Suchergebnisse

Alongside the destruction of habitat, the impact of invasive alien species (IAS) is considered as one of the most important threats to global biodiversity. Therefore, international directives as well as national legislation call for measures to prevent the further spread of already established IAS as well as to limit their negative effects on native flora and fauna. This study deals with one of these non-native species – the American mink (Neovison vison). In order to get information about ecology and behaviour of this semiaquatic carnivore, a small population in a north German fishpond area, where mink has been spreading since the 1970s, was investigated. During the years 2003 to 2006 data about annual and circadian activity patterns, space use, territorial system as well as feeding habits and their variations during different seasons were collected. For this purpose, altogether 14 individuals (nine males, five females) were monitored using radio-telemetry. Based on the results, the potential impact of American mink on indigenous species was discussed and implications for mink control and management were deduced. American mink are difficult to radio tag. The small difference between their head and neck circumferences mean that the radio collars must be worn tightly to prevent loss. A methodological evaluation of conventional collar transmitters revealed that in six out of eight cases serious skin injuries on the necks were the consequences. Therefore, all radio collars were removed and radio transmitters were surgically implanted in the peritoneal cavity of mink by veterinarians. One male bit open the sutures and died after emergency surgery, but in 13 cases implantation did not affect survival or reproduction of the mink. With reference to animal welfare, intraperitoneal implantation of radio transmitters (in combination with observation and quarantine for several days after operation) instead of external radio collars were recommended for long term telemetry studies of American mink. Analyses of annual activity patterns revealed significant differences in seasonal activity rates. Both sexes reduced their average activity rates in cold winter months (October to February) to about 23 %. This energy-saving strategy is possible because of sufficient food availability, especially of fish, at this time. In March, male as well as female mink considerably increased their activity to almost 40 % due to the mating season. In summer months, during the pup-raising period (May to August), female activity continued to be high (between 40 and 50 %). However, male mink which are not involved in rearing the young, were less active (about 30 %) until July. But in August and September, the time of juvenile dispersal followed by changes in the territorial system and intraspecific aggression, activity rates of males increased again up to 43 %. Circadian activity rhythms differed markedly between sexes. All investigated females exhibited a perennial diurnal pattern. Three of five investigated male mink showed typical nocturnal activity throughout the year. Two males displayed arrhythmic behaviour; they did not prefer any time of the day for activity. On the one hand, gender differences in annual as well as circadian activity patterns of American mink reflect the diversity in ecological constraints, primarily the investment into reproduction. On the other hand, the different temporal strategies of sexes may have the potential to reduce intraspecific, especially intersexual competition. Investigating territorial systems and space use of mink, in comparison to other European studies, relatively large home ranges combined with a quite low population density were observed. In summer months male mink used on average 15.4 km length of waterway and female mink used on average 9.3 km length of waterway. In accordance with the trend of activity rates, male and female mink reduced their large summer home ranges by more than half during the cold winter period. But all-season male mink used significantly larger areas than female mink. High intersexual overlapping rates of home ranges and low levels of intrasexual overlapping of neighbouring home ranges confirm intrasexual territoriality of American mink. Probably, the low population density (0.6-0.7 individuals/km2) allows such high variations in seasonal and sexual home range size. During the mating season males considerably enlarged their home ranges and roamed nearly through the entire study area in search of receptive females. The shifting of stable temporary home ranges observed within one season or between the same seasons of consecutive years demonstrates the highly dynamic nature of spatial behaviour among American mink. The recorded characteristic features of spatial and temporal behaviour should be considered when planning monitoring- and management measures of this invasive carnivore. For instance, the reduced home ranges and activity rates during winter months should be taken into account in mink trapping projects. Analyses of more than 2500 scatsamples of radio tracked mink show that investigated animals principally prey on fish, small mammals and birds (eggs inclusive). There were significant seasonal variations of diet composition. In spring, the three categories of prey - fish, mammals and birds (eggs inclusive) - were hunted in similar amounts. During summer, birds and their eggs made up the main part of the diet followed by mammals. In autumn, the proportion of birds in the mink diet decreased, whereas fish gained in importance. This trend continued during the winter period, when mink preyed almost exclusively on fish. Throughout the entire year amphibians, crustaceans, insects, molluscs and reptiles were found only occasionally in scatsamples. Among birds, the mink preyed mainly on the Eurasian Coot (Fulica atra) followed by the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). Mammalian prey was clearly dominated by the water vole (Arvicola terrestris) and among fish, mink hunted especially perch (Perca fluviatilis), roach (Rutilus rutilus) and carp (Cyprinus carpio). Results clearly demonstrate that mink is an opportunistic predator, which hunts its prey according to availability and vulnerability, respectively. Despite the high portions of fish in the autumn and winter diet, the economic damage to fishery caused by mink seems to be low. Perch and roach were preyed on in higher frequencies than the carp which is economically relevant. However, high predation on birds and their eggs during the breeding season indicates a potential negative impact of mink on waterfowl. To summarise, it can be noted that characteristic features of the anthropogenically influenced study area affect feeding habits, activity patterns, space use and density of local mink population. In this regard the management of fishponds, which influences seasonal availability of habitat- and food resources for mink, plays an important role. American mink is regarded as "invasive", because a negative impact on native species has been proved by several European studies. Consequently, this study recommends management with a focus on effective monitoring and, if necessary, control or exclusion measures adapted to the specific local requirements. Furthermore, to prevent additional introductions into the wild, the still existing farms have to be protected against outbreaks and liberations. In the long term, a general ban on the trade and keeping of American mink would be desirable.:1 Summary 1 2 Zusammenfassung 4 3 General Introduction 8 4 Study Area and Methods 12 5 Radio tagging American mink (Mustela vison) – experience with collar- and intraperitoneal implanted transmitters 14 6 Gender differences in activity patterns of American mink Neovison vison in Germany 