes supérieures quand on leur demande de définir le terme « pauvreté » et la construction du noyau central de la pauvreté autour du prototype du sans-abri, en région parisienne (impliquant une minoration de la pauvreté dite « sociale » et associées aux catégories socio-économiques modestes : immigrés, ouvriers, employés, habitants des quartiers sensibles). Dans le chapitre 4, une distinction théorique et pragmatique courante sur les formes de recherche de reconnaissance sociale est formulée : la socialisation par l'« identité » et celle par l'élaboration d'une œuvre ou d'un « accomplissement vocationnel ». Un modèle d'étude fondé sur cette distinction élémentaire, visant à rendre opérationnelle cette comparaison et renvoyant à des mouvements sociaux et politiques très différenciés, permettrait de mieux appréhender l'évolution des sociétés contemporaines quant aux problématiques de gestion des identifications culturelles et donc d'intégration sociale et de construction de l'individualité. Une problématique d'étude de l'émergence d'une constellation de conduites hétérodoxes et anomiques est formulée. Au chapitre 5, c'est la nature et la forme des états mystiques, durant cette phase historique et contemporaine, étrange de postmodernité, qui sont questionnées. Transe, rage, représentations sociales du soi, états modifiés de la conscience, ritualisations et esthétiques de la violence, des blasphèmes et de la contestation, sont autant de clés d'entrée et d'analyse pour appréhender une foisonnante réalité culturelle. On questionne alors le sens de l'invention d'émotions collectives polymorphes, en reprenant une thématique classique de recherche sur les conséquences de la dérégulation morale et communicationnelle (notamment sur l'anomie durkheimienne et mertonienne) dans les sociétés européennes. Le chapitre 6, de type conclusif, est axé sur l'exposition de deux perspectives de recherche : les représentations sociales du travail et celles de la pauvreté. Quelques commentaires finaux sur l'importance d'une interdisciplinarité conviviale et institutionnalisée ponctuent l'ouvrage. Dans ce volume d'HDR, il s'agit de proposer diverses pistes de travail et orientations de réflexion dans un design de recherche, confronté à divers exigences organisationnelles et contemporaines et centré sur des problématiques sociétales et actuelles. L'importance de l'analyse psychosociologique des interactions et des conduites a été affirmée tout au long de cette biographie professionnelle et de cet écrit de synthèse prospective.
The article aims to describe and analyse international relations debates, focusing on the contributions that feminisms make to the field as one of the dissident currents and reflectivist approaches -especially in its postcolonial/decolonial formulations. The methodology used is qualitative, and a specific bibliography is reviewed in order to examine the current discussions in the discipline, the confrontations within feminisms in IR, as well as their contributions. Moreover, we will look at the revision that Latin American and Caribbean decolonial feminism has instigated, considering the importance of intersectionality for expanding disciplinary boundaries. The text is articulated around the following questions: What debates run through the contemporary disciplinary field? What do the approaches of feminisms, within this framework, question and propose? What methodologies and notions do they introduce in IR studies? Which contributions are made by Latin American and Caribbean feminism? Thus, specific methodological and epistemological issues illuminated by feminisms in IR, such as the body politics,the micropolitics approach, and the focus on everyday practices,are given particular consideration. Solomon & Steele (2016) affirm that it "is only now — with increasing shifts to the micro — that academic IR has begun to (re)discover the lives and people of global politics, and to breathe life back into a field that grand theory mostly neglected". Every life of any person around the world should be recognized; there is no international system or society without the actions and practices of ordinary people. In this regard, feminisms have been key introductions into the field of IR, along with poststructuralism and postcolonialism, which are regular research instruments in disciplines like anthropology or sociology. For instance, ethnographic studies or participant observation are techniques that support the turns and innovations mentioned above. This framework is fundamental to make gender differences visible from an intersectional perspective. Postcolonial/decolonial feminism concentrates their studies on that difference, especially considering its links with other inequalities and concrete oppressions: e.g. in relation to race, ethnicity, religion, class, and nationality. In Latin America and the Caribbean, this perspective takes on an added relevance, and gives rise in this text to the problematization of its entanglement with human rights; the relationship between women, work and racialization; inequalities and violence; together with their links with global neoliberalism. In this respect, the article gives a comprehensive account of the main issues tackled by feminisms in the region, such as women's positions during the colonization period, and the multiple forms of violence related to their role. For instance, there is the importance of state responsibility in femicides, and the internal colonization and the neglect of diversity in national (plurinational) societies. These are performed by academia and social movements, particularly so in Western (white) feminist perspectives. The text is divided into three sections. Firstly, the framework of current IR debates is established, the differences between feminisms in IR and their classifications are described, and the theoretical contributions that these approaches have made to the discipline through methodological instruments such as micropolitics, corporeality and the practices of everyday life are elaborated. In the words of Enloe (2007, p.100) "Feminism is a multidimensional yet coherent worldview. Feminism is an achieved mosaic of understandings, yet it is still unfolding. […] feminism is a complex set of understandings about how power operates, how power is legitimized and how power is perpetuated". Regardless of which perspective within feminism is being highlighted, some fundamental common issues will appear: neoliberalism and patriarchy are two of them, but also violence against women, gender identities and rights, exploitation, public and private spheres distinctions, etc. Then, the particularities of decolonial feminisms in Latin America and the Caribbean, along with their intersectional look at the field, are discussed: the question of subalternity, difference and neoliberalism, the concrete forms they acquire in the Global South and in the region. Moreover, the relevance of the link between neoliberalism and patriarchy is brought into consideration as a research topic shared by different feminist perspectives. In this respect, we name some authors form the region that propose feminist genealogic studies (Ciriza, 2015; Parra, 2021). As Marchand (2013, p.64) explains, the opportunities of a young middle-class woman with a university education are greater than those of a 65-year-old indigenous man with little formal education and a peasant life. While obviously not in a dominant position in society and the labour market, the young woman still has a privileged position with respect to the indigenous. These differences are invisible in the rational mainstream, and also in liberal -and some socialist or poststructuralist- feminisms. Some particular research is mentioned to show how the body politics, micropolitical approaches, and the practice turn are effectively used in IR studies, with innovative techniques oriented towards ethnographic studies and participated action. For instance, the examination of global women (and gender diversities), migration and mobility are illuminated by focusing in particular case: women from Guerrero in Texas (Muñoz y Mendoza, 2018). Also, the incidences of sexual violence in the conflict in Guatemala is brought to light through the voices of the Maya women survivors and thanks to the research of Fulchiron (2016). This research emphasises the use of the femininized body as a war instrument. In addition, this paper mentions the contribution that Latin American and Caribbean feminisms have made to the field of human rights, especially through the participation in international organizations such as OAS and UN. (Barrancos, 2021; Chiarotti Boero, 2021) Considering all the above mentioned, we state that critical and intersectional feminisms allow us to think IR as a diverse field, with true planetary scope, and capable of recovering the importance of the well-being and daily lives of people. Finally, the conclusions are presented with possible relevant lines for future research (ecofeminism and the Latin American approaches to it). Dissident contributions in IR, in general, call into question the mainstream, giving rise in recent years to alternative, peripheral and silenced voices through postcolonial studies (decoloniality) and the feminisms, amongst others. These voices of difference generate discussion beyond hegemonic perspectives, producing key contributions for the continued interrogation of the discipline. These voices, for instance from Latin America and the Caribbean, draw on their own worldviews, along with traditional and popular knowledge. This assists in the promotion of new approaches and value situated, plural, intersectional and corporeized knowledges. ; El artículo se propone describir y analizar los debates en la disciplina de las Relaciones Internacionales (RRII), focalizando en los aportes que los feminismos hacen al campo como corriente disidente, y en especial, en sus vertientes postcoloniales/decoloniales. Con una metodología cualitativa, se revisa bibliografía específica que permite dar cuenta de las discusiones actuales en la disciplina, las confrontaciones al interior de los feminismos en RRII y sus contribuciones, y, en ese plano, se repasan los aportes propios del feminismo decolonial latinoamericano y caribeño, considerando el señalamiento sobre la interseccionalidad realizada por este. Así, se examinan cuestiones metodológicas y epistemológicas concretas como la cuestión del cuerpo, los estudios desde la micropolítica y el foco en las prácticas cotidianas de las personas, iluminadas por los feminismos en las RRII. Ese marco es fundamental para visibilizar las diferencias de género desde una perspectiva interseccional, que desde el feminismo postcolonial/decolonial se concentra en sus vínculos con otras desigualdades y opresiones (raza, origen, clase social, entre otras). En América Latina y el Caribe esta mirada adquiere una relevancia distintiva y da lugar en este escrito a la problematización de sus vínculos con los derechos humanos, con las desigualdades y las violencias, y sus articulaciones con el neoliberalismo transnacionalizado. El texto se divide en tres apartados: primero, en el marco de los debates actuales del campo de estudio, se revisan los aportes de los feminismos en las RRII y se describen las diferencias al interior de estos. En particular, se indican como contribuciones teórico-metodológicas de los enfoques feministas a las RRII aquellos estudios basados en la micropolítica, la corporeidad y las prácticas de la vida cotidiana. Luego, se tratan las particularidades de los feminismos decoloniales en América Latina y el Caribe y su mirada interseccional en el campo: la cuestión de la subalternidad, la diferencia, la inequidad y el neoliberalismo, las formas concretas que adquieren en el Sur Global y en la región. Por último, se presentan las conclusiones con posibles líneas relevantes para futuras investigaciones. Los aportes disidentes en las RRII, en general, ponen en cuestión la corriente principal, dando lugar en los últimos años a voces alternativas, periféricas y silenciadas a través de los estudios postcoloniales (decolonialidad) y los feminismos, entre otros. Son esas voces de la diferencia las que presentan discusión a las perspectivas hegemónicas, produciendo contribuciones claves para continuar pensando la disciplina; en América Latina y el Caribe esto se realiza desde cosmovisiones propias, que buscan amalgamar saberes tradicionales y populares, propiciar nuevos enfoques y valorizar un conocimiento situado, interseccional, plural y corporeizado.
학위논문(석사)--서울대학교 대학원 :행정대학원 글로벌행정전공,2019. 8. 전영한. ; 공무원은 정부 목표의 추진과 실현이라는 중요한 역할을 하는 정부 기관의 주축이다. 그러므로, 공공봉사동기가 높은 직원들을 채용하고 유지하는 것은 정부 기관의 중요한 역할이다. 그들이 높은 직무 만족도를 갖는다면 조직 성과에 엄청나게 영향을 미칠 수 있기 때문이다. 많은 기존 연구들에 따르면 공공봉사동기는 국가에 상관없이 직원들의 직무 만족도에 긍정적인 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 그러나 공공봉사동기에 관한 여러 연구에서는 공공봉사동기의 가치가 지역에 따라 다를 수 있다는 것을 제시했다. 따라서 본 연구는 미얀마 공직에서 공공봉사동기가 직원들의 직무 만족도에 미치는 영향을 조사하였다. 본 연구는 횡단면적, 비실험적, 양적 설문지로 행해졌으며, 250명의 공무원 모집단에서 간단한 무작위 표본 추출로 미얀마 연방인사위원회(UCSB)의 152명의 중간급 및 하위직 공무원의 표본을 조사하였다. 또한 공무원들의 공공봉사동기 및 직무 만족도에 대한 인식은 개정된 공공봉사동기 설문(Kim et al., 2012)과 직무만족도 설문(Spector, 1985)을 결합한 설문조사를 통해 수집되었다. 자료는 SAS 소프트웨어의 기술통계분석, t-검정, 상관관계 및 회귀 분석을 사용하여 분석하였다. 본 연구의 주요 결론은 본 연구에서 수행된 설문의 자료에서 기존 공공봉사동기 이론이 관찰되었다는 것과 공공봉사동기가 미얀마 연방인사위원회 공무원들의 직무 만족도에 긍정적인 영향을 미친다는 것이다. 또한 상위 직급의 직원들은 다른 인구통계학적 변수들 중에서 공공봉사동기와 긍정적으로 관련이 있는 것으로 밝혀졌다. 이에 더하여 본 연구는 공공봉사동기의 차원들과 직원들의 인구통계학적 변수가 직무 만족도에 미치는 영향도 알아냈다. 그 결과 공무원의 직무만족도를 가장 잘 예측한 것은 공공봉사동기 중 '공공 서비스에 대한 관심도(APS)'였으며, 고등교육을 받은 근로자의 경우 직무만족도에 크게 부정적인 영향을 갖는 것으로 나타났다. 그 결과 올바른 직책에 적임자를 채용하고 공공의 이익을 도모하려는 목표를 가지고 적격 심사 및 개인 면접을 수행한다면 공무원 시험 단계에서 공공봉사동기가 구체적으로 구현될 수 있음을 알 수 있다. 또한 UCSB는 공직 가치에 대한 공무원의 태도를 강화하기 위해 공공봉사동기 이론과 관련하여 중앙행정기관이 실시하는 공무원 연수 과정을 추진할 수 있다. UCSB는 지원자에게 현실적인 직업 설계와 조직의 목표에 대한 상세한 정보를 제공하여 공직의 본질에 대해 이해하도록 함으로써 공무원 채용 과정에서 공공봉사동기를 촉진할 수 있었다. 또한 직원의 직무만족에 대한 공공봉사동기의 합리적 측면이 우세한 것으로 판명됨에 따라, UCSB는 공무원이 자신의 관심사를 통해 사회에 기여할 수 있는 공공 프로그램에 참여할 수 있는 기회를 조성할 수 있었다. 미얀마 공직 시스템의 인적자원개발 과정에 더 많은 기여를 하기 위해 개인-조직 간 적합 이론에 의해 매개되는 공공봉사동기와 직무 만족도 사이의 관계에 대하여 질적 접근과 양적 접근 모두를 수행하는 추가 연구를 하는 것도 흥미로울 것이라고 여겨진다. ; Civil servants are the keystone of any government agency taking the critical role of implementation and realization of the goals of government. It is, therefore, vital function for government agencies to recruit and retain employees with higher public service motivation so that they would achieve job satisfaction which incredibly impacts organizational performance. Many previous academic researchers discovered that public service motivation is positively associated with employees' job satisfaction across the world. However, many academic studies on public service motivation suggested that values of public service motivation may differ according to different regions. This research, therefore, intended to investigate the impact of public service motivation on employees' job satisfaction in the context of Myanmar civil service. This study was a cross-sectional, non-experimental and quantitative survey research. This study surveyed the sample of 152 middle level and lower rank civil servants in the Union Civil Service Board (UCSB) of Myanmar by using simple random sampling from the population of 250 civil servants. The perception of civil employees on public service motivation and job satisfaction was collected through a single survey made by combining revised public service motivation questionnaire (Kim et al., 2012) and job satisfaction survey (Spector, 1985). Data was analyzed using statistical procedures of descriptive analysis, t-test, correlation and regression analysis in SAS software. The major finding of this study was that the existing public service motivation theory was observed in the survey data of this study and public service motivation has positive impact on employees' job satisfaction in the Union Civil Service Board of Myanmar. In addition, employees with higher rank was found to be positively associated with public service motivation among other demographic variables. Moreover, this study also found out the influence of dimensions of public service motivation and employees' demographic variables on job satisfaction. The results indicated that "attraction to public service (APS)" dimension of public service motivation was the best predictor of employees' job satisfaction and employees with higher level education had significantly negative effect on job satisfaction. The policy implication drawing from the findings is that public service motivation can be specifically embodied in the stages of civil service exam such as screening test and personal interview in the objectives of recruiting the right person in the right job position and in order of achieving job commitment with the public interest. In addition, the UCSB can promote the civil service training courses conducted by the Central Institutes of Civil Service with respect to the theory of public service motivation to strengthen civil servants' attitudes towards on the values of public service professions. The UCSB could promote the sense of public service motivation in the civil service hiring process by providing applicants with the detailed information of realistic job designs and goals of the organization to better understand the nature of the civil service professions as well as to meet employees' expectations. As rational motive was found to be the dominant category of public service motivation on employees' job satisfaction, the UCSB could foster opportunities for its civil employees to participate in the public programs which permit them to contribute to the society through their interest. Further research would be interesting to conduct both qualitative as well as quantitative approach by adopting the relationship between different dimensions of public service motivation and job satisfaction mediated by person-organization fit theory in order to contribute more to the human resource development processes of Myanmar civil service system. ; Abstract i Table of Contents iv List of Tables viii List of Figures xi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1. Background of the study 1 1.2. Statement of the problem 3 1.3. Purpose of the study 5 1.4. Significance of the study 5 1.5. Definition of terms 6 Chapter 2: Literature Review 8 2.1. Public service motivation (PSM) 8 2.1.1. Measurement of PSM 11 2.2. Job satisfaction 13 2.3. Relationship between public service motivation and job satisfaction …………………………………………………………………….14 2.4. Control Variables 17 2.4.1. Public service motivation control variables 17 2.4.2. Job satisfaction control variables 19 2.5. Background of the Union Civil Service Board (UCSB) 21 Chapter 3: Research Methodology 27 3.1. Conceptual framework 27 3.2. Research questions and Hypothesis 28 3.3. Population and Sample 29 3.4. Instrumentation 30 3.5. Data analysis methodology 32 3.6. Data collection strategy 32 Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Research Findings 34 4.1. Introduction 34 4.2. Reliabilities of the dependent and independent variables 35 4.3. Demographic information of the study 35 4.4. Descriptive statistics of the PSM 39 4.4.1. Descriptive statistics of PSM by demographic variables 39 4.5. Descriptive statistics of five aspects of job satisfaction 44 4.6. Correlation between five facets of job satisfaction and public service motivation 44 4.7. Relationship between pay satisfaction and public service motivation …………………………………………………………………….46 4.8. Relationship between work satisfaction and public service motivation 48 4.9. Relationship between promotion satisfaction and public service motivation 49 4.10. Relationship between coworker satisfaction and public service motivation 52 4.11. Relationship between supervision satisfaction and PSM 54 4.12. Bivariate correlation between dependent and independent variables …………………………………………………………………….55 4.13. Relationship between public service motivation and job satisfaction 56 4.13.1 Relationship between pay satisfaction and four dimensions of PSM 57 4.13.2 Relationship between promotion satisfaction and four dimensions of PSM 57 4.13.3 Relationship between work satisfaction and four dimensions of PSM 58 4.13.4 Relationship between coworker satisfaction and four dimensions of PSM 59 4.13.5 Relationship between supervision satisfaction and four dimensions of PSM 60 4.14. Summary 61 Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation 63 5.1. Relationship between demographic variables and PSM 63 5.2. Relationship between public service motivation and job satisfaction …………………………………………………………………….68 5.3. Dimensions of public service motivation and job satisfaction 71 5.4. Limitations 73 5.5. Recommendation for further research 73 5.6. Practical implications 74 5.7. Conclusion 76 Bibliography 79 Appendix: Public Service Motivation Measurement, Job Satisfacción Survey 89 국문초록 94 Acknowledgement 97 ; Master
