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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Katarki West-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 358 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soil and two per cent by water bodies and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 3 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  Entire area in the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area in the microwatershed has non-gravelly (200mm/m) available water capacity.  An area of about 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 85 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 31 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 67 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 9.0) alkaline.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in 30 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 14 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 287 (80) 50 (14) Pomegranate - 315(88) Maize - 337 (94) Guava - - Bajra - 309 (86) Jackfruit - - Redgram - 287(80) Jamun - 287(80) Bengal gram 287(80) 50(14) Musambi 287(80) 28(8) Groundnut - - Lime 287(80) 28(8) Sunflower 287 (80) 28 (8) Cashew - - Cotton 287(80) 50(14) Custard apple 287(80) 50(14) Chilli - - Amla - 337 (94) Tomato - - Tamarind - 287(80) Drumstick - 315(88) Marigold - 337(94) Mulbery - 176(49) Chrysanthemum - 337(94) Mango - - Jasmine - 22(6) Sapota - - Crossandra - 220(61) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 107 (56.02%) men and 83 (43.46%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 5.8, marginal farmers' was 5.5, small farmers' was 5.4, semi medium farmers' was 4.7 and medium farmers' was 5.31.  The data indicated that, 48 (25.13%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 79 (41.36%) were in 16-35 years of age, 46 (24.08%) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (9.42%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Katarki West-4 had 23.56 per cent illiterates, 0.52 per cent were functional literates, 30.37 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.19 per cent of them had middle school education, 15.18 per cent of them had high school education, 8.38 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.57 per cent had diploma education, 3.66 per cent of them did ITI, 6.28 per cent of them had degree education and 0.52 per cent did masters.  The results indicate that, 63.89 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 27.78 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 11.11 per cent were general labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 34.55 per cent of the household members, 18.32 per cent were agricultural labourers, 6.81 per cent were general labourers, 0.52 per cent were in government and private service, 29.32 per cent were students and 6.28 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 5.56 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 88.89 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 5.56 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 80.56 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.78 per cent of the households possess DVD/VCD player, 16.67 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 25 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.8793, DVD/VCD player was Rs.2000, mixer grinder was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.34166 and mobile phone was Rs.2691.  About 8.33 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 5.56 per cent of them possess plough, 2.78 per cent of the households possess sprayer and 33.33 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.30000, plough was Rs.2333, the average value of sprayer was Rs.1500 and the average value of weeder was Rs.66. 2  The results indicate that, 5.56 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 5.56 per cent of the households possess local cow. Marginal and semi medium farmers possess local cow whereas, small farmers possess bullock. Around 90 per cent of medium and semi medium farmers and 80 per cent of small farmers did not possess any livestock.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.18, average own labour (women) available was 1.55, average hired labour (men) available was 8.36 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.45.  The results indicate that, 86.11 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 2.78 per cent opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Katarki West-4 micro-watershed possess 47.23 ha (100%) of dry land. Marginal farmers possess 7.62 ha (100%), small farmers possess 15.12 ha (100%) and semi medium farmers possess 24.49 ha (100%).  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 271975.15. In case of marginal famers it was Rs.478783.85, small farmers it was Rs.261148.29 and semi medium farmers it was Rs.214303.42.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (4.97 ha), cotton (1.62 ha), maize (18.49 ha), onion (2.99 ha), sorghum (10.38 ha) sunflower (4.10 ha) and Bengal gram (3.34 ha).  Marginal farmers have grown maize, bajra, onion, sorghum and sunflower. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, onion, sorghum and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, onion, bajra, sorghum, sunflower and Bengal gram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Katarki West-4 micro-watershed was found to be 76.30 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 87.79 per cent, small farmers it was 78.59 per cent and in case of semi medium farmers it was 72.06.  The results indicate that, 58.33 per cent of the households have bank account and 13.89 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 58.33 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households who borrowed credit, borrowed it from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, farmers have availed an average credit of Rs.166428.57.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, around 33.33 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 66.67 per cent opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25915.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20178.86. The net income from 3 Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -5736.81, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.78.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 30998.56. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40176.65. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 9178.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.3.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 33109.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23868.48. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -9241.27. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 38798.60. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 35301.40. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.91.  The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 20448.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 228234.17. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. 207785.33. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:11.2.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 22321.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20300.93. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -2020.41. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.91.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 30326.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 30805.74. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 479.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.02.  The results indicate that, 11.11 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.11 per cent opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 36,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 70,090.91, for small farmers it was Rs. 74,500 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 79,200.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 5,002.36. For landless households it was Rs. 8,133.33, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,165.29, for small farmers it was Rs. 4,800 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 4,560.  The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except maize, which was sold to the extent of 98.31 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 91.67 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 5.56 per cent have sold to agents/traders, 2.78 per cent have sold through contract marketing arrangement and 2.78 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 91.67 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 2.78 per cent have used cart, another 2.78 per cent have carried head loads and 5.56 per cent have used truck as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 75 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 90.91 per cent of the marginal farmers, 90 per 4 cent of the small farmers and 80 per cent of semi medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 83.33 per cent have shown interest in soil test which accounts for 100 per cent of marginal and small and 90 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the households used fire wood and 2.78 per cent used LPG.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 33.33 per cent of the households, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 44.44 per cent and lake/tank was the source of drinking water for 22.22 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 44.44 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 36.36 per cent of the marginal, 70 per cent of the small and 40 per cent of the semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 94.44 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 5.56 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 38.89 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 91.67 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.78 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 8.33 per cent, fruits were adequate for 5.56 per cent, milk was adequate for 94.44 per cent, eggs were adequate for 94.44 per cent and meat was adequate for 25 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 11.11 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 97.22 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 88.89 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 91.67 per cent, milk was inadequate for 2.78 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 5.56 per cent and meat was inadequate for 72.22 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, vegetables were market surplus for 2.78 per cent and milk was market surplus for another 2.78 per cent.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 75 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (63.89%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (38.89%), inadequacy of irrigation water (44.44%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (63.89%), high rate of interest on credit (72.22%), low price for the agricultural commodities (44.44%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (66.67%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (77.78%), inadequate extension services (55.56%), less rainfall (2.78%) and source of agri technology information (2.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The land resource inventory of Daddegallu-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 514 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils, 150 cm) in soils.  Entire area of the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  About 80 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of all the soils is 337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 8 per cent area, 86 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) and high (>1.0 ppm) in about 5 per cent.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 34 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 25 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 315 (61) 153 (30) Pomegranate - 358 (70) Maize - - Guava - - Bajra - - Jackfruit - - Red gram - 357 (70) Jamun - 232 (45) Bengalgram 357 (70) 110 (21) Musambi 190 (37) 168 (33) Groundnut - - Lime 190 (37) 168 (33) Sunflower 190 (37) 168 (33) Cashew - - Cotton 357 (70) 110 (21) Custard apple 357 (70) 110 (21) Chilli - - Amla - 467 (91) Tomato - - Tamarind - 232 (45) Drumstick - 358 (70) Marigold - 468 (91) Mulberry - 265 (52) Chrysanthemum - 468 (91) Mango - - Jasmine - 110 (21) Sapota - - Crossandra - 233 (45) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 95 (57.23%) men and 71(42.77%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.6, marginal farmers' was 5.4, small farmers' was 4.5, semi medium farmers' was 3, medium farmers' was 6.6 and large farmers' were 3.  The data indicated that, 28 (16.87%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 73 (43.98%) were in 16-35 years of age, 53 (31.93%) were in 36-60 years of age and 12 (7.23%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Daddegallu-2 had 22.89 per cent illiterates, 25.90 per cent of them had primary school education, 13.86 per cent of them had middle school education, 18.67 per cent of them had high school education, 7.83 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.60 per cent had ITI, 4.82 per cent had degree and 1.20 per cent had masters education.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 32.53 per cent of the household members, 39.76 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1.20 per cent were in private service, trade and business and housewives, 18.07 per cent were in students and 4.22 per cent were in children.  The results show that, 0.60 per cent of the population has participated in gram panchayat, sthree shakthi sangha and user group and 98.19 per cent of the population has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 5.71 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 65.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 8.57 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house and 20 per cent of them possess semi pacca house.  The results show that 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.86 per cent of them possess DVD/VCD player, 82.86 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder player, 8.57 per cent of them possess refrigerator, 20 per cent of them possess bicycle, 40 per cent o f the households possess motor cycle and 91.43 per cent of them possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,187, DVD/VCD player was Rs.1,500, mixer grinder was Rs. 2,172, refrigerator was 13,666, bicycle was 1,033, motor cycle was Rs. 29,235 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,053.  About 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 34.29 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess power tiller and earth 2 mover/duster, 8.57 per cent of them possess tractor, 17.14 per cent of them possess sprayer, 62.86 per cent of them possess weeder and 11.43 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 13,625, plough was Rs. 2,208, power tiller was Rs.6,000, tractor was Rs. 266,666, sprayer was Rs. 2,266, weeder was Rs.34, chaff cutter was Rs.1,575, and the average value of harvester was Rs. 9,000.  The results indicate that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 20 per cent of the households possess local cow and 8.57 per cent possess buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.64, average own labour (women) available was 1.44, average hired labour (men) available was 6.26 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.83.  The results indicate that, 37.14 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 65.71 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Daddegallu-2 micro-watershed possess 43.91 ha (89.15%) of dry land and 5.34 ha (10.85%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.70 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 114.31 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 19.35 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 4.55 ha (46.01%) of dry land and 5.34 ha (53.99%) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 1 ha (100%).  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 293,641.14 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 168,409.09. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 658,950.09 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 286,478.08 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 201,442.91 for dry land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 219,555.56 for dry land and Rs. 168,409.09 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers, the average land value was Rs. 799,999.98 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there were 2 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 5.71 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 3.66 meters.  The results indicate that medium farmers had an irrigated area of 5.34 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (0.45 ha), Bengal gram (18.93 ha), maize (21.68 ha), red gram (0.83 ha), sugarcane (2.91 ha), sunflower (2.43 ha) and sorghum (1.58 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, maize, red gram, and Bengal gram. Small farmers have grown maize, Bengal gram and 3 sorghum. Semi medium farmers have grown Bengal gram, maize and sunflower. Medium farmers have grown maize, sugarcane and Bengal gram. Large farmers have grown maize.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Daddegallu-2 micro-watershed was found to be 88.24 per cent.  The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 33.33 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank and 11.11 per cent of the households borrowed from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 20,555.56.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 52976.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27566.96. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -25409.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.52.  The total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 31340.80. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48747.50. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 17406.70. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.56.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 33306.05. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31811.29. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -1494.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 23431.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 120069.45. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 96638.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:5.12.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 33305.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 43032.89. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 9727.64. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 13117.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21660. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 8542.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.65. 4  The results indicate that, 20 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 2.86 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 5.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 47,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 62,800, for small farmers it was Rs. 80,880, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 166,400, for medium farmers it was Rs.309,533.33 and large farmers it was Rs. 50,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13,197.07. For landless households it was Rs. 3,480, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,950, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,740, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 13,221.09, for medium farmers it was Rs. 66,666.67 and for large farmers Rs. 22,000.  The results indicate that, households have planted 36 neem trees in their field.  The results indicated that, bajra, sorghum, sugarcane and sunflower was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, Bengal gram was sold to the extent of 111.03 per cent and maize was sold to the extent of 98.58 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 20 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders. 17.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant, 54.29 per cent of them sold their produce through regulated market and 2.86 per cent of them sold their produce through cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 11.43 per cent of the households used cart, 80 per cent of the households used tractor and 2.86 per cent of them used truck as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 48.57 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 37.14 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 45.71 per cent of the households and 17.14 per cent of the households used open well in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 51.43 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.86 per cent of the sampled households not possessed PDS card.  The results indicated that, 60 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. 5  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 88.57 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 62.86 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 34.29 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 42.86 per cent, fruits were adequate for 48.57 per cent, milk were adequate for 51.43 per cent, egg were adequate for 28.57 per cent and meat was adequate for 25.71 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 11.43 per cent, pulses were inadequate for 37.14 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 62.86 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 57.14 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 37.14 per cent, milk were inadequate for 42.86 per cent, egg were inadequate for 60 per cent and meat were inadequate for 51.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 65.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field, frequent incidence of pest and diseases and high rate of interest on credit (48.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (42.86%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (57.14%), low price for the agricultural commodities (28.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area and source of Agri-technology information (37.14%), inadequate extension services (34.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (40%) and less rainfall (60%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mundal-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 490 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 443 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 5 ha by railway line, 8 ha by rock outcrops and 33 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 91 per cent in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 21 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100- >150 cm), 38 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100), whereas 5 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm) and 27 per cent soils are shallow (25 -50 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 45 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 21 percent soils are loamy and 24 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum area of about 89 percent soils are non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 6 percent soils are medium (51-100), 38 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) and 27 per cent area is very low (9.0), soils.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominately 337kg/ha) and 73 percent is medium (145- 337kg/ha) in available potassium.  An area of about 24 percent is medium (10-20ppm), 60 percent area is low (20ppm) in available sulphur  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 62 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in about 29 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 176(36) 136(28) Guava - 7(1) Maize 49(10) 151(31) Sapota - 161(33) Bajra 162(33) 151(31) Pomegranate - 288(59) Groundnut - 161(33) Musambi 94(19) 284(40) Sunflower 66(14) 222(45) Lime 94(19) 284(40) Redgram - 288(59) Amla 103(21) 209(43) Bengal gram 127(26) 73(15) Cashew - 49(10) Cotton 101(21) 99(20) Jackfruit - 161(33) Chilli - 312(64) Jamun - 101(21) Tomato 49(10) 175(36) Custard apple 169(35) 143(29) Brinjal 57(12) 256(52) Tamarind - 101(21) Onion 46(10) 185(38) Mulberry - 161(33) Bhendi 7(1) 305(62) Marigold - 312(64) Drumstick - 288(59) Chrysanthemum - 312(64) Mango - 7(1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Findings of the socio-economic survey  The survey was conducted in Mundal-1 is located at 16047'57.577'' to 160 45'44.961'' and East longitude 770 6'21.991'' to 7705'11.137'' covering an area of about 487.74 ha coming under Mudhanala, Bheemanagara and Yadgiri B villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 40 respondents, 5 (12.5%) were landless, 22 (55%) were marginal, 7 (17.5%) were small farmers and 6 (15%) were semi medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 122 (58.94%) men and 85 (41.06%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 5.5, small farmers' was 5.6 and semi medium farmers' was 4.5.  Majority of the respondents 52 (25.12%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 86 (41.55%) were in 16-35 years of age, 55 (26.57%) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (6.76%) were above 61 years of age.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 47.83 per cent illiterates, 10.14 per cent of them had primary school, 10.63 per cent of them had Middle school education, 19.81 per cent of them had high school, 6.28 per cent of them had PUC, 4.83 per cent of them had degree and 0.48 per cent of them had masters education.  About, 12.50 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 85 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers and 2.50 per cent of the household heads were government services.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 5.8 per cent of the household members, 46.86 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.48 per cent were general labour, 1.45 per cent were government service, 1.93 per cent were were private service, 28.5 per cent student and 2.90 per cent were housewives and children.  100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  In the study area, 15 per cent of the households possess thatched, 40 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 45 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 70 per cent of the households possess TV, 42.5 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder and motor cycle, 7.5 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 2.5 per cent of the households posses auto and 87.5 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 25 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, 35 per cent each of the households possess 2 plough and weeder, 2.50 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill, sprinkler and harvester, and 12.5 per cent of the households possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 30 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 5 per cent of the households possess local cow, buffalo, goat and poultry birds, 2.50 per cent of the households possess crossbreed cow, sheep and pigs.  The average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.75, average own labour (women) available was 1.44, average hired labour (men) available was 8.3 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.55.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 32.43 ha (95.25%) of dry land and 1.62 ha (4.75%) of irrigated land.  Marginal farmers possess 11.85 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 9.9 ha (100%) of dry land.  Semi medium farmers possess 10.68 ha (86.83%) of dry land and 1.62 ha (13.17 %) of irrigated land.  There were 1 functioning and de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. There were 1 functioning and de-functioning open wells in the micro watershed.  Bore well and open well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.5 per cent of the farmers.  The major crops have grown cotton (10.62%), green gram (6.83 ha), horse gram (0.46 ha), jowar (3.44 ha), marry gold (0.13 ha), paddy (0.94 ha), red gram (7.06 ha), sorghum (1.2 ha).  The cropping intensity in micro watershed was found to be 97.36 per cent.  The sample households possessed 82.50 per cent of the households have bank account and 50 per cent have savings.  About 15 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The sample households have borrowed 25 per cent from commercial and cooperative bank, 6.25 per cent of the households have borrowed from friends/relatives and SHGs/CBOs.  The average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs. 30,875.  The households possessed, 83.33 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The households possessed, 50 per cent of the households borrowed from Private sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The households possessed, 50 per cent of the households fully paid and do not repay their loan from institutional sources.  The households possessed, 25 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 12.5 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from easy accessibility of credit and forced to sell the 3 produce at low price to repay loan in time and 37.5 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from higher rate of interest.  The households possessed, 100 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Cotton, Green gram, Red gram, Horse gram, Jowar, paddy and Sorghum was Rs. 28607.12, 94010.18, 49250.98, 53641.09, 33369.24, 81933.24 and 24536.53 with benefit cost ratio of 1:3.05, 1:0.94, 1:2.04, 1:0.61, 1:1.36, 1:0.59 and 1:1.08, respectively.  Further, 20 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 7.50 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate, 10 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 5 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was inadequate.  The average annual gross income was Rs. 87,545.45 for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 139,428.57 and semi medium farmers it was Rs. 109,583.33.  The average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,982.72. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,505.92, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,442.18and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 21,847.22.  Sampled households have planted 2 coconut trees in their field to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have planted 1 eucalyptus and tamarind, 49 neem and 4 banyan trees in their field and also 1 neem trees in their backyard to cultivate forest species.