Suchergebnisse

This book is designed for governments that make decisions on the application of preventive resettlement programs as disaster risk reduction measures, as well as for institutions and professionals in charge of preparing and implementing these programs, civil society organizations participating in resettlement and risk reduction processes, and at-risk communities. The basic premises of the guide are that resettlement as a preventive measure should be incorporated in comprehensive risk reduction strategies in order to be effective; and that resettlement's objective is to protect the lives and assets of persons at risk and to improve or at least restore their living conditions. The guide has two parts. The first consists of two chapters. The first of these looks at disasters occurring worldwide and their impacts, and discusses strategic frameworks for disaster risk reduction. The second chapter analyzes resettlement as a preventive measure in the context of comprehensive risk management policy. It examines the relevance of resettlement according to the type of natural hazards and to their characteristics, as well as the savings achieved by promoting this type of resettlement rather than handling a disaster generated emergency and recovering from it. In this chapter, preventive resettlement is to be included in the public policy sphere, since it is based on recognition of the rights and responsibilities of public, private, and civil society stakeholders, and is to be guided by principles of effectiveness, equity, and general public well-being.

Donors increasingly fund interventions to counteract inequality in developing countries, where they fear it can foment instability and undermine nation-building efforts. To succeed, aid relies on the principle of upward accountability to donors. But federalism shifts the accountability of subnational officials downward to regional and local voters. What happens when aid agencies fund anti-inequality programs in federal countries? Does federalism undermine aid? Does aid undermine federalism? Or can the political and fiscal relations that define a federal system resolve the contradiction internally? This study explores this paradox via the Promotion of Basic Services program in Ethiopia, the largest donor-financed investment program in the world. Using an original panel database comprising the universe of Ethiopian woredas (districts), the study finds that horizontal (geographic) inequality decreased substantially. Donor-financed block grants to woredas increased the availability of primary education and health care services in the bottom 20 percent of woredas. Weaker evidence from household surveys suggests that vertical inequality across wealth groups (within woredas) also declined, implying that individuals from the poorest households benefit disproportionately from increasing access to and utilization of such services. The evidence suggests that by combining strong upward accountability over public investment with extensive citizen engagement on local issues, Ethiopia's federal system resolves the instrumental dissonance posed by aid-funded programs to combat inequality in a federation.

This paper analyzes the poverty and inequality implications of removing agricultural and non-agricultural price distortions in the domestic market of the Philippines and abroad. Liberalization in the rest of the world is poverty and inequality reducing, whereas full domestic liberalization increases national poverty and inequality. Poverty declines while inequality increases marginally in the combined scenario of both global and domestic agriculture reform. Although the reduction in the national poverty headcount is small in the latter scenario, the poorest of the poor, particularly those living in the rural areas, emerge as 'winners', given their strong reliance on agricultural production and unskilled labor wages.

La población mundial, que cuenta dos mil millones de habitantes alrededor del año 1950, ha crecido a un ritmo casi exponencial en las décadas siguientes hasta 4 mil millones y 5,3 en 1990 (Naciones Unidas - Departamento de Asuntos Económicos y Sociales, 2010). Sin duda un gran aumento tanto en términos absolutos cuanto relativos. Según las estimaciones de las Naciones Unidas, la población mundial se estima que alcanzará los ocho millones y medio de 2025. Estas tasas de crecimiento se producen, obviamente, tanto en Europa, donde la población ha crecido de 550 millones en 1950 a 750 millones en 2010, y en Italia, donde en el período 1861 a 2008 hubo un aumento de la población de 22 millones de habitantes a casi 60 millones (fuente: ISTAT, 2010). La población ha crecido, sin embargo, a tasas más altas en los países en desarrollo, con una tendencia a la constante en los países industrializados en las últimas décadas. Dicha población mundial intenso tiene consecuencias directas sobre el territorio urbano, mientras que lleva a una extensión de las actuales áreas urbanas menores y pequeñas ciudades. Todo esto, cada vez más, dar lugar a problemas de gestión y uso del suelo, produciendo un crecimiento del componente de la vulnerabilidad en la ecuación de riesgo. Crecimiento de la población no justifica un aumento de las condiciones hidrogeológicas de la inestabilidad. Si es así, ya que la población se ha convertido en firme en los últimos años, al menos en la mayoría de los países industrializados, no hay que hacer frente a riesgos cada vez mayor. En cambio, el modelo de desarrollo económico, basado principalmente en redes e infraestructuras, así como los asentamientos, por supuesto, produce un doble efecto: un aumento de los activos expuestos a la amenaza, una presión sobre el territorio, capaz de hacer la activación de los fenómenos peligrosos más frecuentes. Los fenómenos naturales también tienen un impacto en el marco socio-económico, ya que son responsables de la pérdida de bienes y servicios y, en ocasiones, una pérdida en términos de vidas humanas. En tal situación, la vulnerabilidad de la zona está relacionado con el desarrollo de su sistema de infraestructura social, civil y urbano. Este concepto se expresa claramente en la declaración "Los desastres ocurren cuando los riesgos se encontra con la vulnerabilidad" (Wisner et al., 2004). Esto nos lleva a considerar los desastres naturales como los fenómenos sociales reales. Cuando se habla de riesgo geomorfologicos y de políticas ambientales, uno de los pioneros es, sin duda, Earl E. Brabb, que ya en 1991 en un artículo titulado "El problema de movimientos de ladera del mundo", sostuvo que los deslizamientos son un problema mundial que cientos causa de muertes y miles de millones de dólares de daño cada año en todo el mundo. Los poblemas geomorfológicos son y serán un tema importante y un requisito fundamental del conocimiento para la política de toma de decisiones. A pesar de 20 años han pasado desde que el trabajo Brabb, la situación no parece haber cambiado. No son aún insuficientes los procedimientos de todo el mundo aunque sólo sea compartida que permite evaluar la calidad y precisión de un inventario de deslizamientos o la forma de clasificar en términos de susceptibilidad a los deslizamientos de un área y para evaluar cuantitativa y cualitativamente el rendimiento predictivo. Las imágenes y escenas de devastación, destrucción y muerte que ocurren cada año, hacen que el problema de los riesgos geomorfológicos en un problema social. ¿Quien es el responsable? Seguimos construyendo, incluso en lugares que no son adecuados para la construcción. Tenemos que admitir por lo menos una doble responsabilidad. Si bien es cierto que los acontecimientos que causar un derrumbe apenas son "previsibles", por el contrario sí podemos identificar y predecir donde estos fenómenos se producen con mayor capacidad destructiva, produciendo más daños y reducir al mínimo la vulnerabilidad. Por lo tanto, si no es posible evitar, ya que no es posible predecir, la palabra clave debe ser "la prevención". Cada vez deslizamientos de tierra u otros eventos con características destructivas y letales, que a menudo se supone y se define como "impredecible", nos ofrece con el escenario de las víctimas, los heridos y desaparecidos, el público se estremece y recuerda la vulnerabilidad de los bienes de la comunidad y direciona la discusión sobre el tema de prevención de los desastres naturales o por lo menos tratar de minimizar las consecuencias trágicas que lo acompañan. La ola emocional que sigue a la fase de emergencia se produce entre las llamadas a "enrollar las mangas" a una "cultura de prevención" que "nunca vuelva a suceder", e induce a los legisladores y los técnicos para intervenir con una variedad de medidas urgentes de mitigación y obras y de intervención inmediata, tal vez proponiendo también las regulaciones y leyes dirigidas a "evitar otro desastre similar". Hoy Saponara, ayer Génova, el día antes Giampilieri y San Fratello y así sucesivamente durante décadas: Salerno (1954) con 318 víctimas, 250 heridos y sin hogar cerca de 5.500, y el Longarone y el desastre de Vajont (1963) con cerca de 2.000 muertes de Agrigento, (1966), Valtellina (1987) 53 muertes y 4.000 millones de liras de los daños, el deslizamiento de tierra en el Val di Stava de julio de 1985 (269 muertos), las corrientes rápidas del 5 de mayo de 1998 y Sarno y Quindici y otras áreas de la región Campania, con 153 muertes, Maierato (2010), son algunos de los eventos más importantes que lleva a más de 4.000 las muertes causadas por movimientos gravitativos en medio siglo, un promedio de 4 muertes por mes, además de un daño económico incalculable. Pero cada día hay una lista de los deslizamientos de tierra, carreteras y puentes bajando, a pesar de que pasa desapercibido. A falta de una cultura de prevención y un aumento de la cultura de emergencia en su lugar. Y la protección civil se ve ahora como la única ancla de salvación y la asistencia de los municipios y la población involucrada. Italia es un País que se desmorona debido a la negligencia del hombre y a la falta de prevención. Hay 5,596 sobre 8,101 municipios en riesgo hidrogeológico, el 84% de los centros de población se define en riesgo. Esto sin duda demuestra que las construcciones se construyeron cuando no se podia. De estos municipios, 1.700 (alrededor del 21%) están en riesgo de deslizamientos, 1.285 (casi el 16%) en riesgo de inundación y 2.596 (32%) se encuentran en una combinación de deslizamientos de tierra y riesgo de inundación. El área total clasificada como de alto riesgo asciende a 36.551 km2 (7,1% del total nacional) dividido en km2 de áreas de deslizamientos de tierra y 7.791 km2 de áreas inundadas 13.760. Estas cifras ponen de relieve la inestabilidad hidrogeológica con el que cada región debe enfrentar, tarde o temprano, contra la cual el flujo de millones de euros, a menudo sólo le prometió, no servirá de mucho para la estabilización y obras de medida de seguridad. El informe de Legambiente revela que los municipios son la punta de lanza de una evidente debilidad de nuestro territorio. No hay una única manera de preparar los mapas de susceptibilidad, como lo demuestra la enorme cantidad de artículos científicos producidos incluso durante la última década, y lo mismo es cierto en cuanto a la zonificación de los peligros y los riesgos involucrados, todavía sigue siendo un problema sin resolver en gran medida (Carrara et al., 2009). La contribución de este trabajo las siguientes fases de un estudio con el fin de definir la estructura de la sensibilidad, los riesgos y peligros de un área: 1. Construcción de la base de datos: en este trabajo las diferentes técnicas y métodos de detección de deslizamiento de tierra y delimitación se comparan directamente (trabajo de campo) e indirectamente (fotografías aéreas, software de visualización remota del territorio) y su posterior despliegue en un sistema GIS. 2 Elección y definición de la escala de análisis: De hecho, uno de los problemas más actuales de la proposición se relaciona con los métodos de evaluación de susceptibilidad a escala múltiple. 3 Unidades cartográficas: las diferentes unidades se utilizan para la cartografía y zonificación del territorio, cuya previsión de resultados se comparan con el fin de ser capaces de identificar las unidades de la asignación básica más adecuada para la planificación y para fines de defensa civil, teniendo en cuenta la exactitud científica de que la modelo debe soportar. 4 Elección de los factores control: en el trabajo, es la posibilidad de identificar el conjunto más probable de los factores que se consideran relacionados directamente o indirectamente a la inestabilidad de la ladera. Se proponen procedimientos de prueba y seleccionar el conjunto de posibles factores de control, así como la construcción de modelos específicos para cada tipo de deslizamientos. 5 Construcción de modelos: como para la construcción de un modelo geo-estadístico, las soluciones se comparan diferentes y el modelo de presentación de los mismos resultados y la objetividad que se elija, teniendo en cuenta que las necesidades de una implementación más bajo en términos de costo y tiempo. 6 Validación: los modelos están sujetos a diferentes técnicas de validación, que luego se comparan entre ellos. 