Suchergebnisse

Vietnam's Mekong Delta (MD) is known as the rice bowl of the country. Rapid development and population growth there have lead to an increasing demand for water use and wastewater treatment. Yet there are no central wastewater treatment plants in the region and water supply systems are generally lacking in rural areas. Only septic tanks (STs) have been introduced to treat human effluent. Small-scale biogas plants, mostly plastic bio-digesters (PBDs) have been promoted to treat animal slurries. However, the operation and maintenance of both systems are unregulated and their microbial treatment efficacy has not been a priority. Poor sanitary practices of local people add to this creating a potentially serious health hazard. This study aims to analyse the microbial risk associated with faecal management in MD as it impacts on public health. The topic is explored by three vehicles: pilot study, field study and quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). The pilot study replicates tropical conditions to determine microbial reduction and related factors of anaerobic treatment. Reduction rates of phages and bacteria in river water and on terrestrial spinach were determined. The field study was conducted in MD to verify the microbial make-up of faecal substrates, surface water and aquatic spinach. Pathogen treatment efficacy of PBDs was considered. A survey was also conducted to find out human exposure to contaminated sources. All data were used for the QMRA study, which calculates the probability and annual risk of infection via @Risk 5.5 (Palisade Corporation). The pilot study showed there was a hygienic effect in the anaerobic treatment of excreta but microbe reduction rates were low. The reduction of phages (somatic coliphage, male-specific bacteriophage) and bacteria (Escherichia coli, Salmonella Senftenberg, Enterococus faecalis) in lab-scale PBDs increased with longer hydraulic retention time (HRT). Longer HRT played a vital role in yielding more gas. Besides HRT pathogen reduction also depended on initial concentration, species tested and substrate type. High levels of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) had no effect on microbial reduction at neutral pH. Moreover phage and bacteria reduction also depend on operation conditions – batch-wise or continuous digestion. Microbial reduction in STs was not significant even at maximum HRT (3 days). Anaerobic digestion in tropical PBDs had little effect on the inactivation of Ascaris suum ova. Yet helminth ova do settle in the sludge at the reactor's base if HRT is long and the relationship between an ova's viability rate and sludge retention time was established by exponential equation. A few Ascaris suum ova survived in sludge for up to one year. There was no difference between the viability of Ascaris suum ova in biogas or septage sludge. Faecal substrates sampled during the field study contained high levels of microbial indicators and pathogens. E. coli and Enterococcus spp. were detected in all pig slurry and septage samples. Salmonella spp. were detected in over 60% and coliphages in over 50% of samples. Helminth ova were present in 80% of pig slurry samples, 95% of untreated septage samples, and in all septage sludge samples in high concentrations. Ten ova varieties were found in pig slurries and twelve in septage. Field study results suggest that the functionality of PBDs and STs is not optimal to inactivate microbial indicators and pathogens. Volume of PBD is not compatible to the amount of pig slurry. PBDs are rarely desludged and STs are emptied only when blockages occur. Thus reduction of bacteria was < 1 log10 and phages < 1.5 log10 while their influent concentrations were high (up to 6.2 log10 CFU ml-1). Salmonella spp. were detected more frequently in effluents than in influents. In most PBDs helminth ova did not settle but were released to surface water via effluents, the highest concentration being 175,000 no. l-1. Most PBD effluents and overflows from full STs flow directly and contaminate the surface water, which is used by many people every day. Surface water and aquatic spinach samples were contaminated. The average E. coli level in canal water was over the total coliform limit set by the Vietnamese Surface Water Quality Standard (TCVN 5942-1995). Salmonella spp. were routinely detected. Decimal reduction time (T90) of phages and bacteria in Mekong river water was over 2 days. Aquatic spinach was contaminated much like its habitat. Enterococcus spp., E. coli, somatic coliphage and Salmonella spp. were all found in samples, though average E. coli concentrations on spinach grown in urban canals was twice that of those grown in fishponds receiving PBD effluent. On terrestrial spinach microbial reduction was 0.2 – 0.4 log10/day. By QMRA infection risk was high, ranging in descending order from helminth to rotavirus to Salmonella. The probability of salmonellosis and helminthiasis was higher per exposure to PBD effluent than with pig slurry. MD sewage workers were most at risk due to constant exposure to faecal matter. Incidental ingestion of pig slurries, bathing/swimming in canals, drinking untreated surface water and eating raw spinach constituted chronic exposure scenarios for MD people generally. All mentioned scenarios were found to exceed acceptable risk levels. Besides health programs and personal hygiene routines, barriers reducing risk of infection include wastewater treatment (e.g. PBDs), due time between last crop irrigation and harvest, treating water before consumption and food preparation. Risks were reduced when PBDs ran at HRTs of 15 and 30 days as effluent was assumed to be free of helminth ova. The high pathogen load of surface water means this is only potable when boiled. Aquatic spinach is not safe to eat unless cooked. Spinach irrigated with improved PBD effluent (HRT ≥ 15 days) can be eaten raw, but then only when the time between final irrigation and harvest is long enough. As a rule spinach should be washed prior to consumption. Current faecal management practices in MD equate to high infection risks for its population. The microbial treatment efficacy of anaerobic digestion there can be improved by relatively simple changes to operations and maintenance. To reduce infection rates a campaign that integrates faecal management, water supply and behavioural change is recommended. While QMRA data collation and modelling requires much effort communicating health risks to the government and public is challenging. Thereby lasting technical, legislative and cultural can be changed so as to improve the public health effectively.