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,150 for land development, Rs. 125 for irrigation facility, Rs.600 for improved crop production and Rs.225 for improved livestock management.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned; loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 7.32 per cent for land development and 2.44 per cent for improved crop production and improved livestock managemnet.  Own funds was the source of additional investment for 12.2 per cent for land development, 7.32 per cent for improved crop production and 2.44 per cent for improved livestock management.  Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 2.44 for irrigation facility and improved livestock management.  Regarding marketing channels, 2.50 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders and cooperative marketing society, 70 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 17.50 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market.  Further, 22.50 per cent of the households have used truck and 70 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation. 4  Majority of the households 67.5 per cent have shown incidence of soil and water erosion problems.  The household possess, (85%) were interested towards soil testing. and 12.5 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 95 per cent and 5 per cent of the households used used bore well in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. In the study area, 40 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  cereals were adequate for 92.5 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 90 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 17.5 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 52.5 per cent, milk were adequate for 82.5 per cent and egg were adequate for 65 per cent and meat were adequate for 32.5 per cent of the households.  Cereals were inadequate for 7.5 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 10 per cent, oilseed were inadequate for 82.5 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 47.5 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 97.5 per cent, milk were inadequate for 17.50 per cent, egg were inadequate for 32.5 per cent and meat were inadequate for 67.5 per cent of the households.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil and wild animal menace on farm field was the constraint experienced by 90 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases and Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (87.5%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (35 %), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals, high rate of interest on credit and Low price for the agricultural commodities (82.5%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (62.5%), inadequate extension service (15%), less rainfall (12.5%) and Source of Agri-technology information (7.5%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chukkanakallu-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 518 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 68 per cent is covered by soil, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 31 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 14 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 54 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 45 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 17 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 51 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 37 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 30 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 39 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 8 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 9 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 12 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 0.75%) in 21 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 1 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 12 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 65(13) 216(42) Sapota 36(7) 94(18) Maize 16(3) 266(52) Pomegranate 36(7) 210(41) Bajra 36(7) 274(53) Musambi 65(13) 181(35) Groundnut - 58(11) Lime 65(13) 181(35) Sunflower 65(13) 181(35) Amla 36(7) 273(53) Redgram 36(7) 163(32) Cashew - 130(25) Bengal gram 29(6) 280(54) Jackfruit 36(7) 94(18) Cotton 65(13) 216(42) Jamun 36(7) 154(30) Chilli 16(3) 149(29) Custard apple 65(13) 244(47) Tomato 16(3) 149(29) Tamarind 36(7) 153(30) Brinjal 94(18) 188(37) Mulberry 16(3) 230(45) Onion 94(18) 71(14) Marigold 16(3) 265(52) Bhendi 94(18) 188(37) Chrysanthemum 16(3) 265(52) Drumstick 36(7) 210(41) Jasmine 16(3) 149(29) Mango 36(7) 124(24) Crossandra 36(7) 176(34) Guava 20(4) 110(21)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 78 (57.35 %) men and 58 (42.65 %) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless' was 2.8, marginal farmers' was 4.2, small farmers' was 4.3, semi medium farmers' was 4 and medium farmers' was 4.5.  The data indicated that, 15 (11.03 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 51 (37.5 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 57 (41.91 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (9.56 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Chukkanakallu-2 had 37.50 per cent illiterates, 34.56 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.35 per cent of them had middle school education, 10.29 per cent of them had high school education, 2.94 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.47 per cent of them had Diploma and degree education and 2.21 per cent of them had masters education.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 5.88 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 23.53 per cent of the household members, 67.65 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.47 per cent were in government service, 6.62 per cent were students and 0.74 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any of the institution.  The results indicate that 82.35 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.65 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 55.88 per cent of the households possess TV, 70.59 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 5.88 per cent of them possess bicycle, 32.35 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess auto and 67.65 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs 5,515, mixer/grinder was Rs 1,875, bicycle was Rs 2,000, motor cycle was Rs. 49,272, auto was Rs. 200,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,336.  About 5.88 per cent of the households possess bullock cart and thresher, 52.94 per cent of them possess plough, 8.82 per cent of them possess sprayer, 52.94 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.94 per cent of them possess Cultivator.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 10,000, plough was Rs. 1,877, sprayer was Rs. 1,550, average value of weeder was Rs. 123, average value of thresher was 190 and the average value of Cultivator was Rs. 32.  The results indicate that, 17.65 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 14.71 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.94 per cent of the households possess Buffalo. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.93, average own labour (women) available was 1.10, average hired labour (men) available and average hired labour (women) available was 15.86. The results indicate that, 85.29 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Chukkanakallu-2 micro-watershed possess 26.24 ha (72.73%) of dry land, 7.36 ha (20.39 %) of irrigated land and 2.48 ha (6.88%) of permanent fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 5.92 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 12.27 ha (78.85 %) of dry land, 0.81 ha (5.20 %) of irrigated land and 2.48 ha (15.95%). Semi medium farmers possess 8.05 ha (86.22 %) of dry land and 1.29 ha (13.78%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 5.26 ha (100 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 350,462.68, the average value of irrigated land was Rs.230,968.10 and the average value of permanent fallow land Rs. 201,468.19. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 675,324.68 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 325,965.03 for dry land, Rs. 247,000 for irrigated land and Rs. 201,468.19 for permanent fallow land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 148,944.72 for dry land and Rs. 388,364.77 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, Rs.190,000 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 4 functioning and de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 11.76 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 3.59 meters.  The results indicate that semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.29 ha and 2.83 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (22.36 ha), Bajra (7.36 ha), Sunflower (2.83 ha) and Wheat (3.34 ha). Marginal farmers have grown maize, bajra and sunflower. Small farmers have grown maize, bajra and cowpea. Semi medium farmers have grown maize and bajra. Medium farmers have grown maize and sunflower.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chukkanakallu-2 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 79.14 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 79.41 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 7.41 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank. 3  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 5,000.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operation.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 15704.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24107.32. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 8403.10. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1:1.54.  The total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 25491.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40617.78. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 15126.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.59.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 44628.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40066.01. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. - 4562.48. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.9.  The total cost of cultivation for cowpea was Rs. 11809.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from cowpea cultivation was Rs. 25240.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.14.  The results indicate that, 2.94 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 43,833.33 for landless households, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 32,400, for small farmers it was Rs. 68,916.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 77,500 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 115,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 4,806.06. For landless households it was Rs. 7,666.67, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 2,346.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 2,751.89, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 7,104.17 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 16,250.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 1 coconut, 2 guava and 4 mango trees in their field and1 in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 22 teak, 50 neem and 1 tamarind trees in their field and also 1 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, Bajra were sold to the extent of 79.17 per cent, cowpea were sold to the extent of 60 per cent, maize were sold to the extent of 98.33 per cent and sunflower were sold to the extent of 92.86 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 73.53 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market. The results indicated that 79.41 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. 4  The results indicated that, 20.59 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 76.47 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood, 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel and 2.86 per cent of the households used Kerosene.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 2.94 per cent of the households and bore well was the major source of drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 23.53 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 76.47 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 70.59 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 20.59 per cent, vegetables and egg were adequate for 14.71 per cent, fruits were adequate for 44.12 per cent, milk was adequate for 17.65 per cent and meat was adequate for 8.82 per cent.  The results indicated that, Cereals were inadequate for 11.76 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 17.65 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 67.65 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 70.59 per cent, fruits was inadequate for 41.18 per cent, milk were inadequate for 44.12 per cent and egg and meat was inadequate for 70.59 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, milk and egg were market surplus for 11.76 per cent and fruits and meat were market surplus for 14.71 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 76.41 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (79.41%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (20.59%), inadequacy of irrigation water and inadequate extension services (5.88%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (20.59%), high rate of interest on credit and low price for the agricultural commodities (8.82%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (23.53%), less rainfall (26.47%) and source of agri-technology information (14.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gajarakot-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 479 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 436 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 43 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 65 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (0.75%) in 87 per cent area.  9 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 58 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 25 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium, 76 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 11 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 82 per cent area is deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 73 (15) Guava - 22(4) Maize - 126(26) Sapota - 22(4) Bajra - 73(15) Pomegranate - 22(4) Groundnut - 55(11) Musambi - 22(4) Sunflower - 22(4) Lime - 22(4) Redgram - 22(4) Amla - 73(15) Bengal gram - 72(15) Cashew - - Cotton - 72(15) Jackfruit - 22(4) Chilli - 73(15) Jamun - - Tomato - 73(15) Custard apple 22(4) 51(11) Brinjal - 73(15) Tamarind - 22(4) Onion 0.02(<1) 72(15) Mulberry - - Bhendi 0.02(<1) 72(15) Marigold - 73(15) Drumstick - 22(4) Chrysanthemum - 73(15) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 95 (56.55%) men and 73 (43.45%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.8, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5.7 and medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 27 (16.07%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 69 (41.07%) were in 16-35 years of age, 54 (32.14%) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (10.71%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Gajarakot-1 had 45.24 per cent illiterates, 17.26 per cent of them had primary school, 6.55 per cent of them had middle school, 15.48 per cent of them had high school education, 4.17 per cent of them had PUC and 4.76 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 11.43 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 18.45 per cent of the household members, 59.52 per cent were agricultural labourers, 20.24 per cent were in student, 0.60 per cent were housewives and 1 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 11.43 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 71.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.14 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 80 per cent of the households possess TV, 17.14 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 20 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of the households possess auto and tempo and 88.57 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,428, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,916, motor cycle was Rs. 40,428, auto was Rs. 30,000, tempo was Rs. 300,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,542.  About 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullock cart and weeder, 8.57 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill, tractor and chaff cutter, 5.71 per cent of them possess sparyer and harvester.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 23,750, plough was Rs. 9,000, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 20,000, tractor was Rs. 5000,000, sprayer was Rs. 5,000, weeder was Rs. 410, harvester was Rs. 266 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3,000. 2  The results indicate that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 8.57 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.43, average own labour (women) available was 1.26, average hired labour (men) available was 6.37 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.80.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Gajarakot-1 micro-watershed possess 30.28 ha (87.06 %) of dry land and 4.50 ha (12.94%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 9.48 ha (95.44%) of dry land and 0.45 ha (4.56%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.34 ha (93.34%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (6.66%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 9.45 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 3.24 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 399,505.41 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 444,244.60. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 759,350.99 for dry land and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 882,142.85. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 290,795.57 for dry land and Rs. 1,235,000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 169,178.08 for dry land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 185,250 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 3 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 8.57 per cent of the farmers and 2.86 per cent of the households used open well.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 5.57 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.45 ha, 0.81 ha and 3.24 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (23.34 ha), cotton (6.24 ha), paddy (2.88 ha) and groundnut (2.1 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, cotton, paddy and groundnut. Small farmers have grown red gram, cotton and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram and cotton. Medium farmers have grown red gram and paddy.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Gajarakot-1 micro-watershed was found to be 90.70 per cent. 3  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households have bank account and savings. The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 7.14 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 3.57 per cent of the households have cooperative bank and money lender and 14.29 per cent of the households have borrowed from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 29,000.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households unpaid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 16.67 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount was high rate of interest.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 39960.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54048.62. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 14087.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53471.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 89194.59. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 35723.14. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.67.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 35900.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 68864.55. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 32963.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.92.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 48228.58. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50750.66. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 2522.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.05.  The results indicate that, 5.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 58,500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 104,993.75, for small farmers it was Rs. 134,750, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 198,750 and medium farmers it was Rs. 618,800. 4  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13,393.10. For landless households it was Rs. 4,055.56, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,833.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 12,192.71, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 21,687.50 and medium farmers it was Rs. 198,800.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 45 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 7 eucalyptus, 37 neem, 5 tamarind and 3 acacia trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 171.43 for land development and improved crop production.  The results indicated that soft loan was the source of additional investment for 8.57 per cent for land development and 5.71 per cent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 81.63 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 84.21 per cent and red gram to the extent of 87.38 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 17.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 68.57 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households used firewood and 11.43 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 77.14 per cent and 22.86 per cent of the households used bore well in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 40 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 48.57 per cent, fruits were adequate for 37.14 per cent, milk were adequate for 5 8.57 per cent, egg were adequate for 20 per cent and meat were adequate for 25.71 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 5.71 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 8.57 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 54.29 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 51.43 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 62.86 per cent, milk were inadequate for 74.29 per cent, egg were inadequate for 77.14 per cent and meat were inadequate for 71.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil and wild animal menace on farm field was the constraint experienced by 80 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (31.43%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40%), high rate of interest on credit (11.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (20%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (17.14%), inadequate extension service (14.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (34.29%), less rainfall (14.29%), and source of Agri-technology information (45.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Mención Internacional en el título de doctor ; Implantable Medical Devices (IMDs) are electronic devices implanted within the body to treat a medical condition, monitor the state or improve the functioning of some body part, or just to provide the patient with a capability that he did not possess before [86]. Current examples of IMDs include pacemakers and defibrillators to monitor and treat cardiac conditions; neurostimulators for deep brain stimulation in cases such as epilepsy or Parkinson; drug delivery systems in the form of infusion pumps; and a variety of biosensors to acquire and process different biosignals. Some of the newest IMDs have started to incorporate numerous communication and networking functions—usually known as "telemetry"—, as well as increasingly more sophisticated computing capabilities. This has provided implants with more intelligence and patients with more autonomy, as medical personnel can access data and reconfigure the implant remotely (i.e., without the patient being physically present in medical facilities). Apart from a significant cost reduction, telemetry and computing capabilities also allow healthcare providers to constantly monitor the patient's condition and to develop new diagnostic techniques based on an Intra Body Network (IBN) of medical devices [25, 26, 201]. Evolving from a mere electromechanical IMD to one with more advanced computing and communication capabilities has many benefits but also entails numerous security and privacy risks for the patient. The majority of such risks are relatively well known in classical computing scenarios, though in many respects their repercussions are far more critical in the case of implants. Attacks against an IMD can put at risk the safety of the patient who carries it, with fatal consequences in certain cases. Causing an intentional malfunction of an implant can lead to death and, as recognized by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), such deliberate attacks could be far more difficult to detect than accidental ones [61]. Furthermore, these devices store and transmit very sensitive medical information that requires protection, as dictated by European (e.g., Directive 95/46/ECC) and U.S. (e.g., CFR 164.312) Directives [94, 204]. The wireless communication capabilities present in many modern IMDs are a major source of security risks, particularly while the patient is in open (i.e., non-medical) environments. To begin with, the implant becomes no longer "invisible", as its presence could be remotely detected [48]. Furthermore, it facilitates the access to transmitted data by eavesdroppers who simply listen to the (insecure) channel [83]. This could result in a major privacy breach, as IMDs store sensitive information such as vital signals, diagnosed conditions, therapies, and a variety of personal data (e.g., birth date, name, and other medically relevant identifiers). A vulnerable communication channel also makes it easier to attack the implant in ways similar to those used against more common computing devices [118, 129, 156], i.e., by forging, altering, or replying previously captured messages [82]. This could potentially allow an adversary to monitor and modify the implant without necessarily being close to the victim [164]. In this regard, the concerns of former U.S. vice-president Dick Cheney constitute an excellent example: he had his Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD) replaced by another without WiFi capability [219]. While there are still no known real-world incidents, several attacks on IMDs have been successfully demonstrated in the lab [83, 133, 143]. These attacks have shown how an adversary can disable or reprogram therapies on an ICD with wireless connectivity, and even inducing a shock state to the patient [65]. Other attacks deplete the battery and render the device inoperative [91], which often implies that the patient must undergo a surgical procedure to have the IMD replaced. Moreover, in the case of cardiac implants, they have a switch that can be turned off merely by applying a magnetic field [149]. The existence of this mechanism is motivated by the need to shield ICDs to electromagnetic fields, for instance when the patient undergoes cardiac surgery using electrocautery devices [47]. However, this could be easily exploited by an attacker, since activating such a primitive mechanism does not require any kind of authentication. In order to prevent attacks, it is imperative that the new generation of IMDs will be equipped with strong mechanisms guaranteeing basic security properties such as confidentiality, integrity, and availability. For example, mutual authentication between the IMD and medical personnel is essential, as both parties must be confident that the other end is who claims to be. In the case of the IMD, only commands coming from authenticated parties should be considered, while medical personnel should not trust any message claiming to come from the IMD unless sufficient guarantees are given. Preserving the confidentiality of the information stored in and transmitted by the IMD is another mandatory aspect. The device must implement appropriate security policies that restrict what entities can reconfigure the IMD or get access to the information stored in it, ensuring that only authorized operations are executed. Similarly, security mechanisms have to be implemented to protect the content of messages exchanged through an insecure wireless channel. Integrity protection is equally important to ensure that information has not been modified in transit. For example, if the information sent by the implant to the Programmer is altered, the doctor might make a wrong decision. Conversely, if a command sent to the implant is forged, modified, or simply contains errors, its execution could result in a compromise of the patient's physical integrity. Technical security mechanisms should be incorporated in the design phase and complemented with appropriate legal and administrative measures. Current legislation is rather permissive in this regard, allowing the use of implants like ICDs that do not incorporate any security mechanisms. Regulatory authorities like the FDA in the U.S or the EMA (European Medicines Agency) in Europe should promote metrics and frameworks for assessing the security of IMDs. These assessments should be mandatory by law, requiring an adequate security level for an implant before approving its use. Moreover, both the security measures supported on each IMD and the security assessment results should be made public. Prudent engineering practices well known in the safety and security domains should be followed in the design of IMDs. If hardware errors are detected, it often entails a replacement of the implant, with the associated risks linked to a surgery. One of the main sources of failure when treating or monitoring a patient is precisely malfunctions of the device itself. These failures are known as "recalls" or "advisories", and it is estimated that they affect around 2.6% of patients carrying an implant. Furthermore, the software running on the device should strictly support the functionalities required to perform the medical and operational tasks for what it was designed, and no more [66, 134, 213]. In Chapter 1, we present a survey of security and privacy issues in IMDs, discuss the most relevant mechanisms