7 Exportación espacial de un modelo de susceptibilidad: este es un ensayo para definir y validar los términos de susceptibilidad a los deslizamientos de una amplia zona en los gustos de cientos o miles de kilómetros cuadrados, en base a los estudios de detalle de algunos sectores que lo representan. Al igual que muchos otros autores, con el propósito de este trabajo es hacer una contribución a la comunidad científica, tratando de ofrecer una modesta contribución en la solución de algunos problemas en este campo a través de experimentos y modelos realizados en una variedad de contextos y comparar los resultados entre ellos. En este sentido, unas pruebas se llevaron a cabo en algunas áreas, previamente seleccionadas, será probado y verificado el resultado de algunos de los procedimientos en los años de investigación doctoral. A continuación, un resumen de los resultados vendrán de estas pruebas experimentales TEST 1a: TUMMARRANO river basin: Model Exportation En el marco de un estudio de la susceptibilidad de deslizamientos regional en el sur de Sicilia, una prueba se ha realizado en la cuenca del río Tumarrano (unos 80 km2) tiene como objetivo caracterizar las condiciones de su susceptibilidad movimientos de ladera mediante la exportación de un modelo, definido y entrenado en el interior un número limitado (unos 20 km2) representativas del sector ("el área de origen''). Además, la posibilidad de explotar software de Google Earth y el banco de datos de fotos para producir imágenes de los archivos deslizamiento de tierra ha sido comprobado. El modelo de susceptibilidad se define, de acuerdo con un enfoque multifactorial basadas en el análisis condicional, con unidades únicas condiciones (UCUs), los cuales fueron obtenidos mediante la combinación de cuatro factores seleccionados control: litología afloramiento, la pendiente, la curvatura del plan y el índice de humedad topográfica. La capacidad de predicción del modelo de exportación, formado con 206 deslizamientos de tierra, se compara con la estimada para toda el área estudiada, mediante el uso de un archivo completo de deslizamiento de tierra (703 deslizamientos de tierra), para ver hasta qué punto el mayor tiempo/dinero necesario se tienen en cuenta los costos para. TEST 1b. Tummarrano river basin: modelo de susceptibilidad basado en la Forward logistic regression La regresión logística con pasòs hacia adelante, nos ha permitido obtener un modelo de susceptibilidad por los flujos de tierra en la cuenca del río Tumarrano, que se definió mediante el modelado de las relaciones estadísticas entre un archivo de eventos 760 y un conjunto de 20 variables predictoras. Para cada movimiento del inventario, un punto de identificación de deslizamientos (LIP) se produce de forma automática, como corresponde al punto más alto a lo largo de la frontera de los polígonos de deslizamientos de tierra. Los modelos equilibrados (760 stable/760 inestable) se presentaron a adelante el procedimiento de regresión logística. Una estrategia de construcción del modelo se aplicó para ampliar la zona considerada en la preparación del modelo y para comprobar la sensibilidad de los modelos de regresión con respecto a los lugares específicos de las células se considera estable. Un conjunto de dieciséis modelos se preparó de forma aleatoria extraer los subconjuntos diferentes céldas estables. Los modelos fueron sometidos a regresión logística y validado. Los resultados mostraron que las tasas de error satisfactoria y estable (0,236 en promedio, con una desviación estándar de 0,007) y AUC (0.839, para la formación, y 0.817, para conjuntos de datos de prueba). Como en relación a los predictores, la pendiente en el barrio de las células y la curvatura topográfica de gran perfil y plan local-fueron seleccionados de forma sistemática. Litología arcillosa afloramiento, drenajes midslope, crestas locales y midslope y los accidentes geográficos cañones eran también muy frecuentes (de 8 a 15 veces) en los modelos de la selección hacia adelante. La estrategia de construcción del modelo nos ha permitido producir un modelo de flujo de tierra realizando la susceptibilidad, cuyo modelo de ajuste, la predicción de la habilidad y solidez se estimaron sobre la base de los procedimientos de validación. Test 2. Imera river basin: modelo de susceptibilidad por flujo de tierra basado en las unidades de ladera. Un mapa de susceptibilidad de un área, que es representativa en términos de marco geológico y los fenómenos de inestabilidad de ladera de grandes sectores de los Apeninos de Sicilia, fue producida usando unidades de ladera y un modelo multiparamétrico univariado. La zona de estudio, que se extiende por aproximadamente 90 km2, fue dividida en 774 unidades de la pendiente, cuya ocurrencia esperada avalancha se estimó un promedio de siete valores de vulnerabilidad, determinado para el control de los factores seleccionados: litología, pendiente media del gradiente, SPI en el pie, el índice de humedad topográfica y la curvatura del perfil, y el rango de altitud. Cada uno de los reconocidos 490 deslizamientos de tierra estuvo representada por su punto de centro de gravedad. Sobre la base de análisis condicional, la función de la susceptibilidad aquí adoptada es la densidad, calculado para cada clase. Modelos univariante fueron preparados para cada uno de los factores que controlan, y su rendimiento predictivo se estimó por curvas de tipos de predicción y la relación de efectividad aplicada a la categorías de vulnerabilidad. Este procedimiento nos permitió discriminar entre factores efectivos y no efectivos, de modo que sólo la primera se combinó posteriormente en un modelo multiparamétrico, que fue utilizada para producir el mapa de susceptibilidad final. la validación de este último mapa nos permite comprobar el rendimiento y la fiabilidad de la predicción modelo. Los principales factores reguladores resultaron: la litología y, subordinadamente, el SPI a el pies de la unidad, y tambien el gradiente medio de la pendiente, la curvatura del perfil, y el índice de humedad topográfica dieron resultados satisfactorios. ; The World population, which counted two billion inhabitants around 1950, has grown at an almost exponential rate in the following decades up to four billion in 1980 and 5,3 in 1990 (United Nations – Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2010). Definitely a high increase both in absolute and relative terms. According to estimates by the United Nations, the World population is estimated to reach eight billion and a half around 2025 (Chart 1.1), and then it will become steady around ten billion in 2050 because of the expected decline in fertility. These growing rates occur, obviously, both in Europe, where population has grown from 550 million in 1950 to 750 million in 2010, and in Italy, where in the period from 1861 to 2008 there was a surge in population from 22 million inhabitants to almost 60 million, (source: ISTAT, 2010). The population has grown, however, at higher rates in developing Countries (Fig. 1.1), with a tendency to become steady in industrialized Countries in the last decades. Such an intense world population has direct consequences on urban territory while leading to a spread of current minor urban areas and small towns. All this will, increasingly, result in management and land use problems, producing a growth of the vulnerability component in the risk equation. Population growth alone does not justify an increase of hydro-geological conditions of instability. If so, since the population has become steady in recent years, at least in most industrialized countries, we should not face increasing risks. Instead, the economic development model, largely based on networks and infrastructures, as well as settlements of course, produces a double effect: an increase of assets exposed to threat; a stress on the territory, able to make the activation of hazardous phenomena more frequently. It is however true that recent disasters with great loss of lives (i.e., Sarno Giampilieri, Aulla, Genova and Saponara) are actually the results of the response (letting nature take its course) to the changes in territorial asset occurred after the war. Another cause may be found in environmental changes: when the stress regime in a region changes (such as extraordinary rainfall intensity), the response is obviously new for both sides/slopes and the population. The WWF notes that from 1956 to 2001, urbanized areas in Italy have increased by 500 times and it is estimated that from 1990 to 2005 we have transformed 3.5 million hectares of land. The problem of interaction between humans and the natural environment is a very complex and diversified issue, not often approached in a systematic way, also because of the severe limitations of sources to be invested on research on a medium and long-term, for a better and effective knowledge of the environment, primarily on measures aimed at reducing risk (Plattner, 2005). Natural phenomena also have an impact within the social-economic framework as they are responsible for the loss of goods and services, and sometimes, a loss in terms of lives. In such a situation, the vulnerability of the area is related to the development of its social, civil, and urban infrastructural system. This concept is well expressed in the statement "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability" (Wisner et al., 2004). This leads us to consider natural disasters as real social phenomena. This condition is strongly valid especially with regard to landslides (Brabb and Harrod, 1989; Brabb, 1991). Since economic problems common to all countries do not allow either to invest in research projects on a medium and long-term or the stabilization of structures or areas on a large-scale, a new philosophy of environmental policy opens up for all active political and administrative subjects that should govern the use and exploitation of the territory. For this reason, the scientific community is engaged in a continuous search for methods and techniques to estimate the degree of real and potential instability, using the minimum amount of equipment and possible economic resources. Usually there is a substantial difficulty in identifying the most reliable procedures, that allow to approach this matter in a non-traditional manner based on modeling and investigative techniques built on the exchange of experiences between experts and conducting studies and experiments on all continents, and showing different strategies and possible technical combinations depending on the type and/or the number and complexity of the investigation, producing susceptibility, hazard and risk maps, used as the basis for decision-making processes in land management. In this framework, further efforts are needed in trying to make the different methods more objective and shared by all in order to be simple and reproducible, and most of all in transferring the knowledge gained in laws that underpin territorial planning, building regulations, and in civil defense plans (Guzzetti, 2006). When discussing about landslides and environmental policies, one of the pioneers is undoubtedly Earl E. Brabb, who already in 1991 in a paper entitled "The World Landslide Problem", sustained that landslides are a worldwide problem that cause hundreds of deaths and billions of dollars of damage every year all over the world. The same added that these losses can be reduced if the problem is identified and acknowledged in time, but many countries are simply equipped with maps showing where landslides produced problems in the past and they have even less susceptibility maps that could allow policy makers control land use. Landslides, adds Brabb, are generally more predictable and controllable than other natural events of catastrophic nature such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and storms, but despite this, few countries have taken advantage of this knowledge to reduce landslide hazard. Geomorphological problems are and will be an important issue and a fundamental requirement of knowledge for the politics of decision-making. Although 20 years have gone by since Brabb's work, the situation does not seem to have changed. There are still insufficient globally shared procedures even just allowing to assess the quality and accuracy of a landslide inventory or how to classify in terms of landslide susceptibility of an area and to evaluate quantitatively and qualitatively predictive performance. 1.2 Basic concepts One of the most obvious effects of rapid territory development in the past decades is the increasing impact that natural disasters have on man and his activities. Institutions are therefore committed to investing their resources in both the implementation of structural interventions to mitigate the risk as well as implementation of early warning systems and defining guidelines for land management; the latter activities allow, in fact, to avoid or minimize damage to persons and property, produced by natural phenomena, without necessarily investing in expensive resources and long structural interventions. The term "risk" is used in relation to the various components of the social and territorial fabric, as an expression of the expected consequences in the assets as a result of this disastrous phenomenon of assigned intensity at a given time interval. Within the guidelines for the preparation of prevention and management plans in terms of geological risk of the Sicilian Civil Protection Service (Regional Hydro-geological and Environmental Risks department), the term Hydro-geological Risk means the effect on different parts of the territory led by natural disasters such as landslides (geomorphological risk) and floods (hydraulic risks) triggered by events related to climate and its changes. Two main components contribute to the definition of risk: territorial hazard (geomorphological and hydraulic) and vulnerability. The latter depends on both the physical resistance of structures or assets exposed to the threat and the so-called vulnerability of social organization, which is linked, in fact, to the capacity of disaster prevention and management that a community has developed prior to the same disaster. The propensity of a territory to be affected by new landslides, the degree of hazard or risk that characterizes it, are usually expressed with the help of a map in which the area is divided into different zones according to the different values that qualify it. In this mapping, the territory is zoned or divided into homogeneous zones or user-defined fields/areas, whose ranking is defined according to their real or potential degree of landslide hazard (Varnes, 1984). Over the decades, many research groups and national and international commissions have tried to provide precise definitions, trying to reduce the existing confusion of terms in the management of natural hazards. In this section, some basic concepts are expressed as well as the terminology that will be used in the thesis below. Landslide events that develop in a given area involve a large number of environmental variables, to determine undoubted difficulties in identifying a suitable action of management, control and planning. In order to do so, understanding the problem without having a clear conceptual framework and method to be used may not be sufficient. The "forecast" of the phenomena and therefore the modeling phase is always required to designated public administration bodies and territorial control, carried out by the creation of digital simulation models which become crucial at the time when decisions must be taken/made. The creation of maps indicating the different vocation planning of an area, based for example on landslide hazard maps, not only allows you to compose the scene of the incident consequences of a given failure, but also to react under emergency, if magnitude, area, and associated