This essay discusses the relation between urban spaces and street festival as an example of a creative industry. To begin with, several terms are presented as part of a theoretical approach to fully understand the concept of street festivals, then two cases studies of street festivals will be presented and analysed: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá and Rock al Parque Festival both from Bogotá, Colombia. The essay has a chapter dedicated to the relationship between festivals and economic development. ; Cultura y desarrollo; Esfera pública; Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro; Festivales callejeros; Habermas; Rock al Parque ; 1 An Act of Faith: Two Cases Studies Of Street Festivals As Examples Of Development. ANDRÉS GUILLERMO CHAUR1 Course Title: Theories of the Culture Industry: work, creativity and precariousness Course Code: CU71015A Date: 13 January 2014 1 Beneficiario COLFUTURO 2013 2 3 «Culture is the be all and end all of development» L.S. Senghor, poet (Senegal, 1906-2001) Introduction This essay discusses the relation between urban spaces and street festival as an example of a creative industry. To begin with, several terms are presented as part of a theoretical approach to fully understand the concept of street festivals, then two cases studies of street festivals will be presented and analysed: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá and Rock al Parque Festival both from Bogotá, Colombia. The essay has a chapter dedicated to the relationship between festivals and economic development. It is important to mention that the starter point of this essay was precisely to give an introductory background of the importance that has have those two case studies in the development of the city. It is not a secret that Colombia has suffered a period of violence and instability since the second part of the XX century so at first glance it is curious to study and research about an almost contradictory topic such as Culture in a "war country". But at the same time, the "beauty" of this study relies precisely in its contradictory nature: How a country with those characteristics can hold two of the most important and respected free theatre festivals and music festivals in all Latin America? This essay will try to explain that culture when it's conceived with some specific characteristics will bring democracy and peace. A series of deep and abstract concepts will be discussed. This essay was thought just as an introduction and approximation to the topic of public and private, public sphere, culture and development just to mention some examples. Same with authors and thinkers used to elaborate the structure of this study. Once again it should be taken as an approximation rather than a full and elaborated research. The aim is to structure a series of ideas and concepts around one thesis: Those festivals have helped to make Bogotá a better city thus that is the main point of the relation between urban spaces and creativity: It fosters a better understanding of a society overall. At the end of the essay, in the appendix section, some photos are presented to visually recreate the two festivals, its dimensions and its importance. Although, like every 4 transcendental event, in order to understand the magnitude of The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival and the Rock al Parque Festival one have to experience in person. Cities as spaces for the public To fully understand the concept of "Public Realm" and "Public Sphere", one has to address the theory of the city and its relation with the concept of public and private. The concept of "city" has had many meanings through time. There are different ways to approach the concept; however, for the nature of this essay an urban sociological perspective will be approached. Mumford (1937) states the city as a space undoubtedly bonded with the development of human potential: "a city is an expression of the human spirits, and they exist to nurture human personality"2. Weber (1921), one of the founders of modern sociology sees a city in terms of connectivity and settlement between commuters, in that way, the concept of a city, according to Weber, is about the networking, the political and economic participation and the organization among communities. Landry (2013) defines the city as "a complex organism and in constant movement with perspectives, opinions and priorities about what is right often clashing"3. Simmel (1950) explained the correlation of man and the scenarios created by the capitalism and modern society called "The Metropolis". There is always a struggle between the man (individual) and his society (public): "The deepest problem of modern life arises out of the attempt by the individual to preserve his autonomy and individuality in the face of the overwhelming social forces of a historical heritage, external culture and technique of life"4. Simmel's concept of a city as a place where modern man struggle to find his individuality within "overwhelming social forces" is key to understand the theory of the city, specifically one attached with the words: Public -Private. Sennett (1996) in his book "The Fall of the 2 Mumford, L., 1937. What is a city?. In: Scoutt, S and Stoutt, F. ed. 2011. The city reader. Taylor and Francis. pp.91-96. 3 Landry,C. 2013. Civic Urbanity: Looking at the city afresh (PDF). Hangzhou International Congress, "Culture: Key to Sustainable Development", 15-17 May 2013, Hangzhou, China. Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/images/Charles_Landry_Hangzhou_Congress.pdf (Accessed 12 January 2013). 4 Simmel,G. 1950. The Metropolis and Mental Life. In Miles, M; Hall, T and Borden, I. The City Cultures Reader. Ed. 2000. pp. 12-19. 5 public man" gives an account of the city as the scenario where those 2 concepts are correlated. He starts explaining the meaning of public and private. Although its historical background, coming from the Greeks and the idea of Oikos and Polis as the Private and Public respectively, Sennett comments that "the public" in modern times, started to develop in the eighteen century that is as a direct consequence of the industrial revolution and the liberalism ideas coming from The Enlightenment. "Public came to mean a life passed outside the life of family and close friends. In the public region diverse, complex social groups were to be brought into ineluctable contact the focus of this public life was the city"5 The public life is also the ground to understand modern democracy and public political institution. Sennett, citing Hanna Arendt's book The Human Condition shows how the public life in cities can be a scenario where ideas and opinions are discussed and debated. "Private circumstances have no place in the public realm". 6 Arendt even manifests that cities are "democracy's homes"7 This notion of public started to be more evident when places to meet strangers (people from outside the private sphere) within the city started to grow up. Examples of those "places" are the coffee houses and salons (Habermas will mention those examples to explain his theory of public sphere). Those spaces are called "Public Realm" by Sennett. Public Realm, in other words, are spaces where strangers meet. This encounter is characterized by "anonymity". In "The Conscience of The Eye" Sennett (1992) also says that anonymity is the power of modern cities: "The power of the city lies in its diversity; in the presence of difference people have at least the possibility to step outside themselves (.) The city can give them experiences of otherness"8 The concept of Teatro Mundi is an interesting way to look at the public sphere. According to Sennett, "Teatro Mundi" are spaces full of vitality, differences and disorder. Places where the differences connect and all citizens participate: "Society is a theatre and people are actors". This essay will discuss Teatro Mundi in detail in the chapter related to street festivals. . 5 Sennett, R. 2003. The Fall of Public Man. Penguin, New Edition. 6 Sennett, R. 2008. Reflections on the Public Realm in Bridge, G and Watson, S. A companion of the City. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 380-387. 7 Sennett, R. 2008. The Public Realm. (online) Richard Sennet Website. Available at: http://www.richardsennett.com/site/SENN/Templates/General2.aspx?pageid=16 (Accessed 13 January 2014) 8 Sennett, R. 1992. The Conscience of the Eye: The Design and Social Life of Cities. W.W Norton & Company. 6 In the next chapter, this essay will discuss in-depth different theories about the public realm specially the ideas of Habermas about the public sphere and his theory of action communicative. Habermas and the Public Sphere Even though the previous chapter gave an account of the concepts of private-public, it is important to highlight them according to the theory of Habermas. Recognized as one of the most influential sociologist and philosopher of our times, Habermas theories of the public sphere (phrase from the German Öffentlichkeit), and modern democracy as well as his theory of action communicative have been enormously influential for modern sociology9. Firstly Habermas' thought is marked in the tradition of the Frankfurt School. His first mayor publication "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere" argues that instrumental rationality is implicit in the Public Sphere. However, Habermas took distance from the classical notion of the critical theory when argues that participation in the public sphere (he exemplified the coffee shops and the salons in Paris and London in the XVIII century) is free and autonomous in order to shape a common good: "The public sphere consisted in voluntary associations of private citizens united in a common aim, to make use of their own reason in unconstrained discussion between equals"10(Later on, Habermas is going to present how mass media eroded individuality and declined the public sphere). It is important to mention the dichotomy of the words public-private for Habermas. Although different, both are dependents to each other. In that way the private sphere and the public sphere instead of being exclusive are inclusive. Susen (2011) defines the public sphere, taking into account Habermas' theory, as: "The socialized expression of individuals' reciprocally constituted autonomy: individuals are autonomous not in isolation from but in relation to one another, that is, in relation to a public of autonomous beings".11 9Finlayson, J .2005. "Habermas, a very short introduction". Oxford University Press. 10 Habermas,J. 1991. The Structural Transformation Of The Public Sphere. MIT Press. 11 Susen, S. 2001. Critical Notes on Habermas's theory of the public sphere. (online). City University of London. Available at: http://tinyurl.com/lhy4j4z. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 7 Several questions came to mind: How this socialization is constructed? What does an autonomous individual mean? And how can individual reach autonomy? For Habermas, the answer relies on a rational communicative action. The aim of the public sphere is to create a consensus through the active participation of all individuals involved. This consensus is created by a rational approach of the language: "The public sphere is a collective realm in which individuals' cognitive ability to take on the role of critical and responsible actors is indicative of society's coordinative capacity to transform itself into an emancipatory project shaped by the normative force of communicative rationality"12. Rationality in terms of Habermas does not consist in knowledge per se but "how speaking and acting subjects acquire and use knowledge"13. This type of rationality is different from the instrumental rationality from the Enlightenment, widely criticized by the Frankfurt School, since it is "practical, epistemological and more important, intersubjective"14. The public sphere, considering the above, not only describes the space where the encounter occurs but moreover, the public sphere has within itself an emancipator and a transformative component. Some critics find Habermas ideas "too utopian and idealistic"15. The next chapter the link between Habermas and Sennett notion of Public Realm in the city will be tracked. The Open City Sennett takes Habermas as a mayor inspiration for constructing his idea of the Public Realm in the city. According to Sennett (2008), Habermas does not tie the public sphere to any particular place, such as a town centre for instance. Even new technological media as the 12 Ibid. 13 Hahn, L. 2000. Perspective On Habermas. Open Court Publishing. 14 Susen, S. 2001. Critical Notes on Habermas's theory of the public sphere. (online). City University of London. Available at: http://tinyurl.com/lhy4j4z. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 15 Ibid. 8 Internet could be seen as an example of public sphere: "In today's cities, an internet cafe would be more likely to excite him than Trafalgar Square" 16 The place where strangers meet, as Sennett defines Public Realm, could be anywhere: An event, a medium, etc. that encourages communication between strangers. Eventually, Sennett argues, cities that promote those types of encounters are called cities with open systems and on the contrary, cities that lack a real public realm or just promote the privatization of spaces are called cities with closed systems. Based on sociologist Jane Jacobs(1961) and her book "The death and life of great American cities"17, Sennett(2006) imagines a city with a closed system with two attributes: Equilibrium and Integration18. Equilibrium is related with balance, with harmony and with a static idea of conceiving a city. Public Spaces as spaces full of differences, dissents and disorders are not part or are reduced in a closed system. By integration, Sennett means that everything is connected and is part of a greater and unique vision. Thus, everything that is not part of that unique vision is expelled and rejected: "The logic of integration is to diminish in value things that don't fit in (.) Closed system cities refuse to evolve and has paralysed urbanism", concludes Sennett. Opposing a closed system, the open system is all about diversity and finding a place for differences, dissents and disorders. It is about complexity, about how a place adapts itself to the always changing community and its processes. Sennett lists three elements of an open city: Passage territories, incomplete form and development narratives. Passages territories means to diffuse boundaries and different territories within the cities; incomplete form is regarding "empty spaces" so the public can interact in it. Development narratives means to allow dissident voices to express and to fully participate. Wirth (1938) summarize the above by saying: "The juxtaposition of divergent personalities and modes of life tends to produce a relativistic perspective and a sense of toleration of differences"19 Taking into consideration the above characteristics of an open city, one can say that an open city is a place for democracy, "not in the legal sense but in the physical experience" says 16 Sennett, R. 2008. Reflections on the Public Realm in Bridge, G and Watson, S. A companion of the City. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 380-387. 17 Jacobs, J .1961. The death and life of great American cities. Random House, New York. 18 Sennett, R 2006. The Open City. (online). Urban Age- LSE. Available at: http://esteticartografias07.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/berlin_richard_sennett_2006-the_open_city1.pdf. (Accessed 13 January 2014) 19 Wirth, L .1938. Urbanism as a Way of Life. (online) Chicago Journals. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2768119 (Accessed 13 January 2014). 9 Sennett 20. This thesis is important to understand the importance of public spaces in construction of a fully democratic society and thus is connected to the idea of development and equality. ¿What are examples of an open system? Can one give an account of a public sphere? The next chapter will give an account of the relationship between the street festivals and the public sphere, understanding them as a significance example of public realm. Street Festivals and the Public Sphere To begin with, Street Festivals or Urban Festivals as any other cultural event placed in the public sphere are related of what Durkheim called "collective effervescence". As Durkheim pointed out when a group gathers to perform a "religious ritual" experiences a sense of encounter and unity, "leading participants to a high degree of collective emotional excitement or delirium"21. However as Sassatelli(2011) adds, although Festivals are also part of a collective delirium, taking all participant apart from the everyday life, they are also places where the social encounter is made of "polyvalent performances, rather than unified signifiers of a consensual collective conscience"22 Sassatelli complements that street festivals contrasted with museums: By its living dimension as well as its unrestrained sensory experience. Sennett (1992) also talks about spaces "full of live" as narrative spaces where every dweller constructs a disorder and kaleidoscope meaning of the public. This could lead to the erosion of the boundaries of high and low culture in the sense of the Frankfurt School understood the "cultural industries". namely they turn into instances of communication and instances of production of collective meanings and desires. 20 Sennett, R 2006. The Open City. (online). Urban Age- LSE. Available at: http://esteticartografias07.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/berlin_richard_sennett_2006-the_open_city1.pdf. (Accessed 13 January 2014) 21 Durkheim, E .2008. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Oxford Paperbacks. 22 Sassatelli, M. 2011. Urban Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere: Cosmopolitanism between Ethics and Aesthetics in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 12-19 10 If Habermas, the notion of the "Public Sphere" is related as the area where rational individuals communicate to each other to discuss their social problems; nowadays as McGuian(2011) argues, there are different ways to look at the public sphere, not only inside a rational communicative system as Habermas states, but from other types of communication that also create a sense of public sphere. One of those "public spheres" is the cultural public sphere, namely a sphere within the public where different modes of communications, for instance "affective-aesthetics and emotional are articulated with the public and the private"23 "The public sphere nowadays operates though various channels and circuits of mass popular culture and entertainment facilitated the routinely mediated aesthetic and emotional reflections on how we live and imagine the good life (.) festivals are the aestheticization of politics as the ground for festivals is the democratization of an independent thought by the spectators transformed into active actors". . Although McGuian theorized the cultural public sphere for the mass media and populism culture, undoubtedly street festivals share that conception in an emotional and aesthetic way of "come together as a public" and to transcend the private sphere into a societal integration as Habermas explained. Fabiani (2011) explained as well: 24 Street Festivals are also part of the Sennett's idea of "Teatro Mundi". Spaces operated in an open system, where strangers meet through a "rhetorical way, acting in order to be 23Mc Guian, J. 2011. The Cultural Public Sphere- a critical measure of public culture? in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 79-92. 24 Fabiani, J. 2011. Festivals, local and global: Critical interventions and the cultural public sphere. in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 92-108 Involvement rather than contemplation Instances of communication and community building Erosion of the boundaries between high and low culture Construction of Identity Produce meanings and desires Box 1. Characteristics of Street Festivals according to Sassatelli(2011). 