proposed to address these challenges, and analyze their suitability, advantages, and main drawbacks. In Chapter 2, we show how the use of highly compressed electrocardiogram (ECG) signals (only 24 coefficients of Hadamard Transform) is enough to unequivocally identify individuals with a high performance (classification accuracy of 97% and with identification system errors in the order of 10−2). In Chapter 3 we introduce a new Continuous Authentication scheme that, contrarily to previous works in this area, considers ECG signals as continuous data streams. The proposed ECG-based CA system is intended for real-time applications and is able to offer an accuracy up to 96%, with an almost perfect system performance (kappa statistic > 80%). In Chapter 4, we propose a distance bounding protocol to manage access control of IMDs: ACIMD. ACIMD combines two features namely identity verification (authentication) and proximity verification (distance checking). The authentication mechanism we developed conforms to the ISO/IEC 9798-2 standard and is performed using the whole ECG signal of a device holder, which is hardly replicable by a distant attacker. We evaluate the performance of ACIMD using ECG signals of 199 individuals over 24 hours, considering three adversary strategies. Results show that an accuracy of 87.07% in authentication can be achieved. Finally, in Chapter 5 we extract some conclusions and summarize the published works (i.e., scientific journals with high impact factor and prestigious international conferences). ; Los Dispositivos Médicos Implantables (DMIs) son dispositivos electrónicos implantados dentro del cuerpo para tratar una enfermedad, controlar el estado o mejorar el funcionamiento de alguna parte del cuerpo, o simplemente para proporcionar al paciente una capacidad que no poseía antes [86]. Ejemplos actuales de DMI incluyen marcapasos y desfibriladores para monitorear y tratar afecciones cardíacas; neuroestimuladores para la estimulación cerebral profunda en casos como la epilepsia o el Parkinson; sistemas de administración de fármacos en forma de bombas de infusión; y una variedad de biosensores para adquirir y procesar diferentes bioseñales. Los DMIs más modernos han comenzado a incorporar numerosas funciones de comunicación y redes (generalmente conocidas como telemetría) así como capacidades de computación cada vez más sofisticadas. Esto ha propiciado implantes con mayor inteligencia y pacientes con más autonomía, ya que el personal médico puede acceder a los datos y reconfigurar el implante de forma remota (es decir, sin que el paciente esté físicamente presente en las instalaciones médicas). Aparte de una importante reducción de costos, las capacidades de telemetría y cómputo también permiten a los profesionales de la atención médica monitorear constantemente la condición del paciente y desarrollar nuevas técnicas de diagnóstico basadas en una Intra Body Network (IBN) de dispositivos médicos [25, 26, 201]. Evolucionar desde un DMI electromecánico a uno con capacidades de cómputo y de comunicación más avanzadas tiene muchos beneficios pero también conlleva numerosos riesgos de seguridad y privacidad para el paciente. La mayoría de estos riesgos son relativamente bien conocidos en los escenarios clásicos de comunicaciones entre dispositivos, aunque en muchos aspectos sus repercusiones son mucho más críticas en el caso de los implantes. Los ataques contra un DMI pueden poner en riesgo la seguridad del paciente que lo porta, con consecuencias fatales en ciertos casos. Causar un mal funcionamiento intencionado en un implante puede causar la muerte y, tal como lo reconoce la Food and Drug Administration (FDA) de EE.UU, tales ataques deliberados podrían ser mucho más difíciles de detectar que los ataques accidentales [61]. Además, estos dispositivos almacenan y transmiten información médica muy delicada que requiere se protegida, según lo dictado por las directivas europeas (por ejemplo, la Directiva 95/46/ECC) y estadunidenses (por ejemplo, la Directiva CFR 164.312) [94, 204]. Si bien todavía no se conocen incidentes reales, se han demostrado con éxito varios ataques contra DMIs en el laboratorio [83, 133, 143]. Estos ataques han demostrado cómo un adversario puede desactivar o reprogramar terapias en un marcapasos con conectividad inalámbrica e incluso inducir un estado de shock al paciente [65]. Otros ataques agotan la batería y dejan al dispositivo inoperativo [91], lo que a menudo implica que el paciente deba someterse a un procedimiento quirúrgico para reemplazar la batería del DMI. Además, en el caso de los implantes cardíacos, tienen un interruptor cuya posición de desconexión se consigue simplemente aplicando un campo magnético intenso [149]. La existencia de este mecanismo está motivada por la necesidad de proteger a los DMIs frete a posibles campos electromagnéticos, por ejemplo, cuando el paciente se somete a una cirugía cardíaca usando dispositivos de electrocauterización [47]. Sin embargo, esto podría ser explotado fácilmente por un atacante, ya que la activación de dicho mecanismo primitivo no requiere ningún tipo de autenticación. Garantizar la confidencialidad de la información almacenada y transmitida por el DMI es otro aspecto obligatorio. El dispositivo debe implementar políticas de seguridad apropiadas que restrinjan qué entidades pueden reconfigurar el DMI o acceder a la información almacenada en él, asegurando que sólo se ejecuten las operaciones autorizadas. De la misma manera, mecanismos de seguridad deben ser implementados para proteger el contenido de los mensajes intercambiados a través de un canal inalámbrico no seguro. La protección de la integridad es igualmente importante para garantizar que la información no se haya modificado durante el tránsito. Por ejemplo, si la información enviada por el implante al programador se altera, el médico podría tomar una decisión equivocada. Por el contrario, si un comando enviado al implante se falsifica, modifica o simplemente contiene errores, su ejecución podría comprometer la integridad física del paciente. Los mecanismos de seguridad deberían incorporarse en la fase de diseño y complementarse con medidas legales y administrativas apropiadas. La legislación actual es bastante permisiva a este respecto, lo que permite el uso de implantes como marcapasos que no incorporen ningún mecanismo de seguridad. Las autoridades reguladoras como la FDA en los Estados Unidos o la EMA (Agencia Europea de Medicamentos) en Europa deberían promover métricas y marcos para evaluar la seguridad de los DMIs. Estas evaluaciones deberían ser obligatorias por ley, requiriendo un nivel de seguridad adecuado para un implante antes de aprobar su uso. Además, tanto las medidas de seguridad implementadas en cada DMI como los resultados de la evaluación de su seguridad deberían hacerse públicos. Buenas prácticas de ingeniería en los dominios de la protección y la seguridad deberían seguirse en el diseño de los DMIs. Si se detectan errores de hardware, a menudo esto implica un reemplazo del implante, con los riesgos asociados y vinculados a una cirugía. Una de las principales fuentes de fallo al tratar o monitorear a un paciente es precisamente el mal funcionamiento del dispositivo. Estos fallos se conocen como "retiradas", y se estima que afectan a aproximadamente el 2,6 % de los pacientes que llevan un implante. Además, el software que se ejecuta en el dispositivo debe soportar estrictamente las funcionalidades requeridas para realizar las tareas médicas y operativas para las que fue diseñado, y no más [66, 134, 213]. En el Capítulo 1, presentamos un estado de la cuestión sobre cuestiones de seguridad y privacidad en DMIs, discutimos los mecanismos más relevantes propuestos para abordar estos desafíos y analizamos su idoneidad, ventajas y principales inconvenientes. En el Capítulo 2, mostramos cómo el uso de señales electrocardiográficas (ECGs) altamente comprimidas (sólo 24 coeficientes de la Transformada Hadamard) es suficiente para identificar inequívocamente individuos con un alto rendimiento (precisión de clasificación del 97% y errores del sistema de identificación del orden de 10−2). En el Capítulo 3 presentamos un nuevo esquema de Autenticación Continua (AC) que, contrariamente a los trabajos previos en esta área, considera las señales ECG como flujos de datos continuos. El sistema propuesto de AC basado en señales cardíacas está diseñado para aplicaciones en tiempo real y puede ofrecer una precisión de hasta el 96%, con un rendimiento del sistema casi perfecto (estadístico kappa > 80 %). En el Capítulo 4, proponemos un protocolo de verificación de la distancia para gestionar el control de acceso al DMI: ACIMD. ACIMD combina dos características, verificación de identidad (autenticación) y verificación de la proximidad (comprobación de la distancia). El mecanismo de autenticación es compatible con el estándar ISO/IEC 9798-2 y se realiza utilizando la señal ECG con todas sus ondas, lo cual es difícilmente replicable por un atacante que se encuentre distante. Hemos evaluado el rendimiento de ACIMD usando señales ECG de 199 individuos durante 24 horas, y hemos considerando tres estrategias posibles para el adversario. Los resultados muestran que se puede lograr una precisión del 87.07% en la au tenticación. Finalmente, en el Capítulo 5 extraemos algunas conclusiones y resumimos los trabajos publicados (es decir, revistas científicas con alto factor de impacto y conferencias internacionales prestigiosas). ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Ciencia y Tecnología Informática ; Presidente: Arturo Ribagorda Garnacho.- Secretario: Jorge Blasco Alís.- Vocal: Jesús García López de Lacalle

Biogas production from anaerobic digestion of organic resources can potentially contribute to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions in several sectors and can play a central role in both the bioeconomy and the circular economy. Several European countries have political goals to increase biogas production and to increase the amount of manure to anaerobic digestion. The treatment method is, however, known to be costly and the markets for biogas and for digestate are immature. There is a need for a better understanding of how the biogas value chains should be designed to minimise environmental impacts while at the same time achieving profitability for the actors. In Norway the most common substrates for biogas production are sewage sludge and organic waste from households and industry. Manure is identified as the substrate with the greatest theoretical biogas potential, but there are currently few plants utilising manure. Until recently, biogas in Norway has mainly been applied to generate heat, where a large share has been utilised internally at the plant or in surrounding buildings. In the last few years, however, several new and existing plants have invested in upgrading equipment to produce biomethane for use as a fuel in the transport sector. The most common treatment of the digestate, which is a co-product from anaerobic digestion, is to dewater it and use the dry fraction as a soil improvement product, while the wet fraction is sent to waste water treatment. A few new plants do, however, deliver liquid digestate to agriculture as a biofertiliser. The objective of this thesis has been to make a contribution towards knowledge regarding ways of optimising Norwegian biogas value chains to reduce environmental impacts, by developing models that can provide decision support. The aim is to suggest improvements to the regulatory systems and the preconditions for further development of the biogas industry in Norway. Systems theory and system analysis methodology was applied, and three different domains were assessed: environmental impacts, economy of the actors in the value chain and policies. The case studies were limited to the substrates organic waste from households (food waste) and manure from cattle and pigs. In the economic assessment, only the annual results for the biogas plants and cattle and pig farms were calculated. Four scientific papers were developed as part of this PhD thesis. In the first paper, life cycle assessment methodology and generic results were presented for the BioValueChain model. The model was developed to be able to evaluate the environmental impacts of different options for biogas value chains. In the second paper, environmental assessment was combined with economic assessment of large scale biogas plants for four different value chain configurations. In addition, the most profitable option was used as a reference to calculate the incentives necessary to make the most preferable option in terms of reduction of environmental impacts as profitable as the reference. A comparative assessment of biogas value chains in Norway and Denmark was carried out in Paper 3. Denmark has implemented an end-use support of biogas through a feed-in tariff, while Norway provides investment support and support for farmers per tonne manure delivered to a biogas plant. The objective was to evaluate the effect of different regulatory systems. This was achieved by defining a Norwegian and a Danish biogas value chain, and calculating the costs and income. In addition, the economic results were calculated for the Norwegian value chain when assuming Danish conditions, and vice versa. In paper 4 the methodology of an optimisation model for the use of manure resources for anaerobic digestion in one region was described, and the model was employed to perform a case study on 50 farms in one region in Norway. The model calculated the economic profit for farmers and the greenhouse gas emissions for three options: no biogas production, farm scale biogas production and centralised biogas production. The results in this PhD work showed that the amount of organic waste and manure used for anaerobic digestion should be increased to reduce environmental impacts. The most preferable option for the use of biogas is as a fuel for transport to substitute diesel, and the best use of the digestate is as a fertiliser in agriculture as a substitute for mineral fertiliser, which requires a high level of sector integration in the value chain. To obtain a maximal reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, efforts should be made to avoiding diffuse emissions and reducing emissions from the storage of digestate. The economic calculations showed that large-scale biogas plants in general lack economic incentives to include the agricultural sector in the value chain. Inclusion of the transport sector is the most profitable option for use of biogas only for the largest scale biogas plants and for those who are able to sell biomethane for a high price. The most profitable option regarding the management of manure for cattle and pig farms was the supply of manure to a centralised biogas plant and the return of the digestate as biofertiliser. This was, however, dependent on the agreement between the farm and the biogas plant. As a result of the newly introduced support per tonne manure sent to biogas production, investment in a small scale biogas plant can also be profitable for most cattle and pig farms, all though the majority of farms in Norway would struggle to find a good use for the biogas on the farm. This indicates that the current barriers to increased use of manure resources for biogas production are not principally economic. The current support system has contributed to an increase in biogas production. Based on the assessments performed as part of this thesis, however, some recommendations were made to improve the framework conditions of an optimised biogas production in Norway, to reduce environmental impacts and achieve the political objectives. While the exemption from CO2 tax and road fee has contributed to an increased use of biogas in the transport sector, an increase in the taxes for fossil fuels could contribute to making upgrading of the gas the most profitable option for most large-scale biogas plants. Raising the importance of the environmental aspects in public procurements would enhance the role of biogas in achieving the political objectives of obtaining fossil free public transport and in the reduction of environmental impacts from waste treatment. In addition, it is important to consider measures that motivate large scale plants to use manure as a substrate and deliver digestate to agriculture. An increase in the knowledge regarding the economy of farm scale biogas production in a Norwegian context would make the results from the economic assessment more robust and reduce the risk for farmers in making the investment. These include knowledge with regard to the start-up and operation of small scale plants to avoid unforeseen costs. Political instruments that encourage the development of technology for cheaper small scale upgrading solutions could further reduce the greenhouse gas emissions, as would the use of raw biogas in tractors and other agricultural equipment currently using fossil fuels. In some regions, this could also be achieved by implementing regional development plans for farm scale production with piping infrastructure and centralised upgrading. These measures could promote an increase in the amount of manure for biogas production The work carried out as part of this thesis has shown that models combining environmental life cycle assessment and economic cost assessments can serve as decision support and can make a valuable contribution to policy development. The results are, however, highly dependent on the quality of the data used and the level of detail in the models. In order to increase the robustness of the results, there is a need for more research into the quantification of emissions from the storage and spreading of digestate, and ways in which they can be reduced. In addition, there is a need for a greater understanding of the properties of digestate as a fertiliser, such as the fertilising effect, carbon storage and other contributions to soil quality. More research should also be carried out on the emissions from dewatering and composting of digestate, and its use as a substitute for peat. Furthermore, the cost assessments could be expanded to also to include the economy of the actors in the transport sector and the farmers receiving digestate. ; Biogassproduksjon fra anaerob utråtning av organiske ressurser kan potensielt bidra til reduksjon av klimagasser i flere sektorer og kan spille en viktig rolle i både bioøkonomien og sirkulærøkonomien. Flere europeiske land har politiske målsetninger om å øke biogassproduksjon og øke mengden gjødsel til anaerob behandling. Behandlingsmetoden er derimot kjent for å være kostbar, og markedene for biogass og biorest er umodne. Det er behov for en bedre forståelse av hvordan verdikjedene bør utformes for å minimere miljøbelastningene samtidig som man oppnår lønnsomhet for aktørene. I Norge er de vanligste substratene for biogassproduksjon kloakkslam og organisk avfall fra husholdninger og industri. Gjødsel er identifisert som substratet med det høyeste teoretiske biogasspotensialet, men det er foreløpig få biogassanlegg som bruker gjødsel som råvare. Inntil nylig har biogass i hovedsak blitt brukt til å generere varme, hvor en stor andel har blitt brukt internt i anleggene eller til å varme opp bygninger i nærheten. I løpet av de siste årene har derimot flere nye og eksisterende anlegg investert i oppgradering og produserer biometan til bruk i transportsektoren. Den vanligste behandlingen av bioresten, som er et biprodukt fra den anaerobe behandlingen, er å avvanne den og bruke den tørre fraksjonen som et jordforbedringsprodukt og sende vannfasen til renseanlegg. Noen få nye anlegg leverer derimot den flytende biorest til lanbruket som biogjødsel. Hensikten med denne avhandlingen har vært å bidra til økt kunnskap om hvordan norske biogass verdikjeder bør optimaliseres for å redusere miljøbelastninger ved å utvikle modeller som kan gi beslutningsstøtte. Målet er å foreslå forbedringer av virkemiddelapparatet og forutsetningene for videre utvikling av biogassindustrien i Norge. Systemteori og systemanalyse-metodikk ble brukt, og tre ulike aspekter ble analysert: miljøpåvirkninger, økonomien til aktører i verdikjeden og politikk. Casestudiene er begrenset til substratene organisk avfall fra husholdninger (matavfall) og gjødsel fra storfe og gris. I økonomianalysene ble kun det årlige resultatet til biogassanlegg og storfe- og grisegårder analysert. Fire vitenskapelige artikler ble utviklet som en del av avhandlingen. I den første artikkelen ble livsløpssmetodikk og generelle resultater for BioValueChain-modellen presentert. Modellen ble utviklet for å muliggjøre evaluering av miljøpåvirkninger fra ulike alternativer for biogass verdikjeder. I den andre artikkelen ble miljøanalyser kombinert med økonomiberegninger for storskala biogassanlegg for fire ulike verdikjede-konfigurasjoner. I tillegg ble det mest lønnsomme alternativet brukt som referanse til å beregne hvilke insentiver som er nødvendig for at den mest gunstige løsningen med tanke på reduksjon miljøbelastninger, blir like lønnsom som referansen. En komparativ analyse av biogass verdikjeder i Norge og Danmark ble gjennomført i Paper 3. Danmark har implementert støtteordninger for sluttbruk av biogass gjennom en feed-in tariff, mens Norge tilbyr investeringsstøtte og støtte til gårder per tonn gjødsel levert til biogassanlegg. Hensikten var å undersøke effekten av ulike virkemiddelsystemer. Dette ble utført ved å definere en norsk og en dansk biogass verdikjede og beregne kostnadene og inntektene. I tillegg ble de økonomiske resultatene beregnet for den norske verdikjeden under danske forutsetninger, og vice versa. I Paper 4 ble metodikken til en optimaliseringsmodell for bruk av gjødselressurser i en region til biogassproduksjon beskrevet, og modellen ble brukt til å gjennomføre en casestudie på 50 gårder i en region i Norge. Modellen beregnet årlig økonomisk resultat for gårdene i regionen og utslipp av klimagasser for tre alternativer: ingen biogassproduksjon, biogassproduksjon på gårdsanlegg og sentralisert biogassproduksjon. Resultatene i PhD-arbeidet har vist at organisk avfall og gjødsel i større grad bør benyttes til biogassproduksjon for å redusere miljøbelastninger. Den beste løsningen for bruk av biogassen er som drivstoff slik at biogassen kan erstatter diesel, og den beste løsningen for bruk av biorest er som biogjødsel i landbruket til å erstatte mineralgjødsel, noe som krever et høyt nivå av sektorintegrering i verdikjeden. For å oppnå maksimal reduksjon av klimagassutslipp, bør det fokuseres på å redusere diffuse utslipp og å redusere utslipp fra lagring av biorest. Økonomiberegningene vise at storskala biogassanlegg mangler generelt økonomiske insentiver for å inkludere landbrukssektoren i verdikjeden. Inkludering av transportsektoren er kun det mest lønnsomme alternativet for anlegg over en viss skala eller for anlegg som får en høy pris for den oppgraderte gassen. For storfe og grisegårder er det mest lønnsomme alternativet med tanke på gjødselhåndtering å levere gjødsel til et sentralt biogassanlegg, og å få bioresten i retur. Denne konklusjonen er svært avhengig av avtalen mellom gården og biogassanlegget. Takket være den nylig introduserte støtten per tonn gjødsel til biogassanlegg, kan investering i et gårdsanlegg også gi økonomisk overskudd for bonden, til tross for vanskeligheter med å finne et godt bruksområde for gassen. Dette gir en indikasjon på at barrierene for å øke mengden gjødsel til biogassproduksjon på det nåværende tidspunkt ikke i hovedsak er økonomiske. Det eksisterende virkemiddelapparatet har bidratt til en økning i biogassproduksjonen. Basert på analysene som er utført i denne avhandlingen kan det likevel gis noen anbefalinger til forbedringer i rammevilkårene for en optimalisert biogassproduksjon i Norge, for å redusere miljøpåvirkningene og for å oppnå de politiske målsetningene. Unntak fra CO2-avgift og veiavgift har sannsynligvis bidratt til en økning i bruk av biogass i transportsektoren. En ytterligere økning i avgiftene for fossile drivstoff vil sannsynligvis medføre at oppgradering blir den mest lønnsomme løsningen for de fleste storskala biogassanlegg. Et økt fokus på viktigheten av miljøaspekter ved offentlige innkjøp kan bidra til å oppnå de politiske målsetningene for fossilfri kollektivtransport og reduksjoner av miljøbelastninger fra avfallshåndtering. I tillegg er det viktig å vurdere virkemidler som kan motivere storskalaanlegg til å bruke gjødsel som substrat og levere biorest til landbruket. En økt forståelse for økonomien til gårdsanlegg under norske forhold vil gjøre resultatene fra de økonomiske beregningene mer robuste og redusere risikoen for bønder som ønsker å investere. Dette inkluderer kunnskap om oppstart og drift av småskalaanlegg for å unngå uforutsette utgifter. Politiske virkemidler som legger til rette for utvikling av teknologi for billigere småskala-oppgradering kan redusere klimagassutslippene ytterligere. Det samme kan bruk av rågass i traktorer og annet landbruksutstyr, som på det nåværende tidspunkt bruker fossilt drivstoff. I noen regioner kan det være aktuelt å lage en regional plan for biogassproduksjon med rørnett og sentralisert oppgradering. Disse tiltakene vil kunne bidra til å øke mengden gjødsel til biogassproduksjon. Arbeidet som er gjennomført i forbindelse med denne avhandlingen har vist at modeller som kombinerer livsløpsanalyser og økonomiberegninger kan bidra med beslutningsstøtte og kan gi verdifulle innspill til politikkutforming. Det er likevel viktig å være oppmerksom på at resultatene er svært avhengig av kvaliteten på datagrunnlaget og detaljnivået til modellene. For å øke robustheten til resultatene er det behov for mer forskning på kvantifisering av utslipp fra lagring og spredning av biorest, og reduksjon av disse utslippene. Det er i tillegg behov for en bedre forståelse av egenskapene til biorest som et gjødselprodukt, slik som gjødseleffekt og karbonlagringseffekt og andre bidrag til jordkvalitet. Det er også behov for mer kunnskap om utslipp fra avvanning og kompostering av biorest og på erstatning av torv. Videre kan kostnadsberegningene med fordel utvides til å inkludere aktørene i transportsektoren og gårder som mottar biorest. ; publishedVersion