potential damage are known. Planning is a subject which studies and regulates the processes of local governance and to evaluate the resulting dynamics of evolution and development. The principles guiding the choice of planning require development policies coherent with the principles of environmental protection and sustainability in an effort to control the excessive human presence, able to transform irreversibly natural systems and preserve the quality of life for future generations. Information, territorial knowledge and assessment of its natural predisposition and vulnerability are the basis of planning. These forms of knowledge and the use and application of the best technologies available to facilitate information processing and optimization of procedures for evaluation and zoning of the territory, will yield the best design solutions to achieve the desired objectives. Planning is aimed to government land use and management of spatial information, and is achieved by regulating the area according to different uses, which should be awarded taking into account the natural predispositions. Planning activities can affect a large portion of territory, in other words include a supra-municipal area or one that does not match with administrative boundaries (e.g. Provincial Territorial Coordination Plan, Hydro-geological Plan) or urban (e.g. General Regulation Plan). The geological, geomorphological, hydro-geological and seismic component should be placed at the base of the strategic development of the territory. In national legislation, water management is understood both as a natural resource but also as an element of risk, and has been regulated at the watershed level since the nineties (national framework law 183/89 on soil protection). This allow us to overcome divisions and inconsistencies produced by the adoption of targeted areas having only administrative boundaries that, therefore, do not take into account natural dynamics. The zoning of landslide hazard area is considered the most effective level of knowledge for territorial planning and territorial governance purposes. A map showing portions of an area classified as "hazardous" is of great importance due to the fact that these areas are subject to limitations and constraints that also affect the usability or simply the economic value. 1.2.1 Landslides and soil protection Italy, besides having a territory particularly prone to heavily collapse, has a highly populated territory with a density of 189 inhabitants per km2, much higher than France (114 inhabitants/km2) and Spain (89 inhabitants/km2), in Lombardy and Campania respectively, the density changes to 379 and 420 inhabitants per km2. As clear from the Report on landslides in Italy (National Geological Survey, 2007), commissioned by the ISPRA (National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research), in the last 50 years almost 500 thousand landslides have been recognized and recorded for an area of about 20 thousand km2, corresponding to 6.6% of the entire national territory. These data should be updated. As indicated by the last study conducted by the Ministry of the Environment (2010), 9.8% of the national area is to be ranked highly hydro-geological critical and 6.633 municipalities are involved, representing 81.9 percent of the national territory. This value, according to a report EURISPES ( Report Italy, 2010) is "largely underestimated", therefore agreeing that "a reliable estimate is made up of about 2 million phenomena and consequently the percentage of the Italian territory subject to ongoing phenomena is more than 20%." The Ministry of Environment, through the work for the realization of development plans undertaken by the hydrogeological Basin Authority, estimated a funding requirement of almost 40 billion euros to hydro-geologically secure the entire country, and 4.1 billion for more urgent works. Undoubtedly, the amounts are considerably high, but it is enough to consider that almost 21 billion euros were spent just to stanch the damages by hydro-geological disasters occurred in the decade 1994-2004. 1.3 Aims and scientific contribution There is no single way to prepare susceptibility maps, as evidenced by the enormous amount of scientific papers produced even during the last decade, and the same is true as for the zoning of the hazard and risk involved, still remaining a largely unsolved problem (Carrara et al., 2009). The contribution of this paper the following phases of a study in order to define the susceptibility structure, hazard and risk of an area. 1 Construction of the landslide database: in this work different techniques and methods of landslide detection and delimitation are compared, directly (field work) and indirectly (aerial photographs, remote viewing software of the territory) and their subsequent deployment in a GIS system. 2 Choice and definition of the analysis scale: the problem of scale models of susceptibility is approached. In fact, one of the most actual problems of the proposition is related to approaches to multi-scale susceptibility evaluation. 3 Mapping units: different units are used for mapping and zoning of the territory, whose foresight results are compared in order to be able to identify the basic mapping units most suitable for planning and for civil defense purposes, taking into account the scientific accuracy that the model must bear. 4 Choice of controlling factors: during the work, it is the possible to identify the most probable set of factors considered to be directly or indirectly related to the instability of the slope. Procedures for testing and selecting the set of possible controlling factors are proposed as well as the construction of specific models for each type of landslide. 5 Model building: as for the construction of a geo-statistical model, different solutions are compared and the model presenting the same results and objectivity is chosen, considering it needs a lower implementation in terms of cost and time. 6 Validation: models are subject to different validation techniques, which are then compared to each other. 7 Spatial exporting of a landslide susceptibility model: this is a trial to define and validate the terms of landslide susceptibility for a wide area in the likes of hundreds or thousands of square kilometers, based on studies of some fields that represent it. Having clear that the result of this type of study is intended to provide maps that can be used by planners in a useful manner, these must be characterized by an immediacy in understanding even by non-experts and they must also be easy to read and interpret. Therefore, these methods should be as simple as possible, for example, susceptibility levels must be clearly expressed not only in quantitative but also in descriptive terms (Clerici et al., 2010). Like many other authors, the purpose of this work is to make a contribution to the scientific community by trying to offer a modest contribution in solving some problems in this field through experiments and modeling carried out in a range of contexts and comparing the results between them.

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :농업생명과학대학 농경제사회학부(지역정보전공),2020. 2. Hong Sok(Brian) Kim. ; There is a vicious circle characterizing the economic situation in many rural regions. Farmland abandonment is one of the complex circles and causes economic stagnation, environmental and social problems such as depopulation, row productivities, migration and dropping food supply self-sufficiency and some of the interlinked factors among them. As consequences of these situations, it has been observed that this makes the vicious circle that farmland abandonment is increasing even more and problems of these are getting more serious. Therefore, it is essential to understand value of farmland and its multi-functions and to restrain farmland abandonment along with fostering community capacity in rural area. Moreover, in the theory of neo-endogenous rural development, the importance of local resources such as farmland and community capacity is mentioned as key factors for sustainable rural development. Considering the importance of multi-function of farmland and community capacity, it is necessary for many rural regions to take measurements with multi-dimensional perspective to contribute to maintain the farmland and foster community capacity. However, there is very few researches on discussion of sustainable rural development focusing on farmland and community capacity with empirical studies. Since sustainable rural development has broad contents, there is very few studies focusing on the relationship between multi-function of farmland and sustainable development based on empirical study. Therefore, in this dissertation, it is trying to clarify the effect of direct payment for hilly mountainous area of Japan and community capacity on farmland conservation in order to organize concept of sustainability through role of farmland. It also tries to find out how it links to sustainable rural development. The results and discussion from this dissertation would bring better understanding on the importance of multi-function of farmland as community's asset and territorial integration policy. Furthermore, it would clarify challenges of case of Japan and make them into policy implication for future policy or other countries. Especially, the effective governmental intervention and diversity of stakeholders are key factors for sustainable rural development as mentioned in the theory. This research can indicate specific implication for sustainable rural development by focusing on multi-function of farmland and conservation activities. It would bring academic contribution to the theory development and also the academic field of sustainable rural development policy. In order to maintain farmland, it is well known that community capacity is playing the key role. Even so, the discussion on the relationship between sustainability and role of community capacity are very few with empirical studies. In this point, this dissertation can clarify the importance of community capacity through farmland conservation activities and give implication on community capacity building. First essay is verifying the effect of direct payment for hilly mountainous area and community capacity on restraining farmland abandonment. In this essay, we use panel data and Difference in Differences (DID) estimator to estimate the effect of the policy by comparing treated group with controlled group. At the same time, if the policy brings the effect on reducing rate of farmland abandonment, it is trying to clarify what community's features influence into the effect. As a result, the area of target of the policy has more effect of reducing farmland abandonment compared to non-target area. Moreover, the more share of 65 years old farmers, the more abandonment was restrained. This could be explained that long term accumulation of capacity for collective activities is the key factor to achieve governmental new program with incentives. We conclude that it is necessary to encourage stakeholders by the policy to lead community capacity building for farmland conservation. The second essay is investigating the efficiency of the direct payment for hilly mountainous area since it is one of payment for ecosystem services (PES) and recent discussion is spread in questioning efficiency of the PES. It is generally difficult to measure efficiency of Japanese type of direct payment because it does not aim at specific goals such as kinds of biodiversity or soil condition improvement. Therefore, we utilize flooding damage mitigation effect as standard of efficient use of the direct payment. We assume that if the farmland avoiding abandonment by direct payment can mitigate flooding in some level, it is assumed that the payment on the farmland was executed efficiently. In addition, in the age of climate change, we suppose that flooding damage might increase in the near future. So, we utilize RCP8.5 scenario and calculate damage cost based on the scenario with precipitation. We use panel data and Tobit model to estimate correlation between damage cost and direct payment effect. At the same time, we estimate if community collective activities have influences into disaster mitigation. As a result, the disaster mitigation was observed in both where they are the target area of the direct payment and where they have community's collective farmland conservation activities compared to non-target non-activities area. From this result, it is possible to say that efficient use of direct payment needs community's collective conservation activities. Prediction of damage cost under RCP8.5 scenario shows increasing in almost all the area of the study area. We conclude that it is necessary to confirm importance of multi-function of farmland and conservation activities by the community for maintaining farmland in the age of climate change. These two essays lead conclusions as below. Firstly, it is significant to understand value of multi-function of farmland and restrain farmland abandonment for sustainable rural development because this mentioned multi-function of farmland brings not only production but also disaster mitigation, rural economy opportunities and cultural value on the residents. Secondly, fostering community capacity is key for maintaining farmland with encouraging by governmental intervention. Lastly, the community collective activities bring efficient implementation of governmental intervention. Therefore, in terms of farmland conservation activities with the direct payment, it has to implement with incentive for stakeholders. Japan is one of countries where they face decrease of farmers and new entities. It is necessary to give incentives to new entities not only for individual farmers or large scale of full-time farmers but also private company or part-time farmers and new type of farmers to secure stakeholders. Farmland use should be considered depending on the regional characteristics. In this decade, it is not easy to manage farmland only by large scale farmers or full-time farmers since the number of farmers are decreasing year by year. It is the time to include part-time or small-scale farmers and new type of entities for community farmland maintenance with incentives by the governmental intervention with balanced community self-sustain so that the local resources and higher community capacity make it possible to pursue sustainable rural development. ; 전 세계적으로 경제적 악순환이 발생하고 있으며, 특히 농촌에서 빈번히 관찰되고 있다. 