15 7 Dynamics in space use of American mink (Neovison vison) in a fishpond area in Northern Germany 16 8 Feeding habits of invasive American mink (Neovison vison) in northern Germany—potential implications for fishery and waterfowl 17 9 Concluding Discussion 18 9.1 Activity patterns, Space use and Feeding habits as well as the potential ecological and economic Impact 18 9.2 Prevention and Management 22 10 References 27 Acknowledgement 34 ; Der Einfluss invasiver, gebietsfremder Arten wird neben der Habitatzerstörung als eine der größten Gefährdungen der Biodiversität weltweit angesehen. Sowohl internationale Umweltvereinbarungen als auch die nationale Gesetzgebung fordern daher Maßnahmen, die eine weitere Ausbreitung bereits etablierter invasiver Neozoen verhindern und deren negative Einflüsse minimieren. Die vorliegende Studie befasst sich mit einer dieser Neozoen - dem Amerikanischen Nerz bzw. Mink (Neovison vison). Um Erkenntnisse zu Ökologie und Verhalten des semiaquatischen Musteliden in Deutschland zu gewinnen, wurden Daten zu tages- und jahreszeitlichen Aktivitätsmustern, zu Raumnutzung und Territorialsystem sowie zur Nahrungswahl und den jahreszeitlichen Unterschieden im Beutespektrum der Art erhoben. Dafür konnten in den Jahren 2003 bis 2006 in einem Fischteich-Gebiet in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, wo sich Minke bereits seit den 1970er Jahren etabliert haben, insgesamt 14 Individuen (neun Männchen, fünf Weibchen) radiotelemetrisch überwacht werden. Anhand der Ergebnisse wird einerseits der potentielle Einfluss des gebietsfremden Raubsäugers auf einheimische Arten abgeschätzt und diskutiert. Andererseits werden die Ergebnisse herangezogen, um effektive Monitoring- und Managementmaßnahmen abzuleiten. Eine methodische Evaluation von Halsbandsendern zeigte, dass in sechs von acht Fällen die getesteten Halsbänder, die aufgrund des sehr ähnlichen Hals-Kopf-Umfanges der Individuen relativ eng angelegt werden müssen, Hautverletzungen verursachten. Infolgedessen wurden die Halsbandsender gegen durch Tierärzte operativ in die Bauchhöhle eingesetzte Implantationssender ausgetauscht. Auch bei allen nachfolgend gefangenen Tieren wurden die Sender implantiert. Bei insgesamt 14 durchgeführten Erstimplantationen beeinflussten mit Ausnahme eines Falles (Tod durch Aufbeißen der Naht) die Implantate weder das Überleben, noch die Reproduktion der Minke. Daher ist v.a. in Hinblick auf Tierschutzaspekte die Senderimplantation (in Kombination mit einer Mehrtages-Quarantäne) anstatt der Verwendung von externen Halsbandsendern zu empfehlen. Die Analyse der circannuellen Aktivitätsmuster ergab signifikante Unterschiede der saisonalen Aktivitätsraten. Während der kalten Wintermonate (Oktober bis Februar) zeigten beide Geschlechter mit durchschnittlich etwa 23 % eine vergleichsweise geringe Aktivität. Diese energiesparende Verhaltensweise war möglich, da auch im Winter ein ausreichend hohes Nahrungsangebot, vor allem an Fisch, vorhanden war. Im März kam es sowohl bei den Männchen als auch bei den Weibchen zu einem durch die Paarungszeit verursachten, beträchtlichen Anstieg der mittleren Aktivitätsraten auf fast 40 %. In den Sommermonaten (Mai bis August) waren die weiblichen Tiere, durch die Anforderungen der Jungenaufzucht bedingt, anhaltend häufig aktiv (zwischen 40 und 50 %). Die Aktivitätsraten der nicht an der Jungenaufzucht beteiligten Männchen dagegen nahmen im April wieder ab, um bis zum Juli auf einem vergleichsweise geringen Niveau von etwa 30 % zu bleiben. Sie stiegen jedoch während der Monate August und September erneut auf etwa 43 % an. Zu dieser Zeit wandern gewöhnlich die Jungtiere ab und suchen sich ein eigenes Streifgebiet (= Aktionsraum), dadurch kommt es zu Änderungen im Territorialsystem und damit einhergehenden innerartlichen Auseinandersetzungen. Beide Geschlechter unterscheiden sich stark in ihren tageszeitlichen Aktivitätsrhythmen. Alle Weibchen waren ganzjährig tagaktiv. Von den fünf untersuchten Männchen zeigten drei typische Nachtaktivität im gesamten Jahresverlauf. Die beiden anderen männlichen Tiere verhielten sich in ihren Aktivitätsrhythmen indifferent, sie zeigten das ganze Jahr über keine Präferenzen für eine bestimmte Tageszeit. Die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede sowohl in den circannuellen als auch in den circadianen Aktivitätsmustern spiegeln zum einen die verschiedenen Anforderungen an die Geschlechter wieder, vor allem die Investitionen in die Fortpflanzung. Zum anderen können die geschlechtsspezifisch unterschiedlichen Zeitnutzungs-Strategien zu einer Minimierung der innerartlichen, vorzugsweise der intersexuellen Konkurrenz führen. Die Analyse der Telemetriedaten hinsichtlich Raumnutzung und Territorialsystem ergab im Vergleich zu anderen europäischen Studien relativ große individuelle Aktionsräume verbunden mit einer geringen Populationsdichte im Untersuchungsgebiet. So erstreckten sich die durchschnittlich genutzten Sommerstreifgebiete der Männchen auf 15,4 km und die der Weibchen auf 9,3 km Flusslauf bzw. Teichufer. Entsprechend dem Trend der saisonalen Aktivitätsmuster, reduzierten beide Geschlechter ihre großen Sommerstreifgebiete während der Winterhalbjahre um mehr als die Hälfte der Fläche. Allerdings nutzten die Männchen zu allen Jahreszeiten wesentlich größere Aktionsräume als die weiblichen Minke. Große Streifgebietsüberlappungen zwischen den Geschlechtern sowie verhältnismäßig niedrige Überlappungsraten der benachbarten Streifgebiete von Tieren des gleichen Geschlechts bestätigen die intrasexuelle Territorialität der Art. Die erheblichen Unterschiede der saisonalen und geschlechtsspezifischen Aktionsraumgrößen werden vermutlich durch die ermittelte, vergleichsweise geringe Populationsdichte (0,6-0,7 Individuen/km2) ermöglicht. Die ausgedehnte und sich fast über das gesamte Untersuchungsgebiet erstreckende Raumnutzung der Männchen während der Paarungszeit ist durch die Suche nach fortpflanzungsbereiten Weibchen bedingt. Die Raumnutzung der untersuchten Minke unterliegt einer hohen Dynamik, dies wird durch die häufige räumliche Verschiebung temporär stabiler Streifgebiete innerhalb einer Jahreszeit oder auch zwischen den gleichen Jahreszeiten aufeinanderfolgender Jahre verdeutlicht. All diese ermittelten charakteristischen Besonderheiten im Raum-Zeit-Verhalten der Art sollten bei der Entwicklung von Monitoring- und Managementkonzepten berücksichtigt werden. So müssen beispielsweise bei der Fallenjagd im Winter die zu dieser Zeit stark verkleinerten Streifgebiete und die reduzierten Aktivitätsraten Beachtung finden. Die Analyse der über 2500 Losungsproben telemetrierter Minke zeigte, dass sich die untersuchten Tiere hauptsächlich von Fisch, Kleinsäugern und Vögeln (inklusive deren Eiern) ernährten. Dabei traten allerdings signifikante saisonale Unterschiede in der Nahrungs-zusammensetzung auf. So wurden im Frühjahr die drei Beutekategorien Fisch, Kleinsäuger sowie Vögel und deren Eier in ähnlichen Anteilen erbeutet. Während des Sommers bildeten Vögel und Vogeleier die Hauptbeute, gefolgt von Kleinsäugern. Im Herbst verringerte sich der Vogel- und Kleinsäugeranteil im Beutespektrum zugunsten von Fisch. Dieser Trend setzte sich bis in den Winter fort; in dieser Jahreszeit ernährten sich die Minke fast ausschließlich von Fisch. Amphibien, Reptilien, Krebstiere, Insekten und Mollusken wurden im gesamten Jahresverlauf nur gelegentlich gefressen. Innerhalb der Gruppe der Vögel prädierten die Minke vor allem Blässhühner (Fulica atra), gefolgt von Stockenten (Anas platyrhynchos). Das Kleinsäuger-Beutespektrum wurde eindeutig von der Schermaus (Arvicola terrestris) dominiert und unter den Fischen erbeuteten die Minke vorzugsweise Flussbarsche (Perca fluviatilis), Plötzen (Rutilus rutilus) und Karpfen (Cyprinus