Vlada demokratskog jedinstva nastala je u početcima otvorene velikosrpske agresije na Hrvatsku, ali i usred krize strateško-obrambene koncepcije. Tuđmanova politika čekanja i kupovanja vremena te izbjegavanja frontalnog i općeg sukoba s JNA, doveli su do javnog kritiziranja njegove obrambene politike od strane oporbe i dijela HDZ-a. U okolnostima sveobuhvatne agresije i, prema nekim navodima, očekivanja raskola u hrvatskoj politici, sredinom srpnja počela je rekonstrukcija postojeće Vlade. Novi mandatar Franjo Gregurić okupljao je kadrove za sastavljanje Vlade, a u tom razdoblju javila se ideja o potrebi proširenja Vlade i nekim nestranačkim kandidatima pa i predstavnicima oporbe. U samo dva-tri dana pregovora postignut je nacionalni konsenzus i potpisan Sporazum saborskih stranaka, čime je stvorena Vlada demokratskog jedinstva. Vlada se sastojala od devet parlamentarnih stranaka, od kojih je osam imalo svoje predstavnike u Vladi. Unatoč činjenici da je 1990-ih godina u Hrvatskoj na snazi bio polupredsjednički sustav koji je predsjedniku Republike davao prilično široke ovlasti, Vlada je na području obrambene i vanjske politike pokazivala određeni stupanj samostalnosti. Prema nekim tvrdnjama Vrhovno državno vijeće je ograničavalo slobodu djelovanja Vlade tako da se za svog jednogodišnjeg mandata Vlada trebala često boriti za veću samostalnost i slobodu djelovanja. S druge strane, Vlada je imala potpunu slobodu u unutarnjim poslovima, primjerice u njezinoj politici prema prognanicima i izbjeglicama, kao i u gospodarskoj politici. Unatoč tvrdnjama o "nestanku" oporbe u vrijeme te višestranačke vlade, s obzirom na to da su potpisivanjem Sporazuma o Vladi demokratskog jedinstva saborske stranke od oporbenih formalno postale koalicijske, dostupni izvori navode na drukčiji zaključak. Naime, predstavnici pojedinih oporbenih i ujedno koalicijskih stranaka od listopada 1991. godine često su kritizirali neke odluke vlasti, koje su se posebno odnosile na vanjsku politiku. Predmet njihovih kritika bile su ujedno Vladine i Tuđmanove uredbe sa zakonskom snagom. Vlada je posljednjih šest mjeseci svog mandata bila izložena pritiscima oporbe i dijela HDZ-a. Međunarodno priznanje Hrvatske i priprema za nove parlamentarne i predsjedničke izbore uzrokovali su pritiske na Vladu demokratskog jedinstva, što se prije svega očitovalo u odlascima određenih nestranačkih i oporbenih ministara, a kasnije dovelo i do velike travanjske rekonstrukcije Vlade u kojoj je u znatnoj mjeri promijenjen njezin sastav u korist HDZ-a. Vlada demokratskog jedinstva nastavila je djelovati do kolovoza, kad je nakon novih parlamentarnih izbora formirana nova, jednostranačka HDZ-ova vlada. ; After the democratic elections in Croatia in the spring of 1990 and the victory of Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), the new Croatian Government faced the Serbian insurgency which expressed approval for the Milošević's Greater-Serbian policy. The insurgency was supported by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) that had disarmed Croatia just after the elections in May 1990. In the summer of 1991, the Yugoslav crisis aggravated. Previous occasional and sporadic conflicts between Croatian police forces and the Serbian insurgents escalated into the open aggression of Serbia, Montenegro and JNA against Croatia. In such conditions, Croatian leadership was conflicted about the defense policy. The disagreement caused the appearance of some fractions in the parliament parties, especially in HDZ. Some participants of Croatian politics in the early 1990s today assert that there were at least two main fractions in HDZ – the "moderate" one that supported Tuđman's policy based on avoiding head-on conflict with JNA, and the "radical" one that wanted to declare JNA and Serbia the aggressors on Croatia and to fight back. Some claim that the "radical" fraction even wanted to bring down Tuđman and replace him with someone else. There isn't enough evidence to verify such statements. It probably was the case of dissatisfaction with the situation on the battlefield. Some write about wide discontent and criticism of Tuđman regarding his defense policy, which was evident at the meetings of the main Board of HDZ in the middle of July, Supreme State Council in the end of July and parliamentary session in the beginning of August 1991. Regarding the attitude towards Tuđman, there is a widespread and simplified opinion that his party turned its back on him and that the opposition expressed him support. Exactly the opposite, the opposition, especially heads of the parties Croatian Social-Liberal Party (HSLS), Croatian democratic party (HDS), and Croatian People's party (HNS) expressed equal, or even more severe, criticism of Tuđman's defense policy. In that kind of atmosphere, the reconstruction of the Government resulted in the national consensus – Democratic Unity Government was formed. It was the third democratic Government and the first multiparty Government after the democratic elections. It is an example of a Grand coalition formed during the war in many countries. The main goal of the new Government was to create more effective defense policy that would gather all the necessary political and military structures and establish the unified command structure. That resulted in entering of the Crisis Staff into the Government and forming of the General Staff of the Croatian Army. In the first two months of its mandate, the Government proposed and adopted measures for emergency readiness in order to organize life in the crisis areas. One of those measures included the blockade of the JNA barracks which Tuđman approved September 13 1991. With the blockade, the previous measured and careful attitude of the Croatian leadership towards JNA shifted from passive to active. One part of the research discussed the role of the Government in defense of the cities of Vukovar and Dubrovnik. Regarding Vukovar, there are some controversies embodied in widespread claims that Croatian leadership "betrayed" and "sacrificed" Vukovar by not sending enough weaponry and ammunition. However, available sources, primarily transcripts and records of the Government sessions, suggest that Vukovar was the priority in the supply of weaponry and ammunition. Furthermore, some members of the Government and other representatives of the Croatian leadership visited Vukovar and Eastern-Slavonian battlefield. In the context of all the crisis areas on the Croatian battlefield, Vukovar was the most dominant topic at the Government sessions. At the session held November 17, the Government adopted a series of decisions pertaining to the protection of Vukovar civilians. In the appeals to the international organizations, Vukovar and Dubrovnik were the two most mentioned cities. As was the case with Vukovar, the Government sent weaponry and other military equipment, transported humanitarian aid to Dubrovnik and appealed for help. It is worth mentioning convoy "Libertas" which supplied humanitarian aid to the surrounded Dubrovnik and broke the naval blockade. Also, some Government members came by the convoy to Dubrovnik to show their support. At the end of November 1991, Government sent three of its ministers to Dubrovnik where they had to represent the Government and facilitate its operation in Southern Dalmatia, maintain contacts with the international organizations, negotiate with the JNA representatives and maintain communication with the Croatian Army. The three ministers Davorin Rudolf, Petar Kriste and Ivan Cifrić were situated in Dubrovnik during its heaviest attack and the day after they agreed to a truce with the JNA representatives. The Government supported the negotiations between the city military and civil representatives and JNA because it wanted to procrastinate with the attacks and buy some time to strengthen the military and international position of Croatia. On the other hand, the Government and Tuđman strongly opposed to intentions of "demilitarization" of Dubrovnik which would surrender its arms to the JNA under the supervision of representatives of the international community, i.e. surrender of the city to the aggressor. Second most important task of the Government was the struggle for international recognition. The establishment of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs showed all the problems of the political structures that young democratic state had to face. Such problems refer to lack of experience as well as technical and financial resources. The Government cooperated with the European Community and the United Nations. Although, Tuđman was the designer of the Forreign Affairs and the Government often had to put into action his decisions, during the Conference of peace in Hague it showed some differentiation, such as declaring it would abort the attending of the Conference unless JNA left Croatia. After the arms embargo in September 1991, the Croatian Government deprived of the right of representation of Croatia in the UN Budimir Lončar and Darko Šilović, due to their role in instigating the decision of the UN regarding embargo. The Government Memorandum, addressed to ministerial Council of the EC in November 22, stated that economic sanctions of the Roman declaration of November 8 would affect mostly Croatia. Such view showed a certain degree of independence of the Democratic Unity Government. The Government accepted the Vance plan but argued the methods of its implementation. The activity of the Government in Forreign Affairs reflects in numerous official and unofficial meetings and encounters with various politicians and statesmen. The main task of the Government members was to appeal to stop the war and recognize Croatia, but they also had to struggle against Serbian propaganda which spread lies about rehabilitation of Ustasha and Independent State of Croatia (NDH) and portrayed president Tuđman and the Croatian Government as anti-Semitic. In that context, some think that the Croatian Government and leadership in general, provided insufficient to the international public. In this research, I also analyzed social politics of the Democratic Unity Government, that is, politics towards Croatian displaced persons and refugees as well as Bosnian-Herzegovinian refugees during 1991 and 1992. At the very beginning of the aggression against Croatia, new Croatian Government had to face refugee crisis. Forcible relocations of the Croatian civilians, among which some moved into safe areas in Croatia, while others left the country, induced Government to, with the term "refugee", which refers to those persons who had to emigrate their own country, introduce another one – "displaced persons", which referred to those civilians who hadn't left Croatia, only were displaced to some other territory within the country. Government also adopted some measures to secure accommodation for the displaced persons and refugees by emptying hotels and resorts and founding of the Office for the displaced persons and refugees in November 1991. Funds for the displaced persons and refugees Government secured mostly from the state budget, while all requests for financial help from the international community were unsuccessful. Consequently, in that period Croatia funded also Bosnian-Herzegovinian refugees from its budget, while the international community helped only with humanitarian help. In this chapter the Government activity in prevention of persecution of the civilian population was discussed through several examples. In that aspect, its activities were mostly limited to addressing the international community. In the case of Ilok, from where in October 1991 approximately 10.000 people were banished, Government founded the Commission of the Parliament and Government to try to stop the persecution, but it failed to achieve its goal, since the persecution had already begun. After the fall and occupation of Vukovar in November 1991, the Government organized evacuation of approximately 15.000 people, but it was carried out only partially. The Government didn't have control over the war zone, which means that its opportunities for safe and efficient evacuation were highly limited. One of the main plans for the displaced persons and refugees was Government's Return Program, which began its realization only after the end of the war and peaceful reintegration of Podunavlje in 1998. Economic politics of the Democratic Unity Government was reflected in its independence from Serbia. Following measures and decisions of the previous Croatian Government, on the day of its establishment, Democratic Unity Government broke off economic relations with Serbia, however only partially. Those companies with strong business ties with some companies in Serbia, had liberty to continue their cooperation. The export to Serbia and Montenegro was limited only to some "strategic" raw materials and products, such as petroleum. The Government also introduced its own currency, hrvatski dinar (HRD). One of the main achievements of the Government was that it avoided the transit to "war economy", in spite of the increased military spending. Since priority of the Croatian Government was determined by war, its activities gravitated towards repair of the enormous war damage in transport, utility and residential infrastructure. In the end of 1991 the Government established the Ministry of Reconstruction, while in the first half of 1992 the Government composed the Reconstruction Program and its Financial Plan that was adopted by the Croatian Parliament in June 1992. Nevertheless, because of the status quo imposed by the UNPROFOR, located on the occupied territories in Croatia, the reconstruction of the country began after the war had ended in 1995. Analyzed activities of the Government in the Defense policy, Foreign Affairs, as well as its Social and Economic policy raise the question of the Government's independence regarding Tuđman and Croatian Parliament. Considering the semi-presidential system, the Government was the executive authority of the president of the Republic and Croatian Parliament. Government also had legislative powers authorized by the Parliament, because in the wartime a great number of important decisions had to be made in a very short amount of time. The Government was not only the executive body of the President, but it also functioned as his close associate. That manifests mostly through the measures for emergency readiness in August and September 1991. Sometimes, the Government had to step out of its Constitutional powers if developments on the battlefield required it to, for example regarding the decisions about Vukovar, November 17 1991. Regarding activities of the Government in the researched areas, it can be concluded that Democratic Unity Government had a high level of autonomy, taking into account the existing semi-presidential system. Nevertheless, the powers of the Government were limited in the Defense policy and Forregin Affairs, while on the other hand, it had complete autonomy in Internal Affairs, in this case, in its Social and Economic politics. An issue that requires special consideration in this research regards the opposition in Croatia during the mandate of the Democratic Unity Government. Some claim that with forming of the multiparty Government, the opposition in Croatia "disappeared". The remark is understandable considering that all the parliament parties signed the Agreement of Democratic Unity Government, which marked their transition from the opposition to coalition partners. But, did the opposition really "disappeared" form Croatian political life? Numerous public appearances of various representatives of opposition parties and parties in general, indicate otherwise. Activity of the opposition at the Parliament sessions from October 1991 to May and June 1992 shows agility of the opposition life in Croatia. From the beginning of the Democratic Unity Government in August till October, the opposition parties didn't raise any questions in public about some decisions of the Croatian leadership, but from October began severe criticism towards Tuđman and the Government. Discontent was expressed primarily to the acceptance of the Carrington's arrangement in Hague. Criticism of Foreign Affairs arose also after the acceptance of the Vance plan. In the last six months of its mandate, the Government was exposed to various pressures from the opposition and from one part of the HDZ, which reinforced especially after the international recognition at the beginning of 1992. Some opposition and nonpartisan ministers left the Government, whereas in April 1992 there was the reconstruction of the Government which changed significantly the personnel composition of the Government, resulting in the increase of the HDZ members. It was obvious that it was not the exact same Government from the beginning of August 1991 and that its end was near. In the new elections held August 2 1992, the HDZ defeated its opponents and ten days later, new, One-party Government was formed. Establishment and presented activities of the Democratic Unity Government is the proof of the democratic system in Republic of Croatia at the beginning of 1990s and counter-argument for theses about Tuđman's authoritarian style of rule. A multiparty Government, whose prominent members were opposition representatives, couldn't have been formed in an undemocratic or authoritarian system. Forming of the Grand Coalition merely one year after HDZ had won the elections, provides a valuable contribution to the study of Tuđman's policy, shows larger picture of the Croatian leadership and opens the door for further research of Croatian political life in the early 1990s.

The article analyses the state of the most popular and least popular professions and specialties in Ukraine. It's found that there are no specialties in the field of land management among them. It is also noted that at the legislative level the specialties "Land Management and Cadastre" and "Evaluation of land and real estate" were replaced by the specialty "Geodesy and land management", which belongs to the field of knowledge "Architecture and construction" (technical sciences). It is substantiated that the profession of land manager should relate to the field of knowledge of "Social and behavioural sciences". It's based on the provisions of the Law "On Land Management" and the study of world experience of the essence of the concepts of land management and land management planning (both have technical, socio-economic, legal and environmental focus).It is proved that the profession of land manager needs to be reprofiled. In this regard, there is a need to identify new specialties and specializations and add them into the state classifier DK 003: 2010. It's important to expand the training of specialists within: 1) specialty 193 "Geodesy and land management" specializations "Land Management and Land Use Administration" and "Cadastral Registrar"; 2) specialty 101 "Ecology" specialization "Land management and ecologization of landuse", 3) specialty 051 "Economics" specialization "Economics of land management and land use". It is proposed to add them to the classifier.Keywords. Profession "land manager", labour market, perspective specialties and specializations in land management, new qualifications. Formulation of the problem. The development of society at all times was associated with the arrangement of lands, which today remains the main means for the existence of mankind and a source of social wealth. The need to establish the limits disturb landowners from ancient times. This function is performed by land surveyors. When the first representatives of this profession appeared, it is certainly not known. But the land surveyor is now a profession demanded both in the village and in the city. In our country, the profession of land surveyor always respects honour because it is devoted to the invaluable treasures of Ukraine - land, which has always attached special significance.According to the research conducted in Ukraine, soon, the 10 most demanded professions include: programmers (C++, Java), food industry technologists, construction engineers, architects, designers of offices and interiors, personnel managers, recruiters, energy engineers, journalists, technologists of light industry products, financiers (specialization "banking") [1]. In addition, prospective include: hotel business managers, accountants, auditors, lawyers, marketers.According to the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, according to the results of the 2017 admission, the most popular specialties among the entrants for the Bachelor in Ukraine were Philology, Law, and Management. 85 thousand, 74 thousand and 59 thousand applications have been filed for the stated above specialties respectively. In addition, among the leaders are "Medicine", "Computer Science", "Tourism", "Secondary Education", "Psychology", "Economics". These specialties were desirable to enter by 40 to 46 thousand of entrants. The last step in the TOP-10 was "Software Engineering" with the result of 33 thousand applications (Fig. 1) [9]. Despite the stated above facts, it has been revealed that such specialties as "Law", "Management", "Tourism" and "Economics" remain among the most popular among entrants even though they are not in demand in the labour market. At the same time, the high levels in the ranking are occupied by important for the economy specialties, such as "Computer Science" and "Software Engineering". The least popular specialties are (fig. 2) "Theology" (185 applications excluding spiritual higher educational institutions) and "Hydropower" (193 applications for entry).However, specialties for the preparation of a specialist in land management are absent among the most and least popular. Therefore, with a caution we have to perceive the situation.The list of required occupations in the labour market is changing. Focus magazine has ranked the professions that will be promising in 5-10 years [10]. Before allocating the most promising specialties, the publication together with experts identified the areas of the economy that will actively develop in the near future. So, at first there was a list of 40 spheres of the economy, which, according to Focus, will successfully develop in the next 5-10 years. Experts evaluated the prospects for the development of these industries on a 10-point scale, giving each sector a mark from 1 to 10 points. At the same time, each expert could add to the list the industry that was not among the 40 listed, but whose potential he considers rather large.According to the obtained data, the rating of 15 most promising industries has been designed, and include: information technologies, telecommunications and communications, agriculture, pharmaceutical production and pharmacy business, banking, frying and processing industry, transport services, financial services, legal services, household services, metallurgy, alcohol production, energy, livestock, utilities.So, the 20 most promising professions of the next decade will be the following: the seller, the IT specialist, the automation engineer, the marketer, the municipal services engineer, the aeroengineer, the technologist in the production and processing of food products, the technologist of consumer services, logistics, the lawyer (economic and land law), power engineer veterinarian, pharmacologist, financier, communication engineer, practical psychologist, geneticist, biochemist, robotic technician, nanoengineer.In addition, agrarian countries are actively developing organic and farm farming. This will require the involvement of a large number of employees who are able to work on the ground - and thus, forms a serious niche. In general, the labour market trends in the coming years can be reduced to nine main directions [5]: engineers, IT specialists, nanotechnology specialists, marketers, service providers, logistics, environmentalists, chemists, and physicians.The Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine dated December 30, 2015, No. 1187, approved new Licensing conditions for the conduct of educational activities [7] concerning the further conduct of educational and scientific work in educational institutions. By the order of the Ministry of Education and Science dated November 6, 2015, No. 1151 "On the peculiarities of the introduction of the list of branches of knowledge and specialties [6], which are the training of applicants for higher education, approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine from April 29, 2015, No. 266" [8] approved Table of correspondence List of directions for training of specialists in higher educational establishments for the educational-qualifying level of bachelor (List 1), List of specialties, which was carried out training of specialists in higher education institutions for educational and qualification levels of a specialist and a master's degree (List 2).In the stated above Resolution, it is defined that instead of the specialties "Land Management and Cadastre" and "Land and Real Estate Valuation" – the specialty "Geodesy and Land Management" is established. The latter belongs to the field of knowledge "Architecture and Construction", which belongs to the technical sciences.At the same time, the Law of Ukraine "On Land Management" stipulates that land management is a set of socio-economic and environmental measures aimed at regulating land relations and rational organization of the territory of administrative-territorial units, economic entities carried out under the influence of social and productive relations and development of productive forces [2]. The same law (Article 1) stipulates that activities in the field of land management are the scientific, technical, production and management activities of state authorities, local governments, legal entities and individuals, which is carried out under land management. Land-use documentation (land management documentation) is the text and graphic materials approved in accordance with the established procedure, which regulate the use and protection of lands of state, communal and private property, as well as survey and land survey materials, author's supervision of project implementation, etc. Measures on land management – provided by documentation on land management on the rational use and protection of land, the formation and organization of the territory of the object of land management, taking into account their purpose, restrictions on the use and restrictions (encumbrances) on the rights of other persons (land servitudes), preservation and increase of fertility soils.This is evidence that the profession of land surveyor is more likely to belong to the field of knowledge of "Social and behavioural sciences" than to "Architecture and construction". Architecture (Greek αρχιτεκτονικη - construction) is both a science and the art of designing buildings, as well as a system of buildings and structures that form a spatial environment for the lives and activities of people in accordance with the laws of beauty. Land management, as stated in the Law of Ukraine "On Land Management" – a set of socio-economic and environmental measures aimed at regulating land relations and rational organization of the territory of administrative-territorial entities and economic entities on the ground.As the research of A.M. Tretiak and V.M. Tretiak shows, the concept and essence of land management has both a technical direction and socio-economic, legal and environmental.Land managers have worked and work in the structural subdivisions of the State Committee for Land Resources of Ukraine, the State Land Agency of Ukraine and the State Audit Office of Ukraine, state authorities and local self-government bodies, and ministries (where there are departments of land resources); in public and private design and valuation companies, real estate firms, agroholdings, agricultural enterprises; territorial communities, scientific institutions, institutions of legal direction. civic organizations.The land manager learns not only his professional knowledge, but also legal and natural sciences. For a profession it is necessary to have mathematical abilities, engineering approach, spatial imagination, ability to understand the legislation. The profession is extremely interesting and creative, which requires the ability to make informed decisions, communicate with people, requires care, clarity and responsibility. To become a successful specialist in this field, you need to be persistent, self-confident, active, have a well-developed intuition and logical thinking.According to the classification of professions, the professional activity of the land manager relates to professions such as "human-nature". To date, the land manager must have a higher education in the field of "Architecture and Construction" from the specialty "Geodesy and Land Management", according to the educational qualification level: a junior specialist, a bachelor's or a master's degree.Currently, land managers use modern equipment in their work: electronic instruments; new technologies of geographic information systems. Significant problems arise when making managerial decisions due to the imperfection of the regulatory framework - when three different land managers can have three different views on the same issue. At the same time, for professionals it is extremely important to come to a joint decision. But how can the problems of legislation be explained to an ordinary peasant? It's a shame when you can not help a person in solving his question, and even more - when you do not know how to explain the impossibility of solving a particular problem. The disadvantage of the profession is also that there is little free time for personal life, family and wage mismatch in modern times. The advantages include: work is interesting, lots of communication, new knowledge in land law, and more.At the same time, we consider it necessary to stay on the proposals of A. Martyn outlined in the scientific paper "Directions of adaptation of the content of land management education to the needs of the national and world economy" [3], where he publishes "bad news" for land management education – whether we are ready for them? He states: "Most of our graduates will not develop landuse documentation at all; the number of jobs in the industry is quite limited; the overwhelming part of the "modern" Ukrainian land management is a terrible mix of fairly archaic rules, a crazy bureaucracy and meaningless rituals, in order to master the development of primitive land management documentation, it takes 2-3 weeks of practical training, but not 5 years at the university, and a significant part of cadastral registrar are lawyers.Some of these reservations agreeable. Therefore, his thoughts emphasize once again the need for serious changes in the training of land management specialists.Thus, all of the above stipulates the need for changes in the classification of occupations DK 003: 2010 and the definition of new specialties and specialization training of land management specialists.In our opinion, it is expedient to extend the training of specialists in land surveying in the following areas: 1) specialty 193 "Geodesy and land management" of the specializations "Land Management and Land Use Administration" and "Cadastral Registrar"; 2) specialty 101 "Ecology" specialization "Land management and ecologization of land use"; 3) specialty 051 "Economics" specialization "Economics of land management and land use".At the same time, we consider it expedient to add the following qualifications to the classifier of professions DK 003: 2010: in section 8 "Main specialists – heads of scientific research units and subdivisions on scientific and technical preparation of production and other managers" – Chief land surveyor; in section 14 "Managers of enterprises, institutions, organizations and their subdivisions" – Manager of land management, Manager in the field of operations with land, Manager in the field of research in the land market; in section 25 "Agronomists, hydraulic engineering, forest managers and professionals of related professions" – Land manager; in section 33 "Assistant veterinarians, junior specialists in agronomy, forestry, water management and nature conservation" – Land Resources Inspector; in section 34 "Other technical specialists in the field of management" – State Inspector for the use and protection of land; in section 249 "Professionals not included in other classification groups". Land manager-ecologist, Land manager-designer.Conclusions.Summing up, we note that the assignment of the specialty "Geodesy and land management" to the field of knowledge "Architecture and Construction" (engineering science) does not comply with the provisions of the Law "On Land Management", the study of world experience of the essence of the concepts of land management, which determined that they are inherent in technical, as well as socio-economic, legal and environmental trends. In this connection it is proved that the profession of land manager belongs to the field of knowledge of "Social and behavioral sciences".In view of this, the need for re-engineering the directions of land management training is urgent. Therefore, we must work ahead and make changes to the classification of professions DK 003: 2010 regarding the definition of new specialties and specialization training of specialists in land management. We consider it expedient to expand the training of specialists within: 1) specialty 193 "Geodesy and land management" of the specialties "Land Management and Land Use Administration" and "Cadastral Registrar"; 2) specialty 101 "Ecology" specialization "Land management and ecologization of land use"; 3) specialty 051 "Economics" specialization "Economics of land management and land use" (qualification "Land Management Manager"). It is proposed to make changes to the list of qualifications. ; У пропонованій статті проаналізовано стан найзатребуваніших і найменш популярних професій, спеціальностей в Україні та виявлено, що спеціальності для підготовки фахівців землевпорядного профілю серед них відсутні. Також відзначено, що на законодавчому рівні спеціальності «Землеустрій та кадастр», «Оцінка землі та нерухомого майна» з підготовки зазначених фахівців замінено на спеціальність «Геодезія та землеустрій», яку віднесено до галузі знань «Архітектура та будівництво» (технічні науки). Обґрунтовано, що професія землевпорядника має відноситись до галузі знань «Соціальних та поведінкових наук», підставою чого слугували положення ЗУ «Про землеустрій» та дослідження світового досвіду сутності понять землеустрою і землевпорядкування (мають як технічне, так і соціально-економічне, правове й екологічне спрямування). Доведено, що професія землевпорядника потребує перепрофілювання. У цьому зв'язку існує необхідність у визначенні нових спеціальностей і спеціалізацій та внесенні їх до класифікатора професій ДК 003:2010. Вказано на доцільність розширення підготовки фахівців в межах: 1) спеціальності 193 «Геодезія та землеустрій» спеціалізацій «Землеустрій та адміністрування землекористування» і «Кадастровий реєстратор»; 2) спеціальності 101 «Екологія» спеціалізації «Землевпорядкування та екологізація землекористування», 3) спеціальності 051 «Економіка» спеціалізації «Економіка землевпорядкування та землекористування». Запропоновано внести до класифікатора й перелік нових кваліфікацій.Ключові слова. Професія «землевпорядник», ринок праці, перспективні спеціальності та спеціалізації у сфері землевпорядкування,нові кваліфікації.