Urban sanitation remains a significant challenge for most low- and middle-income countries. While sanitation coverage has been increasing across both the 48 least developed countries (LDCs) and developing regions as a whole, progress has been relatively slow. In many cities, even where improved on-site facilities are used to contain excreta, the level of quality and access to services for the emptying, conveyance, treatment, and disposal of the resulting fecal sludge is usually limited. These services are collectively called fecal sludge management (FSM) services. FSM services are the focus of this study, within the broader context of urban sanitation and integrated urban water management (IUWM). This document provides a summary of the diagnostic tools developed for assessing FSM services and is based on field work carried out in the five cities of Balikpapan in Indonesia, Dhaka in Bangladesh, Hawassa in Ethiopia, Lima in Peru, and Santa Cruz in Bolivia. It summarizes the tools themselves, lessons learnt about their use, and general policy recommendations.

This report is a synthesis of the technical assistance (TA) and recommendations, carried out by the World Bank water and sanitation program (WSP) since September 2014. To achieve the target of 100 percent improved sanitation, there is a national drive to improve fecal sludge management (FSM). This TA recognizes that to achieve the goals it is necessary to support the development of national FSM policies, regulations, and guidelines, while also improving capacity at the local level by supporting the implementation of improved FSM models in target cities. The objective of the TA was to provide government with tested advice on how to scale up improved septage management nationwide through: (i) improvement of septage management in three cities through the application of new management models (local level); and (ii) assistance to national government in training and capacity building and the formulation of policies and regulations to improve septage management at scale (national level). This report is structured as follows: chapter one is the executive summary; chapter two gives the background to sanitation in Indonesia and to fecal sludge management in particular; chapter three provides an overview of the TA approach; chapter four gives details of the implementation of the TA; chapter five summarizes the lessons learned; and chapter six outlines the recommendations and next steps.

The Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic (AICD) has produced continent-wide analysis of many aspects of Africa's infrastructure challenge. The main findings were synthesized in a flagship report titled Africa's Infrastructure: a time for transformation, published in November 2009. Meant for policy makers, that report necessarily focused on the high-level conclusions. It attracted widespread media coverage feeding directly into discussions at the 2009 African Union Commission Heads of State Summit on Infrastructure. Although the flagship report served a valuable role in highlighting the main findings of the project, it could not do full justice to the richness of the data collected and technical analysis undertaken. There was clearly a need to make this more detailed material available to a wider audience of infrastructure practitioners. Hence the idea of producing four technical monographs, such as this one, to provide detailed results on each of the major infrastructure sectors, information and communication technologies (ICT), power, transport, and water, as companions to the flagship report. These technical volumes are intended as reference books on each of the infrastructure sectors. They cover all aspects of the AICD project relevant to each sector, including sector performance, gaps in financing and efficiency, and estimates of the need for additional spending on investment, operations, and maintenance. Each volume also comes with a detailed data appendix, providing easy access to all the relevant infrastructure indicators at the country level, which is a resource in and of itself.

The study focuses on assessing the quality of houses and households in Sitio Lawesbra, Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City. The respondents of the study are composed of 899 households of 110 houses. The study utilized a descriptive research design. Descriptive statistics such as frequency count, percentages, and weighted mean were used to describe the houses and household in Sitio Lawesbra; The study found out that most households per house are 9. The average age is from 19-24. The majority of the dwellers are male. The majority of the household in Lawesbra are students. And there are dwellers who are employed. The majority of the household in Sitio Lawesbra have the following electrical standards. The majority of them have primary connections and are using circuit breakers in the panel board. The majority of the junction box is opened, with 3-4 splices per junction Box. The majority of the size of wires used in Sitio Lawesbra are not standard. But the majority are using the standard, convenient outlet. The majority of the households are not using octopus type of extension wire. The houses in Sitio Lawesbra have a primary water connection. The majority are using Polyvinyl chloride pipes and do not have leaks with the pipes or water system. The data further shows that the drainage system in Sitio Lawesbra is open. In terms of toilet systems, the majority have a standard size of a comfort room, made from concrete materials with ventilation. The majority of the dwellers are using pail flush type of toilet bowl, none are using automatic flush type, and however, four percent have an Antipolo type of toilet bowl. Seventy percent of the ground is concrete with its own septic tanks. The majority have substandard room and substandard kitchen ventilation. In addition, the majority have standard security windows, standard walling, and standard partition. The majority used wood for the ceiling and used Galvanized Iron for roofing. However, twenty-nine percent of the houses in Sitio Lawesbra have roof leaks. Finally, the majority in terms of risk reduction mechanism of the houses in Sitio Lawesbra have a sub-standard fire exit. In fact, nineteen percent do not have a fire exit, and only fifteen percent have a standard fire exit. In terms of door positioning, the path majority is sub-standard. However, sixty-three percent did consider that they have an evacuation area, though sub-standard. But thirty-seven percent claimed that they don't have an evacuation area. Thus, based on the results, the