carpio). Die Ergebnisse der Nahrungsanalyse bestätigen den Mink als einen opportunistischen Prädator, der seine Beutetiere je nach Verfügbarkeit bzw. dem erforderlichen Jagdaufwand nutzt. Trotz des hohen Fischanteils in der Herbst- und Winternahrung ist der durch den Mink verursachte ökonomische Schaden schätzungsweise relativ gering. Flussbarsch und Plötze wurden in höheren Frequenzanteilen erbeutet als der wirtschaftlich relevante Karpfen. Die starke Prädation von Wasservögeln und deren Eiern besonders in den Frühjahrs- und Sommermonaten weist allerdings auf einen potentiell negativen Einfluss des invasiven Raubsäugers auf diese Tiergruppe hin. Zusammenfassend lässt sich festhalten, dass die spezifischen Charakteristika des anthropogen geprägten Untersuchungsgebietes sowohl Nahrungsökologie und Aktivitätsmuster als auch Raumnutzung und Populationsdichte der lokalen Minkpopulation beeinflussen. Eine besondere Rolle hierbei spielt die Bewirtschaftung der Fischteiche, denn vor allem daraus resultiert für die Minke eine saisonal unterschiedliche Verfügbarkeit an Lebensraum und Nahrung. Negative Auswirkungen des Amerikanischen Nerzes auf die einheimische Tierwelt wurden in anderen europäischen Ländern belegt und rechtfertigen die Einstufung dieser Art als "invasiv". Demzufolge wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit ein Management empfohlen, bei dem der Focus auf einem effektiven Monitoring und gegebenenfalls auf zweckmäßigen, an die lokalen Bedingungen angepassten Fang- oder Abwehrmaßnahmen liegt. Zudem sollten, um einer weiteren Ausbringung in das Freiland vorzubeugen, die wenigen noch existierenden Minkfarmen besser gegen Ausbrüche bzw. Freilassungsaktionen gesichert werden. Langfristig ist ein generelles Besitz- und Vermarktungsverbot für die Art wünschenswert.:1 Summary 1 2 Zusammenfassung 4 3 General Introduction 8 4 Study Area and Methods 12 5 Radio tagging American mink (Mustela vison) – experience with collar- and intraperitoneal implanted transmitters 14 6 Gender differences in activity patterns of American mink Neovison vison in Germany 15 7 Dynamics in space use of American mink (Neovison vison) in a fishpond area in Northern Germany 16 8 Feeding habits of invasive American mink (Neovison vison) in northern Germany—potential implications for fishery and waterfowl 17 9 Concluding Discussion 18 9.1 Activity patterns, Space use and Feeding habits as well as the potential ecological and economic Impact 18 9.2 Prevention and Management 22 10 References 27 Acknowledgement 34

Although various pieces of European secondary law law use the terms "mise en concurrence" ("calling for competition" or "competitive tendering procedure") they provide no definition of the expression "obligation de mise en concurrence" ("obligation to call for competition"). At the very beginning, the author therefore defines what is meant thereby in his thesis, i.e. "a more or less formalized action which a public or a private person has to follow in order to provoke a competition or a contest between potentially interested persons that perform an economic activity, in order to grant an individual advantage to one or several of them". The first part of the work deals with the regime of competitive tendering of the public procurement directives which the Court of Justice has considered "as a whole" to be the "core" of European law on public contracts. First, this part examins the development of the public procurement directives from 1971 on. The author shows that the puzzling evolution of the personal scope of the public procurement directives is guided by the personal scope of European primary law. While considering the remedies directives, the author examines to what extent they introduce requirements beyond the principle of effective judicial protection. While some of their requirements obviously do so, the remedies directives however remain very far from standardizing the means of redress at national level. Due to the member States' judicial autonomy, the compelling force of EU primary law differs from one member State to another. The same applies within the scope of the remedies directives as they let the member States a large degree of autonomy. The author then turns to examine the contribution of the procurement directives 2004/17/CE, 2004/18/CE and 2009/81/CE, their scope of application, as well as the concepts of public works concession and service concession. Various other questions are dealt with in the first part, such as the use of functional interpretation, the power of the European legislator to adopt regulations on public procurement and the impact of the Agreement on Government Procurement (GPA), the Revised GPA and other international agreements. At last the author explores the issue of electronic procurement and the Commission's proposals for replacing the public procurement directives 2004/17/CE and 2004/18/CE and its proposal concerning the award of concession contracts. The second part of of the thesis focuses on primary public procurement law. After having described the origin of the obligation to call for competition under EU primary law which the Court of Justice derives from articles 49 and 56 TFEU as well as from the principles of equal treatment and non-discrimination on the grounds of nationality, the author strives to determine whether this obligation is well-founded. This examination brings to light that the rationale behind the requirement to call for competition under EU primary law is rather fragile. Amongst others, the author comes to the conclusion that the condition of a certain cross-border interest of each public contract individually as a condition for the application of the primary law obligation to call for competition lacks relevance The author then reviews and examines other possible bases for an obligation to call for competition under EU primary law such as the right to good administration, the freedom of enterprise and the right to property, which are protected by the Charter of Fundamental Rights, and the rights guaranteed by the European Convention on Human Rights. Finally, it seems that only article 102 TFEU (abuse of a dominant position) could to a limited extent give rise to an obligation to call for competition. However, once a situation is governed by EU secondary law, it enters the scope of European law. Hence, the principles of equal treatment and of non-discrimination on the grounds of nationality apply even if a situation involves no cross-border interest. If the Court of justice's case law were followed consistently, these principes should lead to require calls for competition in a number of purely internal situations. According to the author, deducing as precise consequences as does the Court of justice from the principal of equal treatment and other fundemental principles can hardly be justified. After that examination, the material rules of public procurement primary law stated by the Court of Justice and the General Court are successively reviewed. The pages that follow are about the exceptions to the obligation to call for competition under the public procurement directives and under primary law, as for instance articles 51 and 52 TFEU, overriding reasons of general interest and article 106, paragraph 2, TFEU. The author thereafter addresses the question whether primary law applies within the scope of secondary law. He comes to the conclusion that it does even when secondary law represents an exhaustive body of rules. Notwithstanding some ambiguous judgements of the Court of justice there is no support for the doctrine of priority of application of secondary law in the Court's case law. In what follows, the author tries to answer the question whether, in order to stay consistent with the case law developed in the wake of