Dottorato di ricerca in Economia e territorio ; La tesi ha rivolto la sua attenzione a uno strumento innovativo nella gestione degli investimenti pubblici sotto il profilo economico amministrativo, la concessione di valorizzazione demaniale cinquantennale che ha lo scopo di valorizzare il capitale demaniale dello Stato senza intaccare le risorse finanziarie dello stesso, vincolate dai criteri europei e prevalentemente destinate a coprire le spese correnti. La tesi descrive la prima concessione di valorizzazione demaniale cinquantennale rilasciata dallo Stato: Villa Tolomei a Firenze. Villa Tolomei è un complesso immobiliare plurisecolare immerso nelle colline di Firenze, che a seguito della riqualificazione e della valorizzazione è stato trasformato in un hotel e resort a cinque stelle, a soli 5 minuti dal centro storico e a 2,7 km dal Ponte Vecchio, dotato di tutti i comfort. Villa Tolomei è una dimora risalente al XIV secolo appartenuta alla famiglia Tolomei. Il complesso immobiliare è costituito, sin dalla sua origine, da diversi edifici per circa 3.500 mq di superficie, collocati all'interno di 17 ettari di un parco che presenta ancora le tracce della vecchia organizzazione a poderi. La tesi descrive i criteri contabili per la redazione del Bilancio dello Stato italiano e passa in rassegna i vincoli imposti dal Trattato di Maastricht, dal Fiscal Compact e dal Two Pack, da cui emerge le difficoltà dell'Italia nel fare fronte ai propri impegni europei, nel valorizzare il proprio patrimonio artistico e culturale e nel procedere con gli investimenti necessari per lo sviluppo del Paese senza il quale la politica di austerità del bilancio non ha efficacia. Il Bilancio dello Stato italiano infatti sta destinando le proprie risorse prevalentemente, se non totalmente, per finanziare le spese di funzionamento e per il ripianamento del debito, trascurando le spese in conto capitale e in particolare la valorizzazione del proprio patrimonio immobiliare. Diventa quindi fondamentale una stretta cooperazione con il settore privato, tramite i cosiddetti partenariati pubblico-privati (PPP), in cui sono realizzati progetti comuni con vantaggi reciproci e che perseguono obiettivi anche sociali. Tra questi, un ruolo particolare è quello della concessione di valorizzazione demaniale cinquantennale che permette allo stato di valorizzare il patrimonio e di creare occupazione e crescita, senza esborsi finanziari diretti. Una prima forma di Concessione Demaniale era già presente nella Roma Imperiale dove il complesso dei territori di proprietà della comunità, denominato "Ager Publicus", veniva assegnato ai cittadini meritevoli. Quasi un secolo più tardi con l'unificazione del Regno d'Italia e la stesura del Codice Civile del 1865, si ha la definitiva evoluzione del concetto di beni pubblici (sia mobili che immobili) distinti in demaniali (inalienabili e imprescrittibili) e patrimoniali (utili allo svolgimento delle attività interne ed estere proprie di uno Stato). In letteratura economica, l'analisi della possibile esistenza di vincoli finanziari per la decisione di produzione e d'investimento (Sau, 1999), è stata considerata fin dagli anni Cinquanta (Meyer – Kuh,1957; Gurley – Shaw, 1955). Tutti i contributi mostravano però il fianco a due possibili critiche: erano carenti nelle motivazioni teoriche di tali vincoli e si prestavano ad ambiguità interpretative nei riscontri empirici. Ciò contribuì al successo del teorema di Modigliani Miller (1958). Difatti, per oltre trent'anni i modelli teorici ed empirici delle decisioni d'investimento di una impresa privata si sono basati essenzialmente sul teorema di Modigliani-Miller. I due economisti si chiesero quale fosse il costo del capitale per un'impresa le cui fonti di finanziamento sono utilizzate per acquistare delle attività il cui rendimento è incerto. Formularono a tale riguardo tre proposizioni, nelle quali si afferma che, in base a determinate assunzioni, il valore di mercato di un'impresa è indipendente dalla sua struttura finanziaria, che il rendimento delle azioni è una relazione lineare crescente del rapporto d'indebitamento e che il tipo di strumento finanziario usato è irrilevante ai fini della valutazione della convenienza o meno dell'investimento. Si è applicato un identico ragionamento allo Stato, considerato come attore economico che investe alla stregua di un'impresa, per verificare se la sua struttura finanziaria sia effettivamente irrilevante rispetto alla politica d'investimento. Partendo dalla considerazione che, attualmente, il gettito fiscale è prevalentemente destinato a coprire le spese correnti e marginalmente le spese in conto capitale, ci si è chiesti quali soluzioni potesse trovare lo Stato per investire, nel rispetto dei vincoli europei. Si è escluso l'aumento del gettito fiscale poiché il livello della pressione tributaria è già elevato e l'aumento dell'indebitamento visti i vincoli europei. Inoltre, Il taglio della spesa pubblica, peraltro auspicabile, produce effetti solo nel lungo termine. Una metodologia alternativa, che renda irrilevante la struttura finanziaria rispetto alla politica di investimento, è la concessione di valorizzazione demaniale cinquantennale. Prendendo in esame le modalità di copertura del fabbisogno e inserendo, come variabile, la concessione demaniale cinquantennale, si ottiene un vincolo di bilancio in cui è dimostrabile l'assunto del teorema di Modigliani-Miller. Questo strumento non solo non sottrae risorse finanziarie per il mantenimento e/o la valorizzazione delle proprietà immobiliari dello Stato, ma genera un rendimento atteso attraverso la riscossione del canone di concessione. I vantaggi per lo Stato della concessione demaniale si rinvengono nella possibilità di attuare una politica di adeguamento infrastrutturale del Paese, limitando fortemente l'utilizzo di risorse finanziarie pubbliche. Utilizza competenze private in tutte le fasi di costruzione, gestione ed erogazione del servizio con un maggiore coinvolgimento dei soggetti finanziatori e con un trasferimento ottimale dei rischi al settore privato. Inoltre, lo Stato trae reddito con il canone di concessione cinquantennale demaniale che, nel caso di Villa Tolomei, ammonta a €150.000 all'anno per una durata di 50 anni, per un totale di €16.869.546,0011. Non da ultimo occorre ricordare che lo Stato incassa le imposte sul reddito generate dall'attività turistico-recettiva di Villa Tolomei. Per l'imprenditore privato, i vantaggi della concessione demaniale consistono in primis nei ridotti i costi d'investimento (non si acquista l'immobile); l'imprenditore nel caso di studio ha sostenuto solo i costi di riqualificazione del bene, che sono stati di circa €6,0 milioni, finanziati da istituti bancari e finanziari senza garanzia ipotecaria. L'attività turistico-recettiva è stata inaugurata il 24 maggio 2013 e i primi significativi risultati economici sono stati valutati in occasione della chiusura del primo anno di esercizio al 31/12/2014, il Bilancio 2014 che riporta Ricavi per €2.105.711,20, Costi €1.981.648,99 ed un Cash flow di €124.062,21. Questo livello di redditività garantisce la sostenibilità economica dell'attività, la remunerazione del capitale, ed è in linea con il business plan presentato nel bando di concessione demaniale cinquantennale attesta che l'imprenditore è stato in grado di pagare il canone di concessione e anche di generare un EBITDA positivo, fin dal primo anno di attività. Per la Regione Toscana, il vantaggio consiste nella valorizzazione dell'area che prima versava in stato di degrado e dal punto di vista economico nell'incasso dell'ammontare dell'IRAP e dell'addizionale regionale. Per il Comune di Firenze, oltre all'evidente incremento occupazionale2, lo strumento della concessione cinquantennale genera anche un introito per le casse del Comune consistente nella riscossione dei tributi e delle tasse locali (tassa di soggiorno, addizionale comunale, etc.). Infine, si genera un indotto locale in termini di un aumento dell'affluenza turistica (numero presenze camere) ed un incremento del volume degli scambi commerciali con le imprese locali (fornitori di beni e servizi) quantificabile in €1.285.024,89. Dalla analisi emerge come lo strumento giuridico amministrativo della concessione demaniale cinquantennale sia funzionale allo sviluppo locale, alla valorizzazione del patrimonio e alla sua tutela, nonostante i vincoli finanziari imposti sul bilancio pubblico in sede europea. 1 Ottenuti calcolando una rata annuale di €75.000 indicizzata al 2% annuo per 5 anni e una rata annuale di €150.000,00, indicizzata al 2% annuo per una ulteriore durata di 45 anni. 2 Attualmente Villa Tolomei conta alle sue dipendenze circa 50 lavoratori suddivisi fra rapporti di lavoro diretti ed indiretti. ; The thesis focused on an innovative administrative tool for the public investments' management: the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant, intended to enhance the public capital without employing the financial resources, bound by the European budget criteria and mainly devoted to finance current expenditure. The thesis describes the first state-owned fiftyyears enhancement grant issued in Italy: Villa Tolomei in Florence. Villa Tolomei is a XIV century villa on the hills of Florence, which has been transformed into a Luxury hotel and fivestar resort that offers all amenities, is 5 minutes away from the city center and 2.7 km from Ponte Vecchio. Villa Tolomei is a Villa belonged to the prestigious Tolomei family. The Villa has, since its origin, several buildings for about 3,500 square meters, located within 17 acres of park that still has traces of the old farm structure. The thesis describes the accounting policies for the preparation of the Italian State Budget and reviews the constraints imposed by the Maastricht Treaty, the Fiscal Compact and the Two Pack, the difficulties to match these commitments, to enhance their artistic and cultural heritage and to proceed with the investments without which the austerity policy of the budget is ineffective. The Italian State Budget is devoting its resources mainly, if not entirely, to fund operating expenses and the debt repayment, neglecting capital expenditures and, in particular, the real estate. It is therefore essential a close cooperation with the private sector, through the so-called public-private partnerships (PPP), in which joint projects are realized with mutual benefits and pursuing social objectives at the same time. Among them, the state-owned fiftyyears enhancement grant plays a special role because it allows the state to promote the heritage and to create jobs and growth, without direct financial outlays. An early form of State grant was available in Imperial Rome where all territories belonging to the community, called "Ager Publicus", were awarded to most valuable citizens. With the unification of the Kingdom of Italy and the drafting of the Civil Code of 1865, it was defined the concept of public goods (both movable and real estate) divided into state-owned (inalienable and imprescriptible) and capital (useful in carrying out the State activities at home and abroad). In economic literature, the analysis of any financial constraint on production and investment (Sau, 1999) has been considered since 1950 (Meyer - Kuh, 1957; Gurley - Shaw, 1955). There are two possible criticisms of these contributions: the theoretical motivations of these constraints were deficient and lent themselves to ambiguity in the empirical evidence. These facts contributed to the success of the Modigliani Miller theorem (1958). In fact, for more than thirty years the theoretical and empirical models of investment's decisions of a private enterprise has been based largely on the Modigliani-Miller theorem. The two economists faced the question of which is the cost of capital for the company whose funding sources are used to purchase assets, whose return is highly uncertain. They formulated three propositions, which stated that, based on certain assumptions, the market value of a firm is independent of its capital structure, the performance of the shares is a linear increasing function of financial leverage and the type of financial instrument used is irrelevant to the assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of the investment. The Modigliani Miller theorem has been applied to the State, as an economic actor who invests as a firm, to see if its financial structure is actually irrelevant to the investment policy. Starting from the premise that, at present, the tax revenue is mainly intended to cover the costs and only marginally the capital expenditures, it has been looked for solutions the State could found to invest, within the European constraints. Increasing tax revenues could do the financing of new investments, but this solution is not feasible because of the high tax burden; at the same time a debt is not possible because of the European constraints. Moreover, the cut in public spending, however desirable, produces effects only in the long term. An alternative tool, which makes irrelevant the financial structure compared to the investment policy, is the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant. By considering how to cover the needs and by inputting, as a variable, the granting of stateowned fifty-enhancement, it has been obtained a budget constraint in which the Modigliani- Miller theorem can hold. This tool not only removes financial resources for the maintenance and / or development of real property of the State, but generates an expected return through the collection of the concession fee. Thanks to the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant it is possible to implement the country's infrastructure, severely limiting the use of public financial resources. It uses private expertise in all phases of construction, management and service delivery with a greater involvement of stakeholders and lenders with an optimum risk transfer to the private sector. In addition, the State raises revenues from the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant that in the case of Villa Tolomei, amounts to € 150,000 per year for a period of 50 years, for a total of € 16,869,546.001. Moreover, the State collects the new income taxes generated by the tourist reception of Villa Tolomei. For the private entrepreneur, the benefits of state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant consist primarily in low investment costs (do not buy the property). In the case study, the entrepreneur claimed only the costs of the renewal of the property, which were € 6million, funded by banks and financial institutions without mortgage collateral. The hotel inaugurated on May 24th, 2013 and the first significant economic results were evaluated on 31/12/2014. The 2014 budget shows revenues of € 2,105,711.20, costs of € 1,981,648.99 and a cash flow of € 124,062.21. This level of profitability ensures the economic sustainability of the business, a fair return on capital, and is in line with the business plan presented in the notice of the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant. It confirms that the entrepreneur has been able to pay the concession fee and also to generate a positive EBITDA after the first year of operation. For the Region of Tuscany, the benefit is the enhancement of the area, which was in a state of deterioration and the collection of IRAP and additional regional tax. For the City of Florence, the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant generates an increase in employment2, and revenue for the coffers of the City consisting of local taxes (tourist tax, municipal surcharge, etc.). Finally, it generates an increase in the tourist figures and an increase in the volume of trade with local companies (suppliers of goods and services), estimated worth € 1,285,024.89. The analysis shows that the state-owned fifty-years enhancement grant is a juridical tool functional to local development, to enhance the cultural heritage and for its protection, despite the financial constraints on public finances imposed by the European Union. 1 Obtained by calculating an annual concession fee of € 75,000.00 indexed at 2% per annum for five years and an annual concession fee of € 150,000.00, indexed at 2% per annum for a further term of 45 years. 2 Currently Villa Tolomei has about 50 employees divided between direct and indirect labor relations.

El mitoSiempre que hablemos de secularismo (o secularización) o laicidad, no es posible escribir sobre la cuestión sin hacer referencia a la crítica recurrente que alimenta el debate; a saber, que la neutralidad entre las esferas pública y privada (y particularmente en el caso de la laicidad) tan sólo sería oficial, pero que en la práctica esta neutralidad no sería más que una ficción ya que el Estado privilegiaría la religión históricamente dominante o, como hemos discutido previamente, favorecería los valores morales seculares por sobre los valores religiosos.En referencia a los Estados Unidos, país que reconoce su voluntad secular en la primera enmienda de su Constitución1, Bader (1999: 603) relata la particularidad del secularismo estadounidense "The legal prohibition of the establishment of a national church had little effect on the political, social, and cultural or symbolic power of de facto establish Protestant Christianity" y un poco más lejos (1999: 605): "Strict neutrality reproduces impossible fictions and ignores the patterns of co-operation between church and state created by our history of civic piety and the expanding regulatory role of the welfare state". La separación secular no podría entonces ignorar el desarrollo conjunto de los vínculos históricos tejidos entre la Iglesia y las instituciones públicas. Al mismo tiempo, la cuestión es saber cuál es el límite en el apoyo a la religión mayoritaria o dominante y en qué medida el reconocimiento de esta diferencia no se transforma en discriminatorio hacia las religiones minoritarias. Para Bader, un sistema justo sería el de rechazar las nociones de separación total y de confinamiento al ámbito privado de los argumentos religiosos, ya que esto no haría más que acentuar las diferencias de trato entre las minorías y la religión dominante (visto que ésta se encuentra intrínsecamente incorporada en los valores sociales y en el sistema político y jurídico). La solución, compleja, obligaría a tomar en cuenta las desigualdades entre la religión mayoritaria y las minoritarias y a desarrollar e implementar políticas destinadas a colmatar esas desigualdades estructurales. Pero, en este aspecto, parece claro que ya no estamos hablando de secularismo, y aún menos de laicidad. El reconocimiento de las desigualdades y la acción pública pueden producir un efecto perverso, donde, en lugar de asegurar la igualdad o la neutralidad, la multiplicación de excepciones religiosas conduciría a reposicionar la religión y lo sagrado en el centro de la acción pública. La ventaja de la laicidad constitucional es que tiene el cometido de evitar este rompecabezas identitario.No obstante lo antes expuesto, el poder político a menudo padece las peores dificultades para asegurar los principios de laicidad, siendo presa por momentos de agendas políticas particulares. Por ejemplo, cuando el presidente de la República Francesa Nicolas Sarkozy subraya y reafirma públicamente las raíces cristianas de Francia (de manera similar a lo que acontece en el discurso político en los Estados Unidos), con un trasfondo de debate sobre el Islam y de identidad nacional, ataca abiertamente los principios republicanos y laicos. Independientemente de la concepción de laicidad que se adopte, de neutralidad, de autonomía o de comunidad, ninguna sale ilesa de un tal ataque. La neutralidad del Estado no sería ya por lo tanto asegurada si éste reconoce abiertamente los vínculos indivisibles que unen al país y a la nación con una religión particular (la católica en el caso francés o uruguayo hasta la Constitución de 1918). La obligación de asegurar la autonomía y el libre albedrío individual sufriría si se favorece una concepción del mundo basada en valores cristianos con respecto a otros valores, sean estos religiosos o no. En definitiva, el vínculo comunitario supremo, definido como la pertenencia a la república, se resquebrajaría si se reconoce una lealtad alternativa hacia los valores de la iglesia católica. Asimismo, esto abriría las puertas a todos los particularismos, a todas las religiones y creencias minoritarias basándose en la exigencia (justificada) del tratamiento igualitario (aunque este tratamiento igualitario quedaría lógicamente invalidado de facto por el abandono de la laicidad de Estado al promover abiertamente un vínculo histórico, religioso y cultural, primigenio). Si el principio cardinal sigue siendo el respeto de los valores republicanos para asegurar la igualdad ante la ley, entonces comentarios de esta índole anuncian un retroceso histórico en la construcción republicana -y laica- de un estado como Francia. Otra lectura de este asunto consistiría en reconocer que esta polémica ejemplifica las dificultades inherentes de cohabitación e integración de las sociedades multiculturales.Si consideramos que la laicización fue un proceso que históricamente se llevó adelante en sociedades relativamente homogéneas, la afluencia de nuevas poblaciones sobre una estructura socio-cultural y política ya establecida no podía más que provocar tensiones. Si Francia conoció dos grandes olas de laicización (de combate y de Estado), una en 1880 y una a partir de 1905, podríamos pensar que se encuentra actualmente en una tercera ola de laicización en respuesta a la inmigración masiva africana a partir de los años 60. Esto implica que la laicización, a diferencia del secularismo, obliga al Estado y a las instituciones públicas a realizar un esfuerzo permanente de educación y transmisión de estos valores. El secularismo, si debemos creer lo que dice Kucuradi (1998), al estipular lo que está permitido, mas no lo que está prohibido, está más abierto al pluralismo en la esfera pública.En referencia a esta relación entre Iglesia y Estado, en particular en los Estados seculares donde existe una iglesia oficial o de Estado, principalmente en Europa del norte (donde por ejemplo los obispos son designados por el jede de Estado), Ferrari (2005: 12) presenta una explicación para esta fusión de géneros: "In these countries the autonomy of religious denominations is also increasingly considered a necessary consequence of the principle of collective religious freedom and therefore a limit exists before which the authority of the state has to stop". El Estado reconocería entonces, en estas sociedades seculares, los límites impuestos a su alcance debido a la necesidad de asegurar la libertad de culto y la autonomía de las instituciones religiosas.DiscusiónPor lo antes expuesto, es posible afirmar que ni el secularismo ni la laicidad se imponen como conceptos fácilmente abordables y claramente diferenciados. Lo que es aún más importante es que ambos son blanco de críticas y de crecientes ataques, dogmáticos o racionales, por parte de aquellos que defienden sociedades multiculturales y pluralistas. Esto es aún más evidente en el caso de la laicidad "a la francesa", a menudo percibida (de manera incorrecta a mi entender) como un esfuerzo político de uniformización y sofocamiento de las diferencias culturales. Conviene por lo tanto, en esta última sección, discutir algunas de las críticas dirigidas a estos dos conceptos e incorporar una última noción en un intento de síntesis: el pluralismo.Una crítica importante concierne directamente a la tesis de la secularización y el rol de la religión en las sociedades modernas. Según esta contra-tesis, denominada de transformación "religion has not so much vanished as rather evolved and adapted itself in novel ways to the requirements of post-industrial society" (Dallmayr , 1999:719). El vínculo causal y mecánico entre modernización y secularización no estaría tan fuertemente correlacionado como argumentan los defensores de la tesis de la secularización. Esta idea es ahora defendida por Peter Berger, quien se retractó en parte de su defensa inicial de la tesis de la secularización: "…by the late 70s or early 80, most, but not all sociologist of religion came to agree that the original secularization thesis was untenable in its basic form…today you cannot plausibly maintain that modernity necessarily leads to secularization : it may. And it does in certain parts of the world among certain groups of people, but not necessarily"2El "resurgimiento" de la religión en el plano nacional e internacional parece haber sido producto del fin de la guerra fría, cuando nuevas formas de pertenencia y de autodeterminación eran más que nunca necesarias, aunque no fuese más que para poder diferenciar entre lo propio y lo ajeno, entre lo nacional y lo extranjero, entre nosotros y ellos. Bajo esta perspectiva, el secularismo y las