농지 경작 포기는 많은 농촌지역에서 발생하는 경제적 악순환의 과정 중 하나로 농촌경제악화, 인구 감소, 저생산, 인구유출 및 식량자급률 저하 등을 발생시키고 이는 다시 농지 경작 포기 증가로 이어지게 된다. 따라서, 농지의 다면적 기능의 가치를 정확히 이해하고, 경작포기지의 확산을 방지함과 동시에 지역사회역량의 육성이 필수적이다. 또한 소위 지역자원, 즉 여기서의 농지의 다면적 기능의 보전과 지역사회역량의 중요성은 신 내생적 성장이론의 핵심가치 중 하나이며 지속적인 농촌개발의 논의에서 빼놓을 수 없는 요소로서 인식된다. 이러한 중요성에 비추어볼 때, 농지의 다면적 기능을 유지하고 지역사회역량을 육성하는 등의 정책은 비단 일본뿐만 아니라 다른 국가의 농촌지역에서도 유효할 것이다. 그러나 실증연구를 중심으로 한 농촌 발전에 관한 논의는 아직까지는 미비한 현황이다. 이에 본 논문에서는 일본 중산간 지역의 직접지불제도의 유효성과 지역사회역량의 효과를 검증함과 동시에 이들이 지속가능한 농촌개발과 어떻게 연계되고 있는지를 살펴보고자 한다. 연구 결과, 영토 보전적 관점과 농촌지역공동체 재산으로서의 농지의 다면적 기능의 중요성을 재확인하였을 뿐만 아니라, 농촌개발 정책과 다양한 수요자(Stakeholder)의 중요성 역시 실증연구를 통해 입증하였다. 즉, 지속가능한 농촌개발의 주요 요소로는 정부의 효과적인 정책적 개입과 다양한 수요자(Stakeholder)가 꼽히나 그 구체적인 분석은 미흡한 바, 본 연구에서는 지속가능성이 무엇인지를 농지의 다면적 기능과 연관지어 분석하여 지속가능한 농촌개발에 대한 구체적인 제언을 제시하였다. 또한, 농지의 다면적 기능을 유지하기 위해서는 지역사회역량이 중요한 역할을 한다는 점은 선행연구로서 제시되어 있으나, 이에 대한 실증적인 분석은 미흡한 바 본 연구는 지역사회역량을 강조한 신 내생적 성장이론과 그 촉진에 중점을 주어 일본 직불제도의 효과에 관해 실증적으로 분석하였다. 본 논문의 첫번째 연구는 일본의 중산간 지역 등 직접지불제도와 지역사회역량효과를 검정한 것이다. 이 연구는 패널 데이터를 이용한 Difference in differences(DID) 기법을 사용하여 정책대상지역과 비대상 지역 간의 비교를 통해 제도의 효과를 검증하였다. 또한, 직접지불제도가 효과가 있는 경우 구체적으로 어떤 지역사회역량이 영향을 미치는지를 추정하여 결론적으로 지역사회역량을 육성하는 정부정책이 필요하다는 제언을 할 수 있었다. 결과적으로 정책대상지역은 비대상지역과 비교해서 경작 포기지 억제효과를 확인할 수 있었다. 또한, 65세 이상 농가의 비율이 높을수록 경작 포기지 억제효과가 확인되었다. 이는 장년층의 축적이라는 지역사회역량이 정부 정책의 효율성을 높일 수 있음을 의미하며, 또한 정책의 인센티브로 인하여 지역사회활동이 더욱 활발해져 경작 포기지 억제와 연계된다. 이상의 논의에 따라 영토 보존적 정책과 농촌사회 재산으로서의 농지의 다면적 기능의 보전을 위해서는 다수의 농업 종사자가 불가피하며, 이를 장려하기 위한 직접지불제도 대상지역 선정이 필요하리라 생각된다. 경제학적으로 고려하여도 농민이 소유 농지를 포기하지 않고 유지관리하는 인센티브가 필요할 것이다. 두 번째 연구는 최근 논의되고 있는 직접지불제도의 효율성에 대한 연구이다. 일본형 직접 지불제도는 직접적인 효율성을 측정하기 어렵다. 그 이유는 생물 및 토양의 개선이라는 명확한 목표를 설정할 수 없기 때문이다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 농지의 다면적 기능 중 농지의 수해제어효과를 효율성의 기준으로 사용한다. 중산간지역 등 직접지불제도에 의해 경작 포기가 억제된 토양이 수해억제효과를 보였다고 하면 이를 효율적인 직접 지불이 실행되었다고 간주한다. 또한, 최근 예상되는 기후변화로 인해 홍수피해 증가가 예상된다. 본 연구에서는 RCP 8.5 시나리오를 토대로 장래 강수량 예측 데이터에 따라 얼마나 홍수피해액이 증가하는지를 제시하였다. 구체적으로는 패널 데이터를 사용하여 토빗모델에 의해 수해피해액과 정책대상지역간의 관계를 분석하였다. 그리고 직접 지불이 효율적으로 실행된 지역에서는 농촌사회적 특성 중 어느 특성이 강세를 보이는가를 동시에 검증하였다. 결과적으로, 정책대상지역이자 농촌 보전 활동이 활발히 실시되는 농촌공동체를 보유한 지역이 그렇지 않은 지역과 비교하여 수해피해액이 적음을 확인하였다. 이로부터 효율적으로 직불제를 실시하기 위해서는 농촌공동체에서의 활발한 농지보전활동 참여가 중요하다는 사실을 도출할 수 있다. 또한, 장래 예측 강우량에 따르면 당초 예상대로 홍수 피해액이 대부분 모든 지역에서 증가하므로, 기후변동에 직면한 현재 농지의 다면적 기능의 중요성을 재확인하고 농지보전과 농촌공동체 활성화에 힘써야 한다. 이상의 두 연구로부터 본 논문은 다음과 같은 최종 결론을 내렸다. 첫째, 농지의 다면적 기능의 가치를 명확히 이해하고 경작포기자를 억제하는 것이 지속적인 농촌개발에 있어 핵심이라는 점이다. 둘째, 지역사회역량의 육성이 농촌의 다면적 기능 유지 및 관리에 있어서 핵심이라는 점이다. 셋째, 농촌공동체의 공동작업이 존재하는 지역에서는 정부개입의 효율성이 매우 높기에 개인 농가 수 감소에 직면하고 있는 일본으로서는 친척 단위 참가 농업 종사자의 정부지원 및 이에 따른 인센티브 수여가 필요하다는 점이다. 장기적으로 바라보았을 때 농지의 조절을 통한 지역사회의 조정은 반드시 필요하며 설사 이것이 경제학적으로 모순된다 하더라도 농촌공동체의 특성에 의해 농지 이용 정책을 고려해야 할 것이다. 대규모 경영시행 농가, 전업농만의 농지 관리는 현대에서는 어려우며 겸업농가 및 자급적 농가의 존재 역시 지역 전체적인 농지관리에서는 필수 요소라 할 것이다. ; Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1-1. Study Background 1 1-2. Purpose of Study and Contribution of the dissertation 9 1-4. Structure of the thesis 11 Chapter 2. Literature Reviews 13 2-1. Farmland Abandonment 13 2-2. Function of farmland to mitigate of disaster 23 2-3. Direct payment (DP) for hilly mountainous area 26 2-4. Social capital 34 2-5. Multi-function of Farmland in Japan 37 Chapter 3. The Effect of Direct Payment on the Prevention of Farmland Abandonment 39 3-1. Introduction 39 3-2. Agricultural Policy and Rural Development 42 3-3. Data and Methods 51 3-4. Results 63 3-5. Discussion and Conclusion 70 Chapter 4. Efficiency of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) on preservation of farmland in the age of Climate Change 73 4-1. Introduction 73 4-2. Purpose of Study 82 4-3. Data and Methods 82 4-4. Results and Discussion 90 4-5. Conclusion 99 Chapter 5. Conclusion and Policy Implication 103 Bibliography 107 Abstract in Korean 125 ; Doctor

"Green cities" offer a systematic approach to a significant part of the nowadays urban complexity. The concept dovetails in the "healthy city" idea launched by the World Health Organization, but is equally associated with "sustainable" and "smart cities". During the past decades planning for "green cities" shifted, incorporating new ideas as sustainable development and IT-driven management instruments for smart cities. Contemporary cities continue to face major environmental challenges. Replying to this dynamic context is a main task for cities during the coming decades of the millennium. As most of the (major) cities worldwide are located at the edge of the continents, supporting water-bound activities, they show a significant "blue economy" aspect. This paper reviews the historical context of the science aspects of "green cities" and the related approaches. Four main challenges for livable (coastal) cities today are discussed, taking into account the continuous changes and the almost permanent transition cities face. Climate change effects as sea level rise and extreme weather conditions, affect directly coastal cities; providing enough drinking water is a long standing and increasing problem; ports face particular and specific environmental problems which are in need of a tailored management; and sufficient accessible green areas remain of primary concern for any green city. Cross cutting through these issues are among others mobility and sustainable urban design.These major challenges will necessitate new processes of decision making. Long term planning is essential. 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Introduction: Tradition and Change: Many of the well established Western European pharmaceutical wholesalers are companies with strong local traditions and roots dating back for several decades and more. GEHE Pharma Handel GmbH, one of the top pharmaceutical wholesalers in Germany, was celebrating its 175th birthday in 2010. AAH Pharmaceuticals Ltd., the UK's leading distributor of pharmaceutical and healthcare products, was established in 1923, and Herba Chemosan Apotheker-AG, Austria's largest pharmaceutical service and trading company, was established in 1916 as a cooperative from pharmacists for pharmacists. But having years to add does not equal getting old, as we will see in the course of this study. The times of transformation free eras have long gone, stability is not the norm anymore and the challenges being faced today are completely different. The globalisation of markets and competition has forced and still 'is forcing firms to make dramatic improvements not only to compete and prosper but also to merely survive'. For many reasons, which will be detailed throughout this study, pharmaceutical wholesalers across Europe have been facing the need for improvements to secure sustainability and growth. In addition, 'there has been significant consolidation of pharmaceutical wholesalers in Europe … affecting not only the distribution of market share but also the strategic orientation of the surviving firms'. Healthcare in Transition: Not only within the European Union but also across the entire OECD countries, healthcare is one of the largest industries with a dominant position in terms of job creation and a dynamic force in terms of innovation. Despite significant achievements in the health status of populations, concerns prevail on how resources are used in healthcare and how to guarantee an efficient and effective use of modern medicine. The weight of healthcare expenses in relation to GDP has increased the demand to harmonise internationally different definitions and improve the cross-national comparability of data on healthcare expenses. Consequently, the OECD has developed the 'System of Health Accounts'. This manual provides a common framework and supports the international comparison of healthcare data across countries and over time. A combination of medical progress, demographic changes and shifting social expectations are the major drivers of increasing health expenditures in developed countries. Within the EU-15, spending for healthcare has a significant share in percent of GDP. In 2005, the average healthcare spending in the EU-15 was 8.3% of GDP, leading to an increased dominance of expense controls (Figure 1:Total spending on healthcare in % of GDP (2006)). The pharmaceutical market is an integrated part of the overall healthcare market and driven by innovation and milestone improvements as is the overall healthcare market. The pharmaceutical market is the major reference market for the pharmaceutical wholesale industry. The standing and weight of the pharmaceutical market is expressed in the pharmaceutical quota. The pharmaceutical quota reflects the ratio of pharmaceutical expenses in comparison to the overall expenses for healthcare (Figure 2: Pharmaceutical expenditure in % of total health expenditure (2006)). Pharmaceutical expenditure varies significantly across Europe with a record share of 31.9% of total health expenditure in Hungary. The focus on pharmaceutical spending has become of growing importance, as governments are increasingly facing budget problems in financing healthcare activities for their citizens. The prices of established medicines are generally declining over their life cycle but pharmaceutical spending is triggered by non-cyclical trends, such as increasing life expectancy in industrialised nations and the introduction of new and innovative medicines at increased costs. The global pharmaceutical market will continue to grow and drugs will still be perceived as an efficient method of treatment compared with other types of medical care (Figure 3: Life expectancy in years at birth (2008)). Total spending on healthcare in relation to GDP and life expectancy is still relatively low in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE). However, the higher share of spending in pharmaceuticals can be interpreted as reduced spending on other forms of treatment and thereby increasing the importance of pharmaceuticals. Reduced average life expectancy in CEE shows that there is still a need to draw level with the rest of Europe. These trends will ultimately support the growth of pharmaceutical markets but further increase the pressure on local governments to finance additional healthcare. Research Objectives: Pharmaceutical wholesale distribution is an unknown area for the general public, and very often for other players in the healthcare market and politicians too. Little is known about this vital business-to-business link between pharmaceutical production at the beginning and dispensing of drugs at the end of the supply chain. Pharmaceutical wholesale distribution has a long-history in Europe and repeatedly proved to be the most efficient bridge between production and point of sale (PoS) or point of dispensing (PoD). Within the last years, the topic of changes in European healthcare has become of ever growing importance. The pace of change has increased exponentially in some countries. In a functioning healthcare system, pharmaceutical wholesalers are fully embedded and thus significantly affected by a changing environment. Risks and opportunities go hand in hand while governments are changing their policies in healthcare spending, pharmaceutical manufacturers are changing their mode of operating and patients and consumers are changing their ways of receiving or buying pharmaceuticals. The aim of this master thesis is to highlight the role of pharmaceutical full-line wholesalers, to give detailed analyses of an ever-changing healthcare world and map out the most relevant threats and opportunities for European full-line pharmaceutical wholesalers. Structure: This master thesis comprises of five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to European healthcare and explains the purpose of this thesis. Chapter 2 focuses on the definition of full-line pharmaceutical wholesalers, the specific functions they hold within the pharmaceutical supply chain, and the value added they provide. Chapter 3 investigates the major trends leading to a changing healthcare environment, evaluating the effects of changing demographic compositions, governments' needs to restrict healthcare spending and the consequences on pharmaceutical wholesalers. Chapter 4 deals with opportunities of growth to sustain the success of European pharmaceutical wholesalers in the long run: strategies for liberalising markets, the creation of value added services, vertical integration and the need to grow outside Europe are on display. Chapter 5, finally, summarises the findings of the master thesis. Data Source: Data for the analysis is mainly based on European drivers of healthcare systems. Analysis on national and corporate level has been included where applicable. Global research data, with a special focus on Brazil, Russia, China and India, has been analysed for the purpose of evaluating growth strategies for pharmaceutical wholesalers outside Europe. The reviewed literature has been published by first-in-class experts in healthcare such as IMS Health, the world's leading provider of market intelligence to the pharmaceutical and healthcare industries, GIRP, the umbrella organisation of pharmaceutical full-line wholesalers in Europe, OECD, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and high-ranking consulting corporations such as Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu, Roland Berger Strategy Consultants and The Boston Consulting Group. A diverse set of sources was used to provide a comprehensive analysis on changing healthcare markets and the threats and opportunities for pharmaceutical wholesalers.