following recommendations were implemented and recommended. The researchers already coordinated with the following agencies, and actions were made respectively. The local government improved drainage and pathway systems. CEPALCO installed the installation of primary electrical connections and an independent transformer with the light post. Cagayan de Oro Water District also implemented reevaluation and repair of the water connection upon recommendation. Thus, it is recommended that the University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines improve Sitio Lawesbra, as the closest community to the university that needs further augmentation and extension. ; El estudio se centra en la evaluación de la calidad de viviendas y hogares en sitio Lawesbra, Ciudad Lapasan Cagayán de Oro. Los encuestados del estudio están compuestos por 899 hogares de 110 casas. El estudio utilizó un diseño de investigación descriptivo. Se utilizaron estadísticas descriptivas como recuento de frecuencia, porcentajes y media ponderada para describir las casas y el hogar en Sitio Lawesbra. El estudio encontró que la mayoría del número de hogares por casa es de 9. La edad promedio es de 19 a 24 años. La mayoría de los habitantes son hombres. La mayoría de los hogares en Lawesbra son estudiantes. Y hay habitantes que están empleados. La mayoría de los hogares en Sitio Lawesbra tienen los siguientes estándares eléctricos: La mayoría de ellos tienen conexión primaria y utilizan disyuntores en el tablero del panel. La mayoría de las cajas de conexiones están abiertas, con 3-4 empalmes por caja de conexiones. La mayoría del tamaño de los cables utilizados en Sitio Lawesbra no son estándar. Pero la mayoría está usando una salida conveniente estándar. La mayoría de los hogares no utilizan cables de extensión tipo pulpo. Las casas en Sitio Lawesbra tienen conexión primaria de agua. La mayoría usa tuberías de cloruro de polivinilo y no tienen fugas en las tuberías ni en el sistema de agua. Los datos muestran además que el sistema de drenaje en Sitio Lawesbra está abierto. En cuanto al sistema de inodoros, la mayoría tiene el tamaño estándar de una habitación cómoda, hecha de materiales de hormigón con ventilación. La mayoría de los habitantes están usando un inodoro tipo cubo con descarga, ninguno usa el tipo con descarga automática y, sin embargo, el cuatro por ciento tiene un inodoro tipo antipolo. El setenta por ciento del suelo es de hormigón con fosas sépticas propias. La mayoría tiene habitaciones deficientes y ventilación de cocina deficientes. Además, la mayoría tiene ventanas de seguridad estándar, paredes estándar y tabiques estándar. La mayoría utilizó madera para techos y hierro galvanizado para techos. Sin embargo, el veintinueve por ciento de las casas en Sitio Lawesbra tienen goteras en el techo. Finalmente, la mayoría en términos de mecanismo de reducción de riesgo de las casas en Sitio Lawesbra tienen una salida de incendios deficiente. De hecho, el diecinueve por ciento no tiene una salida de incendios y solo el quince por ciento tiene una salida de incendios estándar. En términos de posicionamiento de la puerta, la mayoría de los caminos no son estándar. Sin embargo, el sesenta y tres por ciento consideró que tienen un área de evacuación, aunque por debajo del estándar. Pero el treinta y siete por ciento afirmó que no tienen un área de evacuación. Por lo tanto, con base en los resultados, se implementaron y recomendaron las siguientes recomendaciones. Los investigadores ya se coordinaron con las siguientes agencias, y se realizaron acciones respectivamente. El gobierno local mejoró el sistema de drenaje y vías. La instalación de las conexiones eléctricas primarias y el transformador independiente con poste de luz fueron instalados por CEPALCO. La reevaluación y reparación de la conexión de agua también fueron implementadas por el Distrito de Agua de Cagayán de Oro, por recomendación. Por lo tanto, se recomienda que la Universidad de Ciencia y Tecnología del Sur de Filipinas contribuya al mejoramiento de Sitio Lawesbra, como la comunidad más cercana a la Universidad que necesita mayor aumento y extensión.