fuerzas laicas sufren los ataques de los movimientos que defienden el regreso de lo religioso al centro del debate público, político y social, mientras que el fenómeno contrario, a saber: la secularización de sociedades religiosas, en particular en el mundo musulmán, no parece imponerse ni como una evidencia ni como un modelo de gestión político ni de integración cultural exitoso. Los resultados de la "Primavera árabe" así lo demuestran, con un movimiento que se inició desde una perspectiva de contestación liberal y terminó con un violento "retour de flamme" reaccionario, identitario, intolerante y antidemocrático. Y es precisamente para evitar estas derivas peligrosas y reaccionarias y garantizar la tolerancia y la libertad de culto que un Estado secular (si no laico) es necesario. Como lo expone An Na´im (2008: 23): "It is precisely because notions of self and the other, as well as the meanings of values and construction of cultural memories, are all open to contestation and reformulation that I emphasize the critical importance of safeguarding the space in which that process can take place. The fact that proponents of the dominant interpretations of the presumed or perceived aspects of cultural or religious identity would represent them as the only authentic or legitimate positions of the culture on a given issue simply emphasizes the importance of ensuring every possibility for dissent and freedom to assert alternative views or practices". De acuerdo a esta visión, si quisiéramos aceptar las diferencias culturales e históricas, entonces sería necesario reflexionar en términos de una sociedad pluralista.En su cambio de opinión, Berger reconoce que la modernidad conduciría finalmente al pluralismo (y no al secularismo), definiendo el pluralismo como: "…the coexistence in the society of different worldviews and value systems under conditions of civic peace and under conditions where people interact with each other"3. Es innegable que esto introduce un cambio radical, ya que la multiplicidad de culturas y religiones puede conducir a opciones no seculares, sino religiosas, como las motivadas por los movimientos fundamentalistas. Vemos entonces que las sociedades pluralistas no cohabitan particularmente bien con el secularismo y peor aún con la laicidad constitucional. Estas fuerzas pueden conducir, si no se encuentran subordinas a un orden normativo común (jurídico y social), a la implosión y a la fragmentación social. Para evitar esto, Bader (2003: 206) delimita una serie de principios destinados a incorporar la religión, de manera práctica y no-conflictiva, ya que, considera el autor, la religión no está en retroceso en las democracias occidentales, a pesar de su defensa de los principios seculares, ni totalmente limitada a la esfera privada.El primer principio es el de prioridad a la democracia, que estipula que los principios constitucionales y la moralidad pública deben primar y excluir todas las prácticas culturales incompatibles con los principios democráticos. El segundo principio, de neutralidad relacional, se inscribe como crítica a la neutralidad estricta y formal, que ignoraría las realidades sociales, legales o económicas. En lo que concierne a la diversidad cultural y religiosa, Bader sostiene que la neutralidad absoluta del Estado no sólo es imposible, sino que también es indeseable. La eliminación de las referencias culturales e ideológicas del debate público no contribuirá a reducir los conflictos y las tensiones religiosas o ideológicas. Sería necesario, en lugar de negar el debate, aceptar, de manera justa, los diferentes particularismos y las diversas dimensiones culturales y religiosas. En relación a esta idea de justicia, Carens (1997: 818) propone que la justicia no reside en el trato igualitario, sino el trato equitativo: "Now being fair does not mean that every cultural claim…will be given equal weight, but rather that each will be given appropriate weight under the circumstances and given a commitment to equal respect for all". Las preguntas fundamentales a hacernos entonces son ¿quién será responsable de realizar esa valoración, de realizar ese ajuste entre lo que es justo y lo que es equitativo? ¿Quién será el encargado de valorar de manera justa lo que es equitativo? ¿Quién asegurará la construcción de ese orden moral y religioso, donde cada cultura y religión tendrá el lugar (¿qué lugar?) que le otorga el derecho (¿qué derecho?)? ¿Cómo prevenir que las fuerzas que se beneficiarán de tal poder de justicia no sucumbirán a la tentación de establecer o favorecer sus propias preferencias, bajo el impulso de una agenda privada o bajo la presión de grupos de interés?El debate no se limita, es cierto, a una visión maniquea que opondría posturas filosóficas u ontológicas diferentes, a una lucha entre de un lado las fuerzas seculares o laicas y del otro las construcciones pluralistas que militarían a favor de la inclusión y reconocimiento de las diversas particularidades culturales y religiosas. Sería incorrecto, y peligroso, pensar que el secularismo o la laicidad no reconocen la existencia de una sociedad plural. Pero, la primer diferencia, en particular en el secularismo, es que el Estado no se otorga el derecho de elegir y determinar los valores y la razón de ser de estos diferentes particularismos, sino que no hace más que asegurar la libertad de culto, sin favorecer una religión sobre otra. Aceptar las diferencias y, aún más importante, categorizar dichas diferencias, implica introducir una parte de arbitrariedad y parcialidad en toda elección. Es el riesgo de introducir una visión sesgada, ya sea por razones históricas, sociológicas, económicas o sencillamente por la ignorancia del otro y su cultura.Para concluir, en todo debate sobre el secularismo, la laicidad o el pluralismo, no debe olvidarse que la tolerancia es una virtud, pero también un límite, ya que reconoce la diferencia y fija los límites de lo que es aceptable (tolerable) y lo que no lo es. Como bien explica Habermas: "…toleration must circumscribe the range of behavior everybody must accept, thereby drawing a line for what cannot be tolerated…And as long as this line is drawn in an authoritarian manner, that is, unilaterally, the stigma of arbitrary exclusion remains inscribed in toleration" , y sobre la relación entre tolerante y tolerado: "the act of tolerance retains an element of an act of mercy or of doing a favor. One party allows the other a certain amount of deviation from normality under one condition: that the tolerated minority does not overstep the threshold of tolerance" (en Thomassen, 2006: 440). El problema de reconocer la diferencia, es que siempre hay uno que reconoce y otro que es reconocido. Al menos la laicidad republicana, a pesar de todas sus críticas, evita ese problema, ya que por principio somos todos iguales antes de ser diferentes. 1- 1era enmienda de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances".2- An Interview with Peter Berger, por Charles T. Mathewes. Disponible en : http://iasc-culture.org/THR/archives/AfterSecularization/8.12PBerger.pdf.3- An Interview with Peter Berger. Pág. 2. *Este artículo fue presentado en la 5° sesión el Seminario Interno de Discusión Teórica 2014, organizado por el Departamento de Estudios Internacionales de la Universidad ORT Uruguay.*Germán Clulow es Licenciado en Estudios Internacionales por la Universidad ORT –Uruguay, Master en Ciencia Política por la Université de Genève – Suiza, y Master en Estudios de Desarrollo por el Instituto de Altos Estudios Internacionales y de Desarrollo (IHEID-The Graduate Institute) Ginebra, Suiza

[eng] The accelerated impact of human activities is causing increasing damages to the Earth's life support systems. Consequently, the policy-making and scientific communities have advocated the urgent need for a change towards the sustainable use of natural resources and ecosystems. This thesis deals with the institutional conditions necessary for that change in coupled social-ecological systems, through an in-depth case study: the Doñana region, an estuarine social-ecological system affected by intricate water resources and wetland conservation problems located in the Guadalquivir Estuary (south-west Spain). In particular, I focus on the need for transitions from command-andcontrol schemes towards more flexible, participatory and adaptive approaches to policy and decision making: specifically, adaptive governance and adaptive management. For this purpose, I address three interrelated questions of broad research interest, using a theoretical framework that combines elements from resilience and institutional path dependence theories. The first question has implications for the implementation of participatory processes in the course of transitional designs towards adaptive governance and management, while the other two have implications at a theoreticanalytical level. The first research question focuses on assessing the usefulness of an action-research program aimed at introducing adaptive management tenets at the research-management interface of the Doñana region (Chapter 4). The program, which paralleled an adaptive restoration in the context of the hydro-ecological restoration project Doñana 2005, combined a formalised process of networking, interviews, focus groups and System Dynamics techniques that proved useful to engage and build trust among a wide range of actors who finally participated in two adaptive management workshops. The participation of stakeholders and agencies entrenched in long-standing conflicts and power struggles up to that date was considered a major success of the program. During the workshops, the participants collaboratively developed a set of policy recommendations, offering potential avenues to improve the research-management interface, water resources management and wetland conservation practices in the Doñana region and Guadalquivir Estuary. The action-research program was supported by preparatory research aimed at analysing the practices of, and learning from, best-in-class practitioners on adaptive management from British Columbia (Canada), where this approach was first conceived and implemented on a large scale (Chapter 3). Such preparatory research, which was based on a document review, interviews and a final workshop at the University of British Columbia (Vancouver), revealed that adaptive management has cycled, during the last four decades, through alternate phases of theoretical development, practical implementation and feedback, to which many scholars and practitioners have contributed. In particular, the workshop allowed current opportunities and constraints for the testing and implementation of adaptive management in Canada to be elicited, based on the direct, on-the-ground experience of practitioners and analysts. The results of that research provided the grounds and support for the strategic development of the action-research program in the Doñana region. The preliminary identification, during the action-research program, of major rigidities within Doñana's institutional framework and management agencies triggered the second part of the thesis, which addressed, through institutional analysis, the two additional research questions mentioned above. The second research question of the thesis focuses on enhancing the understanding of the roots of institutional rigidity in maladaptive social-ecological systems. Institutional rigidity that hinders change and smothers innovation represents a major constraint for adaptive governance and adaptive management. Therefore, to facilitate potential transitions towards more sustainable social-ecological systems characterised by adaptive approaches to decision-making, it is of utmost importance to understand and explain the origins of such institutional rigidity. In Chapter 5, by constructing a historical pattern, I identify the existence of a rigid institutional regime for water resources management and wetland conservation in the Doñana region, and explain, through a first theoretical iteration, the mechanisms underlying the genesis, amplification and persistence of such institutional rigidity. My explanation has two distinguishable parts: on one side, the deep-historical genesis of the regime at a critical juncture in the 19th century; and on the other side, the formation and continuity of the regime up to the last decades of the 20th century, despite its dysfunctionality for coping with crises and its inability to harmonise wetland conservation, water management and economic development. The historical pattern confirms that the Doñana's regime has followed a path-dependent dynamic, largely characterised by the historical recurrence on the application of command-andcontrol schemes. In a seeming paradox, these schemes, instead of driving the regime towards an efficient outcome, led to the formation of a rigid institutional regime that drove the Doñana region into a sub-optimal systemic rigidity trap. This rigid outcome may be theoretically qualified as contingent, for it defies the traditional expectations of neoclassical economics that lie at the logical core of the concept of institutional path dependence. The third research question of the thesis focuses on the explanatory potential of entrepreneurship and discourses, in their relationship with political-economic interests and power, as factors contributing to shape outcomes in local social-ecological systems. In particular, I discussed the explanatory potential of those factors, when the core logic of path dependence (composed by the mainstream principles of neoclassical economics) fails to predict observed outcomes in historical, evolutionary perspective, and qualifies such outcomes as contingent. In Chapter 6, I undertake a second theoretical iteration that re-examines the historical explanatory pattern developed in Chapter 5, in order to show how the Doñana's rigid outcome can be understood as more predictable. In particular, I argue that three mechanisms constituted necessary and sufficient conditions for the transformational process that led to the Doñana's rigid outcome: (1) a contextual political-discursive mechanism that mobilised power top-down and signalled increasing returns to actors downstream of the institutional regime; (2) the operation of increasing returns and self-reinforcing mechanisms bottom-up; (3) an endogenous entrepreneurial component that acted as a mechanism for action in an environment of extreme uncertainty. In the general discussion of the thesis (Chapter 7), I make the case for systematising the role of discourses and entrepreneurship factors, in their relationship with politicaleconomic interests and power, into the analysis. I argue that such systematisation contributes significantly to diminishing the degree of contingency associated to the Doñana's rigid outcome. More generally, my discussion deals with contingency as a property of the path dependence concept that can be modulated in explanations of institutional dynamics. This type of advancements could inform future policy and institutional designs for successful transitions towards adaptive governance and management in social-ecological systems, hence improving the prospects for the sustainable use of natural resources and ecosystems. Enriching the knowledge gathered during the action-research program with the in-depth analysis of institutional constraints rooted in historical factors, allowed a number of potential avenues to be identified that may aid the transition towards adaptive governance and management in the Doñana region (Chapter 9). It also allowed an informed speculation to be made about the potential role of action-research programs such as the one described in this thesis, to comply with (and complement) the requisites for public participation and social learning of European Union legislation: notably, the Water Framework Directive (Chapter 7, Section 7.4). ; [spa] El impacto acelerado de las actividades humanas está causando el aumento de los daños a los sistemas de soporte vital de la Tierra. En consecuencia, gestores y científicos gestores han defendido la necesidad urgente de un cambio hacia el uso sostenible de los recursos naturales y los ecosistemas. Esta tesis trata sobre las condiciones institucionales necesarias para dicho cambio en sistemas socio-ecológicos, a través de un estudio de caso en profundidad: la región de Doñana, un sistema socio-ecológico afectado por problemas complejos en términos de recursos hídricos y conservación de humedales, situado en el Estuario del Guadalquivir (suroeste de España). En particular, en esta tesis me centro en la necesidad de transiciones desde estrategias de mando y control hacia enfoques más flexibles, participativos y adaptativos para la elaboración de políticas y la toma de decisiones: específicamente, gobernanza adaptativa y gestión adaptativa. Para ello, abordo tres preguntas de interés de investigación, amplias e interrelacionadas, utilizando un marco teórico que combina elementos de las teorías de dependencia de la trayectoria institucional y la resiliencia. La primera pregunta tiene implicaciones para la implementación de procesos de participación en el curso del diseño de transiciones hacia la gobernanza y la gestión adaptativas, mientras que las otras dos tienen implicaciones a nivel teórico-analítico. La primera pregunta de investigación se centra en la evaluación de la utilidad de un programa de investigación-acción cuyo objetivo fue introducir principios de gestión adaptativa en la interfaz investigación-gestión de la región de Doñana (Capítulo 4). El programa, que se desarrolló paralelamente a una restauración adaptativa en el contexto del proyecto de restauración hidro-ecológica Doñana 2005, combina un proceso formalizado de networking, entrevistas, grupos focales y técnicas de Dinámica de Sistemas, que demostró ser útil para fomentar la confianza entre un amplio rango de actores que finalmente participaron en dos talleres de gestión adaptativa. La participación de partes interesadas y organismos que se habían visto anteriormente envueltos en situaciones conflictivas y disputas de poder fue considerada un gran éxito del programa. Durante los talleres, los participantes desarrollaron en colaboración una serie de recomendaciones de política, ofreciendo posibles vías para mejorar la interfaz investigación-gestión, la gestión de los recursos hídricos y la conservación de humedales en la región de Doñana y el Estuario del Guadalquivir. El programa de investigación-acción fue apoyado por una investigación preparatoria dirigida a analizar y aprender de las prácticas de profesionales líderes en gestión adaptativa de la Columbia Británica (Canadá), donde este enfoque fue concebido e implementado por primera vez a gran escala (Capítulo 3). Dicha investigación preparatoria se basó en una revisión documental, entrevistas y un taller final en la Universidad de la Columbia Británica (Vancouver), y reveló que la gestión adaptativa ha completado varias fases alternas de desarrollo teórico, aplicación práctica y retroalimentación durante las últimas cuatro décadas, a las que muchos académicos y profesionales han contribuido. En particular, el taller permitió extraer lecciones sobre oportunidades y limitaciones actuales para la implementación y evaluación de la gestión adaptativa en Canadá, basadas en la experiencia directa de profesionales y analistas sobre el terreno. Los resultados de esa investigación sirvieron de base y apoyo para el desarrollo estratégico del programa de investigación-acción en la región de Doñana. La identificación preliminar de importantes rigideces en el marco institucional y las agencias de gestión de Doñana durante el programa de investigación-acción, motivó la segunda parte de la tesis, la cual abordó las dos preguntas de investigación adicionales mencionadas anteriormente, mediante análisis institucional. La segunda pregunta de investigación de la tesis se centra en mejorar la comprensión de las raíces de la rigidez institucional en sistemas socio-ecológicos maladaptativos. La rigidez institucional representa un obstáculo importante para la gobernanza y gestión adaptativas, ya que impide el cambio y dificulta la innovación. Por lo tanto, para facilitar potenciales transiciones hacia sistemas socio-ecológicos más sostenibles caracterizados por enfoques adaptativos para la toma de decisiones, es de suma importancia entender y explicar los orígenes de la rigidez institucional. En el Capítulo 5, a través de la construcción de un patrón histórico, identifico la existencia de un régimen institucional rígido para la gestión de los recursos hídricos y la conservación de los humedales en la región de Doñana, y explico, a través de una primera iteración teórica, los mecanismos subyacentes a la génesis, amplificación y persistencia de tal rigidez institucional. Mi explicación tiene dos partes diferenciadas: por un lado, la génesis histórica profunda del régimen en una coyuntura crítica en el siglo XIX; y por otro, la formación del régimen y su continuidad hasta las últimas décadas del siglo XX, a pesar de su disfuncionalidad para hacer frente a las crisis y su incapacidad para armonizar la conservación de humedales, la gestión del agua y el desarrollo económico. El patrón histórico confirma que el régimen institucional de Doñana ha seguido una dinámica dependiente de la trayectoria, ampliamente caracterizada por la aplicación recurrente de estrategias de mando y control a lo largo de la historia. En una aparente paradoja, estas estrategias, en lugar de conducir al régimen hacia un resultado eficiente, llevaron a la formación de un régimen institucional rígido que condujo la región de Doñana a una trampa subóptima de rigidez sistémica. Este resultado rígido puede ser calificado por la teoría como contingente, ya que desafía las expectativas tradicionales de la economía neoclásica que yacen en el núcleo lógico del concepto de dependencia de la trayectoria institucional. La tercera pregunta de investigación de la tesis se centra en el potencial explicativo del emprendimiento y los discursos en su relación con los intereses político-económicos y el poder, como factores que contribuyen a la formación de sistemas socio-ecológicos a nivel local. En particular, centro mi discusión en el potencial explicativo de estos factores, cuando la lógica base de la dependencia de la trayectoria (compuesta por los principios dominantes de la economía neoclásica) fracasa en predecir los resultados observados desde una perspectiva evolutiva histórica, calificando estos resultados como contingentes. En el Capítulo 6, emprendo una segunda iteración teórica que reexamina el patrón explicativo histórico desarrollado en el Capítulo 5, con el fin de mostrar como el régimen institucional rígido Doñana puede entenderse como más predecible. En particular, sostengo que tres mecanismos constituyeron condiciones necesarias y suficientes para el proceso de transformación que llevó a la rigidez en Doñana: (1) un mecanismo político-discursivo contextual que movilizó el poder desde arriba hacia abajo e indicó rendimientos crecientes a los actores de los niveles operacionales del régimen institucional; (2) el funcionamiento de los rendimientos crecientes y mecanismos de auto-refuerzo de abajo hacia arriba; (3) un componente endógeno de emprendimiento que actuó como mecanismo de acción en un entorno de incertidumbre extrema. En la discusión general de la tesis (Capítulo 7), presento argumentos para la sistematización, en el análisis, de los discursos y el emprendimiento en relación con factores político-económicos y de poder. Sostengo que tal sistematización contribuye significativamente a disminuir el grado de contingencia asociado a la rigidez en Doñana. Más en general, mi discusión trata sobre la contingencia como una propiedad del concepto de dependencia de la trayectoria que se puede modular en explicaciones sobre dinámica institucional. Este tipo de avances podría informar futuras políticas y diseños institucionales para una transición exitosa hacia la gobernanza y la gestión adaptativas de los sistemas socio-ecológicos, y, por lo tanto, para incrementar la posibilidad de gestionar los recursos naturales y los ecosistemas de forma más sostenible. El enriquecimiento del conocimiento adquirido durante el programa de investigaciónacción con el análisis en profundidad de las limitaciones institucionales arraigadas en factores históricos, permitieron la identificación de una serie de posibles vías que pueden ayudar a la transición hacia la gobernanza y la gestión adaptativas en la región de Doñana (Capítulo 9). Asimismo, este enriquecimiento permitió una especulación informada sobre el papel potencial de programas de investigación-acción como el que se describe en esta tesis, para cumplir con (y complementar) los requisitos para la participación pública y el aprendizaje social de la legislación de la Unión Europea – en particular, la Directiva Marco del Agua (Capítulo 7, Sección 7.4).