11 credible" 25 In the next chapter, this essay will discuss the implications of street festivals in the sustainable development of a city. Different approaches coming from the research of the UNESCO on the relationship between culture and development as well as the studies of the creative class by Michael Florida and the Creative cities by Michael Landry. . People act as in they were in a "role playing" to create a sense of "equality", even if they do not share their same social class, race, sexual orientation, etc. Street Festivals have this "communicative power" of involve everyone together. Street Festivals as mechanism for sustainable development How could we connect street festivals as examples of the cultural public sphere with the idea of development? In other words, is there any connection between street festivals, understood as a cultural manifestation, and sustainable development? This chapter will introduce the concept of "Culture for Development"26 In the last few decades, UNESCO programs have been focused in how culture should be at the centre of economic development in developed and especially in developing countries. One of the last attempts to foster that was the Hangzou Congress in 2013 in China. The final conclusion was: "Placing Culture at the Heart of Sustainable Development Policies"; a term coined by UNESCO in a variety of its programs wide world specially for developing nations and will give an account of the link between that term and street festivals as examples of a cultural industry. 27 25 Sennett, R. 2008. Reflections on the Public Realm in Bridge, G and Watson, S. A companion of the City. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 380-387. and described 9 main ideas to do so: Integrate culture within all development policies and Programmes; Mobilize culture and mutual understanding to foster peace and reconciliation; Ensure cultural rights for all to promote inclusive social development; Leverage culture for poverty reduction and inclusive economic development; Build on culture to promote environmental sustainability; Strengthen resilience to disasters and combat climate change through culture value; safeguard and transmit culture to future generations; Harness culture 26 Culture and Development. 2013. UNESCO- Culture. (Online) Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/culture-and-development (Accessed 13 January 2014) 27 UNESCO. 2013. The Hangzhou Declaration. UNESCO- Culture. (Online). Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/culture-and-development/hangzhou-congress/ (Accessed 13 January 2014). 12 as a resource for achieving sustainable urban development and management; Capitalize on culture to foster innovative and sustainable models of cooperation. 28 Landry (2008) also talks about the benefits of cultural industries in a city and how the creativity of those industries will foster economic development and social cohesion: "Culture can also strengthen social cohesion, increase personal confidence and improve life skills, improve people's mental and physical well-being, strengthen people's ability to act as democratic citizens and develop new training and employment routes".29 Florida (2003) shows the relationship between creativeness and development. His theory of human capital, called creative capital theory, shows how by fostering tolerance, high education levels and social adaptation to changes, a social class can help to develop their communities. This creative class and its idea of create "new forms of meanings"30 The bond between the cultural public sphere with democracy and the idea of an Open City, explained before, is also a seminal part of how through cultural manifestations, a society can develop and tackle social problems. are attached to the idea of UNESCO's Culture for development program. Case Studies: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá and the "Rock al Parque" Festival This essay will present two cases studies of street festivals and its relation with the city and its sustainable development: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogota (Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro de Bogotá) and The Rock al Parque Festival. Both represent two major fields in the cultural industries in Bogotá such as the performative arts and the music. 28 Ibid 29 Landry, C. 2008. The Creative City: A toolkit for Urban Innovators. Earthscan Editions. 30 Florida, M (2003). Cities and the creative class. (Online). Available at: http://uv.vuchorsens.dk/r/KAZ/Undervisning%202012-2013/GEOLOGI/B%C3%A6redygtighed/Befolkning%20og%20b%C3%A6redygtighed/GetFile.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014). 13 Firstly the chapter will introduce a context of each festival and then discuss around 5 main axes how the two festivals help to development in specific ways. Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá Declared in December 2013 as "cultural heritage of Colombia"31, The Ibero-American Theatre Festival of Bogotá is a biannual cultural event held in Bogotá and organized by the Fundación Teatro Nacional (National Theatre Foundation) an NGO dedicated to theatre with private and public funding. It is considered as one of the most important theatre festival in Latin America and the most significant cultural event in Colombia32 The history of the festival is in every sense "quixotic": Launched in 1988 when the country was immersed in drug-related violence and when the public institutions and the general idea of democracy were at crisis, Ramiro Osorio, a renowned cultural entrepreneur and Fanny Mikey, considered one of the icons of theatre and culture in Colombia, created the theatre Festival as a "Act of Faith" in order to promote culture as an answer to defeat the prevailing violence of those years. . It is important to mention somehow the significant role of the National Theatre Foundation in the conformation and development of the theatre in Colombia. Founded in 1981 by Fanny Mikey, an Argentinean émigré, with the play "El Rehén" nowadays has three major venues with a wide programme throughout the year as well as an art college a social programme for deprived communities and an international tours of their plays33 The first Ibero-American theatre festival, held from 25th march to 3th of April 1988, gathered 59 theatres companies from 21 countries with an estimated of no more than 100.000 spectators. In 2012, 26 years later, the festival had more than 3 million spectators and 200 theatres companies from 32 countries and 5 continents. 34 31El Espectador. 2013. Festival de Teatro de Bogotá, declarado patrimonio cultural de la Nación. El Espectador, (Online) (Last updated 11December 2013). Available at: . http://www.elespectador.com/noticias/bogota/festival-de-teatro-de-bogota-declarado-patrimonio-cultu-articulo-463508. (Accessed: 13 January 2014). 32 Cepeda, A .2010. FESTIVAL IBEROAMERICANO DE TEATRO DE BOGOTÁ- IMPACTO Y SUPERVIVENCIA. Instituto Complutense de CC Musicales. 33 Ibid 34 Ibid 14 The conception of the festival as a "carnival of the city" relies on the stress in the use of the public space: There are plays presented in the streets, plazas and parks from all over the city: From slums to rich areas covering all significance area of the city. In 2012, the festival presents 218 street plays in 4 major parks (Simón Bolívar, Tunal, Nacional y Plaza de Bolívar) 7 public spaces for street plays, 4 community centres, 2 big parades starting from the north of Bogota (Calle 80) until the Bolivar's Square, the biggest plaza in Bogotá. The Festival was in 11 out of the 21 districts of Bogota. In average, around 2, 5 millions of spectators participate in the festival. 35 "Rock al Parque" Festival In March 2012, Bogotá was chosen by the UNESCO as Creative City of Music along with European cities such as Bologna (Italy), Ghent (Belgium), Sevilla (Spain) and Glasgow (Scotland).36 This recognition is part of the strategy of the secretary of culture of Bogotá of positioning the city as a major culture hub in Latin-American especially in the music field. In recent years and after the creation of the central roadmaps namely the "Políticas Culturales Distritales 2004-2016"37 The link between urban public spaces and public festivals as cultural policies is more visible in the "Festivales al Parque" (Park Festivals) which consists in five annual free music festivals held in different times of the year and performed in important free venues and public parks. They are managed and executed by the Institute for arts in Bogotá (A sub division of the Secretary of Culture of Bogotá) "IDARTES". and the "Plan Decenal de Cultura 2011-2021" the music field and their relation with public spaces have being an important core of the cultural policies in Bogotá. There are 5 "festivales al parque" dedicated to the 5 most popular rhythms that conformed the music scene in the city: Hip Hop, Jazz, Colombia (traditional music) and Rock. Created in different years, the "Festivales al Parque" conforms a local identity and a cultural highlight of the city. 35 Ibid 36 Cultura y Entretenimiento. 2012. Bogotá fue declarada capital mundial de la música. EL TIEMPO. (Online). Available at: http://www.eltiempo.com/entretenimiento/musica/ARTICULO-WEB-NEW_NOTA_INTERIOR-11842506.html (Accessed 13 January 2014) 37 IDARTES. 2004. Políticas Culturales Distritales (Online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/sites/default/files/politicas_culturales_distritales_2004-2016.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014). 15 The pioneer and the biggest in terms of audience of the "Festivales al Parque" is "Rock al Parque" a 3 days rock festival created in 1995 and hosted in the biggest public park of the city, Parque Simón Bolivar; it was organized by musicians Mario Duarte and Julio Correal as a strategy to create a bond between citizens of different socio economic background with the public space during the Antanas Mockus' mayor. The XVIII edition of the festival in 2012 congregated more than 70.000 people per day, making the Festival, the biggest public rock festival in Latin America in terms of audience38. Places for sustainable development: conclusions studies. Although each festival has its own characteristics a study conducted by Obgregón (2007) shows 5 main conclusions that "Rock al Parque" festival has brought to the city. In a similar study done for the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival, Cepeda (2010) also concluded that the festival helped the city in similar ways of the five elements of Obregon. Those five elements also share the same roots of the elements of Culture for Development by the UNESCO. This is an interesting discovery that shows how festivals if they are organized inside the language of Open City -Teatro Mundi (Sennett) and in the Cultural Public Sphere all share similar benefits: 38 Obregon, J. 2007. Desconfianza, civilidad y estética. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Improve the image of the city Create a sense of identity Help to build an audience Visibilization of a minority group Tolerance and social cohesion. Box 2. Five mains benefit of the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival and Rock al Parque Festival to Bogotá. 16 1. Improve the image of the city Both festivals improve the image of the city, for both its inhabitants and foreigners audiences. Leguizamón, Moreno and Tibazisco(2013) have argued the relation between the festivals and the local economy especially in the touristic field: "Bogotá is a touristic destiny who takes advantage of its public festivals as an important opportunity to retain tourists interested in performing arts because they visit the city only one time. This advantage depends on quality improvements which tourist perceived around touristic products and services offered like: security, hospitality, environmental practices, mobility and connectivity."39 UNESCO (2001) has also states how cultural tourism has increased in recent years: In 2010, international tourism generated 919 billion dollars in export earnings. Emerging and developing countries accounted for 47 per cent of world international tourism arrivals and 36.9 per cent of world international tourism receipts in 2010. Cultural tourism presently accounts for 40 per cent of world tourism revenues. Taking into account the statistics of the monitoring centre for culture of IDARTES conducted in 2011 the percentage of tourist that visited the city exclusively to assist to "Rock al Parque" Festival were 16,16% compared to 6,03% in 199740. 2. Create a sense of identity Wyss (2012) states that for 17 days, "the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival transformed a chaotic metropolis like Bogotá (more than 8 million inhabitants) into a cultural Mecca", The general director of the Festival, Ana Marta de Pizarro also argues than the festival is "the carnival of the city, crime rates are significantly reduced and the general atmosphere of the dwellers is of great joy and party"41 39 Leguizamon, M; Moreno, E and Tobavizco N. 2013. Impacto turístico del Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro de Bogotá. (online) Available: . http://www.pasosonline.org/Publicados/11113/PS0113_06.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014) 40 IDARTES. 2011. Observatorio de Culturas. (online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/observatorio/medAlparque.html. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 41 Wyss, J. 2010. Bogota theater festival: a bright mask for a once grim city. (Online) Available at: http://carpetbagbrigade.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/miami-herald-dios-callings-english1.pdf. (Accessed 13 January 2014) 17 Similar to Wyss, Obregon citing Cante(2007), says that the idea of Rock al Parque has brought a sense of "social cohesion through the construction of an identity of tolerance and coexistence. It creates a civil culture in the city"42. 3. Help to build an audience Obregon (2007) and Cepeda (2010) states that one of the most important benefits of Rock al Parque and the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival is that those events have helped to build an audience in music and performative arts respectively. In the case of Rock al Parque, the event helped to massify a genre that wasn't part of the mainstream in Colombia as Rock. According to IDARTES (2011), almost 60% of the audience that assisted to the Festival in 2011 has been to a different free rock concert. Almost 80% has already assisted to more than two versions of Rock Al Parque. Cepeda (2010) concludes that the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival has collaborate to "enrich the theatre market in the city and to put it in one of the top in Latin America". 65% of the public, who assisted to the Festival in 2010, has seen a play regularly outside the Festival, according to the study. 4. Visibilization of a minority group This point is connected to the last conclusion. By building an audience, the festivals helped to make visible an audience. In Rock al Parque an "underground culture" as the rock scene, stigmatized before as "antisocial, started to have a better image in the community. IDARTES (2011) indicates that 60% of the audience of Rock al Parque has been to a Rock Concert without any kind of stigmatization43. 5. Tolerance and social cohesion Another important point about the two festivals is regarding the social cohesion and zero violence culture that promotes. Cepeda (2010) is very emphatic describing the impact of the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival with the violence and crime rates in the city: 42 Obregon, J.2007. Desconfianza, civilidad y estética. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. 43 IDARTES. 2011. Observatorio de Culturas. (online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/observatorio/medAlparque.html. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 18 "The festival has contributed since its beginning to the peace process in Colombia. This festival dared to make public performatives acts in the streets when the crimes rates were really high. Those events had an amazing and significative success. One could say that in the 17 days of the festival, crimes and violence stops. Police informs that the crime rates during those two weeks are the lowest of the year."44 93,48% of the spectators of the 2011 "Rock al Parque" felt that the event help to promote a non-violence culture. Still, both festivals shares the unique values of the "Teatro Mundi": Every spectator is equal, no matter his race, gender, social class, etc. The rates of zero violent deaths in the history of both festivals are also an example of how those events are truly places for democracy and peace. Conclusion As it has been seen through the different chapters that conform this essay, the benefits of creating public cultural events in urban spaces bring, undoubtedly a notion of democracy and development. Although Habermas did not specifically discuss street festivals and public festivals in urban spaces as examples of his theory of both public sphere and the theory of communicative action, the essay helped to shape a theoretical background to such events according to Habermas's notions. In the end, the link between Cultural Public Spaces and the UNESCO definition of Culture for Development was an interesting discovery that is worthwhile to keep researching. As mentioned in the introduction, the aim of the essay was to create a structure to understand the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival and the Rock al Parque Festival as examples of cultural public sphere and based on that give an account of the relationship between those spaces and the idea of development. Culture and Cultural manifestations are always moving and changing as society itself. Street Festivals are manifestations that definitely have to be fully addressed. All the rich variety of characteristics that those kinds of events possesses as the essay presented, make them a unique type of cultural products. Could culture transform a society? Definitely. Not only culture transformed society but improves it. Bogota is a better city, with more possibilities with events like the ones studied. In the future, and as part of a cultural policies plan, More events such those, should be created. This is the only recommendation of this essay toward the future, taking into account 44 Cepeda, A .2010. FESTIVAL IBEROAMERICANO DE TEATRO DE BOGOTÁ- IMPACTO Y SUPERVIVENCIA. Instituto Complutense de CC Musicales. 19 that the existing legislation "protect" the two festivals, that in the end, are part of the cultural heritage of the city and the nation. 20 Appendix Photos a. Iberoamerican Theatre Festival45 45 All photos: Humar, Z., 2012. En fotos, Bogotá y su fiesta de las mil caras. [electronic print] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/video_fotos/2012/04/120405_fotos_galeria_festival_teatro_bogota_aw.shtml [Accessed 12 January 2013]. 21 22 b. Rock al Parque Festival46 46 All photos: Lopez, J., 2013. Bogotá Rock al Parque. [electronic print] Available at: http://tinyurl.com/oabvlmt [Accessed 12 January 2013]. 23 24 Bibliography • Cepeda, A. 2010. 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Festivals, local and global: Critical interventions and the cultural public sphere. in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 92-108 • Finlayson, J .2005. Habermas, a very short introduction. Oxford University Press. • Florida, M .2003. Cities And The Creative Class. (Online). Available at: http://uv.vuchorsens.dk/r/KAZ/Undervisning%202012-2013/GEOLOGI/B%C3%A6redygtighed/Befolkning%20og%20b%C3%A6redygtighed/GetFile.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014). • Habermas,J. 1991. The Structural Transformation Of The Public Sphere. MIT Press. • Hahn, L. 2000. Perspective On Habermas. Open Court Publishing. 25 • IDARTES. 2004. Políticas Culturales Distritales (Online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/sites/default/files/politicas_culturales_distritales_2004-2016.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014). • IDARTES. 2011. Observatorio de Culturas. 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학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :공과대학 협동과정 기술경영·경제·정책전공,2020. 2. 황준석. ; 기술 변화와 혁신이 국가 경제 성장의 주요 원천으로 강조되는 한편, 혁신활동에 있어 지리적 공간의 중요성을 인식함에 따라 지역적 차원에서의 혁신과 성장에 대한 논의가 심화되고 있다. 이러한 지역 수준 관점의 상대적 이점에 따라 지역 혁신과 성장에 관한 이론이 발전해왔으며, 그에 상응하는 지역 혁신 및 성장정책이 설계 및 이행되어왔다. 하지만 지역 고유의 개별적인 특성과 혁신역량이 다양하고 이질적임에도 불구하고 이에 대한 깊은 논의는 부재한 채 동질적인(one-size-fits-all) 지역혁신 및 성장 정책이 적용되어 왔다. 따라서 본 연구는 진화적 및 시스템적 관점을 채택하여 서로 다른 수준의 혁신 잠재력을 지닌 지역들을 대상으로 각 지역의 학습 프로세스에 중점을 둔 지역 혁신 및 성장 패턴에 관하여 분석하고자 한다. 이러한 목적 하에서 본 논문은 기술변화 진화이론에서 제시하는 지식에 대한 접근과 효율적 사용을 가능케 하는 세가지 핵심 기능 영역인 새로운 지식의 흡수, 혁신의 확산, 그리고 새로운 지식의 창출, 이 세가지 단계에 주목하고자 한다. 이 주요 세 가지 기능에 초점을 맞춰, 세 가지의 세부 연구내용이 학위논문에 포함되었으며, 개별 세부 연구들은 서로 다른 지식 축적 수준과 다양성을 가진 지역들의 지역혁신체제의 형성과 발전과정에 대한 연구를 담고 있다. 