Telaustria, the obligation to call for competition which the case law of the Court of Justice requires for public works, service and supply contracts ought to be extended to other operations (sale or lease of real estate, design contests outside the scope of the public procurement directives, employment contracts, subsidised contracts awarded by private entities outside the scope of the public procurement directives, grants, …). The end of the second part deals with the personal scope of the primary law of public procurement which corresponds to that of EU primary law. The rules concerning State aid are addressed in detail in the third part of the thesis. The examination in that part shows that the public procurement directives, the primary law of public procurement and the EU state aid rules apply cumulatively. The EU State aid rules require efficency when awarding public contracts. Nevertheless, in order to avoid the categorization as State aid, a call for competition is never formally required. The Commission however insists on calls for competition in order to declare certain aids compatible with the internal market. Aids include by definition an advantage for their recipients. This remains true even though an aid has been authorised by the Commission pursuant to article 107, paragraphe 3, TFEU. Given the very broad scope the Court of Justice gives to the freedom of establishment and the free movement of services, aid measures give generally rise to obstacles to the freedom of establishment and the free movement of services. At the risk of rendering article 107, paragraph 3, TFEU unnecessary, the fact that an aid measure impedes the fundamental freedoms of the internal market should therefore not prevent the Commission to declare it compatible with the internal market. This applies in particular to aids consisting in the award of a public contract that is covered only by EU primary law. That solution seems however excluded for public contracts within the scope of the public procurement directives. The Commission has adopted a broad concept of what is an "advantage" in the sense of the State aid rules. This leads the Commission to consider certain grants for environmental protection as State aid measures even though it may be difficult to dectect any kind of advantage. The Commission claims to control these measures in accordance with the rules of State aid control. On that occasion the Commission tends to make its consent subject to a call for competition in order to identify the projects that will be subsidized. A broad approach of the concept of undertaking leads to class as State aid various public infrastructure investments insofar they do not satisfy the private investor test. The Commission tends to make its consent to these investments subject to calls for competition. Such is notably the case regarding public investments in broadband network facilities. In the fourth part, the author examines a variety of secondary legislation imposing calls for competition other than the public procurement directives. These texts cover a wide range of areas and provide for competitive awards of various form and diverse content. Sometimes a requirement for competitive tendering is overtly expressed. At other times, it is implicit, indirect or just inchoate. Some advantages are awarded without a genuine competition or without any competition at all. Directive 2012/34/CE establishing a single European railway area for instance sets principles for the allocation of "infrastructure capacity" (i.e the right to use a railway network). It does not employ such terms as "calling for competition". Where the infrastructure capacity is insufficient it has to be allocated in a fair and non discriminatory manner. The fee for using the railway network cannot be used as an award criterion. In some areas, competition in terms of price is the very basis of the system. This is true for the greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme. It happens that competitive assignment occurs incidentally and in a non compulsory way as in the case of the milk quota regime. In other cases, e.g. certain situations covered by the internal electricity market regime, the system excludes calls for competition whereas they should be required according to primary procurement law principles. Under still other circumstances, i.e. the award of public service contracts for public passenger transport services, competitive tendering only needs to be strictly complied with after a transitional period. This can hardly be reconciled with the principles of primary procurement law. In some cases the rules in place are such, for example when awarding the universal postal service, that it seems doubtful that a competitive bidding following objective and transparent criteria is really possible. The European greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme relies on auctions for the allocation of gaz emission authorisations. At first, it does so to a limited extent. Such authorisations, called "allowances", are freely transferable. Thus a reallocation of allowances according to market mechanismes is made possible. The author sheds light on some major inconsistencies of the greenhouse gas emission trading scheme. The late deadline for surrendering allowances gives rise for several years to a surplus of allowances over the greenhouse gas emissions considered in the scheme. On the other hand, the costs for same amounts of greenhouse gas emitted at the same time may vary. This gives rise to a problem of equality. The author comes to the conclusion that the scheme has little capacity to reach the objective of reducing greenhouse gas emissions at least cost to the economy. The designation of the universal postal service providers implies to lay down rules as to how the net cost of the universal service is to be calculated, as well as to define appropriate award criteria. These steps face considerable difficulties. A similar situation can be found in other areas such as electronic communications and electricity or natural gas transmission or distribution systems. In the latter case, the risk of a change of transmission or distribution tariffs due to decisions of national regulatory authorities leaves the competitors in the dark on a crucial point. The legislation regarding the internal electricity market and the internal gaz market puts the transmission and distribution system operators in a position very similar to that of service or public works concession holders. In some cases the principles which underlie these schemes exclude competitive tendering as required by primary procurement law. The networks being freely transferable, ownership of networks and hence, in principle, their operators are determined by private market mechanismes mainly through the level of the proposed sales price. This is not consistent with the principles of primary procurement law stated by the Court of Justice (advertising requirements, award criteria linked to the subject matter of the contract, .) . Neither does it seem compatible with these principles that the development of the networks belongs automatically to the transmission and distribution system operators. The assessment of conformity of secondary legislation with primary law is less strict than the conformity assessment of national law. The Court of Justice has allowed the European legislator a wide margin of discretion when establishing the internal market and seems to have tacitely acknowledged a form of conformity presumption of secondary law. Save in exceptional cases, it seems unlikely that the Court will put into question secondary law regimes differing from primary law procurement rules. Thus, the European legislator may adopt such solutions without incurring major legal risks.