AMÉRICA LATINALa incertidumbre gobierna Argentina tras operación de Cristina Fernández.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/americasview/2013/10/cristina-fern-ndezs-health http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/08/world/americas/argentina-president-health/index.html http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/cirurgia-de-cristina-kirchner-nao-teve-complicacoes-10289775 http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/10/06/20836786-argentinas-president-diagnosed-with-hematoma-on-brain-will-take-month-off?lite http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24438437 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/operacion-de-cristina-fernandez-de-kirchner_13108736-4 http://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2013/10/08/world/americas/08reuters-argentina-fernandez-surgery.html?ref=world&gwh=FFBF1B44EAD3D142B1153AE69FE9BD84Tensión entre Estados Unidos y Venezuela por expulsión de diplomáticos.Para más información: http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/09/30/20763213-yankees-go-home-venezuelan-president-to-expel-top-us-diplomat?lite http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1625223-tension-entre-eeuu-y-venezuela-barack-obama-expulso-a-http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/nicols-maduro-expulsa-a-tres-diplomticos-estadounidenses-de-venezuela_13092895-4 tres-diplomaticos-venezolanos http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/30/world/americas/venezuela-us-diplomats-expelled/index.htmlViolentas protestas en calles de Río y San Pablo.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24423086 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1627062-caos-fuego-y-destrozos-en-una-noche-de-furia-en-rio-de-janeiro http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/08/actualidad/1381223578_227569.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24439987 http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/photo/2013-10/08/content_17013971.htmSegún sondeo Bachelet lleva ventaja de 33% sobre rivales.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/bachelet-iria-segundo-turno-com-governista-indica-pesquisa-10296734#ixzz2hAVnYE85 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/impreso/bachelet-lleva-ventaja-de-33-sobre-rivales-sondeo-84450.htmlDisturbios en México por el 45 aniversario de masacre estudiantil.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/disturbios-en-mxico-en-la-marcha-del-45-aniversario-de-masacre-estudiantil_13097676-4Maduro pedirá al Parlamento poderes especiales para legislar.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/congresso-da-venezuela-decide-se-dara-poder-de-legislar-maduro-10288753#ixzz2hAVxXeGRhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/05/actualidad/1380947513_348934.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/maduro-pedira-poderes-especiales-para-legislar_13107229-4 Brasil indignado por espionaje de Canadá y Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/08/world/americas/brazil-leader-asks-canada-to-explain-its-spying.html?ref=world&gwh=439ECF21DE02E87627713548853716BA http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24438355 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/impreso/brasil-indignado-por-espionaje-de-canada-84441.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1626798-aseguran-que-eeuu-y-canada-espiaron-el-ministerio-de-energia-brasilenoLa militarización de Maduro llega hasta los supermercados.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1625738-la-militarizacion-de-maduro-llega-hasta-los-supermercadosTormenta Karen se dispone a impactar costa del Golfo de México.Para más información: http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/06/world/americas/tropical-weather-karen/index.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/video-tormenta-karen-se-dispone-a-impactar-costa-del-golfo-de-mxico_13100874-4Giro de Marina Silva en Brasil: se afilió al partido socialista.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24416480 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1626351-giro-de-marina-silva-en-brasil-se-afilio-al-partido-socialista Accidente de avión estadounidense que monitoreaba rutas de droga en Colombia deja 4 muertos.Para más información: http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/10/05/20835839-crash-of-us-anti-drug-aircraft-in-colombia-kills-4?lite http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/06/world/americas/colombia-drug-plane-crash/index.htmlEcuador quiere apelar a instancias internacionales por el caso Assange.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/equador-quer-apelar-instancias-internacionais-sobre-caso-assange-10298424#ixzz2hAVqvOHx Maduro anunció alza de 10% en salario mínimo.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/nicolas-maduro-anunci-alza-en-salario-mnimo_13102950-4En Venezuela el cepo cambiario hace casi imposible viajar en avión.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24416482 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1625276-por-que-es-tan-dificil-salir-de-venezuela-en-avion"El País" de Madrid publica "La Alianza del Pacífico: construyendo un futuro integrado"Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/08/actualidad/1381254172_381075.htmlESTADOS UNIDOS /CANADÁSe profundiza crisis en Estados Unidos por diferencias entre el gobierno y los republicanos.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-24453693 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/08/actualidad/1381257778_991296.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1626332-obama-redobla-la-presion-para-destrabar-la-paralisis http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/se-agita-pelea-por-cierre-del-gobierno-en-ee-uu_13101447-4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/obama-deuda-956754.htmlCrece la preocupación mundial por la amenaza de un default en Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/09/us/politics/japan-alarmed-over-us-debt-crisis.html?ref=world http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1626959-crece-la-preocupacion-mundial-por-la-amenaza-de-un-default-en-eeuuEstados Unidos defiende la legalidad de sus incursiones militares en Libia y Somalia.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/07/actualidad/1381162766_670003.htmlPánico en Washington por un hombre que intentó quemarse vivo.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1625736-nervios-y-alerta-en-washington-por-un-incidente-en-el-capitolio http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/hombre-intent-quemarse-vivo-en-washington_13100942-4Estados Unidos captura en Libia a un líder de Al-Qaeda.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24426033 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/07/actualidad/1381135135_192937.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1626917-eeuu-interroga-en-un-buque-de-guerra-al-lider-de-al-qaeda-capturado-en-libiaEl acuerdo entre Estados Unidos y Rusia sobre Siria no incluye medidas de sanción.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/14/actualidad/1379135346_027994.htmlEUROPASerían más de 300 los muertos por el naufragio en Lampedusa.Para más información: http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/08/world/europe/italy-lampedusa-boat-sinking/index.html?hpt=wo_c1 http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/ue-quer-missao-de-resgate-de-imigrantes-no-mediterraneo-10291110#ixzz2hAbFY2io http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/05/actualidad/1380999528_613934.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/italia-aumenta-a-232-el-numero-de-muertos-en-tragedia-de-lampedusa_13107190-4Greenpeace en conflicto con Rusia por cuestiones medioambientales.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1626722-advierten-que-el-rompehielos-de-greenpeace-retenido-en-rusia-puede-hundirse http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/05/world/europe/russia-greenpeace-netherlands/index.html?hpt=ieu_c2Rusia protesta ante Holanda por el arresto de un diplomático en La Haya.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24448147 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/08/actualidad/1381240613_653875.htmlRusia abre una guerra comercial contra Lituania.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24433418 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/08/actualidad/1381237986_334792.htmlLondres asciende a ministro para Escocia a un político combativo.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/08/world/europe/britain-replaces-minister-responsible-for-scotland.html?ref=world&gwh=590C2FB987D6E6B87044C46A441F17CD http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/07/actualidad/1381160358_228548.htmlIrán y Reino Unido dan el primer paso para reestablecer relaciones diplomáticas.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/reino-unido-ira-trabalham-para-reabrir-embaixadas-10292730#ixzz2hAbCSYTC http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/08/actualidad/1381244483_316947.htmlEstados Unidos y Rusia acuerdan sobre Siria.Para más información: http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/10/08/20867699-russia-we-have-common-understanding-with-us-over-syria-weapons?lite http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/russia-eua-concordam-sobre-como-siria-deve-eliminar-armas-quimicas-10289661#ixzz2hAbML9Xh Los grandes partidos alemanes allanan el camino hacia la gran coalición.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/06/actualidad/1381077909_311376.html"La Nación" realiza completa cobertura de situación política en Italia.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1624729-la-crisis-politica-italiana-pone-otra-vez-al-euro-en-el-ojo-de-la-tormenta http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1624999-la-traicion-del-numero-dos-de-silvio-berlusconi-podria-salvar-el-gobierno-de-italia http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1626117-berlusconi-cerca-de-ser-expulsado-del-parlamento-italianoMiembro de la banda rusa Pussy Riot abandona huelga de hambre.Para más información: http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/03/world/europe/russia-pussy-riot-hunger-strike/index.html?hpt=ieu_c2Reino Unido convoca un ejército de 'hackers' para su defensa.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/05/actualidad/1380999276_8La victoria de la ultraderecha en una elección inquieta a la izquierda francesa.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/07/actualidad/1381138090_878144.htmlLas funcionarias públicas turcas pueden llevar el pañuelo islámico.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/09/world/europe/turkey-lifts-ban-on-head-scarves-in-state-offices.html?ref=world http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/08/actualidad/1381255057_152061.htmlLos irlandeses castigan a su gobierno y votan en contra de abolir el Senado.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/05/actualidad/1380983920_688877.htmlPolémica cadena de sismos en España.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1625692-polemica-cadena-de-sismos-en-espanaLa 'primavera árabe' acentúa la inmigración irregular hacia Italia.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/04/actualidad/1380914021_133757.htmlASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTEContinúa la tensión entre las dos Coreas.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/09/world/asia/south-korea-says-north-restarted-nuclear-reactor.html?ref=world http://elcomercio.pe/actualidad/1641502/noticia-amenaza-guerra-corea-norte-puso-alerta-maxima-su-ejercito?ft=grid http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/coreia-do-norte-adverte-eua-para-desastre-horrivel-10289490#ixzz2hAbmhzI7 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/norcorea-amenaza-al-sur-eu-y-japon-por-maniobras-militares-956650.html http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-10/08/content_17015320.htm Los inspectores comienzan a destruir los arsenales químicos de Asad.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2013/10/08/world/mid.dleeast/ap-ml-syria-.html?ref=world&gwh=AEB81BE6F5D2F8694FC599966B769CE1 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/06/actualidad/1381071828_721305.html http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/08/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/ban-ki-moon-anuncia-missao-conjunta-na-siria-10289529#ixzz2hAcJtJRx http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1626523-comenzaron-a-destruir-el-arsenal-quimico-de-siria http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24448994La ONU anuncia "pruebas abrumadoras" del ataque químico en Siria.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/13/actualidad/1379091714_707490.html http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/09/world/middleeast/more-chemical-arms-experts-head-to-syria.html?ref=worldVínculos entre Irán y Estados Unidos avanzan sin confianza.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/al-jamenei-dijo-que-desconfa-de-estados-unidos_13103999-4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24418073 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1624585-la-guardia-revolucionaria-irani-critico-el-acercamiento-de-hassan-rohani-y-barack-obamaReunión de APEC entre los grandes del Pacífico.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/banyan/2013/10/asia-pacific-economic-co-operation http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-10/08/content_17013968.htm http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2013xiapec/2013-10/09/content_17015948.htm http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/07/actualidad/1381149923_950160.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/08/actualidad/1381245944_928964.html http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/09/world/asia/asia-pacific-economic-cooperation-summit.html?ref=world&gwh=3706CFE383D43932088A857B9E26D392La joven paquistaní Malala continúa desafiando a los talibanes.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1626617-la-joven-paquistani-malala-favorita-para-el-nobel-de-la-paz http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-24379018 http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/10/08/20868350-taliban-we-still-want-to-kill-malala?lite http://www.cnn.com/2013/04/30/world/malala-girls-education/index.html?hpt=wo_bn2Al menos 29 muertos y más de 100 heridos dejan atentados en Irak.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/atentados-en-irak_13104375-4 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/varios-muertos-y-heridos-en-bagdad-por-carros-bomba_13092018-4Diez años de cárcel a jóvenes en Arabia Saudita y 2.000 latigazos por bailar y exhibir el torso.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/castigan-con-latigazos-a-joven-en-arabia-por-bailar-exhibiendo-el-dorso_13098005-4Choques en la frontera de India y Pakistán.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/08/world/asia/india-clashes-pakistan-border.html?ref=world&gwh=653080C7BF22B5D76D1661229AD2DCDEKuwait estudia no permitir entrada a homosexualesPara más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/kuwait-estuda-barrar-entrada-de-gays-no-pais-10287377#ixzz2hAcNTEqW India: se derrumba un edificio y deja un saldo de 61 muertos.Para más información: http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/28/world/asia/india-mumbai-building-collapse/index.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1624388-india-se-derrumba-un-edificio-y-deja-un-saldo-de-61-muertosTifón en China deja muertos y desplazados.Para más información: http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/01/world/asia/china-fishing-boats-sink/index.html http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/06/world/asia/china-typhoon-fitow/index.html?hpt=ias_c2China contrata a dos millones de policías para Internet.Para más información: http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/07/world/asia/china-internet-monitors/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Fallece Vo Nguyen Giap, el héroe militar de Vietnam.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1626092-vo-nguyen-giap-el-heroe-de-vietnam-y-genio-militar-que-humillo-a-occidente http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/10/04/20822374-vietnam-war-leader-gen-giap-dies-at-102?liteÁFRICATras aparente calma vuelve a desatarse violencia en Egipto.Para más información: http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/04/world/africa/egypt-clashes/index.html?hpt=iaf_c2 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/07/actualidad/1381141153_200511.html http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/08/world/middleeast/egypt-violence.html?ref=world http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/08/world/meast/egypt-unrest/index.html?hpt=iaf_c2 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1626615-otro-estallido-de-violencia-en-el-cairo-44-muertos40 estudiantes mueren en un ataque radical islámico en Nigeria.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/ataque-radical-islmico-en-nigeria_13090623-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1624415-nigeria-al-menos-42-estudiantes-murieron-en-un-ataque-a-una-universidadUnesco apunta que la mayor carencia de docentes se da en África.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/la-unesco-apunta-que-la-mayor-carencia-de-docentes-se-da-en-frica_13097875-4Capturado importante líder de Al Qaeda en Libia.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/capturado-importante-lder-de-al-qaeda-en-libia_13104355-4 http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/10/08/20870872-us-citizens-threatened-with-attack-kidnap-in-libya-after-terror-raid?liteLos islamistas aceptan dejar el poder en Túnez para evitar un conflicto civil.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/10/07/actualidad/1381170554_529413.htmlEs capturado el jefe de atentado en centro comercial de Nairobi.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/capturado-por-estados-unidos-uno-de-los-jefes-de-al-shabab-grupo-responsable-de-atentado-en-centro-comercial-de-nairobi_13103016-4 http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/07/world/africa/kenya-mall-attack/index.html?hpt=iaf_c2 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1624169-investigan-si-islamistas-alemanes-colaboraron-en-el-ataque-terrorista-al-shopping-en-keniaUn operativo que desnuda los límites de la lucha antiterrorista en África.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1626610-un-operativo-que-desnuda-los-limites-de-la-lucha-antiterrorista-en-africaOTRAS NOTICIASUna de cada 8 personas sufre hambre crónica en el mundo, según la FAO.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/una-de-cada-8-personas-sufre-hambre-crnica-en-el-mundo_13093945-4"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21583302-business-week

Inhaltsangabe: Introduction: The master thesis 'Worldwide Development of Nuclear Energy and the Strategic Deployment of German Consultancies on the Arabian Peninsula' is chiefly targeted at German consultancy companies so that they can assess their status of strategic deployment and prioritize their activities to enter a new business sector in a foreign market. This publication could also be of relevance for policy makers, investors, suppliers as well as nuclear energy and governmental agencies to identify their need for external advisers to safely operate a nuclear power program; provides a guideline for how to enter a new market. Hence this thesis should be considered as an aid to identify hurdles and obstacles that have to be foreseen and so overcome. Potential business fields are also noted as well as important factors that have to be considered to minimize the chance of failure in the new market. Nevertheless, this huge market with its continuously changing constraints and conditions could throw up a lot more obstacles than could be covered in this thesis. Also the internal organizations of individual companies may differ from the one described in the thesis. The objective of this master thesis is thus to set out a set of guidelines for possible approaches. The first two chapters present an overview of the current geographical, political, cultural and economic conditions to familiarize the reader with the background information and constraints needed for the subsequent chapters. The third chapter deals more specifically with the energy market on the Arabian Peninsula, particular in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. This chapter provides information on types of energy, pending developments, country-specific organizations and institutions, as well as means of financing such huge projects. The fourth chapter is devoted exclusively to nuclear energy, starting with the current status and the motivation of the two countries to launch such a development. This is followed by a description of the legal requirements and other commitments as decreed by the countries' governments. These specific legal conditions do not just apply within the countries concerned, but companies which do business there are likewise obliged to follow these regulations. Challenges for countries are opportunities for consultants, and identification of these represents is the core content of this chapter. The content of the fifth chapter is the preparatory measures that are essential prior to entering a foreign market. A company's vision and mission as well as various analyses are needed to provide a sound basis for taking a decision to proceed. In this context, SWOT analysis is noted as well as an evaluation of M.E. Porter's 'Five Forces' to describe the market and internal organizations. After the preparatory measures, the implementation phase follows. This and its various stages are described in Chapter 6. It is inevitable that, to ensure success, many measures will have to implemented and subsequently adjusted. This starts with deployment and steering of business units and proceeds to overcoming difficulties with external parties. Recruitment on a permanent basis of employees is also a prerequisite for sustained business success, together with a staff feedback, incentive and salary system. Chapter 7 sets out methods for evaluating previous years' activities in the new business. The first couple of years after 'start-up' are over and the situation in which the company is now has to be assessed. It is frequently necessary to undertake organizational upgrades, that could amount to a complete reorganization of the business, aided by change management provisions. The final Chapter 8 summarizes the key information and content, and sets forth the need and reasons for strategic deployment. Changes in the market means that companies will have to re-adjust for economic survival. Because the nuclear program of the United Arab Emirates is more advanced than that of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and information is less available in the latter country, the main focus of this thesis is on the UAE. Nevertheless, the KSA is an emerging nuclear market with great ambitious for a nuclear program and so is worthy of mention when discussing constraints and conditions that these countries have in common. Other countries that are members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) do share an interest in nuclear energy but are not yet at the same stage of development as the UAE and KSA. These serve from time to time to support arguments and figures. A sufficient and reliable energy supply is essential for continuous economic development, contributing also to poverty reduction and health care improvement. If these developments are restricted or lacking, often the result is social conflict that could even lead to civil strife. Examples are rural arid areas in the world where there is no access to potable water. A minor local conflict affects the economic development and population of specific countries and often results in regional instability and interventions from outside. The global energy imbalance has been steadily growing over the past couple of decades. Roughly 1.6 billion people live without electricity, and almost 2.4 billion people rely on traditional biomass to cook their daily meals . Modern fuels are not available or are restricted to the upper social strata. There is an almost equal share of the world's population with no access to potable water, so in the struggle for survival the consequences will be social unrest and riots. In some poor countries of the world, the per capita electricity consumption is as low as 50 kWh per annum, compared to developed countries with 8,600 kWh. Worldwide, the provision of energy is dominated by three major challenges. 1. Energy consumption has tripled in the past half century. If this continues, humankind will consume more energy in the 21st century than in the entire past history. This represents an increase of 53% in global energy consumption by 2030. 2. The main energy resources are now scarce, so to ensure economic development, countries will compete with each other to acquire their own supplies. Each country seeks to protect its existing sources and open up new ones. This will not result in a fair distribution of resources, as poor countries are not able to compete with their developed neighbors and lose out, as has often happened in history. 3. To an increasing extent attention is focusing on environmental impacts. Because of the greenhouse effect, carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels bring about a rise in global temperatures. The consequences are long-lasting drought, sea level rise, submerging coastal regions and more destructive storms. For these reasons, many governments are reviewing their present energy mixes and are considering alternatives to avert the consequences of energy scarcity, including the renewal of interest in nuclear energy that has been noted in recent decades. Adoption or resumption of nuclear energy is at least one solution for some countries faced with a threat to the security of their energy supplies. Among others, one benefit of nuclear energy is zero emissions of greenhouse gases during their operating phase and the ability of huge plants to provide electricity reliably and on a large scale. Much engineering effort has been devoted to significantly improving nuclear plant safety in recent decades. Furthermore, although they are finite, there are ample reserves of uranium and, unlike petrochemicals, they are not put to any other use apart from as an energy source. Prospecting is under way for new deposits, as currently in Yemen. The cost of electricity generated by nuclear power is now competitive, but a major concern that has still to be resolved is final storage of down burned nuclear fuel rods. An overview of the economics is provided by a cost comparison of the various electricity generation technologies, as shown in Figure 1-1 below. This survey is ongoing in a couple of countries to seek a basis for taking decisions on their energy strategies. The quoted figures are ballpark estimates, with actual values depending very much on local conditions and the current market situation, but they do serve to provide a rough comparison. The outcome of these calculations is that electricity generation from nuclear fuel is, at 91.0 US Dollar/MWh, much more competitive than firing crude oil at 133.4 US Dollar/MWh. However, a major consideration is the distinction that has to be made between supplying base and peak/cycling load. To meet the demand for base-load electricity, large-scale power plants, like nuclear and those fired with coal and crude oil are more favorable. These need an extended start-up period – ranging from a couple of hours to two or three days – before they can feed power into the grid. Smaller scale plant, like diesel-fired simple-cycle gas turbines and solar power plants are able to rapidly ramp their power output up and down to cover daily consumption peaks. For this reason, nuclear power plants almost exclusively operate continuously at or near peak output to supply base load, together with natural gas-fired combined cycle gas turbine plants and coal-fired power plants. Diesel-fired gas turbines and solar power plants find application for peak and cycling duty. The key factors are listed in the following table, with firstly the operating parameters, which are attributes specific to the various power plant technologies that are taken as basic assumptions for the further calculations. The second sub-heading is key financial constraints, which fix the technology that is more economical. These comprise the capital cost for construction and development as well as long-term costs that are highly cyclical and cannot be so readily predicted as the other costs. The third main distinction is the direct electricity generation costs. These are running costs incurred only during power plant operation and are directly related to the rated power output in MWe. This calculation serves as well to identify companies and utility suppliers for nuclear power generation as well as to broaden the mix of energy supply technologies and reduce dependency on specific primary resources.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: List of Figures4 List of Abbreviations6 1.Introduction and Objective8 1.1Objective of this Master Thesis8 1.2Introduction9 2.Geographical, Political, Cultural and Economic Conditions13 2.1Geography and Culture13 2.2Economy and Politics14 2.3Political and Social Stability in the UAE18 2.4Relations between the UAE and Germany18 2.5Relationship between the KSA and Germany19 3.Energy Sectors of the Leading Countries on the Arabian Peninsula20 3.1Electricity Generation and Consumption in KSA and UAE20 3.2Water Production and Consumption in the KSA and UAE24 3.3Renewable Energy in the UAE and KSA25 3.4Pending Developments25 3.5Country-specific Organizations and Authorities26 3.6Financing of Power Projects in Arabian Countries27 3.7Summary of Chapter 327 4.Nuclear Energy on the Arabian Peninsula28 4.1Status in the UAE and KSA28 4.2Reasons for Launching a Nuclear Program29 4.3Obligations to Launch a Nuclear Program30 4.4Commitments of the UAE31 4.5Challenges and Potentials of the Nuclear Path33 4.6Global Outlook35 5.Preparations for Market Penetration37 5.1Vision and Mission38 5.2Market Analysis39 5.3Strategic SWOT Analysis41 5.3.1Strengths41 5.3.2Weaknesses45 5.3.3Opportunities46 5.3.4Threats47 5.4Five Elements of Realization Strategy49 5.4.1Arenas (market conditions and valuable segments)49 5.4.2Staging and pacing53 5.4.3Differentiators55 5.4.4Vehicles (course of action)55 5.4.5Economic logic58 5.4.6Summary and checklist of foundation59 6.Execution of the Initial Phase60 6.1Centralization versus Decentralization of Business Units60 6.2Acquisition of New Permanent Employees61 6.2.1Recruitment strategy for employees without experience61 6.2.2Recruitment strategy for experienced employees62 6.2.3Selection of potential candidates63 6.2.4Recruitment process63 6.3Internal Deployment and Organization66 6.3.1Feedback systems66 6.3.2Development of competencies66 6.3.3Incentives and salary systems68 6.3.4Difficulties with external parties69 7.Assessment of Business after 'Start-up Phase'70 7.1Reassessment of Recent Years70 7.2Organizational Improvement Measures72 7.3Change Management and the Reorganization of Business and Markets73 7.3.1Strengthen the position in the existing market74 7.3.2Entering new global markets75 8.Summary76 List of Literature78Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3.3, Renewable Energy in the UAE and KSA: Utility companies in the GCC states are under enormous pressure due to the global scarcity of fossil fuels, which are running out much faster than expected, consequently they are boosting also renewable energies. Governmental agencies have been instructed to review energy consumption in the Middle East and are seeking alternatives to meet the rising demand, which is also in line with the global environmental movement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The long shoreline and high insolation throughout the year are optimal for generating wind, water and photovoltaic power. The following illustrate the efforts made by government agencies for the upcoming year: Abu Dhabi's Masdar City is spending US Dollar 2 billion on promoting solar technology. Saudi Arabia is looking to position itself as a centre for solar energy research and so become a net exporter of energy sourced from renewables. Abu Dhabi is to build the world's largest hydrogen power plant at a cost of US Dollar 15 billion. 'Glance over the borders": Jordan is assessing plans for constructing a wind farm while Qatar is considering solar power. 3.4, Pending Developments: Regarding upcoming developments, the two countries, UAE and KSA, have to be considered separately due to the primary resources that are available. Crude oil and natural gas reserves in Saudi Arabia will last decades more than the resources in the UAE. A further reason is that the quality and composition of the mineral resources are much less favorable in the KSA than in the UAE. This means that their firing for power generation is, for economic reasons, the only reasonable option for their exploitation. In the UAE the situation is different, as there the mineral resources are of much higher quality and are too valuable to fire in power plants. The price obtainable on the world petrochemicals market is much higher than the benefit derived from electricity generation. The UAE therefore has a greater incentive to diversify its power generation and to invest in technologies other than fossil fuels much earlier. Based on the financial and economic crisis, the 'Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie' expects a smoother growth of GDP in 2008 and 2009. This means that ongoing projects with a total CAPEX of US Dollar 378 billion will be postponed or abandoned. Despite these figures, the UAE will remain the most important project market for German companies in the Arabian region. Over the near term, between 2009 and 2011, the UAE expects investments of about US Dollar 540 billion. Showing high potential for investments of about US Dollar 24 billion is expansion of water production and power plant capacities. To participate in this development, frequent consultations and top-level meetings are held to strengthen the relationship between German industry and local agencies like DEWA (Dubai Electrical and Water Authority) and ADWEA (Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority). These authorities organize and guide all water and electricity projects, starting with planning and tendering through to commissioning. Over the past four years, energy consumption in the Emirate of Dubai has increased by around 10,000 GWh. As a consequence, the projection for 2010 is for a new electricity generation capacity of 9 GWe provided by power plants. Likewise electricity transmission has potential for growth. DEWA intends to award contracts annually for more than 6,000 km of HVDC (high voltage direct current) transmission lines. DEWA has an estimated annual budget of US Dollar 2 billion.