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: 1.INTRODUCTION9 1.1TRADITION AND CHANGE9 1.2HEALTHCARE IN TRANSITION10 1.3RESEARCH OBJECTIVES14 1.4STRUCTURE15 1.5DATA SOURCE15 2.PHARMACEUTICAL WHOLESALE DISTRIBUTION17 2.1PHARMACEUTICAL SUPPLY CHAIN17 2.2FULL-LINE PHARMACEUTICAL WHOLESALERS18 2.3SHORT-LINE PHARMACEUTICAL WHOLESALERS19 2.4FUNCTIONS OF PHARMACEUTICAL WHOLESALERS20 2.4.1Bridging of Distances21 2.4.2Bridging of Time22 2.4.3Quantity Function22 2.4.4Quality Function24 2.4.5Services creating Added Value26 2.4.6Coverage27 3.HEALTHCARE IN TRANSITION29 3.1CHANGINGDEMOGRAPHIC COMPOSITION29 3.2CHALLENGES IN HEALTHCARE FUNDING33 3.3COST-DRIVEN CHANGES34 3.3.1Generic Market Penetration34 3.3.2Price Erosion38 3.4STRUCTURAL ALTERATIONS IN THE PHARMACEUTICAL SUPPLY CHAIN41 3.4.1Direct Deliveries42 3.4.2Public Service Obligation46 3.4.3Certified Supply Chain47 3.5TRANSFORMING HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS IN CEE49 3.5.1The Post-Semaskho Era49 3.5.2Informal Payments and Corruption51 4.SUSTAINABLE GROWTH55 4.1OUTSOURCING55 4.2VALUE ADDED SERVICES58 4.3VERTICAL INTEGRATION59 4.3.1Sweden Abolishes Pharmacy Monopoly60 4.3.2Legislation61 4.4COOPERATION MODELS66 4.5PHARMERGING MARKETS69 5.CONCLUSION73Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 2.1, Pharmaceutical Supply Chain: Although the pharmaceutical supply chain has different peculiarities depending on national legislations and market structures, a general supply chain organisation exists and is to a large extent valid across Europe. Figure 4 shows that the origins of the pharmaceutical supply chain are at the manufacturing level. Pre-wholesaling is a preliminary stage of wholesaling and usually covers the logistics processes that have been outsourced by manufacturers. Phoenix, one of the three large pan-European pharmaceutical trading companies, explains the growing importance of pre-wholesale activities: 'Today, there is not a single country in Europe where it is not in manufacturers' interests to outsource their entire distribution and logistics requirements, whether for drugs, medical products or veterinary pharmaceuticals, to a specialist company operating within an efficient pharmaceutical logistical system. This logistics partner takes over responsibility for distribution to all wholesalers.' In addition to basic logistical services, such as the professional storage and transportation in accordance with legislation and special requirements for handling drugs, pre-wholesalers offer tailor-made solutions to the pharmaceutical industry. Tailor-made solutions include among others the tracking of medicine deliveries, monitoring of temperature, humidity and exposure to light, and country specific packaging and labelling. 2.2, Full-line Pharmaceutical Wholesalers: Distribution of pharmaceuticals is the core business of full-line pharmaceutical wholesalers. They provide the most important link between pharmaceutical manufacturing and the point of sale (PoS) and point of dispensing (PoD). 'The activity of pharmaceutical full-line wholesaling consists of the purchase, warehousing, storage, order preparation and delivery of medicines. Pharmaceutical full-line wholesalers carry and distribute the complete assortment of products in range and depth within the framework set by the authorities and the market to meet the needs of those with whom they have normal business relations. In addition to delivering all medicines in their geographical area of activity on the same day/within less than 24 hours, pharmaceutical full-line wholesalers provide working capital and extended financing services, funding of stock and receivables of pharmacies and health care professionals'. Pharmaceutical wholesalers provide not only state-of-the-art logistics services but also a wide range of value added services to various stakeholders in healthcare. Tailor-made solutions for the pharmaceutical industry are becoming increasingly important and full-service support beyond logistics competencies has long been established for pharmacy customers. Value added services are no longer mere add-ons to the logistics services but are vital competitive assets. Wholesalers are not only creating benefits down-stream in the supply chain but also across the healthcare market including the final consumers of medicines. 2.3, Short-line Pharmaceutical Wholesalers: Another mode of wholesaling is provided by short-line wholesalers, which are the cherry pickers of pharmaceutical wholesaling. Short-liners restrain their product portfolio to a specific range of pharmaceuticals only. Consequently, they benefit significantly from a narrow financially driven product portfolio and slim cost structures. By contrast, full-line wholesalers offer the entire spectrum of medicines in order to guarantee supply and to support the health of the population. Service offers from short-line wholesalers are either minimal or not existing. National governments usually strive to achieve three targets concerning the pharmaceutical supply chain: drug safety, security of supply and quality of supply. Short-line wholesalers cannot guarantee the security of supply as they only provide a narrow range of medicines. Their focus on highly profitable products negatively affects the product portfolio of full-line wholesalers, which need the profitable products to be able to stock and distribute unprofitable medicines. Hybrid costing has been the economic baseline to guarantee the security of supply. To ensure that supply of medicines is guaranteed, several European countries have legally obliged wholesalers to provide the full range of medicines to pharmacies. France, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Portugal, Spain and some of the new EU member states have implemented these public service obligations.

En Colombia, el feminicidio es un tipo penal cerrado, en cuya estructura de delito autónomo, el legislador determinó, según el artículo 2° de la Ley Rosa Elvira Cely LREC, que el sujeto pasivo es la mujer cis, considerada así desde lo biológico, en razón de su sexo de nacimiento. En la jurisprudencia colombiana, cometer feminicidio es causar la muerte a una mujer, necesariamente motivada "por su condición de ser mujer o por motivos de su identidad de género, móvil que hace parte del tipo dolo calificado" (Sentencia C-297 de 2016). Según Ramos de Mello (2015), en el feminicidio "el Estado es incapaz de garantizar la vida de las mujeres, de respetar sus derechos humanos, de actuar con legalidad y de hacerse respetar, de buscar y administrar la justicia, de prevenir y erradicar la violencia que ocasiona"; mientras que, las teorías sociológicas consideran al feminicidio como un crimen de Estado (Legarde, 2008) o como violencia sexual sistemática, propia de las relaciones de poder: social, cultural (machismo, patriarcado), política y económica, dominantes (Monárrez, 2009). En la LREC, el legislador no definió con precisión que el sujeto pasivo en el delito de feminicidio allí consagrado, podría extenderse a personas transgénero, concepto general que para la CIDH de la OEA constituye una denominación básica para designar a "aquellas personas cuya identidad de género u orientación sexual es diferente de las expectativas basadas en características físicas sexuales o en el sexo que les fue asignado al momento del nacimiento" (CIDH-OEA, 2015); los modelos o estereotipos sociales establecen disimilitudes en la sociedad, aunque la perspectiva antropológica del rol de mujer trans (travesti, transexual y transgénero), no necesariamente está vinculada a procedimientos médico-quirúrgicos para la reasignación de sexo, sino a la construcción de la identidad de género (Cano-Caballero, 2010). En la sociedad contemporánea, existen grupos de personas LGBTI, considerados vulnerables por su diversidad sexual, quienes no tienen regulados sus derechos de identidad jurídica en la legislación nacional, a pesar que la comunidad jurídica internacional se los haya reconocido en razón o por su condición de género (CIDH, 2015); situación que los expone al prejuicio que a su vez los hace objeto de violencia y estigmatización (Ramos-Salcedo & González-Mauricio, 2015). De otra arista, el orden social en los Estados no está organizado estructuralmente para dar prioridad y adaptar procesos pertinentes con identidad de género o sexual, por lo cual deberían ser considerados como "construcción del cuerpo social como eje de transversalidad para la culturización y la difusión de información, para que la sociedad contemporánea, respete y asimile un proceso más inclusivo, que genere mayor atención hacia el cuerpo distinto, presente en la persona" (Cedeño & Cedeño, 2018). En Colombia, los derechos de las personas LGBTI no solo son irrespetados, sino que además no le son garantizados a plenitud, dado que, las autoridades de tipo judicial y administrativa, "anteponen el estereotipo o prejuicio al momento de aplicar la legislación o por una actitud omisiva desconocen las precarias e infravaloradas condiciones y estigmatización social" (Colombia Diversa, 2020); debido quizá a que el sistema está cimentado sobre la base del binarismo de género, invisibilizando a las mujeres trans y desconociendo la realidad de personas con género no binario. Aunque la Corte Constitucional colombiana ha sentado jurisprudencia a través de múltiples sentencias en materia de derechos de parejas del mismo sexo, en el país persiste la discriminación homofóbica por razones de orientación sexual e identidad de género, registrándose en forma continua, la vulneración a los derechos humanos y fundamentales como la integridad personal, la libertad, la intimidad, la libertad de expresión, a pesar de las normas y las Organizaciones No Gubernamentales que trabajan por su garantía. Transcurridos dos decenios del siglo XXI, estos derechos de las personas transgénero siguen siendo ignorados y como personas humanas, "marginados y discriminados por una sociedad que le niega la existencia de una identidad de género propia de las personas trans, el derecho de igualdad sin distinción de sexo o género, sin exclusión" (Cardona-Cuervo, 2016; Godoy, 2019). El no reconocer de forma incluyente a la persona trans, mediante política pública o legislación más precisa, desatiende la valoración social, la identidad de género no normativa y la identidad jurídica, siendo un condicionamiento que conlleva a la incorrecta imputación como homicidio agravado, al tipo penal de feminicidio cuyo sujeto pasivo es la mujer-adolescente trans. En esta tesis se desarrolla una investigación sociojurídica tipo analítica y comparada, dado su método de análisis interseccional de contenido, basado en fuentes de doctrina, jurisprudencia y política criminal, así como del derecho comparado con países de Latinoamérica en cuya legislación se incluya el tipo penal de feminicidio delimitando su unidad de análisis a adolescente transgénero y el sintagma gnoseológico se desarrolla mediante tratamiento multidimensional e interdisciplinar, con tres categorías analíticas abordadas desde la antropología social, psicología, derecho y ciencia forense; para determinar la construcción social e identidad jurídica como mujer-adolescente transgénero, necesaria para proponer su inclusión taxativa como sujeto pasivo en la LREC. Desde lo procesal-penal, se propone el protocolo de actuación médico forense y se incorporan los elementos socio-jurídicos incidentes que, como mecanismo judicial se requieren direccionar para una efectiva imputación en el proceso de investigación criminal del feminicidio transgénero. Desde lo académico, el problema jurídico y su solución, se abordan desde el conocimiento interdisciplinario y transdisciplinario en las áreas de Antropología, Derechos Humanos, Ciencia Forense, Derecho Procesal-Penal y Criminología; con lo cual se logra un aporte transversal, contemporáneo y de impacto sociojurídico, que genera una prospectiva como nueva línea de investigación y futuras investigaciones de alto impacto a nivel teórico e institucional en la USTA. ; In Colombia, Femicide is a closed criminal type, in whose structure of autonomous crime, the legislator determined, according to article 2 of the Rosa Elvira Cely LREC Law, that the taxable person is the woman considered thus from the biological point of view, in reason for your birth sex In Colombian jurisprudence, committing Femicide is causing the death of a woman, necessarily motivated "by her condition of being a woman or by reasons of her gender identity, motive that is part of the type of qualified fraud" (Sentence C-297 of 2016). According to Ramos de Mello (2015), in Femicide "the State is incapable of guaranteeing the lives of women, of respecting their human rights, of acting legally and enforcing respect, of seeking and administering justice, of preventing and eradicating the violence it causes "; While, sociological theories consider Femicide as a crime of the State (Legarde, 2008) or as systematic sexual violence, typical of power relations: social, cultural (machismo, patriarchy), political and economic, dominant (Monárrez, 2009 ). In the Rosa Elvira Cely Law, the legislator did not precisely define that the taxpayer in the crime of Femicide enshrined therein, could be extended to transgender people, a general concept that for the IACHR of the OAS constitutes a basic denomination to designate "those persons whose identity of gender or sexual orientation is different from the expectations based on sexual physical characteristics or on the sex assigned to them at the time of birth "(IACHR-OEA, 2015); social models or stereotypes establish dissimilarities in society, although the anthropological perspective of the role of trans women (transvestites, transsexuals and transgender), is not necessarily linked to medical-surgical procedures for the reassignment of sex, but to the construction of identity gender (Cano-Caballero, 2010). In contemporary society, there are groups of LGBTI people, considered vulnerable due to their sexual diversity, who do not have their legal identity rights regulated in national legislation, despite the fact that the international legal community has recognized them by reason or by their status as gender (IACHR, 2015); a situation that exposes them to prejudice that in turn makes them the object of violence and stigmatization (Ramos-Salcedo & González-Mauricio, 2015). On the other hand, the social order in the States is not structurally organized to prioritize and adapt pertinent processes with gender or sexual identity, for which they should be considered as "construction of the social body as an axis of transversally for culturalization and dissemination of information, so that contemporary society respects and assimilates a more inclusive process that generates greater attention to the different body present in the person" (Cedeño & Cedeño, 2018). In Colombia, the rights of LGBTI people are not only disrespected, but they are also not fully guaranteed, given that judicial and administrative authorities "put the stereotype or prejudice before applying the legislation or by a omisive attitude ignore the precarious and undervalued conditions and social stigmatization "(Colombia Diversa, 2020); perhaps due to the fact that the system is founded on the basis of gender binaries, making trans women invisible and ignoring the reality of people with non-binary gender. Although the Colombian Constitutional Court has established jurisprudence through multiple judgments on the rights of same-sex couples, homophobic discrimination persists in the country for reasons of sexual orientation and gender identity, with the violation of rights being continuously recorded. human