The signing of a concession contract for the Buenos Aires water and sanitation system in December 1992, attracted worldwide attention, and caused considerable controversy in Argentina. It was one of the worlds largest concessions, but the case was also interesting for other reasons. The concession was implemented rapidly, in contrast with slow implementation of privatization in Santiago, for example. And reform generated major improvements in the sector, including wider coverage, better service, more efficient company operations, and reduced waste. Moreover, the winning bid brought an immediate 26.9 percent reduction in water system tariffs. Consumers benefited from the systems expansion and from the immediate drop in real prices, which was only partly reversed by subsequent changes in tariffs, and access charges. And these improvements would probably not have occurred under public administration of the system. Still, the authors show information asymmetries, perverse incentives, and weak regulatory institutions could threaten the concessions sustainability. Opportunities for the company to act opportunistically - and the regulator, arbitrarily - exist, because of politicized regulation, a poor information base, serious flaws in the concession contract, a lumpy and ad hoc tariff system, and a general lack of transparency in the regulatory process. Because of these circumstances, public confidence in the process has eroded. The Buenos Aires concession shows how important transparent, rule-based decision-making is to maintain public trust in regulated infrastructure.

The report uses a theoretical model of a typical drainage basin, but the approach could be applied to many of the drainage basins managed by the holding company for water and wastewater in Egypt. This study set out to assess the relative health impacts of different wastewater management strategies on health in the Nile delta region using an approach similar to that used in the Ghana. The ultimate objective was to develop a framework for long-term investment planning based on monitoring of health and productivity impacts of proposed Bank operations which could be included in project Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) systems. This will equip task teams to assess the risks and opportunities which arise due to the proposed shift from on-site to networked sanitation in four governorates where the Bank has wastewater operations. A secondary objective was to assess the extent to which existing legislation supports health riskbased planning. The conclusions of the study provide an indication of how such methods could increasingly be used to enable the selection of cost-effective and appropriate wastewater management strategies.

According to the latest census of 2011, the urbanization level in India has increased from 27.8 percent in 2001 to 31.2 percent in 2011, and for the first time, the absolute increase in urban population exceeded the increase in rural population. India has different administrative arrangements for rural and urban areas, which are based on the 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India respectively. Since the census towns (CTs) continue to be governed by rural administrative arrangements this situation raises an additional set of questions, in addition to the nature of economic transformation, related to the trade-offs-between rural and urban status. The report shall try and find answers to the following questions: (a) how does their governance affect the settlements economically and spatially?; (b) what underpins the economic dynamics of these settlements?; and (c) what are the drivers of change in land use and what relationships, if any, are there between agglomeration of settlements and economic and social and governance processes? The report is organized into two main parts. The first part provides a reading of the existing literature on small towns along the three main axis of research: governance, employment, and spatial change. It also provides a detailed rationale for the choice of sites and expands on the methodology chosen. The second part constitutes of four sections: (i) the first considers the CT as a liminal notion, enabling to unpack ones reading of urbanization; (ii) the second is concerned with the shift towards non-farm employment, the reality (or not) of sectoral differentiation in CTs, and the analysis of the new types of jobs existing in the towns; (iii) the third is concerned with the existing debates and practices around the idea that some CTs should become statutory towns; and (iv) the fourth looks at the various urban services and attempts to assess which variations (rural and urban; state) explain differences in services.

Urbanization is occurring rapidly in Melanesia at 3-4 percent per annum. Due to unaffordable land and housing in formal urban areas, new migrants settle on marginal land without formal legal titles ('informal settlements'). These settlements are growing and new settlements are emerging within and on the outskirts of towns and cities across Melanesia, at a rate that outpaces efforts to serve them. Settlements in the Melanesian capitals of Suva, Port Vila, Honiara, and Port Moresby comprise 20 percent-45 percent of the city population and at current urbanization rates will be between 30 percent and 65 percent by 2023. Information about informal settlements is scarce. This report provides a rapid review of water and sanitation services in the informal settlements in and around the capital cities of Solomon Islands, Fiji, Vanuatu, and Papua New Guinea.

Reliable evidence on the quality of current WSS service conditions is scarce and consumer experience and views and voices are not systematically collected and used for policy development. International experience suggests that poor drinking water and sanitation services can cause households to incur high costs for dealing with this situation. However, in Uzbekistan and other Central Asian countries, there is a lack of data on service quality and on such coping costs. Together with limited feedback from consumers to those that design WSS policies and programs this makes it difficult to design effective reform measures and assess their ex-ante impact on households, in particular for those at the bottom of the income distribution. This study assesses consumer experiences with current WSS services across a range of selected sites in Uzbekistan and determines consumer readiness for reform. First of all, the study analyses how surveyed consumers currently meet their drinking water and sanitation needs and what proportion of their household budget is spent on meeting their WSS needs. Second it assesses the interaction between consumers and service providers. Third it examines stakeholder views and positions on service modernization needs and assesses consumer willingness to pay for quality networked WSS services. Comparisons are made across consumers in a selection of cities, small towns and rural areas, between consumers that are connected to a networked service and those that are not, and between households in the bottom 40 percent and top 60 percent of the income distribution (as estimated through a wealth index).