Vast areas have been subject to an active nature protection policy in Norway over the past decades. Sixteen per cent of the land mass on the mainland is now protected in one way or another, and national parks take up the greatest share of the protected land. In many regions throughout the world, national parks offer excellent opportunities for outdoor recreation and tourism activities. The social values of contact with nature and opportunities for nature-based activities are considered to be a key element of Norwegian /North European culture and tradition. Nature-based tourism is a rapidly growing sector of the tourism industry in many parts of the world. National parks have played a major part in this growth in many countries, because they tend to be associated with relatively pristine nature and beautiful scenery and they attract visitors seeking nature-based experiences. This PhD project explores the social dimension of sustainable tourism development in Norwegian national parks. The study reflects the paradigmatic shift in national park management policy, where the traditional view of protecting nature from human use is gradually being replaced by a vision of safeguarding both nature conservation and recreation/tourism interests. The increasing emphasis on the interests of visitors and local communities related to tourism activities suggests that social values are moving to the forefront of discourses on sustainable tourism development in national parks. The political backdrop for this new integrated management philosophy is rooted in the assumption that nature-based tourism in and around Norwegian national parks (which are typically located in remote mountain regions), represents promising opportunities for rural areas that are affected by the marginalisation of traditional industries, such as agriculture and forestry. Increasing visitation and more nature-based tourism products can potentially generate local jobs and income, and tourism therefore represents a way of stemming the outmigration of the resident populations. The integration of broader social interests in the emerging management regime has also arisen from criticisms of the traditional, expertdriven, segregated and top-down national park management strategies. The inclusion of local, experience-based knowledge, the involvement of community stakeholder interests and the anchoring of management processes and solutions at the local level are now being given political attention. In examining the social preconditions for sustainable tourism development in national parks, this PhD project analyses tourism interests in various ways: Visitor desires and concerns and the viewpoints of local tourism entrepreneurs are taken into consideration, as well as the views of other rural interests with a stake in the utilisation of national parks. Nasjonalparkriket ("The National Park Realm") was chosen as the case study area for the empirical study. This mountainous region is situated in the northern part of Oppland County in Norway. It comprises six municipalities with very high land coverage of protected areas, including six national parks. Visitors' Nature Orientations were examined through two surveys to achieve a detailed understanding of their main types of nature appreciation. The findings illustrate tourists' nature-related motives, values and attitudes and also their behavioural preferences in a nature setting. German, Dutch and Danish motor tourists visiting Norway were surveyed when leaving the country by ferry and four vital dimensions of Nature Orientations were identified: Inspiration, Recreation, Challenge and Sightseeing. Inspiration represents existential values and a strong emotional connectedness with landscape and nature; Recreation signifies the desire for tranquillity, peacefulness and physical relaxation in natural surroundings; Challenge represents the desire for demanding physical exercise and risk taking, and Sightseeing refers to interests in seeing sights and the appreciation of comfort aspects. An additional visitor survey among actual visitors in Nasjonalparkriket, supported these findings but the Sightseeing dimension was re-labelled Comfort due to the relative importance of the comfort aspect in the fourth dimension. Tourism facilities (and visitors' 'quests' for such facilities) in and around national parks can potentially match the different Nature Orientations, and the border survey showed that each of the four identified principal Quest for Facilities dimensions related to distinct nature interests: The Nature Orientations Challenge and Sightseeing supported the expressed wishes for extension and upgrading of "Tracks & signposts" within national parks. The desire for more grand scale "Infrastructure & services" was upheld by Nature Orientations Challenge and Sightseeing but was contested by Recreation. Moreover, "Food & accommodation" products mainly located outside parks were found to be particularly appealing to the Nature Orientation Sightseeing. The expansion of "Tours & interpretation" services and facilities in natural surroundings was supported by the Inspiration or Sightseeing orientations. Tourists who seek pleasures in natural surroundings tend to express great concern for the environment. In the survey among actual visitors in Nasjonalparkriket, respondents generally expressed a very low degree of acceptance for negative ecological impacts resulting from tourism activities and installations in the national parks. The Nature Orientation dimension Inspiration was associated with a particularly great concern for the wild reindeer habitat, raptor nesting and attrition on vegetation. On the other hand, both Comfort (Sightseeing) and Challenge orientations showed less environmental concern compared to visitors in general. The Quest for Facilities dimensions "Infrastructure & service" and "Food & accommodation" (i.e. tourism product interests upheld by Comfort (Sightseeing) and Challenge according to the border survey) fell into the latter domain, and were also (in relative terms) related to a higher degree of acceptance of negative ecological impacts. Tourists' Nature Orientations, Quest for Facilities and views on potential nature destruction (as revealed in the two surveys) represent important knowledge for managers who are looking to develop national parks into viable tourism attractions. In addition, local tourism entrepreneurs need to be aware of their guests' interests and concerns if they want to succeed. Local tourism stakeholders are often totally dependent on the natural resources contained in the protected areas. National park management policies and regulations represent opportunities and constraints for tourism activities, and thus have a direct influence on the prospects for tourism expansion. Qualitative interviews with local tourism stakeholders in Rondane and Jotunheimen national parks (within Nasjonalparkriket) revealed that, despite their general support for national parks status, they felt that the management planning processes and outcomes left a lot to be desired. First, the tourism representatives reported only minor involvement in the national park planning processes, and that they had very little input into the final planning arrangements. Second, they felt that management rules and regulations restricted opportunities for tourism related business operations within the parks. Third, respondents perceived a lack of competence among managers concerning business management and tourism development issues. In Rondane National Park, doubts were expressed about the necessity of the measures implemented to protect the wild reindeer, and the scientific evidence supporting these measures. In Jotunheimen National Park, respondents thought that sustainable tourism development should be more explicitly included in management visions and goals for the national park, and they called for a visitor strategy to be implemented. They also expressed a desire to be involved in the co-management of the park. Considerable investment in communication and relationship-building is likely to be required in these two parks to foster durable social links and trustworthy planning partnerships between responsible managers and local tourism stakeholders. Similar opinions were identified among local tourism stakeholders in a focus group study in the two national parks mentioned above. The traditional rural users (i.e. local landowners, farmers, etc.) of the national parks are social interests defining the freedom of action with respect to existing tourism activities and also new tourism industry initiatives. When exploring the opinions of both groups (i.e. local tourism entrepreneurs and traditional rural users) about tourism in the protected areas, there were few direct clashes of interest. However, contradictory views were evident amongst groups when discussing the need for genuine tourism growth in the area. The local tourism entrepreneurs demonstrated an 'openness to change' in order to sustain their businesses and the local community, whereas the traditional rural user interests had a more sceptical attitude and were afraid that new developments could change the character of their countryside and undermine rural lifestyles and the integrity of their local community. Viable directions for tourism development should therefore be negotiated between the two stakeholder interests. The main contribution of this dissertation is to highlight social preconditions for sustainable tourism development in a Norwegian national park setting. Both 'outsider' and 'insider' social perspectives (i.e. visitor and local stakeholder interests), are equally taken into consideration. Existing opportunities and constraints are discussed and issues of crucial importance for tourism advancement in the national parks are identified. ; Store naturområder er blitt vernet av norske myndigheter i de siste tiårene. 16 prosent av landarealene på Norges fastland er nå vernet i en eller annen form, og nasjonalparkene utgjør den største andelen av disse verneområdene. I mange land er nasjonalparkene svært godt tilrettelagte for rekreasjons- og turistaktiviteter. De sosiale verdiene som er knyttet til befolkningens nærhet til natur og mulighetene for naturbaserte aktiviteter og opplevelser blir ofte ansett som et kjerneelement i norsk/skandinavisk kultur og tradisjon. Naturbasert turisme er en raskt voksende sektor i mange deler av verden, og nasjonalparkene blir gjerne assosiert med godt bevart, verdifull natur og vakre landskaper, som tiltrekker seg et økende antall besøkende i mange land. I dette PhD-prosjektet rettes søkelyset mot den sosiale dimensjonen ved bærekraftig reiselivsutvikling i norske nasjonalparker. Studien reflekterer det pågående paradigmatiske skiftet i nasjonalparkpolitikken, der det klassiske naturvernet mot menneskelig bruk og påvirkning gradvis blir erstattet av forestillinger om at naturforvaltning i denne typen områder bør handle om å ivareta både naturhensyn og reiselivsinteresser. Den voksende oppmerksomheten omkring de besøkendes behov og den økende vektleggingen av lokalsamfunnsinteressene som er relatert til turistaktivitetene indikerer at de sosiale aspektene gradvis får større betydning i diskusjoner om bærekraftig reiselivsutvikling i nasjonalparkene. Det generelle politiske bakteppet for denne nyere, sosialt integrerte forvaltningsfilosofien er knyttet til en antakelse om at norske nasjonalparker, som gjerne er lokalisert i relativt perifere fjellregioner, representerer næringsmuligheter for bygdesamfunn som er blitt marginalisert i økonomisk henseende som følge av tilbakegang i tradisjonelle næringer som jordbruk og skogbruk. Mer besøk i nasjonalparkene og tilpassede naturbaserte reiselivstilbud kan potensielt skape arbeidsplasser lokalt og tilføre lokalsamfunnene nye inntekter. Utvikling av reiselivet fremstår derfor som et egnet redskap for å motvirke utflytting fra disse områdene. Innlemmingen av bredere sosiale interesser i det nye forvaltningsregimet kan også ses på som et svar på kritikken av den dominerende naturvitenskapelige, ekspertpregede og top-downorienterte forvaltningstradisjonen. Inkludering av både lokal og erfaringsbasert kunnskap, involvering av lokalsamfunnsinteresser og sikring av lokalt forankrede forvaltningsprosesser og -beslutninger blir nå i stadig større grad viet politisk oppmerksomhet. I denne studien av sosiale aspekter ved bærekraftig reiselivsutvikling i nasjonalparker rettes søkelyset både mot de besøkendes tilretteleggingsønsker og mot deres omtanke for naturmiljøet. I tillegg analyseres synspunktene på reiselivsutvikling i nasjonalparkene blant lokale reiselivsentreprenører og andre lokale brukerinteresser. Nasjonalparkriket i Nord-Gudbrandsdalen ble valgt som case for den empiriske undersøkelsen. Denne fjellregionen ligger i den nordlige delen av Oppland fylke, og omfatter seks kommuner med seks nasjonalparker, der en svært stor andel av arealet består av vernede landområder. Gjennom to surveyundersøkelser ble turistenes såkalte naturorienteringer belyst. Resultatene illustrerer turistenes naturrelaterte motiver, verdier og holdninger samt deres atferdspreferanser i et naturmiljø. Tyske, nederlandske og danske bilturister ble i den første surveyundersøkelsen bedt om å besvare et spørreskjema ved utreise fra Norge med ferge, og fire typer av naturorienteringer ble identifisert i denne grenseundersøkelsen: Inspirasjon, Rekreasjon, Utfordring og Sightseeing. Inspirasjon representerer eksistensielle verdier og en sterk emosjonell tilknytning til natur og landskaper. Rekreasjon står for ønsker om stillhet, ro og fysisk avkobling i naturomgivelser. Utfordring gjenspeiler ønsker om fysisk krevende aktiviteter og en viss risikoorientering. Sightseeing reflekterer interessen for å se attraksjoner og understreker betydningen av komfort på reisen. Den andre surveyundersøkelsen, en spørreundersøkelse blant faktisk besøkende i Nasjonalparkriket, bekreftet disse funnene, men her ble Sightseeing omskrevet til Komfort pga den sterke betydningen av komfortaspektene på den fjerde dimensjonen. De besøkendes uttrykte ønsker om tilrettelegginger av fasiliteter i og rundt nasjonalparkene kan i utgangspunktet tenkes å være knyttet til de ulike naturorienteringene. Grenseundersøkelsen blant de utenlandske bilturistene viste at hver av de fire identifiserte typene av fasilitetsønsker var relatert til hver av de fire typene av naturinteresser: Naturorienteringene Utfordring og Sightseeing understøttet ønskene om å utvide og oppgradere "Stier & skilter" inne i nasjonalparkene. Ønskene om mer storskala "Infrastruktur & service" ble opprettholdt av naturorienteringene Utfordring og Sightseeing, men var i liten grad relatert til Rekreasjon. Tilrettelagte turistprodukter innen "Mat & overnatting" utenfor nasjonalparkenes grenser hadde først og fremst appell til naturorienteringen Sightseeing, mens "Organiserte turer & formidling" i naturomgivelser var relatert til naturorienteringene Inspirasjon og Sightseeing. Turister som søker seg til naturområder er gjerne opptatt av vern av naturmiljøet. I undersøkelsen blant besøkende i Nasjonalparkriket uttrykte respondentene generelt sett lav grad av aksept for negative økologiske konsekvenser som følge av turistaktiviteter og turistmessig infrastruktur i nasjonalparkene. Naturorienteringsdimensjonen Inspirasjon var forbundet med en spesielt restriktiv holdning til negativ påvirkning av villreinhabitatet, rovfuglenes redebygging og slitasje på vegetasjonen. På den andre siden viste både orienteringene knyttet til Komfort (Sightseeing) og Utfordring større grad av aksept for negative økologiske virkninger. De som ønsket "Infrastruktur og service" og "Mat & overnatting" (dvs. fasilitetsønsker opprettholdt av Komfort /Sightseeing og Utfordring i følge grenseundersøkelsen) falt inn i den siste kategorien, der det var en relativt sett høy grad av aksept for negative økologiske virkninger. Turisters naturorienteringer, fasilitetsønsker og oppfatninger av potensielle naturødeleggelser, slik det ble avdekket i de to surveyundersøkelsene, er viktig kunnskap for forvaltningsmyndigheter som ønsker å utvikle nasjonalparkene til bærekraftige turismeattraksjoner. I tillegg må lokale reiselivsentreprenører ha kjennskap til gjestenes interesser og innsikt i deres miljøengasjement dersom de skal kunne overleve. De lokale næringsaktørene er dessuten helt avhengige av naturressursene som finnes inne i nasjonalparkene. Forvaltningspolitikk og -reguleringer representerer muligheter og begrensninger for turismeaktiviteter og har dermed direkte betydning for utviklingen av reiselivet i nasjonalparkene. Kvalitative intervjuer med lokale reiselivsaktører i Rondane og Jotunheimen nasjonalparker (som begge er lokalisert innenfor Nasjonalparkriket) viste at disse entreprenørene så fundamentale mangler ved både forvaltningsplanprosesser og - bestemmelser, til tross for at de generelt støttet nasjonalparkstatusen for disse fjellområdene: For det første rapporterte aktørene om bare minimal, reell involvering i nasjonalparkenes forvaltningsplanprosesser, og de uttrykte at de hadde hatt liten innflytelse på de endelige vedtakene som ble fattet. For det andre opplevde de at reguleringene begrenset mulighetene for turistaktiviteter inne i nasjonalparkene. For det tredje pekte de på at forvaltningen mangler kompetanse både på forretningsvirksomhet og reiselivsutvikling. I Rondane ble det uttrykt tvil om nødvendigheten av de strenge tiltakene for å beskytte villreinen og det vitenskapelige grunnlaget for disse initiativene. I Jotunheimen mente de lokale reiselivsaktørene at bærekraftig reiselivsutvikling burde bli eksplisitt inkludert i forvaltningens visjoner og målsettinger for nasjonalparken, og de ønsket iverksetting av en besøksstrategi for dette verneområdet. De ville også gjerne bli delaktige i forvaltningen av parken. Betydelige investeringer i kommunikasjon og relasjonsbygging er trolig påkrevd i disse to parkene for å utvikle tillitsfulle og varige sosiale bånd mellom forvaltningsmyndighetene og de lokale reiselivsaktørene. Liknende synspunkter ble identifisert blant lokale reiselivsentreprenører i en fokusgruppeundersøkelse i de to nevnte nasjonalparkene. De tradisjonelle bruksinteressene (dvs. lokale grunneiere, bønder etc.) i nasjonalparkene er sosiale interesser som kan tenkes å sette rammer for reiselivsaktivitetene og dermed også påvirke nye initiativ i reiselivsnæringen. Analysene av alle fokusgruppene (dvs. både blant de lokale reiselivsaktørene og de tradisjonelle brukerinteressene i de to parkene) viste at det var få eksisterende konflikter mellom de ulike interessene. Men ulike synspunkter kom til uttrykk når behovet for fortsatt vekst i turismen i området ble diskutert. De lokale reiselivsaktørene viste en "åpenhet for forandring" for å videreutvikle reiselivet og livskraften i lokalsamfunnet, mens de tradisjonelle brukerinteressene hadde en mer skeptisk holdning og var engstelige for at rask reiselivsvekst kunne endre områdets karakter og underminere lokal livsstil og bygdesamfunnets integritet. Bærekraftige løsninger for videre reiselivsutvikling i området bør derfor framforhandles mellom disse ulike lokale brukerinteressene. Det viktigste bidraget i dette PhD-prosjektet har vært å analysere de sosiale forutsetningene for bærekraftig reiselivsutvikling i norske nasjonalparker. De sosiale aspektene er belyst gjennom både "utenfra"- og "innenfra"-perspektiver, dvs. at interessene til så vel besøkende turister som lokale næringsutøvere er inkludert i denne avhandlingen. ; Norges Bondelag ; Nasjonalparkriket