AMÉRICA LATINA Colombia: Juan Manuel Santos fue reelecto presidente. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/blogs/americasview/2014/06/colombias-election http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-06/16/content_17589344.htm http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/16/world/americas/colombian-president-president-juan-manuel-santos-re-elected.html?ref=world&gwh=6BBACC6FC32461FCBD45148E48453C59&gwt=pay http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402951102_303073.html http://www.cnn.com/2014/06/15/world/americas/colombia-presidential-election/index.html http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-27862555 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/santos-buscara-eliminar-reeleccion-presidencial-en-colombia-1017423.html http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/colombias-president-juan-manuel-santos-wins-re-election-n131756http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1701935-conciliador-santos-invito-a-uribe-y-zuluaga-a-su-causa-nacional Brasil: un Mundial que tiene enfurecido al pueblo. Para más información:http://media.economist.com/sites/default/files/pdfs/the_world_comes_to_brazil.pdf?fsrc=bz14%2Fpdf%2Fpebox%2F1 http://www.cnn.com/2014/06/12/world/americas/brazil-world-cup-protests/index.html http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-27851023 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402872260_972748.html http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/17/world/americas/for-biden-in-brazil-world-cup-and-diplomacy.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/el-mundial-que-tiene-enfurecido-a-un-pueblo/14120818http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-06/12/content_17582403.htm http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-27841356 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1700210-dilma-rousseff-brasil-vencio-los-principales-obstaculos-y-esta-preparado-para-el-mundialhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/el-mundial-que-tiene-enfurecido-a-un-pueblo/14120818 Estados Unidos ratifica el fallo contra Argentina por la deuda impagada a los fondos. Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2014/06/17/l-argentine-confrontee-a-un-nouveau-risque-de-defaut_4439361_3222.htmlhttp://economia.elpais.com/economia/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402930318_072455.html http://www.bbc.com/news/business-27871055http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/noticias/2014/06/140616_argentina_fallo_holdouts_reacciones_vs.shtml Boudou, el vice argentino está en la mira de la justicia. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/amado-boudou-el-vice-argentino-esta-en-la-mira-de-la-justicia/14120166 La opositora venezolana Machado declara sobre un complot contra Maduro. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-27877431 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/corina-machado-comparece-fiscalia-venezolana-1017305.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1701937-corina-machado-declaro-por-el-supuesto-complot http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/opositora-maria-corina-machado-declara-ante-la-fiscalia-venezolana/14127075 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/crisis-economica-en-venezolana/14130276http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402952529_477273.html Inflación en Venezuela supera el 60 %. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/inflacion-en-venezuela-supera-el-60-banco-central-culpa-a-protestas/14113736 El proceso de paz, factor de división entre las víctimas de las FARC. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402950352_781827.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1701244-el-proceso-de-paz-factor-de-division-entre-las-victimas-de-las-farc Una veintena de aerolíneas reclaman a Venezuela 3.000 millones de deuda. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402943702_758687.html La tormenta Cristina se convierte en huracán y amenaza a México. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1700413-la-tormenta-cristina-se-convierte-en-huracan-y-amenaza-a-mexico Encuentran una fosa con restos de 800 víctimas de Sendero Luminoso. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1700660-encuentran-una-fosa-con-restos-de-800-victimas-de-sendero-luminosohttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/jovenes-cubanos-en-ee-uu-rechazan-embargo-/14132598 ESTADOS UNIDOS /CANADÁ El avance jihadista en Irak pone en guardia a la Casa Blanca. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/iraq-turmoil/u-s-sends-170-military-personnel-iraq-more-possible-n132676 http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/17/world/middleeast/us-and-iran-signaling-new-joint-effort-in-iraq-crisis.html?ref=world&gwh=5CEE4C088597253F64252D42CA521DF5&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_now http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1700809-el-avance-jihadista-en-irak-pone-en-guardia-a-la-casa-blanca http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402930536_817143.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/obama-desplegara-soldados-irak-1017413.html ¿Una inesperada alianza entre Estados Unidos e Irán por Irak? Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1701810-una-inesperada-alianza-entre-eeuu-e-iran-por-irak Barack Obama enviará 275 soldados a Irak a proteger la embajada de Estados Unidos en Bagdad. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1701881-barak-obama-enviara-275-soldados-a-irak-a-proteger-la-embajada-de-estados-unidos-en-bagdadhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ee-uu-despliega-tropas-para-proteger-su-embajada-en-irak/14131715 El Tea Party asesta un golpe inesperado a los republicanos. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21604155-republicans-must-not-misunderstand-meaning-eric-cantors-defeat-be-brave-republicanshttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1700492-el-tea-party-asesta-un-golpe-inesperado-a-los-republicanoshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/reforma-migratoria-en-vilo-por-caida-republicana-en-la-camara/14112161 Estados Unidos abordará con los países centroamericanos la llegada de menores. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402871306_084515.html El Ejército estadounidense investigará la presunta desaparición de Bergdahl en Afganistán. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-27878905http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402950129_409322.html EUROPA Rusia inicia una 'guerra del gas' con cortes en el suministro a Ucrania. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-06/16/content_17591585.htm http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2014/05/29/l-ukraine-de-nouveau-face-a-un-ultimatum-gazier_4428760_3214.htmlhttp://money.cnn.com/2014/06/16/news/ukraine-russia-gas/index.html?hpt=ieu_c2http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/ucrania-asegura-que-no-teme-a-la-penuria-energetica-por-corte-de-gas/14131515http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402905837_944729.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/video/?/video/world/2014/06/16/lok-chance-russia-ukraine-gazprom-deadline.cnn&hpt=wo_c2&video_referrer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2FWORLD%2F%3Fhpt%3Dsitenavhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27862849http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ukraine-crisis/russia-cut-ukraines-gas-supply-after-payment-deadline-passes-n131891 En Ucrania derriban un avión con militares: los rebeldes se anotaron su mayor golpe en el conflicto. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1701349-mueren-al-menos-49-personas-en-un-avion-militar-derribado-en-ucraniahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/-prorrusos-derriban-un-avion-con-30-militares-ucranianos-a-bordo-/14117776http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1701423-ucrania-bajan-un-avion-con-militares El paro de ferroviarios y de la cultura fractura aún más al Partido Socialista de Francia. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/blogs/charlemagne/2014/06/french-politicshttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27865049http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/miles-de-trabajadores-del-espectaculo-se-manifiestan-en-francia/14128014http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402941165_442663.html Hollande condena linchamiento de adolescente gitano. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/hollande-condena-el-linchamiento-de-un-adolescente-gitano/14131916http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/conmocion-en-francia-tras-paliza-que-dejo-en-coma-a-un-joven-gitano/14132798 Inglaterra reabre su embajada en Teherán. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1702044-inglaterra-reabre-su-embajada-en-teheran "The Economist" analiza coyuntura política polaca. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/blogs/easternapproaches/2014/06/polish-politics Escocia: entre la permanencia y la independencia del Reino Unido. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/escocia-entre-la-permanencia-y-la-independencia-del-reino-unido-/14116930 Julian Assange hablará con la prensa para evitar su extradición a Suecia. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1702118-julian-assange-hablara-con-la-prensa-para-evitar-su-extradicion-a-suecia El primer ministro chino viaja a Londres para potenciar los lazos económicos. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402923435_330744.html Ocho sospechosos de pertenecer a la célula islámica ISIS son arrestados en España. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2014/06/16/world/europe/spain-terror-arrests/index.html?hpt=ieu_c2http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27865046 Los kurdos turcos se aferran a la paz. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/15/actualidad/1402862182_416830.html Otra tragedia para los inmigrantes que intentan llegar a Europa: tres muertos y seis desaparecidos en el Mediterráneo. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27878346http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1700049-otra-tragedia-para-los-inmigrantes-que-intentan-llegar-a-europa-tres-muertos-y-seis-desaparecidos-en-el-mediterraneo ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE En un sorpresivo ataque un grupo jihadista toma parte de Irak. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/breve/2014/06/17/irak-275-soldats-americains-envoyes-pour-securiser-l-ambassade-des-etats-unis-a-bagdad_4439362_3218.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1700662-irak-terroristas-islamicos-bagdad-desplazadoshttp://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/iraq-turmoil/strange-bedfellows-us-talks-iran-about-saving-iraq-n132646http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/el-yihadismo-crea-alianzas-insospechadas-en-irak/14130502http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27875053http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/impreso/irak-extremistas-se-atribuyen-la-ejecucion-de-1-700-soldados-87329.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/06/12/world/middleeast/the-iraq-isis-conflict-in-maps-photos-and-video.html?ref=world&gwh=248A7206B41A04135EA207E1CB53D24E&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_now China ejecuta a 13 personas por "ataques terroristas y crímenes" en Xinjiang. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-27876545 http://www.cnn.com/2014/06/16/world/asia/china-executions/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402914949_097569.html Secuestro de tres jóvenes israelíes genera tensión entre israelíes y palestinos. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27863465http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402945744_830594.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1701899-israel-militariza-hebron-para-hallar-a-los-tres-jovenes-secuestradoshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/mahmud-abas-condeno-el-secuestro-de-jovenes-israelies/14128037http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/west-bank-kidnappings ¿Quién es Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi, el líder jihadista que opaca a Al-Qaeda? Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1701004-quien-es-abu-bakr-al-baghdadi-el-lider-jihadista-que-opaca-a-al-qaeda Una ola de violaciones de mujeres sin casta sacude a la India. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1700840-una-ola-de-violaciones-de-mujeres-sin-casta-sacude-a-la-india Búsqueda del avión malayo continúa 100 días después de su desaparición. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/missing-jet/mysterys-milestone-malaysia-flight-has-been-missing-100-days-n131496http://www.cnn.com/2014/06/16/world/asia/malaysia-airlines-how-long-will-search-continue/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/busqueda-del-avion-malasio-sigue-100-dias-despues-de-su-desaparicion-/14126255http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-27832746 Pakistán y Afganistán discuten sobre seguridad en medio de ataques. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-27878875http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/pakistan-realiza-ataques-aereos-contra-insurgentes-/14127237http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/17/world/asia/pakistan-hits-taliban-strongholds-with-airstrikes.html?ref=world&gwh=5690678A97EADC3DB6140B69A2ABC086&gwt=payhttp://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/pakistan-army-launches-operation-against-terrorists-after-airport-attack-n131716 Alerta en China por la llegada del primer tifón del año. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1701370-alerta-en-china-por-la-llegada-del-primer-tifon-del-ano Más de 120.000 camboyanos huyen de Tailandia. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-27864809 http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/16/world/asia/after-coup-foreign-workers-stream-out-of-thailand.htmlhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-06/16/content_17591316.htm Violencia religiosa en Sri Lanka. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/17/world/asia/deadly-religious-violence-erupts-in-sri-lanka.html "The Economist" publica: "The Islamic State of Iraq and Greater Syria". Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21604230-extreme-islamist-group-seeks-create-caliphate-and-spread-jihad-across ÁFRICA Ataques islamistas sacuden Kenia. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/ataque-de-islamistas-somalies-deja-al-menos-49-muertos-en-kenia/14126875http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-27862510http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/17/world/africa/dozens-killed-as-militants-attack-kenyan-town.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/nuevo-ataque-de-islamistas-en-kenia-deja-al-menos-15-muertos-/14131655 http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-06/16/content_17591173.htmhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402903109_000286.html Decenas de muertos deja nuevo ataque de Boko Haram en Nigeria. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/muertos-ataque-boko-haram-nigeria-1017369.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2014/06/16/world/africa/nigeria-violence/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/pesimismo-en-nigeria-por-futuro-de-ninas-raptadas/14116882http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/boko-haram-exige-800-vacas-para-liberar-a-20-mujeres-secuestradas/14108638 Egipto ordena la liberación de un periodista en huelga de hambre. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27878170http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/06/16/actualidad/1402942161_298666.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/fiscalia-egipcia-deja-en-libertad-a-periodista-en-huelga-de-hambre/14128395