우선 첫 번째 세부 연구에서는 기술력이 거의 없거나 전혀 없는 개발도상국의 지역에서 외부의 지식을 흡수하고 지역사회 차원에서 혁신을 촉발시키기 위해 적용할 수 있는 개념적 틀을 제안하였다. 이를 위해 개발도상국의 적정기술 사례에 풀뿌리 혁신(grassroots innovation) 이론의 개념을 적용하여 질적 사례연구를 수행하였다. 풀뿌리 혁신은 선진국에서만 논의되어온 개념으로, 지속가능성을 위한 사회적 또는 포용적 혁신을 추구하는 커뮤니티 수준의 상향식(bottom-up) 혁신이다. 본 연구는 이러한 풀뿌리 혁신과 개발도상국을 대상으로 하는 적정기술의 유사성 및 연결성을 체계적으로 제시하고, 그를 바탕으로 다섯 가지의 핵심 구성 요소들을 포함한 개념적 틀을 재정의 및 제시하였다. 사례 연구에 따르면 사회적 니치는 로컬 지식 전달 메커니즘이 발현될 수 있도록 하며 이는 지역사회가 더 효율적으로 기술을 사용하는 데에 중요한 역할을 하는 것으로 나타났다. 두 번째 세부 연구의 경우에는 한국의 시군 지역들의 혁신 및 성장 패턴을 규명하고자 하였다. 클러스터들의 경우 집적효과를 통해 더욱 높은 수준의 혁신과 성장을 촉진한다는 측면에서 지역혁신체제 내에서 큰 잠재적 역할을 지닌다. 그에 따라 많은 지역에서 클러스터 정책을 지역 혁신 및 성장정책 수단으로 활용해왔으며, 우리나라의 지방정부들 역시 클러스터 기반 정책을 활발히 추진 중에 있다. 그러나 우리나라의 클러스터 정책은 지역의 상황과 수요에 대한 객관적인 분석이 미비한 채 과잉 공급되어 실효성 없는 정책으로 평가 받고 있다. 따라서 두 번째 세부 연구에서는 사회경제적 요소들과 지식 역량 관련 요소들을 함께 포함하여 시스템적 관점에서 클러스터에 따른 지역 경제성장 효과를 파악하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 클러스터가 존재하는 한국의 모든 시군 지역을 대상으로 PCA 분석과 패널 분석을 시행하였다. 분석 결과 클러스터를 통해 지역 내 혁신과 성장을 촉진하기 위해서는 사회경제적 환경이 선행되어야 함을 확인하였다. 그리고 우리나라 지역에서는 R&D 역량 제고에 따른 성장효과가 클러스터 효과보다 더 크고 장기적으로 영향을 미침에 따라, 클러스터 기반 정책이 당초 예상했던 것보다 낮은 성과를 가져올 수 있음을 제시하였다. 더불어, 지역 내 활용 가능한 인적자원, 교육 시스템, 연구개발 활동의 질, 클러스터의 집약도 등의 요소들이 한국의 지역 성장을 위해 필수적으로 고려되어야 할 제도적 부문인 것으로 확인하였다. 세 번째 세부 연구는 지식을 새로 재조합하는 능력이 지속가능하고 장기적인 성장을 위한 동인으로 평가됨에 따라, 유럽의 지역들을 대상으로 지역의 지식 재조합 역량이 지역 생산성에 미치는 영향을 파악하고자 하였다. 더 구체적으로, 본 연구는 지식 혹은 기술 재조합의 유형을 탐색(exploration) 유형과 활용(exploitation) 유형으로 나누어 두 가지 유형이 생산성에 미치는 영향을 비교분석 하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 EU NUTS 2 레벨 지역들을 대상으로 특허 데이터를 활용한 기술 구분간 결합 매트릭스의 생성으로 지식 축적 패턴을 분석하고, 확률적 프론티어 모델을 통해 기술 효율성을 계산하였다. 그리고 경제 규모, 지식 축적 정도, 시기 효과 등을 조절하여 지역의 지식 재조합 유형과 기술 효율성간의 관계를 회귀하였다. 분석 결과 활용적 재조합은 별다른 영향을 주지 않는 반면, 탐색적 재조합은 지역의 생산성 향상에 긍정적이고 유의미한 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 위의 논의를 바탕으로 본 학위논문은 서로 다른 지역 수준에 따른 정책적 시사점을 제공할 것으로 기대한다. 첫째, 기술력이 낮은 후발 지역에서는 풀뿌리 혁신의 개념적 틀을 적용하여 외부 지식, 기술 또는 혁신을 흡수하여 지역의 요구에 대응할 수 있는 기반을 형성하여야 한다. 둘째, 지역 내 지식확산이 효과적으로 이루어지기 위해서는 바람직한 사회경제적 환경이 선행되어야 하고, R&D 역량에 대한 투자가 지속적으로 함께 이루어져야 한다. 셋째, 지식 축적 정도와 지식의 다양성 수준이 높은 지역에서는 새로운 지식의 탐색적 비용과 불확실성이 높음에도 불구하고 새로운 지식 재조합의 역량을 키워야 할 것이다. ; While technological change and innovation have been treated as key to national economic growth, attention to innovation and development at a regional level has grown from the recognition of the importance of geographical space in the innovation process. Theories on regional innovation and growth have been developed under the advantages of regional examination, and regional innovation policies were designed and implemented accordingly. However, the one-size-fits-all approach to regional policies remains troublesome as regions differ widely in terms of their intrinsic characteristics and innovation capabilities. Based on these concerns, this thesis adopts an evolutionary and systematic integrated view to investigate regional innovation and growth patterns focusing on learning processes in regions with different levels of innovation potential. This thesis adopts three main functional dimensions of access to and efficient use of knowledge in evolutionary theories; that is, absorption of new knowledge, diffusion of innovations, and generation of new knowledge. In accordance with the three dimensions, three studies are included with analyses of regional innovation and development strategies for regions with different levels of knowledge accumulation and diversity. The first study proposes a framework for the initiation of community-level innovation in a developing country where technological capabilities are few or non-existent, causing mere adaption to external innovations. With a qualitative analysis of an appropriate technology case, the study adopts concepts from grassroots innovation. Grassroots innovation is a community-level bottom-up innovation that has been discussed only in developed countries as a means of socially inclusive innovation for sustainability. However, this study identifies the links between appropriate technology and grassroots innovation and redefines a framework with core constructs: context, driving force, niche, organizational form, and resource base. The case study shows that a social niche plays a significant role in improving the use of technology by creating a local knowledge transfer mechanism through social learning. The second study investigates regional innovation and growth patterns of regions with clusters in Korea. Clusters have been popular among regional policy makers for promoting greater innovation and growth. In this regard, Korean local governments have also pursued a cluster-based policy for regional development. However, the problem is that clusters are oversupplied without an objective examination of regional conditions and demands, and the existence of clusters does not necessarily secure regional networks or economic growth. Therefore, the study aims to examine the effects of clustering on regional economic performance along with socioeconomic factors and knowledge capacity factors from a systematic perspective. Principal component analysis and panel regression methods are used to analyze Korean regions with clusters. The results indicate that favorable socioeconomic contexts are prerequisites to foster innovation and growth by clusters. In addition, a cluster-based policy may have a smaller effect than expected because R&D capacity has a stronger and longer effect on economic performance. Lastly, specific factors such as a pool of labor, education systems, quality of R&D activities, and agglomeration density of clusters are found to be critical to regional growth in regions in Korea. The last study focuses on regional capacity for knowledge recombination and its impact on regional productivity in European regions, as novel recombination is assessed to be a new driver for sustainable and long-term regional growth. Consequently, the study specifies regional capacity in technological recombination into exploration and exploitation and compare their effects on regional productivity. For the analysis, a knowledge space is constructed using technology class co-occurrence matrices with patent data, and technical efficiencies are calculated using a stochastic frontier model from socioeconomic data of EU NUTS 2 level regions. The relationship of regional recombination types and technical efficiencies is then regressed, controlling for economy scale, knowledge stock, and periodic effects. The results demonstrate that explorative recombination has a positive and significant influence on productivity gains while exploitative activity has no influence. Overall, the thesis provides several policy implications for regions from the evolutionary and systematic perspectives. First, in lagging regions with low technological capabilities, the five-construct framework drawn from grassroots innovation can form a basis for absorption of external knowledge, technology, or innovation to adapt to local needs. Second, for intra-regional knowledge spillovers to be effective in intermediate regions, creating a favorable socioeconomic environment should take precedence. Moreover, consistent attention to investment in R&D capacity is required. Third, explorative new knowledge recombination is recommended in regions with a high level of knowledge accumulation and diversity despite its high cost and attendant uncertainties. ; Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Research background 1 1.2 Research objectives 6 1.3 Research outline 7 Chapter 2. Literature Review 10 2.1 Regional innovation and development 10 2.1.1 The need for regional analysis 10 2.1.2 Regional economic development theories 14 2.2 Evolutionary economic geography 17 2.3 Regional innovation systems 22 2.4 Contribution of the study 26 Chapter 3. Grassroots innovation for regional development in developing countries: A qualitative study on appropriate technology 30 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 Literature review 32 3.2.1 Appropriate technology 32 3.2.2 Grassroots innovation 34 3.2.3 Bridging appropriate technology and grassroots innovation 37 3.3 Methodology and data 41 3.3.1 Framework: Common constructs 41 3.3.2 Methodology and data 46 3.4 Case study 49 3.5 Discussion 57 3.6 Conclusion 61 Chapter 4. Illusions of clustering: Investigating regional innovation and growth patterns in Korea from a systematic perspective 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Literature review 65 4.2.1 Regions, innovation, and growth 65 4.2.2 Clusters and regional growth 67 4.3 Methodology 72 4.4 Data 82 4.5 Results 87 4.6 Discussion 92 4.6.1 Summary of results and policy implications 92 4.6.2 Other variables 94 4.7 Conclusion 98 Chapter 5. The effects of regional capacity in knowledge recombination on productivity gains in Europe 101 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Literature review 102 5.3 Methodology and data 106 5.3.1 Methods 106 5.3.2 Data 111 5.4 Results 112 5.4.1 Regional recombination capacity 112 5.4.2 Regional productivity 114 5.4.3 Regional recombination and productivity 115 5.5 Discussion and conclusion 118 Chapter 6. Conclusion 121 6.1 Overall summary 121 6.2 Policy implications and contributions 125 6.3 Limitations and future research 127 Bibliography 130 Appendix 1: Sources for case study 154 Appendix 2: Model test statistics 157 Appendix 3: Additional analysis with patent variable 159 Appendix 4: Random-effects parameters in random coefficient models 161 Abstract (Korean) 163 ; Doctor
학위논문 (석사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 국제대학원 국제학과(국제통상전공), 2020. 8. 안덕근. ; WTO Sunset Review is a system which an anti-dumping duty is automatically expired after a five-year long period in order for a country not to miss-use the duty as a way to protect its domestic industry. However, as the sunset review has been repeatedly renewed, it causes side effects prolonging the antidumping, which is different from the original purpose of the sunset review. The necessity of sunset review system is as follows. In 1983, Korea's color TV export to the U.S. suffered from a long antidumping duty for 14 years, which had been revoked at last owing to Korea's struggle to complain actively. Specifically, application of sunset review is so loose and simple that it paradoxically tends to be not often sued upon in reality. The literature reviews about the sunset review only presented current circumstances and conditions by describing the related laws and did not come up with appropriate solutions. This research touches upon sunset review legislation procedure and history, the implementation of major countries, and analysis of sunset review WTO cases in order to figure out the focal points of the ongoing system. Korea-Sunset Review of Antidumping Duties on Stainless Steel Bars case envisages the direction of a future sunset review system and what aspects Korea should concern about the sunset review case. This study delves into how Korea can effectively implement the sunset review and provides its implication. Because of differences in systems in each country, sunset review has not been fully discussed and the evaluation of injury in the review process depends on the domestic circumstances which are by its own judgment. Most countries including Europe, Japan, Australia, Singapore, and Nordic Countries made an agreement that there must be specific sunset review term. However, US did not agree with terminating antidumping duty because it was difficult to determine injury from dumping due to their special retrospective system. As for the outlook of sunset review of major countries that frequently use the antidumping trade remedy system, such as in the U.S. and Europe, they are reluctant to terminate antidumping measures to imports under the sunset review. For example, in a case study, whether Sunset Policy Bulletin (SPB)-which provides instructions on methodological or analytical issues not explicitly addressed by the U.S. statute and regulations-is challengeable or not is the main argument in United States-Sunset Review of Antidumping Duties on Corrosion-Resistant Carbon Steel Flat Products from Japan case. Also, in Korea-Sunset Review of Antidumping Duties on Stainless Steel Bars case, in terms of cumulation, Japan argued that dumping margin estimation had to be calculated respective to the company and 'order-wide'determination is a violation. But Appellate Body concluded that'order-wide'determination is not a violation. In the United States-Sunset Review of Antidumping Measures on Oil Country Tubular Goods from Argentina case also dealt with whether US domestic law, the Sunset Policy Bulletin, is consistent with sunset review provision Article 11.3. In short, it is unclear that whether US's SPB is a violation of antidumping agreement up until now. Ongoing Korea-Sunset Review of Antidumping Duties on Stainless Steel Bars case tackles cumulation as well. Japan argued that the reason why Korea's steel industry was in difficulty was not just because of imports from Japan, but because of growing volume of imports from other countries including China, declining material costs, and a slow growth in domestic demand. Moreover, Japan insisted that the reason of Korea's failure to judge Japanese production capacity was because Korea did not believe in the data with which Japan had provided. Likewise, the case was raised because Japan was not content with a situation where discussion was not properly held. Korea Trade Commission decided to levy antidumping duty except for the steel product which was not produced in domestic. Similar to stainless steel bars, regarding steel plate, after gone through second review, different from first review which gave 3 years, KTC determined a 5 year term extension. It reflects that what stainless steel sars had been extended 3 times for 3 years consecutively was a problem. It exhibits that KTC considered the fact that '5 year'is a reasonable period, as the 5 year term is inscribed in sunset clause which was discussed during the sunset review legislation process. It is difficult to find objective evidences to prove whether extending the anti-dumping duty is necessary. Hence, findings suggest that it is critical for the countries to exchange their opinions in order to adjust the discords and to build trust through an active consultation to use measures to extend anti-dumping only when it is necessary. And also findings are that the sunset review has not been fully discussed because of a structural difference of the policies, respective to the country. Various factors which deal with the sunset review such as injury determination rely on discretion depending on the domestic conditions. Especially, in a circumstance where protectionism is rising again and in retrospect, considering the long history of discussion of WTO's free trade order in order not to repeat the numerous negotiations in vain, there must be active consultations among WTO member countries and among the industry of them, and in the end every effort to build credibility in the system must be made. ; WTO 일몰재심이란 반덤핑 관세가 5년 후에는 자동 소멸되도록 재심하는 제도이다. 반덤핑 조치는 대게 국내 산업에 대한 반복적인 피해가 없어졌음에도 지속되어 왔다. 일몰재심은 이러한 국내 산업을 과도하게 보호하는 목적으로 쓰이지 않도록 하기 위한 것이다. 하지만 일몰재심이 사용되면서 본래 목적과는 다르게 반덤핑 관세가 장기간 지속되는 부작용을 유발하고 있다. 일몰조항이 필요한 이유가 우리나라가 1983년도에 본격적으로 미국에 가전제품과 컬러TV를 수출할 당시, 미국은 원천적으로 우리나라의 제품을 차단하기 위해 갖은 수단을 다 썼다. 9년 연속 '미소마진' 판정을 받았음에도, 더욱이 수출이 중단되었을 때에도 우리나라가 맹렬히 항의하고 나서야 14년 동안의 부당한 반덤핑관세의 부과가 철회되었다. 이렇게 일몰조항은 외국에 수출자 입장에서, 또 품질과 가격 경쟁력 면에서 우수한 제품을 소비자가 소비할 수 있도록 하게 위해서 꼭 필요한 조항이다. 하지만 특별히 일몰조항은 5년 이내에 조사 당국의 재심을 통해 5년 이내에 반덤핑 관세를 철회할지, 아닐지에 대해 판정하게 되는데, 그 내용이 엉성하면서도 단순하여 소송절차조차 잘 진행되지 않고 있다. 일몰재심에 대한 선행연구들은 법이나 통계 등 상황을 보여줄 뿐 실제 처방에는 중점을 많이 두고 있지 않고 있다. 이 연구는 일몰재심의 입법 내역과 변천사, 주요 국가들의 일몰재심 이용 현황, 일몰재심 판결 사례 연구를 통해 진행 중인 한-일 스테인레스 스틸바(SSB) 일몰재심 케이스 등의 쟁점을 알아보고, 향후 일몰재심의 방향성과 우리나라가 이를 적용하는데 있어 주의를 기울인 사안이나 이에 대한 시사점을 도출한다. 일몰재심의 입법 내역에서는 유럽, 일본, 호주, 싱가포르, 노르딕 국가 등의 국가들에 의해 일몰재심 기간을 정확히 정하자는 의견이 대다수였다. 그러나 미국은 소급적 시스템으로 인해 덤핑 피해를 산정하기 어려운 점을 들어 일몰조항에 의해 반덤핑관세를 폐지하는 것에 대해 우려를 보이는 특이점을 보였다. 또한 대표적인 반덤핑 무역구제제도를 사용하고 있는 국가인 미국과 유럽의 일몰재심 상황을 볼 때, 일몰재심에 들어간 거의 대부분의 수출품이 5년이 지나도록 반덤핑 관세를 벗어나지 못하는 것으로 집계되었다. 미-일 탄소강판 케이스에서는 미국의 국내 행정법에 해당하는 일몰재심요강이 WTO의 심리대상인지 여부에 관해서 주요 쟁점으로 논의되었다. 또한, 한-일 SSB 케이스에서도 언급되었듯이, 누적 평가에 있어서도 일본이 항의하기로는 회사별로 각각 덤핑 마진을 산정해야지, 조치별로 하는 것은 반덤핑협정에 위반이라 하였으나, 상소기구는 적법하다고 판단하였다. 미-아르헨티나 유정용강관 케이스에 또한 미국의 국내법조항이 반덤핑 일몰재심 조항 11.3과 상응하는지, 미국의 국내 일몰재심요강이 WTO에 의해 법을 위반한다고 볼 수 있는지에 대해서도 불명확하게 다루었다. 현재 소송 진행 중에 있는 한-일 스테인레스스틸 바 케이스는 누적평가 여부 다루었다. 또한 일본은 한국이 철강산업이 어려움을 겪는 이유가, 꼭 일본 때문만이 아니라, 중국 등 다른 국가로부터의 수입, 재료비의 감소, 철강에 대한 국내 수요 부족 등으로 기인할 수 있다고 주장하였다. 더불어 일본이 제공한 데이터를 신뢰하지 못하는 것 등으로 인해, 일본 철강산업 역량의 판단 부족에 기인한 것도 있다는 주장이다. 이렇게 사전에 영업비밀이 아닐 정도의 객관적 정보의 교환 등을 통하여 한일간 철강산업 간에 서로 두루 상의 되지 못한 것이 일본의 불만을 사게 되어 일어난 분쟁이다. 이에 한국 무역위원회는 SSB에 대해서는 우리나라에서 생산되지 않는 특정 제품을 제외하고는 반덤핑관세를 부과하기로 결정하였고, SSB와 유사한 스테인레스 스틸 후판에 대해서는 이번의 두 번째 재심 후, 첫 번째 재심 후의 3년 부과와는 달리 5년의 관세부과를 제안하기로 결정하였다. SSB가 무려 3번의 재심을 통해 계속해서 3년간 연장된 것에 대한 문제점을 직시한 판단으로 보여진다. 일몰재심의 입법 과정에서 논의되었고, 일몰조항에 명기되어 있는 '5년'이라는 기간을 고려한 결과로 볼 수 있겠다. 연구 결과, 각 국가별로 제도상의 차이점으로 인해 일몰재심이 충분히 논의되지 못하고, 피해 산정 등이 국내 환경에 따라 재량에 맡겨져 있어 실제 반덤핑 연장이 필요한 것인지 객관적 증거를 확보하기 어려운 실정이다. 따라서 국가 간 협의를 통해 이견을 좁히고, 불가피하게 필요한 경우에만 연장 조치를 하도록 해야 할 것이다. 특히 신 보호무역주의가 팽배하고 있는 상황에서 WTO 자유무역주의의 오래되어온 논의와 역사를 상기할 때, 수많은 협상 노력이 덧없이 반복되지 않도록 각 국가간, 그리고 산업 간의 논의와 활발한 협의와 신뢰관계가 구축 되어야 할 것이다. ; Chapter Ⅰ. Introduction 1 Chapter Ⅱ. Literature Review 4 Chapter Ⅲ. Necessity of Sunset Review System 5 Chapter Ⅳ. Sunset Review Legislative Procedure 8 Chapter Ⅴ. Sunset Review History and Current Status of Korea, US, EU 26 Chapter Ⅵ. Sunset Review Case Review: US-Japan and Argentina-US 30 1. US-Sunset Review of Antidumping Duties on Corrosion-Resistant Carbon Steel from Japan case 30 1.1. Case Summary and Background Information 30 1.2. Background Information of US Administrative System Regarding Sunset Review 34 1.3. Key Legal Findings 36 1.4. Key findings from Appellate Body 52 1.5. Commentary 68 2. United States-Sunset Reveiws of Antiduming Measrues on Oil Country Tubular Goods from Argentina 71 2.1. Case Summary 71 2.2. Key Findings of Appellate Body 74 2.3. Summary of Appellate Body's Findings 77 2.4. Commentary 101 Chapter Ⅶ. Korea-Sunset Review of Antidumping Duties on Stainless Steel Bars case 114 1. Background Information of Korea-Japan Dispute Case 114 2. Main Legal Issues 118 Chapter Ⅷ. Future prospective and implication 130 Chapter Ⅸ. Conclusion 135 Appendix 141 Bibliography 148 국문초록 152 ; Master