and fundamental such as personal integrity, freedom, privacy, freedom of expression, despite the rules and Non-Governmental Organizations that work for their guarantee. After two decades of the 21st century, these rights of transgender people continue to be ignored and as human persons, "marginalized and discriminated against by a society that denies the existence of a gender identity typical of trans people, the right to equality without distinction. of sex or gender, without exclusion" (Cardona-Cuervo, 2016; Godoy, 2019). Not recognizing the trans person in an inclusive way, through public policy or more precise legislation, neglects social valuation, non-normative gender identity and legal identity, being a condition that leads to the incorrect imputation as aggravated homicide, to a criminal type of Femicide whose taxpayer is the transgender woman-adolescent. In this thesis, an analytical and comparative socio-legal research is developed, given its method of intersectional content analysis, based on sources of doctrine, jurisprudence and criminal policy, as well as comparative law with Latin American countries in whose legislation the criminal type is included from feminicide, delimiting its unit of analysis to a transgender adolescent and the epistemological phrase is developed through multidimensional and interdisciplinary treatment, with three analytical categories approached from social anthropology, psychology, law and forensic science; to determine the social construction and legal identity as a transgender woman-adolescent, necessary to propose her exhaustive inclusion as a taxpayer in the LREC. From the procedural-criminal point of view, the forensic medical action protocol is proposed and the incident socio-legal elements are incorporated that, as a judicial mechanism, are required to address for an effective imputation in the criminal investigation process of transgender Femicide. From the academic point of view, the legal problem and its solution are approached from interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary knowledge in the areas of Anthropology, Human Rights, Forensic Science, Procedural-Criminal Law and Criminology; with which a transversal, contemporary contribution with a socio-legal impact is achieved, which generates a prospective as a new line of research and future research of high impact at the theoretical and institutional level in the USTA. ; Magister en Derecho Penal y Procesal Penal

The issue of the regulation of artificial intelligence (AI) is one of the significant challenges faced by the EU at present. Most researchers focus on the substantive scope of AI regulation, including state law, ethical norms and soft law. In addition to the substantive and legal scope of the regulation, it is worthwhile considering the manner of such regulation.1 Since AI is an algorithmic code, it seems correct to regulate (restrict) AI not so much with traditional law established in natural (human) language as with one implemented into algorithms. They may operate as a tool supporting traditional legislation (RegTech), but it is possible to go further with the issue and create regulation algorithms which implement the law as the effective law. 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[spa] La presente tesis doctoral se presenta como una investigación de Historia Contemporánea con raíces en la Ciencia Política. Su finalidad es comprender la identidad insular característica de las Illes Balears y de manera particular de Eivissa, ya que el tema identitario, además de cobrar relevancia en los tiempos presentes, es un concepto que ayuda a comprender la cultura política de las sociedades contemporáneas así como un elemento principal en el desarrollo del capital social de las mismas. En este sentido, el insularismo sería el concepto clave para comprender la identidad insular. Por ello se procederá a desarrollar diferentes consideraciones en torno a este concepto con el fin de hacer comprensible a cualquier residente del continente la carga simbólica de los ciudadanos de las Illes Balears. En el primer capítulo introductorio se expondrán los objetivos e hipótesis de la investigación, y en segundo capítulo se desarrollará la metodología empleada y se detallarán las fuentes estudiadas para explorar la identidad insular como característica propia del archipiélago balear. El tercer capítulo se dedicará a exponer el marco teórico y a reflexionar sobre las diferentes nociones que influyen en la conformación del concepto principal de este estudio. Le seguirá un desarrollo teórico necesario para comprender la identidad insular y todas las cargas simbólicas que se construyen en torno a dicho concepto y para abordar la relación existente entre la identidad insular y la cultura política. Esta relación explica en gran medida las relaciones existentes entre todos los elementos estudiados en esta investigación. Diferentes elementos que ayudan a explicar tanto la identidad insular predominante así como los efectos de esta identidad insular en el desarrollo político y social insular, dando así una justificación a la conexión entre todos los capítulos siguientes. El capítulo IV ofrecerá una visión macro a través del ejercicio comparado entre dos territorios insulares, el archipiélago canario y el balear, que puede ayudar a visualizar el desarrollo identitario y sus consecuencias. Servirá como referencia el estudio realizado por Eve Hepburn en el que analiza comparativamente distintas regiones insulares y sus demandas de autonomía, de soberanía o de independencia. Se utilizarán las variables que propone la autora y se estudiará el sistema de partidos balear 8 que, a diferencia del canario, carece de un partido de índole autonómico o archipielágico, lo que a posteriori se traduce en unas demandas insulares satisfechas o insatisfechas. Otra variable a destacar es el análisis de la «Linz-Moreno question», pregunta aplicada en las encuestas del CIS que suele medir el grado de identificación, nacionalismo o regionalismo y, en nuestro caso, de insularismo. Otras variables que se contemplarán en esta investigación serán los recursos económicos, las relaciones externas con el Estado y entidades supranacionales, el papel de Balears en la administración del Estado y factores asociados con el «islandness», destacando como aportación propia de este estudio la incorporación del índice del malapportionment como factor asociado al «islandness». En el capítulo V se realizará un análisis del Diario de Ibiza a partir de la teoría del nacionalismo banal de Michael Billig y del concepto de insularismo banal desarrollado teóricamente en el capítulo III. Concluirá la investigación con un análisis diacrónico del sistema político de Eivissa durante la II República aplicando una fórmula propia para poder determinar la participación absoluta en dicho periodo. En este sentido, el apartado se centra en el estudio del comportamiento electoral como un elemento clave en la cultura política. Se llevarán a cabo análisis comparados de la participación electoral a nivel estatal, autonómico e insular en los periodos mencionados, conjugando así una dimensión diacrónica y sincrónica. En el conjunto del trabajo se aprecian las conexiones entre uno y otro capítulo como fenómenos explicativos el uno del otro. ; [cat] La present tesi doctoral es presenta com una recerca d'Història Contemporània amb arrels en la Ciència Política. La seva finalitat és comprendre la identitat insular característica de les Illes Balears i de manera particular d'Eivissa, ja que el tema identitari, a més de cobrar rellevància en els temps presents, és un concepte que ajuda a comprendre la cultura política de les societats contemporànies així com un element principal en el desenvolupament del capital social d'aquestes. En aquest sentit, l'insularisme seria el concepte clau per a comprendre la identitat insular. Per això es procedirà a desenvolupar diferents consideracions entorn d'aquest concepte amb la finalitat de fer comprensible a qualsevol resident del continent la càrrega simbòlica dels ciutadans de les Illes Balears. En el primer capítol introductori s'exposaran els objectius i hipòtesis de la recerca, al segon capítol es desenvoluparà la metodologia emprada i es detallaran les fonts estudiades per a explorar la identitat insular com a característica pròpia de l'arxipèlag balear. El tercer capítol es dedicarà a exposar el marc teòric i a reflexionar sobre les diferents nocions que influeixen en la conformació del concepte principal d'aquest estudi. Li seguirà un desenvolupament teòric necessari per a comprendre la identitat insular i totes les càrregues simbòliques que es construeixen entorn d'aquest concepte i per a abordar la relació existent entre la identitat insular i la cultura política. Aquesta relació explica en gran manera les relacions existents entre tots els elements estudiats en aquesta recerca. Diferents elements que ajuden a explicar tant la identitat insular predominant així com els efectes d'aquesta identitat insular en el desenvolupament polític i social insular, donant així una justificació a la connexió entre tots els capítols següents. El capítol IV oferirà una visió macro a través de l'exercici comparat entre dos territoris insulars, l'arxipèlag canari i el balear, que pot ajudar a visualitzar el desenvolupament identitari i les seves conseqüències. Servirà com a referència l'estudi realitzat per Eve Hepburn en el qual analitza comparativament diferents regions insulars i les seves demandes d'autonomia, de sobirania o d'independència. S'utilitzaran les variables que proposa l'autora i s'estudiarà el sistema de partits balear que, a diferència 10 del canari, manca d'un partit de tipus autonòmic o arxipielàgic, la qual cosa a posteriori es tradueix en unes demandes insulars satisfetes o insatisfetes. Una altra variable a destacar és l'anàlisi de la «Linz-Moreno question», pregunta aplicada en les enquestes del CIS que sol mesurar el grau d'identificació, nacionalisme o regionalisme i, en el nostre cas, d'insularisme. Altres variables que es contemplaran en aquesta recerca seran els recursos econòmics, les relacions externes amb l'Estat i entitats supranacionals, el paper de Balears en l'administració de l'Estat i factors associats amb l'«islandness», destacant com a aportació pròpia d'aquest estudi la incorporació de l'índex del malapportionment com a factor associat a l'«islandness». En el capítol V es realitzarà una anàlisi del Diario de Ibiza a partir de la teoria del nacionalisme banal de Michael Billig i del concepte d'insularisme banal desenvolupat teòricament en el capítol II. Conclourà la recerca amb una anàlisi diacrònica del sistema polític d'Eivissa durant la II República aplicant una fórmula pròpia per a poder determinar la participació absoluta en aquest període. En aquest sentit, l'apartat se centra en l'estudi del comportament electoral com un element clau en la cultura política. Es duran a terme anàlisis comparades de la participació electoral a nivell estatal, autonòmic i insular en els períodes esmentats, conjugant així una dimensió diacrònica i sincrònica. En el conjunt del treball s'aprecien les connexions entre un i un altre capítol com a fenòmens explicatius l'un de l'altre. ; [eng] This thesis investigates contemporary history using political science as a frame of reference. Its purpose is to understand the insular identity of the Balearic Islands, with a focus on the Island of Eivissa. This issue has gained relevance in present times since it helps understand the current political culture and the development of social capital in the Island. The thesis builds its theoretical backbone on the concept of insularism since this is a key concept in the understanding of the symbolic burden of the Balearic Islands citizenship. The first chapter introduces the objectives and hypotheses of the research project, and the second chapter shows the methodology and the sources utilized to explore the insular identity as an idiosyncratic characteristic of the Balearic Islands. The third chapter focuses on the theoretical framework and on the description and analysis of important notions that influence insular identity. This is followed by a description of the theoretical framework that is required to understand the concept of insular identity, its symbolic loading and on addressing the relationship between insular identity and political culture. This relationship largely explains the relationships between all the elements studied in this research. Different elements that help to explain both the predominant insular identity as well as the effects of this insular identity in the insular political and social development, thus giving a justification to the connection between all the following chapters. The fourth chapter offers a macro view through the comparative analysis of two island territories: The Canary Islands and the Balearic Islands. This exercise helps us visualize the development of identity and its consequences. The main reference for this analysis is the study carried out by Eve Hepburn in which she comparatively analyzes different island regions and their demands for autonomy and sovereignty. Our study utilizes the same variables as Hepburn, but in addition, it also studies the impact of an autonomous archipelago party, which the Balearic Islands have but the Canary Islands do not. We also analyze the «Linz-Moreno question», which is often included in CIS surveys, that usually measures the degree of identification, nationalism or regionalism and, in our case, insularism. Other variables that will be considered in this research will 12 be economic resources, external relations with the State and supranational entities, the role of the Balearic Islands in the administration of the State and factors associated with «islandness». As an important contribution, we link this latter factor to the «malapportionment» index. In chapter V, we use Michael Billing's theory of banal nationalism and concept of banal insularism to analyze the content of Diario de Ibiza, a local newspaper. We also perform a diachronic analysis of the political system of Eivissa during the Second Republic, focusing on the study of electoral behavior as a key element in political culture. We then conclude with a comparative analyzes of electoral participation at the state, regional and island levels in the aforementioned period, thus combining a diachronic and synchronic dimension. The thesis can be seen a collection of highly interlinked phenomena that both affect and get affected by each other.