Abstract only ; This is the concluding chapter of the study and presents a summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations. The Research Problem The purpose of the study was to analyze the income and expenditures of the municipalities in the Province of Iloilo in relation to their income enhancement measures and characteristics, such as income class, distance from Iloilo City, land area, population and political configuration. Summary of the Findings Half of the municipalities belong to second and third income class, while the other half also belong to fourth and fifth income class. Most of the municipalities had concentrated political configuration. Majority of the municipalities had land area of 100 square kilometers or less and the mean land area is 105.34 square kilometers. The average distance from Iloilo City is 54.21 kilometers and majority of the municipalities are 50 kilometers or less away from the city. Slightly more than half had population of more than 30,000, while slightly less than one half had less than 30,000 populations. Over a nine-year period, the mean income constantly increased in absolute amount. Regardless of year, the external income was still the major source of income. Among the internally generated income of the municipalities, real property tax was still the biggest contributor, followed by receipts from economic enterprise and business tax. All municipalities had implemented tax information campaign, issuance of demand letter to delinquent taxpayers and enforcement of civil and administrative remedies in order to enhance their income, while majority were able to examine books of accounts, amend municipal revenue code, and establish revenue data bank. Less than half of the municipalities were able to establish revenue data bank, execute billing thru barangay, establish one stop shop, monitor large corporations, conduct field collection and formulate investment incentive code. This supports the findings of Loehr and Manasan (1999) that only few LGUs have fully exploited their own sources of revenues, yet all face hard budget constraints. Over the nine-year period, the mean expenditures of municipalities constantly increased in absolute amount. Administrative service expenditures formed the bulk of expenditures, while economic and social services respectively accounted for only a small percentage. The data reveal that total income differs when municipalities are classified based on distance from Iloilo City, income class, population, but it did not differ according to land area and political configuration of the municipalities. Regardless of the size of land area of the municipalities, and its political configuration, the total income is not affected. The data further reveal that there is significant difference in external income when municipalities are categorized according to land area, income class and population, but there is no difference in external income when municipalities are grouped according to distance from Iloilo City and political configuration. A relationship exists between income class of municipalities and the internal income. Also, internal income is related to population size of municipalities, but no relationship is observed when municipalities are grouped according to distance from Iloilo City, land area, and political configuration. Similarly, total expenditures in administrative services, economic services and social services differ when grouped according to income class and population size. No relationship is observed when grouped based on land area, distance from Iloilo City and political configuration. The income enhancement measures implemented by the municipalities are significantly related to total income and external income but not with internal income. The total income and external income of municipalities will be higher when municipalities implement more income enhancement measures. However, income enhancement measures do not have bearing on the internal income of municipalities. On the other hand, expenditures differ according to income enhancement measures adopted. The result of the study also show that income and expenditure are significantly related to each other. Conclusions Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions are drawn. 1. The municipalities' total income is affected by its income class, population and land area. Municipalities with bigger population and larger land area can expect higher total income compared to those with lesser population and smaller land area. Obviously, municipalities that belong to higher income bracket can expect bigger amount of total income. 2. The municipalities' internal income is influenced by its income class and population. Since the data show that internal income is affected by population size, it is expected that the more inhabitants a municipality had, the higher internal income can be generated. However, the municipalities land area, distance from Iloilo City and political configuration has no bearing on the amount of internal income of municipalities. Hence, the internal income is not expected to change regardless of the measurement of the area of municipalities, its location from the city, and political configuration, 3. The municipalities' income class, land area and population have bearing on its external income. Municipalities with higher income class, larger land area and bigger population can expect to receive higher external income compared to other municipalities. It should be remembered that the determination of IRA share per municipality is based on population, and land area. Hence, the amount municipalities expect to receive each year from IRA share is dependent on population and land area. 4. The lion shares of the total expenditure had been tied up in administrative services, meanwhile the growth for social and economic services, respectively remain modest proved that LGUs cannot provide basic social service as much as they expected. 5. The total expenditure is affected by the municipalities' income class, and population which imply that higher income class and bigger population size will result to bigger amounts of total expenditures. 6. The data show that municipalities' location, size, and political configuration, do not have bearing on the total expenditures spent by municipalities. Hence, municipalities should spend on administrative service, social service and economic service not on the basis of the municipalities' size, location and political configuration, rather it should be in accordance with what the Local Government Code mandates the LGUs to perform. 7. The expenditure for administrative services, social services and economic service differ when municipalities are grouped according to income class and population. Hence, the more inhabitant's municipalities have imply higher expenditure spent on administrative service, social service and economic service, respectively. 8. The fact that only three income enhancement measures were implemented by all municipalities, while most of the income enhancement measures were practiced by only few municipalities in the province of Iloilo confirms the observations made in various studies that LGUs did not maximize their efforts for revenue generation, hence, failed to strengthen their earning capacity. 9. The income enhancement measures have effect on the total income and external income of municipalities. Consequently, the study shows that municipalities in the province of Iloilo were not able to utilize the powers granted by the Local Government Code. 10. Surprisingly, the income enhancement measures have effects on the total expenditures, administrative service, economic service and social services. 11. The income and expenditures are highly dependent on each other. This is in adherence to the provisions of the Local Government Code which mandates that local governments shall formulate sound financial plans, and shall endeavor to have a balanced budget in each fiscal year of operation. No expenditure shall be obligated unless supported by corresponding availability of funds. Recommendations In the light of the findings and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations are presented. 1. The fact that internal income account for a small percentage of the total income, local legislators should review the Municipal Revenue Code to improve locally generated income. The Local Sanggunian must ensure that the ordinance cover all tax bases present in the LGU and contain detailed administrative provisions for its implementation. The ordinance should comply with all legal and procedural requirements in its enactment. 2. While tax on sand, gravel and quarry resources belong to the domain of provincial governments, yet, the proceeds are shared with municipalities at 30 percent and barangays at 40 percent, respectively. It is recommended that municipalities perform close monitoring on compliance with rules and regulations related to removal and disposition of sand, gravel and other quarry products. 3. To improve efficiency for collection of business taxes, it is recommended that municipalities study the applicability and replicability of notable practices shared by some cities. Among the measures which are recommended for replication are: use of presumptive income levels in validating sales declared by taxpayers; conduct business tax mapping and establish revenue data bank; conduct regular census and listing of taxpayers; educate and inform taxpayers to be more tax conscious; enforcement of administrative action; closely monitoring of large taxpayers; issuance and posting of official receipt; and require submission of certified income tax return copy. 4. The proceeds of community tax collected by municipal treasurer entirely accrues to the municipality. Hence, it is recommended that municipalities should request other government agencies like BIR, SSS, GSIS, LTO to show proof of payment of community tax before servicing clients. 