학위논문(석사)--서울대학교 대학원 :행정대학원 글로벌행정전공,2019. 8. 권혁주. ; 한국의 자금세탁방지제도는 2001년 9월 3일 특정금융거래정보의 보고 및이용 등에관한법률과 범죄수익은닉의규제및처벌등에관한법률이 국회를 통과하면서 도입되었다. 자금세탁방지제도는 불법자금의 세탁을 적발하고 예방하기 위해 정부와 민간영역에서 이루어지는 모든 장치를 의미하는 것으로 관련 장치로서 법?제도적 장치 분만 아니라 관련된 사법제도와 금융제도, 국제협력을 모두 포괄하는 개념이다. 이 연구는 한국의 자금세탁방지제도 도입과정을 세시기로 나눈 뒤, 정책네트워크 모형을 이용하여 분석하였다. 기존 연구에 의하면 정책네트워크 행위자, 행위자의 목표와 전략, 행위자들간의 상호작용, 정책네트워크의 구조와 유형, 정책환경 등이 정책결과에 영향을 끼친다. 이 연구에서는 정책환경 요소와 정책망 요소, 정책결과로 나누어 분석을 진행하였다. 정책환경 요소로는 정책문제에 대한 사회적 인식, 정치경제적 상황, 국제적 맥락 등이 해당하며, 정책망 요소에는 행위자, 행위자간 상호작용, 정책네트워크 구조가 해당한다. 그리고 이러한 요소들이 정책결과에 미친 영향을 분석하였으며, 분석결과는 다음과 같다. 제도 도입 제1기에는 금융실명제 도입과, 전직대통령의 비자금 사건 등이 발생하면서 자금세탁방지제도에 대한 논의가 시작되었다. 시민단체, 국회, 정부가 주요 행위자였으며, 제도 도입을 적극적으로 지지한 시민단체와 일부 국회의원과 제도 도입에 유보적인 입장을 취하는 정부와 국회가 갈등하였다. 행위자들은 제도 도입을 두고 궁극적인 목표에 상이한 의견을 보이면서 대립하였고 이를 중재할 주요 행위자가 부재하면서 정책 네트워크는 분산형 갈등 네트워크 형태를 나타내면서 정책도입에 실패하였다. 제도 도입 2기에는 정부가 정책목표를 변경하여, 금융실명제 보완책과 함께 자금세탁방지제도를 도입할 것을 발표하였다. 시민단체와 정부가 세부내용을 두고 갈등을 보였음에도 정책도입이라는 궁극적인 목표에는 합의한데 반해, 국회는 제도도입에 반대하며 갈등양상을 보였다. 또한 1997년 경제위기와 대통령 선거를 앞두고 자금세탁방지제도 도입 논의가 금융실명제 보완책 및 경제위기 책임론과 함께 논의되면서 갈등이 심화되었다. 결국 갈등 상황에서 이를 중재할 행위자도 부재하였고, 분산형 갈등 네트워크 하에서 갈등이 지속되었다. 제도 도입 3기에는 외환자유화 조치로 불법 자금거래에 대한 가능성이 증가하고, 국제자금세탁방지기구로부터 자금세탁방지 비협조국가(NCCTs)로 지정될 가능성이 증가하면서 행위자들의 목표에 변화가 있었다. 정부와 국회, 시민단체는 제도 도입에 합의하면서 행위자들간 상호작용의 형태는 협력적이었다. 세부 방안을 두고 국회 논의과정에서 갈등이 있었으나 여야 국회의원 9인으로 이루어진 위원회가 이를 조정하는 역할을 하면서 최종적인 합의에 도달하였다. 3기의 네트워크는 협력적 집중 네트워크 형태를 보였고, 조정과 협의를 거쳐 최종적으로 자금세탁방지제도 도입이라는 정책산출을 달성하였다. 분석을 통해 도출한 함의는 첫째, 정책네트워크 유형이 정책결과에 영향을 끼쳤음을 확인할 수 있었다. 1,2기에서 3기로 시간이 흐름에 따라 정책네트워크는 분산형 갈등 네트워크에서 집중형 협력 네트워크로 변화하였고, 제3기에는 행위자들간의 협력적 상호작용과 갈등 중재자의 존재로 정책산출에 성공할 수 있었다. 둘째, 환경요인이 정책네트워크와 정책 결과에 영향을 끼치는 과정을 확인할 수 있었다. 환경변화는 행위자들의 목표와 이해관계, 상호작용 형태, 네트워크 구조에 영향을 끼치고 결과적으로 정책 결과에도 영향을 끼쳤다. 환경 변화는 제도가 도입될 수 있는 기회를 제공하거나, 행위자들 사이의 갈등을 심화시키는 요인으로 작용하기도 하였으며, 행위자들의 선호에 영향을 주고 상호작용 형태 변화에 영향을 주었다. 또한 갈등이 지연되는 경우에는 정책 중재자의 필요성을 대두시키기도 하였다. 그러나 이 같은 정책환경의 영향력은 제한적이었고 정책행위자 끼치는 영향을 통해 정책결과에 영향을 줄 수 있었다. 또한 환경변화 그 자체가 강제성을 가지지 않는 경우 행위자에게 미치는 영향도 간접적이었다. 셋째, 정책네트워크 참여자의 이해관계가 정책 산출에 영향을 끼쳤다. 자금세탁방지제도 도입과 강력한 규제방안의 도입은 금융시장의 투명성 확보 및 국민 경제의 경쟁력을 확보한다는 점에서 규범적인 요소였음에도, 제도 도입 과정에서 정치자금법 제외여부, 선거관리위원회 전속 통보제도, FIU의 계좌 추적 범위 등의 논의를 보면 공익적 가치보다 정책도입 참여자들의 이해관계가 크게 작용했음을 알 수 있다. 최종 정책산출물 또한 이 같은 이해관계의 조정과 타협의 결과물로 볼 수 있다. 마지막으로, 행위자들의 목표가 상충하는 경우뿐만 아니라 공통된 목표를 공유하는 경우에도 정책조정자의 역할이 중요했음을 확인할 수 있다. 정책의 큰 방향에는 합의하더라도 세부적인 내용에 대한 행위자간 갈등은 불가피하다. 이 경우 세무 갈등을 조정하고 최종적 합의에 이를 수 있도록 중재역할을 하는 행위자의 존재가 정책산출에 큰 영향을 미친다. 주제어 : 자금세탁, 자금세탁방지제도, 정책 네트워크 분석. ; In Korea, anti-money laundering policy was introduced on November 28, 2001 with the enforcement of 'the act on report on, and the use of specific financial transaction information' and 'the act on regulation and punishment of criminal proceeds concealment.' The anti-money laundering policy is a collective system of various preventive and suppressive measures taken by the government and the private sectors to prevent money laundering in a wide range of areas including legislation, criminal investigation, financial supervision and financial activities. This study analyzed the introducing process of anti-money laundering policy in Korea. This study demonstrated how various policy actors interacted in policymaking process and how these interactions affected policy outputs using the policy network analysis. The analysis classified factors into policy environment factors, policy network factors, and policy output. Social awareness on policy problem, political and economic situations, and international context were considered as sub-components of the policy environmental factors. As a policy network factor, actors, the interaction among actors, and the structure of the policy network were considered. After that, analysis on the impact of these factors on the final policy output was conducted. For more detailed analysis, the process of introducing an anti-money laundering system is analyzed by dividing it into three periods based on significant changes in policy network. In the first period, with the introduction of the real-name financial system, the need to prevent money laundering began to be discussed. The main policy actors of this period were civic groups and some lawmakers in the National Assembly who shared same policy goal, and the government and political parties still had a lukewarm attitude to enact anti-money laundering legislation. Actors were in conflict while disagreeing over the ultimate policy goals and there was no influential actor who could coordinate conflicts and make it possible to reach agreement. Policy network in the first period defined as a decentralized conflicting network and under this network structure, conflicts between actors had been prolonged and fail to reach to policy output. In the second period, the government changed its policy goal and announced to introduce the measures which complement the real-name financial system and the anti-money laundering system to prevent illegal financial transactions. The government and civic groups shared common goal of introducing the system though they had differences over details. However, the political parties strongly opposed the policy adoption, actors showed conflicting interaction. It was hard to find a major actor who would act as a coordinator in the policy network at this time. The policy network was a decentralized conflicting network, and the conflict between actors was prolonged. Conflicts became intense as issues such as supplementing the real-name financial transaction system and disputes over the responsibility of the economic crisis were discussed along with the anti-money system, and the lack of influential actor to coordinate and mediate the conflicts led to failure in policy adoption and prolonged conflicts. In the third period, NGOs, the government, and the National Assembly had a consensus on the policy goal of introducing an anti-money laundering system, but they differed on detail contents of the system. Thus, there were conflicts among civic groups, the government, and the National Assembly in discussing the details. Unlike the first and second period, there was a mediator who coordinated conflicts and made agreement. With this cooperative interaction and the existence of policy intermediaries, the policy network has changed from a decentralized conflicting network to a centralized cooperative network. Policy output has been successfully achieved through a coordination and compromise. The implications of this study are as follows. First, the type of policy network was a major factor determining policy output. In this study, the types of policy networks were classified by the pattern of interaction (cooperative/conflicting) and distribution of influence (centralized/ decentralized) to centralized cooperative network, centralized conflicting network, decentralized cooperative network and decentralized conflicting network. In each period, the type of policy network and the corresponding policy output were analyzed. The network was transformed into a centralized cooperative network and succeeded in introducing the new policy. Second, it could be seen how the policy environment affected the policy network and policy output. Changes in the policy environment brought changes in policy actors' goals and interests and affected the interaction pattern and lastly policy output. These environmental changes provided an opportunity for the debate on anti-money laundering to take place, and have intensified or complicated conflicts among actors. Also, these changed the goals and preferences of the actors and changed the patterns of interaction into cooperative. In the event of a prolonged conflict, these promoted the needs of active policy coordinator to solve the conflicts. However, the impact of the policy environment on policy network and policy output was limited and only affected policy output through the influence on actors. In addition when the policy environment didn't function as coercive force, it did not directly affect the actors' goals and interaction. Third, the interests of policy participants have had a great impact on detailed policy output. The introduction of the anti-money laundering system and strong detailed regulatory measures were normative in terms of the public interest, enhancing transparency in financial markets and secure competitiveness of the national economy by preventing illegal fund flows. However, in the policy network, the interests of policy actors affected more importantly rather than the public interest and justification. From the beginning of the discussion, the details of the anti-money laundering system had changed continuously depending on the interests of the actors. The final policy output in the third period can be evaluated as the results of negotiations and compromise of actors' interests. Finally, the existence of a policy coordinator was important not only when policy goals differed among actors, but also when common policy goals were shared. In the case of all policies, differences over details are inevitable. The role of a policy coordinator is critical to coordinating conflicts that may occur in the short term and reaching a final policy output. Keyword : Money laundering, Anti-money laundering policy, Policy network. ; Chapter1. Introduction 1 1.1 Purpose of Research 1 1.2 Scope of Research 3 1.3 Research Method 5 Chapter2. Theoretical Background 6 2.1 Policy Network 6 1) Concept of Policy Network 6 2) Factors of the Policy Network Analysis Model 7 3) Types of Policy Network 11 2.2 Framework of Analysis 14 1) Variables of Analysis 14 2) Research Questions 19 Chapter3. Overview on AML 20 3.1 Anti-Money Laundering 20 1) The Concept of Money Laundering 20 2) Concept of Anti-Money Laundering 21 2) International Cooperation for AML 22 3) Measures of the AML System 24 3.2 Current AML System in Korea 26 1) Legislation 26 2) AML Regime 26 3) Organization and Authority 32 4) International Cooperation 33 Chapter4. Analysis on Policy-Making Process 36 4.1 Introduction 36 4.2 Policy Network Analysis 37 1) The First Period (1993-1996) 37 (1) Overview 37 (2) Policy Environment 38 (3) Policy Network Factor 39 (4) Output 49 (5) Conclusion 49 2) The Second Period (1997-2000) 50 (1) Overview 50 (2) Policy Environment 51 (3) Policy Network Factor 54 (4) Output 66 (5) Conclusion 66 3) The Third Period (2000-2001.9) 68 (1) Overview 68 (2) Policy Environment 70 (3) Policy Network Factor 73 (4) Output 89 (5) Conclusion 91 Chapter5. Conclusion 93 5.1 Summary 93 5.2 Implication of Analysis 96 Bibliography 101 Abstract in Korean 105 ; Master
Building upon research done by Carl J Richard, and Ricardo Herrera, this research paper will discuss how the Ancient Greek and Roman ideals that Alden Partridge was exposed to through his life growing up in close proximity to the time of the American Revolution and resulted in his development of a values based educational system that would produce citizen soldiers who would be able to serve their country both in the military and civilian sectors. ; Winner of the 2021 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the University Archives category. ; There is Nothing More Inherently American: How the rebellion of Alden Partridge and Greek and Roman influences lead to the rejuvenation of the American education system Alex Rollins Professor McCann HI 243 Historical Methods 4 December 2020 1 Alden Partridge believed that the future of the new American Republic would be secured or lost as a result of the education of its youth. Living in a time of great reform and turmoil in the first 50 years after the founding of the American Republic, Alden Partridge was subject to the same influences of the Founding Fathers: The Ancient Greeks and Romans. The ideals of the Ancient Greeks and Romans penetrated the core of the educational curriculum that most European men received in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and served as the catalyst for the fight against British tyranny in the American Revolution. Partridge was a product of Dartmouth College and the United States Military Academy at West Point and was a man that was so radical that he was removed from his position of Superintendent at West Point by a Summary Court Martial in 1818. Despite his humiliation at the United States Military Academy, Partridge still retained his passion of educating the American youth. Partridge made the decision to create his own institution, the American Scientific and Literary Academy in Norwich Vermont in 1819 which is now known as Norwich University. Building upon research done by Carl J Richard, and Ricardo Herrera, this research paper will discuss how the Ancient Greek and Roman ideals that Alden Partridge was exposed to through his life growing up in close proximity to the time of the American Revolution and resulted in his development of a values based educational system that would produce citizen soldiers who would be able to serve their country both in the military and civilian sectors. Partridge embedded the Ancient Greek and Roman principles of individual freedom, duty to state, civic virtue, and ardent patriotism in order to create an educational system that prepares 2 ndividual citizens and aimed to ultimately "qualify them for all of those high responsibilities resting upon a citizen of this free republic." 1 Alden Partridge was a product of the time in which he lived: The age of the early American Republic. Hailing from Norwich Vermont, Partridge was educated in the "neighborhood schools" surrounding the town.2 Partridge eventually gained admittance to Dartmouth College, where he was introduced into "the mainstream of intellectual thought of the eighteenth century."3 While attending Dartmouth, Partridge developed expert level proficiency in Latin and Greek classics, arithmetic, grammar, and reading in a colonial era grammar school.4 These schools were known for having a "uniformed and standardized" education that was centered around knowledge in Greek and Latin as those languages were seen as the keys to college admission at the time.5 Like most children at the time who attended these school, Partridge most likely received instruction in arithmetic, Euclid's books, became familiar with the works of Virgil, Horace, Homer, and Xenophon, and Cicero's orations. Partridge would have been bombarded with classical influences and would have most likely developed an appreciation for living a moral and virtuous life like most Greek and Roman works compel their audience to do. Partridge Despite being a gifted academic blessed with the ability to teach, Partridge was drawn towards service to his community in the militia. Desiring to follow in his father and uncle's footsteps, Partridge joined the Regiment of Artillerists and was ordered to attend the United States Military Academy at West Point in the years immediately following its founding in 1802.6 While at West Point Partridge received training in military engineering and gained such a 1 Norwich University Cadet Handbook, iii. 2 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 1. 3 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 1. 4 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 2. 5 Gummere, The American Colonial Mind and the Classical Tradition, 55. 6 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 3. 3 profound proficiency that he was later asked to instruct military engineering following his commissioning as an officer. He became proficiency in all aspects of military engineering, the employment of field artillery and infantry operations. While attending West Point, Partridge noticed several problems with the education system. Partridge wanted to ensure that a commission would only be given when one's studies are complete and thought that there needed to be tougher academic regulations to obtain a degree from the institution. Partridge contributed a great deal to West Point including introducing moral education and instruction in the application of living a life based off of the values of duty, obedience, and "morality, virtue and honor." 7 Alden Partridge excelled during his time instructing at West Point and took great strides to improve West Point in order to further the developments of the cadets and in his mind, ultimately secure the safety of the early American Republic. At the end of 1814, Partridge traveled to Washington DC to meet with Secretary of War Monroe about pushing more funding towards West Point and providing more support to the changes that he desired to make. When he returned to West Point however, Partridge found that "reports injurious to his reputation had been industriously circulated" and the faculty had begun to enact a plan to change the philosophy and overall purpose of West Point.8 These men included Andrew Ellicott, Jared Mansfield, and CPT David B. Douglass and their goals included to convert West Point into a civilian run school where the instructors would not be military officers.9 Their overall redesign of the institution included removing the Corps of Engineers as the primary operators of the school, introduce an entirely civilian staff, and to redesign the training process to prioritize developing engineers to serve the nation rather than military 7 Webb, Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833, 203. 8 Webb, Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833, 33. 9 Webb, Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833, 51. 4 officers. 10 These three men pushed for Partridge to be court martialed under these 4 charges: 1.) Neglect and unofficer like conduct, 2.) Four accounts of unofficer like conduct that were to the "prejudice of good order and military discipline" for showing favoritism to cadets, 3.) Disobedience to orders for contradicting an order from a general officer and the President, and 4.) Mutiny, and the beginning and exciting mutiny.11 The Court martial which charged Alden Partridge of these crimes forced his departure from the United States Military Academy at West Point and serves as the mark of his new beginning as a civilian. After settling into civilian life, Partridge wrote President Monroe in November of 1820, "My employment since I left military service, I believe has been both honorable to myself and useful to my country and I now find myself placed at the head of a Seminary, founded by my own Exertions, and the first of the kind established in the United States-the Superintendency of which I hold, not at the option of any Human Being."12 This seminary is referring to the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy, which became known as Norwich University. Partridge's Academy mirrored the educational background of the Ancient Greeks and Romans and was subjected to the influence of classical ideals of civic virtue, and duty to state that perpetrated educated men during the time of the Early American Republic. Partridge claimed that "In organizing the plan for this institution, I have taken for my guide, in part, the Constitution of the United States", a document filled with Roman Republican values.13 Partridge hoped to instill those values of duty to state and enthusiastically supported how the Constitution supported how all citizens should be used as a force to protect not only their own interests, but 10 Webb, Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833, 52. 11 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 89. 12 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 109. 13 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 138. 5 also serve as a vanguard against tyranny and control by elites. When the Constitution was written, it was the "time when the influences of the classics was at its height." 14 Drawing from their Classical education, the Founding Fathers relied heavily on the structure of the Roman Republic when designing the structure of the American experiment in liberty. The forefront of the Republican ideology that was present during this time was a counterculture movement against monarchical governments. The Founding Fathers were inspired by the stories of Sparta portrayed by Aristotle to "create a republic [established] on the natural rights of the citizen, even while urging the sacrifice for the common good."15 The Spartan state connected the concept of citizenship to the republican concept of duty to the state. Partridge, much like the Founding Fathers, admired "the Spartan's intense military training" which was the medium through which a Spartan citizen, much like an American one, carried out his duty to the state.16The Spartan State required all military aged males to undergo intense military training throughout the course of their youth because "individual Spartans could be conscripted by the state at any moment and could only be freed [from their duties] by the state" to return to society as normal citizens. Partridge followed a similar ideology within his citizen-solider concept that he wished to instill at his institution. Partridge believed that the American people should be "an informed people [who could] protect their liberties" which would be enabled through his scientific military instruction.17 Partridge also intended for his students to maintain a "Spartan life" which would force those students to focus on their studies both academically and militarily.18 14 Gummere, The American Colonial Mind and the Classical Tradition, 174. 15 Richard, Greeks & Romans Bearing Gifts, 23. 16 Richard, Greeks & Romans Bearing Gifts, 31. 17 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 139. 18 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 139 6 The Roman concept of citizenship lay in being an individual who held themselves to high moral standards, opposed corruption, defended liberty, and believed in their service to the state. Partridge held similar thoughts. In the 1820 prospectus for the A.S.L.M., Partridge outlined the classes that would meet his desired end state of creating model citizen-soldiers. Those classes included instruction in Latin and Greek, the sciences, History, logic, artillery gunnery, military tactics, and the ancient tactics of the phalanx and the legion to provide historical context as to how the US military has evolved while still retaining its classical influences. Partridge's citizen soldier concept was no doubt influenced by Cincinnatus, the Roman epitome of civic virtue and citizen-soldiery and the impact that he had on the Founding Fathers and the founding of the United States. Cincinattus was a Roman statesman who seized the reins of power to fight an invading army in a time of crisis and then voluntarily gave the up to return to his farm. Just as Patrick Henry believed that the fighters of the revolution were "sons of Cincinnatus…that served their country without ruining it", Partridge's institution would develop the same caliber of individual, who upon graduation would be postured to serve as a leader in the militia and his community.19 American soldiers in the years of the Early Republic embraced the ideas of liberty, citizenship, republicanism, and democracy. These ideals were utilized in the curriculum at Partridge's Institution which he linked to the aspect of serving in the military and helped develop as the corner stone of the military and overall American ethos. Partridge believed strongly in military service acting as the platform from which moral education is built on which aligns with the Roman principles of civic virtue and the Greek ideals of protecting individual liberty. Partridge sought to develop the American spirit which collectively resides in fighting 19 Richard, Greeks & Romans Bearing Gifts, 125. 