De forma reciente se registran con más frecuencia denuncias, quejas y otras discusiones sobre la autoría de los artículos o sobre el uso no reconocido de contenidos de documentos por parte de otros autores (práctica conocida como plagio). Y aunque no es un tema nuevo y tampoco restringido al no reconocimiento de una idea, cada vez más se discuten los problemas asociados al uso no adecuado (ético) de la información, entre otros, a problemas en la recolección; el uso; análisis o discusión descuidada; con una mala intención o la falsificación de los datos (fraude); la autoría no merecida o la duplicación de trabajos, o partes de éstos, por parte de los mismos autores en las publicaciones científicas. Como lo han discutido Gallegos, Berra, Benito, & López-López, (2014) y López-López, (2013, 2014) seguramente las dinámicas y presión de producción de conocimiento están fomentando a que este tipo de conductas sean frecuentes. Sin embargo, a pesar de que éstas problemáticas hoy son más evidentes al mismo tiempo son más controlables, por cuanto: en primer lugar la revolución tecnológica de información y comunicaciones hace hoy que la circulación de información y conocimiento sea más rápida, eficaz, veloz y de una cobertura casi que global, más, que en ningún otro momento de la historia. Con lo cual, es más fácil que una comunidad evidencie los usos de los contenidos y las formas de obtención y análisis de datos, así como la generación de formas de control. Por otro lado, hoy los editores están exigiendo con más frecuencia las bases de datos primarias, los archivos de datos e incluso los borradores y plan de análisis de los resultados antes de la recolección de los mismos. Además, las revistas hoy en día cuentan con equipos que se encargan no solo de verificar parte de la información suministrada, sino además de verificar los análisis derivados de los mismos. Y en tercer lugar, algunas revistas están empezando a exigir la aclaración de roles en la producción de los artículos (generación de las ideas, participación en la recolección de los datos, en el análisis de datos, en la escritura del manuscrito, la discusión del documento, en la revisión del texto, en la traducción realizada, entre muchos otros) esto bajo declaraciones de acuerdo entre los autores del documento (Allen, Brand, Scott, Altman, & Hlava, 2014). En segundo lugar los procesos editoriales de los contenidos científicos pasan por revisión por pares que en general esperamos no solo evalúen la pertinencia, el alcance, la fortaleza teórica y metodológica si no la originalidad de los contenidos y que además detecten los problemas en los datos y sus análisis. Aunque no es un proceso exhaustivo e infalible, anecdóticamente hemos podido detectar documentos publicados con datos similares gracias al proceso de revisión. Sin embargo, el crecimiento en la cantidad de artículos a evaluar ponen en riesgo el sistema de revisión e inevitablemente la posibilidad de detectar este tipo de conductas (Arns, 2014). En tercer lugar, los editores en el caso del plagio cuentan con softwares que permite identificar un mismo documento o parte de un escrito que se encuentra en la red y en cualquier caso, más temprano que tarde, para toda la comunidad se hará evidente que existe una alteración y falla por parte de un autor/investigador. Por esta razón, el riesgo de usar contenidos sin el debido reconocimiento es más alto, y quienes tomen el riesgo evidentemente tendrán que asumir las consecuencias que la comunidad y las leyes tienen contemplados para esta conducta. A pesar de estos elementos mencionados, los editores además debemos ser más explícitos con las exigencias éticas de la información. Esto lleva a sumarnos a esfuerzos a nivel mundial y, por ejemplo, asumir los lineamientos del Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) (http://publicationethics.org/) (Yong, Ledford, & Van Noorden, 2013). Así, desde este número Universitas Psychologica hará un mayor énfasis en el uso de las guías del COPE y buscará promoverlas como guía de conducta de las publicaciones en la región en las diversas redes en las cuales participamos. Igualmente, desde hace algunos meses se ha hecho un énfasis en el reporte del aspecto ético de los artículos, siendo éste un criterio que en algunos casos puede convertirse en una causal de rechazo inmediato de los artículos. Ésta medida va más allá del tradicional "consentimiento informado" y requiere una evaluación ética de la investigación realizada, independientemente del campo de la psicología o el tipo de investigación. Los investigadores deberán ser conscientes del papel ético en la recolección, manejo, implicaciones y publicación de la información y la mejor forma de asegurar dicho proceso es si ha sido sometido a un comité institucional o estatal que respalda las acciones reportadas (Dolgin, 2014). La psicología en nuestra región está en creciente expansión y las dinámicas de producción están afectando nuestras comunidades y pueden estar generando practicas indeseables en el ámbito de las publicaciones y es necesario que provoquemos discusión los temas de la ética de las publicaciones y que busquemos más sistemas de control que permitan prevenir la publicación bajo condiciones anti éticas. Así mismo, evaluar el impacto y el costo que tiene para las publicaciones licales y en general de la región en desarrollo (económico, político, social y científico) la retractación y las malas prácticas asociadas a un desbordamiento en el afán de publicación. Sumarnos al control y prácticas internacionales globaliza nuestros procesos y aumenta el interés y la confianza de comunidades no hispanas en la producción de Iberoamérica. Wilson López López Editor ; In recent times, there has been an increase in the frequency with which reports, complaints, and other discussions about the authorship of articles or the unrecognized use of document contents by other authors (practice known as plagiarism), are being recoded. Although this is not a new topic nor restricted to the non-recognition of an idea, the problems associated with the improper use (ethical) of information are being increasingly discussed. For instance, topics of discussion are: problems in the collection, use, careless analysis or discussion of data with misconduct or falsification (fraud), and undeserved authorship or duplication of work, or parts thereof, by the same authors in scientific publications. As discussed by Gallegos, Berra, Benito, & López-López (2014) and López-López (2013, 2014), it is probable that the dynamics and pressure of knowledge production are promoting the frequent occurrence of these behaviors. Nonetheless, although these problems are now more evident, they are at the same time more controllable. Firstly, the technological revolution in information and communications allows the information and knowledge to flow quicker, more efficiently, faster, and with an almost global coverage, now a days, as compared to any other time in history. Thus, it is easier for a community to evidence the use of contents as well as the ways of collecting and analyzing data, and generating forms of control. Moreover, publishers currently demand more often the primary databases, data files, and even the drafts and analysis plan of the results, before their collection1. In addition, journals count, now a day, with teams that are responsible not only for verifying some of the information provided, but also for verifying the analysis derived therefrom. Furthermore, some journals have started to demand clarification of the roles in the production of articles (generation of ideas, participation in data collection, analysis of data, writing of the manuscript, the discussion of document, the revision of the text, the translation performed, among many others). This is done under statements of agreement between the authors of the document (Allen, Brand, Scott, Altman, & Hlava, 2014). Secondly, throughout the editorial process, the scientific content undergoes peer review. In general, we expect that reviewers assess not only the relevance, scope, theoretical and methodological strength, but also the originality of the content. Moreover, reviewers may detect problems in data and in their analyses. Although this is not an exhaustive and infallible process, anecdotally, we have been able to detect some documents published with similar data, thanks to the review process. Nevertheless, the growth in the number of articles to assess can jeopardize the review system and consequently the possibility of detecting this type of conducts (Arns, 2014). Thirdly, in the case of plagiarism, publishers count with softwares that enable them to identify a document, or sections of a text, that are in the network. In any case, sooner or later, it will be evident for the whole community that an author / researcher has committed an alteration or a fault. For this reason, the risk of using content without due recognition is higher, and those who take the risk will evidently have to assume the consequences that the community and the law have stipulated to this type of behavior. Despite these items mentioned above, as editors we must be more explicit about the ethical requirements of information. This leads us to join worldwide efforts and assume, for instance, the guidelines of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) (http://publicationethics.org/) (Yong, Ledford, & Van Noorden, 2013). Thus, from this number, Universitas Psychologica will place a greater emphasis on the use of the COPE guidelines, and will seek to promote them as a guide of conduct for the publications in the region, in the various networks in which we participate. Similarly, a few months ago an emphasis started to be made on the report of the ethical aspect of articles, since this is a criterion that, in some cases, can become grounds for immediate rejection of the articles. This measure goes beyond the traditional "informed consent" and requires an ethical review of the research that has been performed, regardless of the field of psychology or the type of research. Researchers should be aware of the ethical role in the collection, management, implications and publication of information. The best way to ensure this process is by subjecting it to an institutional or state committee, which supports the reported actions (Dolgin, 2014). Psychology, in our region, is having a rapid expansion. The dynamics of production are affecting our communities and may be generating undesirable practices in the field of publications. Therefore, it is necessary that we generate discussion of the ethical issues of publications, and that we seek for more control systems, capable of preventing publication under unethical conditions. Additionally, we should evaluate the impact and costs on local publications and overall on the region in development (economic, political, social and scientific), caused by the retraction and the malpractices associated with the rush to publish and the consequent overflow. By joining international control and practices, we will globalize our processes and will increase the interest and confidence of non-Hispanic communities in the production of Latin America. Wilson López López Editor

Ties between big finance and the weapons industry are not new. The first venture capital firm in the U.S. was founded to profit from new technologies developed for use in WWII, and the role of military spending in turning Silicon Valley into a tech hub is well documented.But today's biggest VC titans are making transformative investments in military technology that pose serious consequences far beyond another hype-driven tech bubble. Weaponizing their financial assets to expand the production of war material will not only divert technological resources away from other critical domestic priorities, but also forge novel devices of warfare that will generate demand for battlefield testing grounds both at home and abroad. But before the defense tech evangelists can resurrect the age of American global supremacy, they must transform the way the Pentagon does business. This involves seducing Pentagon planners with exotic promises ranging from "attritable autonomous systems" (or swarm) technology to subscription models for weapons systems — not because these fit some strategic framework but because they align with the VC business model. Venture capital and private equity is about making limited investments in mobile assets (technologies, engineers) to get a startup to the IPO stage (or trim the fat from an existing operator) and cash out. This is at odds with a military industrial complex that boasts millions of employees and a handful of oligopolistic firms with billions of dollars of permanent infrastructure, huge up-front costs, long time horizons, and extremely complex procurement processes. The fingerprints of VC priorities are everywhere: from the Pentagon's Office of Strategic Capital and the Small Business Investment Company/SBIC initiative to the Defense Innovation Board, a collection of Silicon Valley scions elevated to a permanent department under the Secretary of Defense in October 2023. Typically, the Pentagon acquires technologies or equipment through private contracts with a company or by supplying grants to provide funds for research and development. The new Office of Strategic Capital, established in December 2022, lets the Pentagon behave less like a public agency and more like a VC investor. It was in this new spirit that Silicon Valley investors in March 2023 lobbied the Pentagon to bail out Silicon Valley Bank (where many of them had hundreds of millions deposited) by claiming that they would be damaged (thereby losing the Pentagon critical capabilities) if they weren't rescued. Deploying the argument that a run on SVB would be a "national security risk," the Pentagon and its supporters advocated for federal government intervention, according to The Intercept, and the Treasury Department ultimately interceded to bail out SVB on March 12, protecting investors.