The overview over the next pages summarizes key themes and findings from on-going technical assistance provided to the Kenyan water sector by the Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) of the World Bank's Water Global Practice. Kenya's new Constitution (Constitution of Kenya 2010) came into effect in 2013, declaring water supply and sanitation services a basic right and devolving key water and sanitation functions to the county level. Key legislation, including the County Government Act of 2012 and the Urban Areas and Cities Act of 2011, have provided the framework for far reaching changes. As these changes took shape before and after the new constitution came into effect, WSP's TA programs have been providing specific advice at the national level1 to align the sector's legal and institutional frameworks to the new decentralized constitution. The engagement and support to counties to adopt the new frameworks has been stepped up substantially since mid-2013. This is evidenced by the progress of the transition process under the Transition Authority and Commission for the Implementation of the Constitution. This note seeks to briefly highlight priorities and practical suggestions to pursue those priorities in order to support counties as they navigate the process of devolution.

This report analyzes the progress and challenges of 16 countries in the Danube watershed in delivering sustainable water and wastewater services to all, while meeting the European Union environmental acquis communautaire. After putting the services that are being delivered into context, the report analyzes the organization of services in the region and the level of access to services, that is, how well countries are doing in terms of providing access to water and wastewater services for the entire population. It then looks at the performance of the sector, including the quality of services provided and customer satisfaction with it. It also draws a picture of the efficiency of services, including whether they reflect accepted good practices. Finally, it analyzes the financing of services, looking at whether the financing of operation, maintenance, and investments is secured and affordable. The report draws largely from existing public data sources at the national and regional level, and consolidates them into a coherent, regional narrative, and analysis. The methods of analysis include horizontal comparisons among countries at a given point in time and trends within the countries or the region over a given period of time. Given shortcomings in the availability and comparability of data across 16 countries, the report seeks to encourage and inform a policy dialogue around sector challenges rather than provide a definitive set of policy recommendations.

This paper provides an overview of major groundwater issues for Sub-Saharan Africa, with an assessment of their policy implications in terms of potential development and appropriate management. In terms of construction time, capital outlay and drought resilience, groundwater is the preferred source to meet most water-supply demands, despite hydro geological complexity, natural constraints on water well yields and quality, and institutional weaknesses. The 'new developmental agenda' relates to improving urban water-supply security and expanding irrigated agriculture to meet these challenges many countries need to undertake strategic assessment of their groundwater and prioritize investment on institutional strengthening so as to facilitate appropriately-managed groundwater development. Without effective use of available groundwater resources, improved livelihoods and climate-change adaptation will prove much more difficult to achieve.

Kosovo is a small and young state that gained an interim United Nations (UN)-administered status in the wake of the Dayton peace accord only in 1999; it declared independence in 2008. Compared to neighboring countries, it is still lacking in its basic infrastructure and its administrative and technical skills. In addition, with the onset of the War in Yugoslavia in 1992 most investment and normal maintenance came to a standstill. Much of the publicly owned infrastructure fell into disrepair or was vandalized, but private investments led to a construction boom which, however, is leading to many environmental problems. The government is committed to reconstruction and to the development of a peaceful state. It also intends to align with EU policies. Thus, the study has the specific objectives to: (i) assist the government to improve its river basin planning and management by providing (for demonstration purposes) a replicable tool and simulation model for integrated river basin planning and management; and (ii) support the government in its identification of priority measures of structural and non-structural nature to help strengthen the water resources sector performance. The source(s) for the financing of the identified projects will need to be identified further by the Government as the World Bank has not committed to involvement in the sector.

Along with economic growth and improved living standards, waste from households, industries, and commercial or service establishments is expected to increase rapidly over the next years. Managing this waste is a hard challenge for the Government of Vietnam because of its substantial cost and lack of awareness and participation of people and businesses. Wastes can be classified according to: their form (wastewater, solid waste); their origin (industrial wastes, agricultural wastes, urban (municipal) wastes); and their hazardous nature (non-hazardous or hazardous).