7 tyranny as a soldier, and then having the ability to return to society after service to better the nation in a different capacity. Partridge was a devout believer in the fact that military service is "basic to the very definition of American Nationalism" and helped American citizens define their relationship to the American Republic.20 Partridge stated in his Lecture on National Defense that "The liberties of Romer were safe, while every Roman citizen considered and felt himself a soldier."21 Using the same logic, Partridge sought secure the liberties of the American citizen at his institution by placing the Citizen-Soldier concept as the cornerstone of his curriculum. While this idea of having a militia composed of individual citizens was the key to America's success in its revolt against Britain, it was not a popular idea at the time. In a correspondence on the subject of Partridge's Lecture on Defense between William Sumner the Adjutant General of the Commonwealth and John Adams, the former President of the United States, Sumner presents his distaste of having a organized militia. Sumner stated that a "Militia, however large, never can be; for it is composed of citizens only, armed [and trained] for the preservation of their own privileges."22 Partridge did not agree with that belief at all. In fact Partridge made it where citizen-soldiers trained at his institution would identify with the concepts of self-sacrifice and catering towards the needs of the community and ultimately the state "became the touchstones of republican virtue and self-worth."23 In his Lecture on Education, Partridge highlighted that he would develop citizen-soldiers and fix the issues that he saw at West Point and in the American Education System as a whole. 20 Herrera, For Liberty and the Republic, 87. 21 Partridge, "Lecture on Defense", 2. 22 Adams, Partridge, and Sumner, Observations on National Defence, Drawn from Capt. Patridge's Lecture on That Subject, and from Gen. Sumner's Letter to the Venerable John Adams, on the Importance of the Militia System, 20. 23 Herrera, For Liberty and the Republic, 87. 8 Partridge's lecture on education presents the argument that investment in the elementary education of the American Youth is paramount because it is "the rising generation that we are to look for the future guardians and protectors of the inestimable rights and privileges."24 Partridge states that he does not believe that education should be tailored to any specific job but instead believes that education should be tailored to prepare "a youth in the best possible manner for the correct discharge of the duties of any situation that he may be placed."25 Partridge cites 6 major deficiencies in the education system. The first deficiency that Partridge highlights is that the education system is "not sufficiently practical, nor properly adapted to the various duties an American citizen may be called upon to discharge."26 Partridge observed that the American youth who were "destined for a liberal education"27 would be required to study Greek and Latin more than they were required to study their native language of English which he believed to be extremely impractical. Partridge states that while the youth are required to gain proficiency in dead languages, they are not taught relative subjects such as government, international relations, and physical fitness. These are all subjects that the American youth must be proficient in to be productive citizens in the civilian sector of society or to be the "defender of their countries rights and the avengers of her wrongs" as leaders in the military."28 Partridge asserts that if the education system does not set up American citizens to perform their duty and contribute to society, then it is nothing short of defective and sets America up for failure. Partridge notes that there is additionally a neglect of physical fitness and physical education within the American education system. Identifying physical fitness as an "absolute 24 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 1. 25 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 26 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 27 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 28 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 9 necessity," Partridge believes that a citizen's ability to endure fatigue and their ability to take care of themselves is critical to the creation and maintenance of the American workforce. 29 In order to have a strong, productive workforce, Partridge believes that it is up to the individual citizen to maintain a high level of physical fitness so that they do not "prematurely die or linger out a comparatively useless and miserable existence."30 Partridge additionally believes that it is important for citizens to be able of "enduring exposure, hunger, and fatigue."31 Partridge links one's ability to exert themselves physically to their ability exert themselves mentally and asserts that a strong body houses a strong mind. Partridge additionally identified that the current system of education fails to manage time adequately and creates an environment that fosters a sense of idleness and lackadaisicalness. Partridge believed that with proper time management, that the American youth could occupy their time with productive activities that reinforce what they are learning in the classroom. Fourthly, Partridge claims that students should live frugally while obtaining their education. He believes that access to more wealth allows students to live extravagant lifestyles that are "highly injurious" to the individual and are not conducive to a productive academic environment.32 Partridge states that giving youths money "and allowing them a portion of idle time and it may be viewed as a miracle if a large portion of them do not become corrupt in morals.[and] they are prepared to become nuisances" to society and not benefit the greater good.33 Fifthly, Partridge highlights that all students should not be required to pursue the same courses of study as everyone has their own strengths and weakness. Partridge believes that when 29 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 30 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 3. 31 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 3. 32 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 4. 33 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 4. 10 one is forced to pursue a course of study that does not interest them that they will never excel in that field, achieve a state of proficiency in the subject, and will develop a general disdain to engage in academic activities. Finally, Partridge states that he does not believe there should be a set time limit to complete one's education and advocates for one to be able to work at their own pace. According to Partridge it is pertinent that a student is able to progress as quickly or as slowly as he or she wants so that they develop a "thorough understanding of the subject" that they choose to pursue. 34 Partridge sought to fix the deficiencies he presented in his lecture in his own institution where he would integrate military discipline and organization, the instruction of military science, history, and general sciences within the academic environment. It is through military organization and discipline that Partridge hopes to instill the Roman traits of honor, manliness, and obedience in the individual citizen to aid in his/her success in the academic environment. The instruction of military science reinforces the fostering of the traits of a soldier and strengthens the skill of the militia to eliminate the need of a large standing army that has the potential to infringe on the freedoms of the American citizen. Partridge believed heavily in incorporating the study of history to supplement the instruction of military science by providing case studies and context as to why military operations are conducted in the manner that they are and highlight the principles on which victory is created. Through this integration of military science, history, and general science instruction, Partridge hoped to increase the financial stability of the early American Republic by lowering defense spending and thereby decreasing 34 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 4. 11 national debt. Partridge's educational model would achieve this as a result of military training/defense spending would be tied to the general education of the American population. In examining whether the ideals of the Ancient Greeks and Romans influenced Alden Partridge, it is difficult to say given the time and access needed to peruse hundreds upon hundreds of documents. Partridge's life was devoted to the education of America's youth because he believed that the success of the American Republic pivoted on the education of the youth. It can safely be asserted that Alden Partridge's educational ideology correlates with the Greek and Roman values of civic virtue, and duty to state; however, correlation does not equal causation. In examining three archival sources from the Partridge Papers and other secondary sources pertaining to the subject of the early American Education system and Classical Education as a whole it can only be asserted that if Partridge was subject to Ancient Greek and Roman ideals, then they implicitly impacted his plan to rejuvenate the American system of education along with his experiences both good and bad instructing at the United States Military Academy at West Point. 12 Annotated Bibliography Archival Sources from Norwich Partridge, Alden. The Partridge Papers. 5th Floor Special Collections. Norwich University Archives, Kreitzberg Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont, United States. • Partridge, Alden. Lecture on Education, 1828. 5th Floor Special Collections. Norwich University Archives, Kreitzberg Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont, United States. • Partridge, Alden. Lecture on National Defense, 1824. 5th Floor Special Collections. Norwich University Archives, Kreitzberg Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont, United States. • Observations on National Defense, Drawn from CPT Partridge's Lecture, 1824. 5th Floor Special Collections. Norwich University Archives, Kreitzberg Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont, United States. These sources from the Partridge Collection at the Norwich University Archives provide Partridge's opinion on education, national defense, and the opinion of other key players in American history such as John Adams and John C. Calhoun regarding Partridge's idea of national defense. These sources are very cut and dry in addition to being easy to read and are critical to my research as they present the revolutionary ideas of the citizen-soldier concept and Partridge's educational reform straight from the man himself. Primary Sources Painter, Jacqueline S., Dean Paul. Baker, and United States. Army. Court-martial (Partridge : 1817). The Trial of Captain Alden Partridge, Corps of Engineers: Proceedings of a General Court-Martial Convened at West Point in the State of New York, on Monday, 20th October 1817, Major General Winfield Scott, President. Norwich University Library Occasional Paper; No. 3. Northfield, Vt.: Friends of the Norwich University Library, 1987. This source is the transcript from the court-martial of CPT Alden Partridge that led to his dismissal as superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point. This transcript is critical to my research as it gives historical context to a key event in CPT Partridge's life that pushed him to go out and create his own educational institution. This source reveals the immense controversy that surrounded the case and highlights a key time in the development of American Military education. 13 Secondary Sources Baker, Dean Paul. "The Partridge Connection: Alden Partridge and Southern Military Education," (PhD diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill), 1986. This is a dissertation that was submitted to UNC Chapel Hill to satisfy the requirements for a History PhD for Dean Paul Baker. The fifth chapter titled "The Captain's Academy" provides a unique presentation of how Partridge's Academy fits in the larger picture of American Education at the time of the early 19th century. Baker additionally covers how Partridge spearheaded educational reform and inspired others to do so. Baker highlights while Partridge's academy specialized in training military leaders, its greatest contribution to society was training men for civilian careers. Harmon, Ernest N. Norwich University: Its Founder and His Ideals. Newcomen Address, New York: Newcomen Society in North America, 1951. MAJ. GEN. Ernest Harmon was the Professor of Military Science and Commandant of Cadets at Norwich University from 1927-1931. This is a small 31 paged primary source document that explains the founding of Norwich University and how it has contributed to American success both on the battlefield and on domestic soil. This document provides a look as to how the leader of Norwich University as an institution views the ideals of Alden Partridge and additionally provides an overview on Norwich's establishment following Partridge's removal from West Point. Hanson, Victor Davis., and John Heath. Who Killed Homer?: The Demise of Classical Education and the Recovery of Greek Wisdom. 1st paperback ed. San Francisco [Calif.]: Encounter Books, 2001. Victor David Hanson is a Professor of Greek at California State University at Fresno and is a renowned author, military historian. He additionally holds a PhD in the classics from Stanford University. Who Killed Homer? describes the importance of understanding Greek culture and its contribution to the development of the United States and Western Civilization as a whole. The second section of the work is entitled "Thinking Like a Greek" and provides a clear and concise overview of what ideas and ideology is considered to be "Greek" and gives a broad context as to the Greek influences on one's life. This is critical to this paper as it presents Greek ideas and ideology simply as interpreted by a leading expert in the Ancient Greeks. Herrera, Ricardo A. For Liberty and the Republic: The American Citizen as Soldier, 1775-1861. 1 online resource. vols. Warfare and Culture. New York: New York University Press, 2015. Ricardo Herrera is an associate Professor at the US Army Command General Staff College. This source relies primarily on unpublished manuscript sources to convey the ethos of the citizen soldier concept from America's birth to the breaking of the Civil War. Herrera goes into great detail as to how in the mind of an American, the idea of citizenship is closely linked 14 with being a soldier. This source is pertinent in my research because it displays how in early American History, the ideals of liberty, citizenship, republicanism, and democracy are linked to serving in the military. The identification of these ideals in the citizen-soldier ethos can be utilized to highlight similarities to the ethos that existed in Ancient Greek/Roman society and that has transcended the Hellenic age to the time of America's birth and the early 19th century when Alden Partridge founded his academy. Howe, Daniel. "Classical Education in America." The Wilson Quarterly (1976-) 35, no. 2 (2011): 31–36. The focus of this source is how classical education has developed and been implemented throughout America History starting just after the Revolution. The article gives a fantastic overview of how classical ideas influenced the creation of America and remained a cornerstone from which the republic was developed. I plan to implement this source in my research by using it to provide an overview of how classical ideas remain present during the time of Alden Partridge, and how they influenced his upbringing and his personal education in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Gummere, Richard M. The American Colonial Mind and the Classical Tradition : Essays in Comparative Culture. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674284531. This source is a compilation of essays that discuss how the classical tradition influenced Colonial Americans. One essay is entitled "Colonial Reactions to a Classical Education" and discusses the classically based curriculum of the colonial grammar schools. Highlighting the emphasis placed on reading Greek authors such as Homer, Xenophon, Euclid, and developing an appreciation for learning Greek and Latin, this chapter aids me in my research paper by providing a detailed look as to what the curriculum of the early classical schools were and helps me develop a better picture of what Partridge's education was as an American youth. Norwich University Cadet Handbook. The Office of the Commandant, 2020. This is the handbook with all of the knowledge that is required to learn as a first-year cadet at Norwich University. The Office of the Commandant releases a new one each year. In this book you will find the Norwich Cadet's Creed, a brief history of Norwich University, a list and brief bio of the medal of honor winners and other things such as that. 15 Richard, Carl J. Greeks & Romans Bearing Gifts: How the Ancients Inspired the Founding Fathers. 1st Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2009. Carl J. Richard is a professor of history at the university of Louisiana. This source explains how the Founding Fathers of the United States were influenced by their education in the Greek and Roman Works. Richard explains that the ideals of civic virtue, individual liberty, checks and balances on government, were derived from the classics and aided the Founding Father's in their incitement of revolting against tyranny. This source critical to my research because it specifically outlines what about the Greeks and Romans influenced the creation of America and will provide ample amounts of evidence that I can tie to the ideology that Partridge shares with the Founding Fathers. Thelin, John R. A History of American Higher Education. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. This source covers the overview of higher education in America from the founding of colleges in the colonial era to the 21st century. This source goes into detail as to the curriculum and teaching methods utilized at early American universities such as Dartmouth, Alden Partridge's Alma Mater prior to attending the United States Military Academy at West Point. I plan to utilize this source in my research paper to provide insight as to what Partridge's educational experience was like at Dartmouth and sheds light as to what the potential influences are on his educational philosophy that was considered so radical at the time. Urban, Wayne J., and Wagoner, Jennings L., Jr. American Education: A History. London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2013. Accessed November 5, 2020. This source covers the history of American education from the precolonial era to the twenty-first century. The source develops a whole chapter to the development of the education system from 1776-1830 entitled "Education and the Building of a New Nation" that covers the influences of classical education on the development of civic virtue and duty to state that Partridge sought to instill in his students at his institution. The author covers the classical influences on the enlightenment that perpetrated the thoughts of the founders of America and explains how those classical ideas remained tied to the development of citizens within the educational system. I plan to use this work in my research paper by using it to explain the type of school that Alden Partridge attended and to show how common the proliferation of classical ideals were in 18th-19th century society . 16 Webb, Lester A. Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833,. Northport, Ala.: American Southern, 1965. This source is a biographic overview of Partridge's upbringing in the Vermont frontier all the way to when he was fired at West Point. Lester Webb presents a thoroughly researched work that compiles information from varying primary sources regarding Alden Partridge and his career as a teacher of mathematics and military science. I plan to incorporate this source in my research paper by using it to help me provide context as to how Alden Partridge was brought up and to help me describe what educational influences he was subject to since not much is known about his childhood. Wood, Gordon S. The Idea of America: Reflections on the Birth of the United States. Penguin, 2011. Gordon S. Wood is a Pulitzer Prize winning historian that has written several books on the American Revolution. This work focuses on the emphasis that Ancient Greece/Rome played in the development of the American Republic and how education is a cornerstone of creating citizens and instilling a sense of pride and involvement in the activities of one's nation. I plan to implement this work in my research by using it to draw parallels between the ideals of the Greeks and Romans that the ideal of America was based on and the educational ideals and citizen soldier concept developed and implemented by CPT Alden Partridge.