*The financial services sector is likewise providing innovative products to facilitate the expansion of VC-backed defense tech in Pentagon contracting. One example is Leonid Bank, which is an invoice factoring company that basically lends to defense tech startups based on the DOD invoices that those startups have for future projects, to provide them with more money (over and above the contract value) which is not something that has ever existed for Pentagon contracts. Much of the VC discourse emphasizes the benefits of reforming the procurement system to acquire more "commercial" off-the-shelf items not custom built just for the Pentagon. This transformation is marketed as a way of matching the production methods of global adversaries, because development is faster and cheaper; if there are venture investors and other funds involved then the government is footing less of the upfront bill. However, if the success of the product and the firm that develops it is dependent on the widespread adoption of that technology commercially this will introduce a new range of militarized technologies into a global system that is already awash with lethal tech, dystopian surveillance products, and an ideology that depicts weapons production as the primary avenue to innovation, economic growth, decent industrial jobs, and infrastructure spending. The stated desire of venture capital (and the increasing number of private equity funds focused on military tech) is to disrupt an industry they see as monopolistic, inefficient, and too close to government bureaucracy. This rationale is easy to understand, as the path to innovation for the prime contractors has for decades been external: find small firms developing marginally improved technologies or hardware parts, acquire them and integrate their products into existing large weapons platforms. The financial industry – VC firms, asset managers, PE fund managers – have observed (correctly) that if they can find the small tech firms first (or fund them into existence) then the potential profits are enormous. VCs also identify startups working on civilian technologies and steer them toward developing military applications. Startups working on technologies to improve navigation in driverless vehicles may find that after a new round of investment their objective is to apply those technologies to weapons targeting systems. Individual engineers working on civilian tech are also being lured away by the promise of better funding and broader impact from defense investors. If startups want to see their technologies advance they're much more likely to find the necessary funding if they pivot to military applications. Venture capitalists are eagerly supplying geostrategic justifications and policy blueprints to the Pentagon on how to reshape its contracting ecosystem to facilitate this shift. An example from one of the most well-known VC funds, Andreesen Horowitz, focuses on the promise of "attritable" warfare – specifically a model of warfare that uses technology to develop cheaper, simpler weapons in large quantities. One example of this style of warfare is the Pentagon's "Replicator" initiative to develop drone swarm capabilities — basically the capacity to field literally thousands (maybe tens of thousands) of drones simultaneously. And this is "attritable" because each individual drone unit is cheap and simple to deploy, so that the moment it's knocked out of the sky it's already been replaced by two more. But this requires an enormous amount of coding, and constant re-coding and re-writing which is not necessarily a capability that exists in the big primes. Predictably, the response from major think tanks (whose primary funders are the primes) is that these kinds of initiatives are "crowding out" the focus on "long-range precision fire programs" — which is code for the huge range of super expensive fighter jets and missile systems that are the bread and butter of firms like Lockheed and Northrop Grumman. So VC firms like Andreesen Horowitz kindly offer guidance for this transition: "As general computing platforms become applicable to a host of defense applications, from programming autonomous behavior to conducting live targeting analysis, sweeping advances in software and other technologies not originally designed for defense have unintentionally compounded computing's impact on war…..Responding to the paradigm shift requires reengineering the Pentagon's DNA for a new era." [author's italics] The AH authors emphasize that this reengineering will allow for a "reduction in operational complexity, driving lower costs through commoditization" with "smaller" "modular modern production" that uses "'just-in-time' manufacturing techniques like 3D printing to cut latency" allowing for "decentralizing a military's industrial footprint."This reads a lot like outsourcing the military industrial supply chain, which may sound revolutionary. But the huge weapons platforms in use by the U.S. military already incorporate parts and materials from all over the world, including a lot of stuff from China. So this modification is more about transforming production so VC-backed firms have an entry point into production chains currently dominated by the primes.To achieve this, Andreesen Horowitz advocates what they call "Broad and open API standards" that would presumably enable startups to propose the use of cheaper/more widely-available materials and technology for incorporation into the expensive platforms built by the primes. This would mean that some material the primes consider proprietary would have to be opened up to tinkering. Not to be outdone, the primes are putting their own pressure on the Pentagon to counter the challenge from VC-backed startups. Their latest efforts focus on speeding up and expanding the scope for foreign military sales by allowing overseas customers to purchase research and development services to design new weapons. And they're pushing for other modifications that would turbocharge technology transfer and joint ventures to help lock-in future exports.In the battle between the primes and the VC-backed tech firms to expand the U.S. arsenal, the Pentagon is ill-equipped to responsibly navigate the competing interests, least of all since its senior members are routinely bought off with (entirely legal) sinecures. It's a battle with a sadly predictable outcome, because no matter which side wins, we all will pay the cost. Editor's Note: The story has been edited to accurately reflect the timeline of when and how defense tech investors lobbied the Pentagon for SVB bailout in March 2023.

Coastal environments are exposed to anthropogenic activities such as frequent marine traffic and restructuring, i.e., addition, removal or replacing with man-made structures. Although maritime shipping and coastal infrastructures provide socio-economic benefits, they both cause varied perturbations to marine ecosystems. The ports and marinas receiving a high frequency of international vessels, act as 'hot-spots' for marine invasions. The disturbed and modified habitats found in harbours and ports provide opportunities for non-native species to settle due to their competitive traits. Once established, the non-native species may spread to neighbouring habitats, thereby modifying the adjacent natural environment, its biodiversity, ecosystem structure and functioning. Up to 70% of coastlines around the world have now been modified and is expected to rise in future. New bioinvasions are still being reported even with various biosecurity and management approaches across the globe. It is essential to understand the potential factors influencing the bioinvasions to have effective biosecurity measures and management plans. The overall aim of this thesis is to determine the influence of man-made structures on the marine biodiversity and presumptive fitness of native and non-native species on these structures. This thesis investigates ports and harbours as man-made environments, their impacts on marine biodiversity and the species status – native, non-native and cryptogenic, and the factors facilitating the spread of non-native species. Chapter 2 focussed on two large national-scale baseline port surveys; a) Australian Port Survey (APS), and b) New Zealand Port Survey (NZPS). The two datasets were analysed to determine the community structure and species status, i.e., native, non-native and cryptogenic as a function of the surveyed ports, port type (major vs minor ports) (based on the volume of vessels) and latitudinal groups. A) APS: The results for community composition indicated significant effects as a function of surveyed ports, port type and latitudinal group. The community composition was relatively more abundant at major ports than at minor ports. The factor, the latitudinal group indicated significant results, and a distinct separation in community composition was observed between low (15, 20oS) and high (35, 40oS) latitudes. The species status showed a significant and positive relationship between native vs non-native, indicating with an increase in the number of native species there was an increase in the number of non-native species. The species status indicated significant results for the factors; surveyed ports, port type and latitudinal group. The native species were abundant throughout the study. However, the non-native species were relatively abundant at major ports compared to minor ports. Regarding the latitudinal groups, the abundance of non-native species was observed to increase at higher latitudes (latitudinal gradients). B) NZPS: The community composition and species status showed significance among the 27 surveyed ports; however, no significant results were observed for the factor port type (major vs minor). The community composition significantly varied as a function of latitudinal groups, with species at higher latitudes (45oS) being better discriminator explaining the differences. Latitudinal groups, however, highlighted sub-groupings of ports with similar community composition (e.g. Bluff and Dunedin; Nelson, Wellington and Picton; Lyttelton and Timaru; Whangarei, Tauranga and Taranaki; Auckland, Gulf Harbour Marina and Opua Marina). The ports in question are within close proximity of each other (distance). This suggests the possibility of natural dispersal of species between ports on top of the human-mediated dispersal. The responses in Australia were very different from those in New Zealand, which suggests that the responses are regional or country-specific and not global. Chapter 3 describes fieldwork using settlement tile arrays to examine the effects of man-made built structures and natural rocky reefs on marine biological community composition and successional patterns over two years. The work also tests the preference of native and non-native species in terms of habitat type (natural reef vs man-made habitat) and substratum type (PVC vs slate tile). The results showed a rapid increase in species settlement on bare tiles as the available bare space was 30% just after 3 months of submersion. The community composition significantly differed as a function of the interaction of factors, habitat × substratum × sample interval. However, differences between the habitat types and substratum types, respectively, were explained by the difference in abundance of the same suite of species. The species were abundant at marina sites compared to reef sites; however, in terms of substrata, the species were abundant on slate (natural) tiles than on PVC tiles. The succession patterns of species over time (8 sample intervals) showed a similar trend on both the habitat type and substratum type, with differences in the average abundances of each species. The differences in abundances highlight the influence of species dispersal patterns, recruitment patterns and post-settlement processes of species between habitat type and substratum type, respectively. Subsequently, the species status indicated significance as a function of habitat type, substratum type and sample intervals. The cryptogenic species were abundant throughout the study. The cryptogenic species, however, decreased in abundance over time, with an increase in abundance of native and non-native species. Subsequently, the non-native species significantly varied between habitat type, with relatively higher abundance at marina (man-made) sites compared to reef (natural) sites. However, the non-native species did not show significant variation as a function of substratum type (PVC vs slate). The results are discussed in the context of the recruitment of species on a new barren substrate, and the preference of habitat type and substratum type by native, non-native and cryptogenic species. In Chapter 4, the reproduction output (gonadosomatic index, GSI) of the Southern hemisphere, native (SHMg) and Northern hemisphere, non-native (NHMg) lineages of the blue mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis were measured. The GSI and shell length of NHMg and SHMg were compared between habitat type; reef (natural) vs marina (man-made) sites. This study aimed to identify reproductive patterns (i.e., timing and magnitude of spawning events) and differences in performance (presumptive fitness) of the native and non-native blue mussel lineages at the natural and man-made habitats. The results for shell length indicated significance for habitat type and no significance as a function of lineage. The mussels were relatively bigger mussels at marina sites compared to reef sites; however, the differences were trivial. The GSI values as a function of habitat type, lineage and sampling time showed a significant difference between habitat type, with high GSI values at reef sites than at marina sites. However, this indicates that the blue mussels at marina sites had comparatively higher spawning activity than at reef sites. The temporal variation of GSI of NHMg and SHMg showed a similar reproductive trend (i.e., spawning and gametogenesis) at both habitats. However, significant spawning activity was observed in July and November when compared between reef and marina habitats. The results are discussed in the context of management implications and strategies regarding the establishment and success of non-native M. galloprovincialis lineage and whether their eradication is necessary or even possible. The findings of this research are summarised and discussed in relation to our understanding of biological community composition and diversity on man-made habitats and the subsequent invasion in the neighbouring natural habitats. This study, from an eco-engineering perspective, highlights the importance of complex habitats and surfaces, and not just material type. However, from a biosecurity and management approach, even though Australia and New Zealand have one of the strong international biosecurity country-specific legislation; the continuous arrival of non-native species in these countries indicates that such marine legislation is not sufficiently compelling on its own. This study highlights the interaction of non-native species at proximity ports, and it provides recommendations towards regional-scale management measures concentrating on intra-coastal transfer of invaders through domestic maritime traffic or natural dispersal. The life-history traits, recruitment timing and post-settlement processes, plays an essential role in determining long term patterns. Lastly, this research indicated that native and non-native species with ecologically similar responses lead to limited management options to some extent. Therefore, from a manager's perspective, the eradication of non-native species may not be necessary if it does not cause any negative impacts to the biodiversity or the environment.