The research activity carried out during the three years of the PhD course attended, at the Engineering Department of the University of Palermo, was aimed at the identification of an alternative predictive model able to solve the traditional building thermal balance in a simple but reliable way, speeding up any first phase of energy planning. Nowadays, worldwide directives aimed at reducing energy consumptions and environmental impacts have focused the attention of the scientific community on improving energy efficiency in the building sector. The reduction of energy consumption and CO2 emissions for heating and cooling needs of buildings is an important challenge for the European Union, because the buildings sector contributes up to 36% of the global CO2 emissions [1] and up to 40% of total primary energy consumptions [2]. Despite the ambitious goals set by the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) at the European level [1], which states that, by 2020, all new buildings and existing buildings undergoing major refurbishments will have to be Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB) [3,4], the critical challenge remains the improvement of the efficiency when upgrading the existing building stock to standards of the NZEB level [5]. The improvement of the energy efficiency of buildings and their operational energy usage should be estimated early in the design phase to guarantee a reduction in energy consumption, so buildings can be as sustainable as possible [6]. While a newly constructed NZEB can employ the "state of the art" of available efficient technologies and design practices, the optimization of existing buildings requires better efforts [7]. One way or the other, the identification of the best energy retrofit actions or the choice of a better technological solution to plan a building is not so simple. It has become one of the main objectives of several research studies, which require deep knowledge in the field of the building energy balance. The building thermal balance includes all sources and sinks of energy, as well as all energy that flows through its envelope. More in detail, the energy demand in buildings depends on the combination of several parameters, such as climate, envelope features, occupant behaviour and intended use. Indeed, the assessment of building energy performance requires substantial input data describing structures, environmental conditions [8], thermo-physical properties of the envelope, geometry, control strategies, and several other parameters. From the first design phases designers and researchers, which are trying to respect the prescriptions of the EPBD directive and to simultaneously ensure the thermal comfort of the occupants, must optimize all possible aspects that represent the key points in the building energy balance. As will be shown in Chapter A, the literature offers highly numerous complex and simplified resolution approaches [9]. Some are based on knowledge of the building thermal balance and on the resolution of physical equations; others are based on cumulated building data and on implementations of forecast models developed by machine-learning techniques [10]. Several numerical approaches are most widespread; these have undergone testing and implementing in specialised software tools such as DOE-2 [11], Energy Plus [12], TRNSYS [13] and ESP-r [14]. Such building modelling software can be employed in several ways on different scales; they can be simplified [15,16] or detailed comprehensively by different methods and numerical approaches [17]. Nevertheless, they are often characterised by a lack of a common language, which constitutes an obstacle for making a suitable choice. It is often more convenient to accelerate the building thermal needs evaluation and use the simplified methods and models. For example, a steady state approach for the evaluation of thermal loads is characterised by a good level of accuracy and low computational costs. However, its main limitation is that some phenomenon, such as the thermal inertia of the building envelope/structure, may be completely neglected. On the other hand, the choice of a more complex solution, such as the dynamic approach, uses very elaborate physical functions to evaluate the energy consumption of buildings. Although these dynamic simulation tools are effective and accurate, they have some practical difficulties such as collecting detailed building data and/or evaluating the proper boundary conditions. The use of these tools normally requires an expert user and a careful calibration of the model and do not provide a generalised response for a group of buildings with the same simulation, because they support a specific answer to a specific problem. Meanwhile the lack of precise input can lead to low-accuracy simulation. Anyway, in all cases it is necessary to be an expert user to implement, solve and evaluate the results, and these phases are not fast and not always immediately provide the correct evaluation, conducting the user to restart the entire procedure. In the field of energy planning, in order to identify energy efficiency actions aimed at a particular context, could be more convenient to speed up the preliminary assessment phase resorting to a simplified model that allows the evaluation of thermal energy demand with a good level of accuracy and without excessive computational cost or user expertise. The aim of this research, conducted during the three years of the PhD studies, is based on the idea of overcoming the limits previously indicated developing a reliable and a simple building energy tool or an evaluation model capable of helping an unskilled user at least in the first evaluation phase. To achieve this purpose, the first part of the research was characterised of an in-depth study of the sector bibliography with the analysis of the most widespread and used methods aimed at solving the thermal balance of buildings. After a brief distinction of the analysed methods in White, Black and Grey Box category, it was possible to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of each one [9]. Based on the analysis of this study, some alternative methods have been investigated. In detail, the idea was to investigate several Black-Box approaches; mainly used to deduce prediction models from a relevant database. This category does not require any information about physical phenomena but are based on a function deduced only by means of sample data connected to each other and which describes the behaviour of a specific system. Therefore, it is fundamental the presence of a suitable and well-set database that characterise the problem, so that the output data are strongly related to one or more input data. The completely absence of this information and the great difficulty in finding data, has led to the creation of a basic energy database which, under certain hypotheses, is representative of a specific building stock. For this reason, in the first step of this research was developed a generic building energy database that in a reliable way, and underlining the main features of the thermal balance, issues information about the energy performances. In detail, two energy building databases representative of a non-residential building-stock located in the European and Italian territory have been created. Starting from a well-known and calibrated Base-Case dynamic model, which simulates the actual behaviour of a non-residential building located in Palermo, it was created an Ideal Building representative of a new non-residential building designed with high energy performances in accordance whit the highest standard requirements of the European Community. Taking into consideration the differences existing in the regulations and technical standards about the building energy performance of various European countries, several detailed dynamic simulation models were developed. Moreover, to consider different climatic characteristics, different locations were evaluated for each country or thermal zone which represent the hottest, the coolest and the mildest climate. The shape factor of buildings, which represents the ratio between the total of the loss surfaces to the gross heated volume of a building, was varied from 0.24 to 0.90. To develop a representative database where the data that identify the building conditions are the inputs of the model linked to an output that describes the energy performances it was decided to develop a parametric simulation. In detail different transmittance values, boundary conditions, construction materials, and energy carriers were chosen and employed to model representative building stocks of European and Italian cities for different climatic zones, weather conditions, and shape factor; all details and the main features are described in Chapter B. These two databases were used to investigated three alternative methods to solve the building thermal balance; these are: • Multi Linear Regression (MLR): identification of some simple correlations that uses well known parameters in every energy diagnosis [18–20]; • Buckingham Method (BM): definition of dimensionless numbers that synthetically describe the relationships between the main characteristic parameters of the thermal balance [21]; and • Artificial Neural Network (ANN): Application of a specific Artificial Intelligence (AI) to determine the thermal needs of a [22] building. These methods, belonging to the Black-Box category, permit solving a complex problem easier with respect to the White-Box methods because they do not require any information about physical phenomena and expert user skills. Only a small amount of data on well-known parameters that represent the thermal balance of a building is required. The first analysed alternative method was the MLR, described in Chapter C. This approach allowed to develop a simple model that guarantees a quick evaluation of building energy needs [19] and is often used as a predictive tool. It is reliable and, at the same time, easy to use even for a non-expert user since an in-depth knowledge in the use phase is not needed, and computational costs are low. Moreover, the presence of an accurate input analysis guarantees greater speed and simplicity in the data collection phase [23]. The basis for this model is the linear regression among the variables to forecast and two or more explanatory variables. The feasibility and reliability of MLR models is demonstrated by the publication of the main achieved results in international journals. At first, the MLR method was applied on a dataset that considered heating energy consumptions for three configurations of non-residential buildings located in seven European countries. In this way, it was developed a specific equation for each country and three equations that describe each climatic region identified by a cluster analysis; these results were published in [19]. In a second work [18], it was applied the same methodology to a set of data referring to buildings located in the Italian peninsula. In this case, three building analysed configurations, in accordance to Italian legislative requirements regarding the construction of high energy performance buildings, have been employed. The achievement of the generalised results along with a high level of reliability it was achieved by diversifying each individual model according to its climate zone. It was provided an equation for each climate zone along with a unique equation applicable to the entire peninsula, obviously with different degrees of reliability. An improved version of the latest work concerning the Italian case study appeared in the paper published in [20]. The revised model provided an ability to predict the energy needs for both heating and cooling. Furthermore, to simplify the data retrieval phase that is required for the use of the developed MLR tool, an input selection analysis based on the Pearson coefficient has been performed. In this way the explanatory variables, needful for an optimal identification of thermal loads, have been identified. Finally, a comprehensive statistical analysis of errors ensured high reliability. The second analysed alternative method represents an innovative approach in developing a flexible and efficient tool in the building energy forecast framework. This tool predicts the energy performance of a building based some dimensionless parameters implemented through the application of the Buckingham theorem. A detailed description of the methodology and results is discussed in the Chapter D and is also published in [21]. The Buckingham theorem represents a key theorem of the dimensional analysis since it is able to define the dimensionless parameters representing the building balance [24]. These parameters define the relationships between the descriptive variables and the fundamental dimensions. Such a dimensional analysis guarantees that the relationship between physical quantities remains valid, even if there is a variation of the magnitudes of the base units of measurement [25]. The dimensional analysis represents a good model to simplify a problem by means of the dimensional homogeneity and, therefore, the consequent reduction in the number of variables. Therefore, this model works well with different applications such as forecasting, planning, control, diagnostics and monitoring in different sectors. The application of the BM for predicting the energy performance of buildings determined nine ad hoc dimensionless numbers. The identification of a set of criteria and a critical analysis of the results allowed to immediately determine thought the dimensionless numbers and without using any software tool, the heating energy demand with a reliability of over 90%. Furthermore, the validation of the proposed methodology was carried out by comparing the heating energy demand that was calculated by a detailed and accurate dynamic simulation. The last Black-Box examined model was the application of Artificial Neural Networks. The ANNs are the most widely used data mining models, characterised by one of the highest levels of accuracy with respect to other methods but generally have higher computational costs in the developing phase [26]. The design of a neural network, inspired by the behaviour of the human brain, involves the large number of suitably connected nodes (neurons) that, upon applications of simple mathematical operations, influence the learning ability of the network itself [27]. Also in this case, as described in Chapter E, this methodology was applied at the two different energy databases. In [22], the ANN was used to predict the demand for thermal energy linked to the winter climatization of non-residential buildings located in European context, while in another work under review, the ANN was used to determine the heating and cooling energy demand of a representative Italian building stock. The validation of the ANNs was carried out by using a set of data corresponding to 15% of the initial set which were not used to train the ANNs. The obtained good results (determination coefficient values higher than 0.95 and Mean Absolute Percentage Error lower than 10%) show the suitability of the calculation model based on the use of adaptive systems for the evaluation of energy performance of buildings. Simultaneously, a deep analysis of the investigated problem, underlines how to determine the thermal behaviour of a building trough Black-Box models, particular attention must be paid to the choice of an accurate climate database that along with thermophysical characteristics, strongly influence the thermal behaviour of a building [9]. In detail, to develop a predictive model of thermal needs, it is also necessary to pay close attention to the climate aspects. In the literature, many studies use the degree day (DD) to predict building energy demand, but this assessment, through the use of a climatic index, is correct only if its determination is a function of the same weather data used for the model implementation. Otherwise, the predictive model is generally affected by a greater evaluation error; all these aspects are deeply discussed analysing a specific Italian case study in Chapter F, and the main results are published in [8]. The results achieved during the three years of PhD research, make it possible to affirm that each model can be used to solve thermal building balance by knowing merely a few parameters representative of the analysed problem. Nonetheless, some questions may be asked: Which of these models can be identified as the most efficient solution? Is it possible to compare the performances of these models? Is it possible to choose the most efficient model based on some specific phase in the evaluation? To attempt to answer these questions, during the research period it was decided to compare the three selected alternative models by applying a Multi Criteria Analysis (MCA), that explicitly evaluates multiple criteria in decision-making. It is a useful decision support tool to apply to many complex decisions by choosing among several alternatives. The idea rising thanks to the scientific collaboration with the VGTU University of Vilnius, Lithuanian, in the person of Prof. A. Kaklauskas and Prof. L. Tupènaitè, experts in the field of multi-criteria analysis. At the first time a multi-criteria procedure was applied to determine the most efficient alternative model among some resolution procedures of a building's energy balance. This application required extra effort in defining the criteria and identifying a team of experts. To apply the MCA, it was necessary to identify the salient phases of the evaluation procedure to explain the most sensitive criteria for acquiring conscious, truthful answers that only a pool of experts in the field can provide. Details of this work were carried out during the period of one-month research in Vilnius, from April to May 2019, where it was possible to improve the application of the Multiple Criteria Complex Proportional Evaluation (COPRAS) method for identifying the most efficient predictive tool to evaluate building thermal needs. These results are collected in Chapter G and the main results are explained in a paper under review in the Journal "Energy" from September. The identification of the most efficient alternative model to solve the building energy balance through the application of a specific MCA, allowed to deepen the identified methodology and improve research. In particular, the most efficient alternative resolution model was the subject of the research that took place during the research period at the RWTH in Aachen University, Germany with Prof. M. Traverso, Head of the INaB Department, from September 2018 to March 2019. The experience in the field of LCA and the possibility of identifying the environmental impacts linked to the building system, has led the research to investigate neural networks for a dual and simultaneous environmental-energy analysis. The results confirm that the application of ANNs is a good alternative model for solving the energy and environmental balance of a building and for ensuring the development of reliable decision support tools that can be used by non-expert users. ANNs can be improved by upgrading the training database and choosing the network structure and learning algorithm. The results of this research are collected in Chapter H and published in [28].
Author's introductionThis article examines the process of social differentiation in the context of sex, gender and sexuality, providing insight into the ways in which all three rely on mutually exclusive and dichotomous categories. Intersexuality, transgender and bisexuality are all exceptions to these boxes and the boundaries around them that can call our categorizations and the decisions we make based upon them into question. Given that social inequality and stratification rely on our ability to make clear distinctions between categories (or boxes, as conceptualized here), the existence of individuals, experiences and identities that cross these boundaries problematizes the persistence of inequality.Author recommendsHere I focus on monographs and edited volumes rather than articles. Many of the chapters in these books began life as journal articles. When examining issues related to intersexuality, transgender and bisexuality, it is important to give voice to individual experiences rather than relying solely on 'expert' accounts by outsiders. These recommendations reflect a mix of scholarly approaches (empirical and theoretical) and narratives.Baumgardner, Jennifer. 2007. Look Both Ways: Bisexual Politics. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Known for her third‐wave feminist work with co‐author Amy Richards, Baumgardner writes here about her experiences as a bisexual woman. She does a fine job of situating her experiences in a broader social and cultural context, offering a nice mix of the personal and the political. This book is an excellent example of the potential of theoretically informed memoir.Fausto‐Sterling, Anne. 2000. Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality. New York: Basic Books.As a pioneer among biologists questioning the dichotomy between male and female, Fausto‐Sterling challenges us to question our most basic assumptions about sex, gender and sexuality. In this book, she provides both an historical and a biological/medical perspective on the key issues. Her book is an excellent resource for social scientists who may feel ill‐prepared to answer their students' questions about natural‐science perspectives.Hutchins, Loraine and Lani Kaahumanu, eds. 1991. Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out. Los Angeles, CA: Alyson Books.This book of narratives was one of the first to give voice to the diverse experiences of bisexual people. Students reading this book will hear the stories of bisexual women and men, people of different races and religions, making sense of their experiences living outside the conventional boxes of sexuality.Kessler, Suzanne J. 1998. Lessons from the Intersexed. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Kessler was doing research (talking to physicians, parents of intersexed children and intersexed adults) on these issues before they even appeared on most people's radar. This book examines key questions related to intersexuality, including the 'medical management' that has become so controversial. Kessler includes a glossary of terms that many readers will find useful.Meyerowitz, Joanne. 2002. How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Historian Meyerowitz provides a detailed overview of the social and cultural development of transsexuality in the United States during the twentieth century. She includes the perspectives of transgendered individuals themselves, as well as the wide‐ranging views of others involved in the debate, from doctors, journalists and lawyers to feminists and gay‐rights advocates.Nestle, Joan, Clare Howell and Ricki Wilchins, eds. 2002. GenderQueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary. Los Angeles, CA: Alyson Books.This volume of narratives written by people who identify as somehow differently gendered offers students windows into the day‐to‐day lives of people living outside the boxes and on the boundaries. Paired with academic accounts that offer theoretical and conceptual information, this book will show students what it means to live beyond conventional categories – both the pain and the joys of such existences are on display here.Preves, Sharon E. 2003. Intersex and Identity: The Contested Self. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.As one of the first studies to provide first‐person accounts of the experiences of intersexed people, Preves's book offers incredible insights into the consequences of how our society has reacted to intersexuality. Intersex and Identity is also a fine piece of sociology, integrating medical sociology, sociology of gender and the social psychology of Erving Goffman into a compelling theoretical perspective.Rust, Paula C. Rodriguez, ed. 2000. Bisexuality in the United States: A Social Science Reader. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Rust brings together 30 articles that provide a variety of perspectives on bisexuality, many of them her original contributions to this literature. Anthologies like this one provide an important service, offering overviews of a variety of topics and gathering diverse perspectives in one volume.Serrano, Julia. 2007. Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity. Emeryville, CA: Seal Press.Transwoman Serrano provides a compelling account that links our culture's responses to transgender individuals (especially transwomen) to its negative valuation of femininity. Some of what she argues is sure to be controversial; but she examines issues like 'cissexual privilege' (i.e. privileges afforded to those people who do 'normal' genders) as no one else has.Stryker, Susan and Stephen Whittle, eds. 2006. The Transgender Studies Reader. New York, NY: Routledge.While a bit heavy on humanities perspectives, this volume provides an invaluable resource on transgender issues. It gathers important historical documents as well as contemporary perspectives by and about transgender people. Everything from Janice Raymond's infamous diatribe against transwomen to Gayle Rubin's call for feminists to accept and celebrate gender diversity is included here.Online materialsBisexual Resources Center http://www.biresource.org/ This website provides links to 'all things bisexual.' From resources to information about events and conferences to links to bi and bi‐inclusive groups around the world, it can all be found here. Through virtual storefronts, one can purchase books, art and the newest edition of the Bi Resource Guide. Links to 'sibling sites' provide users with access to even more information.Intersex Society of North America website http://www.isna.org/ Intersex Society of North America (ISNA) was one of the first organizations to bring intersexed people together and work to protect their rights. Their site includes a list of frequently asked questions; a section on intersexuality and the law; a library of bibliographies, books and videos; and a section on intersex in the news that also documents mass media portrayals of intersexuality. Note that, in an attempt to get people to rethink the concept of intersexuality, ISNA has started to use the term 'disorders of sexual development.'Trans‐Academics.org website http://www.trans‐academics.org/ This website is a project of the Association for Gender Research, Education, Academia & Action (AGREAA). It provides a reference library, educational materials (including documents on terminology and syllabi), a document for those considering doing research with transgender subjects, links to academic transgender studies programs, and a list of community announcements. Approximately twenty syllabi are posted here.TransBiblio: A Bibliography of Print, AV and Online Resources Pertaining to Transgendered Persons and Transgender Issues http://www.library.uiuc.edu/wst/Transgender%20Bibliography/transbiblio.htm One of the first links on this page is to a list of transgender definitions. Many versions of such a list exist on the Web. Such lists are an important resource for students: most transgender terms are new to them and it helps to have a list to keep referring back to; definitions also provide a good starting point for discussion of relevant issues (e.g., names, pronouns and language). This website indexes: films, autobiography/biography/interviews, cultural and historical studies, other directories and bibliographies, fiction/poetry/drama, literary and cinematic studies, periodicals and journals, photographic and pictorial works, and other websites and online resources. It includes articles on cross‐dressing, gender identity and expression, intersexuality, legal and employment issues, medical and health issues, psychology and counselling, public policy, religion/ethics/spirituality, theory and politics, and transsexualism (general, female‐to‐male and male‐to‐female).FilmsThere are a number of feature films about transgender and bisexual topics, some better than others. Boys Don't Cry (Kimberly Peirce, 1999) and Transamerica (Duncan Tucker, 2005) provide much material for discussion. Note that Boys Don't Cry is very violent at the end (it depicts the rape and murder of Brandon Teena and is based on a true story). Chasing Amy is one of the few feature films that provides a complex portrait of bisexuality. Here are a few documentaries to consider. Hermaphrodites Speak (Cheryl Chase, 1997, 30 minutes)The camera work leaves something to be desired and the voices are sometimes difficult to hear – but this is a film that should not be missed. A small group of intersexed people gathered at the first Intersex Society of North America conference to talk about their experiences. They sit together outside on a blanket, talking matter of factly and compellingly about their lives. (Available for purchase at ISNA website.) No Dumb Questions (Melissa Regan, 2001, 24 minutes)This short film documents the experiences of a family (mother, father and three daughters, ages 6, 9 and 11) who has learned that Uncle Bill is becoming Aunt Barbara. The focus is on the reactions of the various family members; Barbara appears only briefly (but significantly, as this is the first time the family has seen her as a woman) in the film. The different reactions of the daughters provide much material for class discussion. (Available for purchase from various outlets, including nodumbquestions.com.) Southern Comfort (Kate Davis, 2001, 90 minutes)Transman Robert Eads is dying from ovarian cancer. This film documents his life and family, providing a compelling portrait of the failure of the medical profession to provide care to transgender individuals and of the creation of support networks by trans people. Of all the films I have ever shown in a class, none has outraged my students more than this one. It does an excellent job of showing the daily lives of transgender folks and documenting their loves and struggles. (Available for purchase from various outlets.)Sample syllabus Topics for lecture and discussion Week I: Making Sense of Sex, Gender and Sexuality Reading:Connell, Robert William. 2002. 'Difference and Bodies.' Pp. 28–52 in Gender. Malden, MA: Polity Press.Jackson, Stevi. 2005. 'Sexuality, Heterosexuality and Gender Hierarchy: Getting Our Priorities Straight.' Pp. 15–37 in Thinking Straight: The Power, the Promise and the Paradox of Heterosexuality. New York, NY: Routledge.Johnson, Allan. 2005. 'Ideology, Myth, and Magic: Femininity, Masculinity and "Gender Roles".' Pp. 78–98 in The Gender Knot: Unraveling our Patriarchal Legacy (revised and updated edition). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Lorber, Judith. 1994. '"Night to His Day": The Social Construction of Gender' and 'Believing Is Seeing: Biology as Ideology.' Pp. 13–54 in Paradoxes of Gender. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Weeks II–III: Beyond Dichotomies The Social Construction of Sex Reading:Fausto‐Sterling, Anne. 2000. 'The Five Sexes, Revisited.'The Sciences 40: pp. 18–23.Preves, Sharon E. 2003. 'Beyond Pink and Blue.' Pp. 1–22 in Intersex and Identity: The Contested Self. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. The Social Construction of Gender Reading:Dozier, Raine. 2005. 'Beards, Breasts and Bodies: Doing Sex in a Gendered World.'Gender & Society 19: 297–316.Lucal, Betsy. 1999. 'What It Means to Be Gendered Me: Life on the Boundaries of a Dichotomous Gender System.'Gender & Society 13: 781–797. The Social Construction of Sexualities Reading:Ault, Amber. 1999. 'Ambiguous Identity in an Unambiguous Sex/Gender System: The Case of Bisexual Women.' Pp. 167–185 in Bisexuality: A Critical Reader. New York, NY: Routledge.Clausen, Jan. 1999. 'Introduction.' Pp. xv–xxix in Apples and Oranges: My Journey through Sexual Identity. Boston. MA: Houghton Mifflin.Putting It All Together ...Reading:Lucal, Betsy. 2008. 'Building Boxes and Policing Boundaries: (De)Constructing Intersexuality, Transgender and Bisexuality.'Sociology Compass 2: 519–536, DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00099.x.Etc ...Focus questions
What are some ways in which our society supports the idea that sex, gender and sexuality each comprise two mutually exclusive categories? In other words, how do we contribute to building the boxes that Lucal discusses? Think of an experience from your own life that was a result of people (perhaps yourself) policing the boundaries of the sex, gender or sexuality categories. Describe this experience (its context, your reaction, etc.). How did it feel to be policed in this way? How does 'policing' relate to the concept of norms? Imagine that you are the parent of an infant born with an intersexed condition. What would you do? What are the pros and cons of medical and surgical intervention? How do these considerations relate to the concept of boxes and boundaries? Consider a day in the life of a transgendered person, from waking up in the morning to going to bed at night. List all the times throughout the day when this person will be expected to place themselves in one of the gender boxes. Reflect on your list: What would a day in this life be like? Make a list of stereotypes of and slang terms for bisexuals, gays and lesbians (together and separately) and heterosexuals. How are these lists similar and different? How do these lists relate to the idea of boxes and boundaries?
Seminar/project idea Individual project: considering the wider social context Choose a social institution (e.g. family, education, mass media, religion, health and medicine) related to sex, gender and sexuality. Within that social institution, choose a narrower topic (e.g. access to health care, having and raising children, sitcom images). Do some research on how this specific topic relates to the lives of intersexed, transgender and bisexual individuals. Prepare an oral presentation for your class in which you compare and contrast the issues facing these three groups in the context of this topic. (Keep in mind, of course, that individuals might be members of more than one of these groups.) How are the issues facing each group in this context similar? How are they different?