5. . The fact that the income enhancement measures have effect on the total income and external income of municipalities, the local fiscal officers should set guidelines for the effective implementation of Section 171 ofR.A.7160 which provides for the "examination of books of accounts and pertinent records of business establishments by provincial, city and municipal and other related aspect of tax enforcement and collection". 6. . Policy makers should use the financial information in preparing plans for the succeeding years. The present practice is that the budget is prepared on annual basis. Preparing a 3-5 years financial plan is also recommended to project resources needed to carry out tasks and meet financial goals. The quantitative data on the financial performance of LGU concerned will serve as basis whether fiscal decentralization has achieved its purpose. This may likewise reveal insight to aspects which may require improvements, enrichments, and modification from which policy makers can formulate future plans or actions for effective implementation. 7. From the standpoint of fiscal discipline, the expenditure for administrative services should be inspected in detail, and establish well defined public finance rules and mechanism in personnel expenditure. A standard model reflecting suitable number and salary level of human resources for each LGU should be developed according to the scale of LGUs and types of services. To date, many municipalities still exceeds the ceiling imposed on personnel services. 8. The expenditure goal of each LGU should be clarified during budget hearing such that allocation for economic and social services be given importance considering that the goals of decentralization is economic and social development. 9. . Capability building for fiscal officers should be promoted to improve financial management in the local government units. One of the means to develop financial capacity in LGUs is making a public finance manual that will guide in the development of data collection and management system. It is hoped that the data is gathered sufficiently and properly at the local level and managed systematically at national level. 10. The provision of appropriate positions, requirement of qualified personnel, and arrangement for training is indispensable in revenue mobilization work. Hence, LGUs should provide adequate and competent personnel. 11. It is also recommended to popularize the use of Local Government Performance Management System as an evaluation tool especially on the areas of development planning, revenue generation, resource allocation and utilization, and financial accountability. 12. While it is not mandatory and usual practice of the LGUs, it is recommended that the local finance committee of the respective municipality should institutionalize the practice of analyzing the income and expenditure to guide them in decision-making. This will further promote transparency, accountability, responsiveness and participation which are the elements of good governance. 13. . The academe which include public and private universities and research institutes could play an important role on persuading to improve fiscal administration practices through scholarly research on the field of local government administration and local finance management. Hence, related further studies on this field is highly recommended. Amidst the significant pressures to implement local autonomy and decentralization which demand sufficient budget for local development, there are arguments on the means to generate revenue among LGUs. The Local Government Code provides LGUs with powers to efficiently collect revenues mandated under the code, however IRA dependency rate is still high. Henceforth, the continued struggle for self-sufficiency and fiscal sustainability of LGUs. ; Includes bibliographical references ; Doctor of Management major in Public Management

Inhaltsangabe: Einleitung: 'Gentlemen, you can't fight in here… This is the War Room'! (President Merkin Muffley). Ausgangssituation und Forschungsanlass: Im Zuge des Seminars Eskalation: Medien und Krieg unter der Leitung von Herrn Mag. Dr. Brandstetter wurde der Schlieffenplan (siehe Kapitel 3.1) auf medientechnische Aspekte hin beleuchtet und als der historisch erste War Room gehandelt. In diesem Zusammenhang wurde zudem auf die im Allgemeinen äußerst karge Quellenlage bezüglich War Rooms verwiesen. Ob sich der genannte Sachverhalt für ein Diplomarbeitsthema eignen sollte, wurde erst im Laufe dieser Arbeit geklärt. Wie spärlich die Quellen tatsächlich waren bzw. sind, eröffnete sich dem Autor der vorliegenden Arbeit im Rahmen seiner Recherchetätigkeit, welche sich größtenteils als buchstäbliche Spurensuche entpuppte. Nach anfänglich fehlendem Erfolg mit verschiedenen Literaturdatenbanken wurde schließlich eine Forschungsreise nach London zum renommierten Cabinet War Rooms and Churchill Museum angetreten. Die Nachricht über einen museumsinternen 'Bookstore' ließ das Autorenherz umso höher schlagen. Die Freude, endlich den 'heiligen Gral' für War Room-Literatur gefunden zu haben, währte allerdings nicht lange. Vor Ort musste letztlich zur Kenntnis genommen werden, dass der Buchladen des Cabinet War Rooms Museums – neben der Ausstellungsbroschüre – bloß ein einziges Buch über War Rooms führte: ein Kinderbuch, überwiegend bestehend aus handgezeichneten Bildern und Sprechblasen, wie diese eben auch aus Comics bekannt sind. Der Autor behält sich vor, dieses Werk zu zitieren. Anstatt sich entmutigen zu lassen, fühlte sich der Autor umso mehr darin bestärkt, augenscheinlich Neuland zu betreten. Und dies erst recht in Anbetracht dessen, dass die heute vorherrschenden geopolitischen Verhältnisse folgenschwere Entscheidungen widerspiegeln, die in War Rooms getroffen wurden. Spielten die Cabinet War Rooms (CWR) (Kapitel 3.2) eine enorm wichtige Rolle für den Ausgang des Zweiten Weltkrieges, so hatte zuvor der Schlieffenplan (Kapitel 3.1) den anfänglichen Verlauf des Ersten Weltkrieges maßgeblich bestimmt. Immerhin bezeichnet Keegan letzteren als 'das wichtigste Regierungsdokument, das im ersten Jahrzehnt des 20. Jahrhunderts überhaupt verfasst wurde'. Gegen Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts wurde das aus dem militärischen Kontext stammende War Room-Konzept von gänzlich anderen gesellschaftlichen Bereichen übernommen: Sowohl im politischen als auch wirtschaftlichen Kontext finden sich vielerorts entsprechende Anleihen oder sogar vollständige Adoptionen. Warum also gestaltet sich die Quellenlage über vergangene und gegenwärtige militärische Entscheidungszentren so dermaßen dünn? Die Ursachen hierfür liegen vor allem im hohen Grad an Geheimhaltung, der sich gerade eben auf die erwähnte große Bedeutung zurückführen lässt. Hetzler zeigt dies anhand der im Zweiten Weltkrieg entwickelten British War Rooms: 'Innerhalb kürzester Zeit wurden in Grossbritannien mehrere War Rooms an geheimen Plätzen eingerichtet, aus denen die Verteidigung des britischen Luftraums gesteuert wurde. Diese War Rooms blieben auch nach der Beendigung des Zweiten Weltkrieges aktiv. Ihre Existenz, ihre Orte, die Einrichtung und die Prozesse in diesen War Rooms waren aufgrund der latenten Angriffsgefahr im Kalten Krieg weiterhin streng geheim. Erst nach 1990 haben sich britische Hobby-Archäologen mit diesen Relikten des Kalten Krieges beschäftigt: Sie haben die Standorte der War Rooms ausfindig gemacht und die mittlerweile verfallenen Räume in teils illegalen, teils genehmigten Aktionen besucht und dokumentiert. Fotos aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg und rudimentäre Schilderungen lassen teilweise Rückschlüsse auf die Einrichtung und Funktionsweise der britischen War Rooms zu'. Eine genauere Analyse des Aufbaus heutiger War Rooms (siehe Kapitel 3.3) und der darin ablaufenden Prozesse gestaltet sich dementsprechend schwierig. Für das geschichtliche Beispiel des Schlieffenplans ergibt sich erschwerend, dass das Archiv des Generalstabs während des Zweiten Weltkrieges bombardiert und dabei fast alle Originalquellen vernichtet wurden. Immerhin wurden die Cabinet War Rooms der Öffentlichkeit frei zugänglich gemacht. Allerdings geschah dies erst im Jahre 1984, 39 Jahre nach deren Betriebseinstellung. Den Forschungsanlass für diese Arbeit bildet somit die Asymmetrie zwischen historischer Bedeutung und Quellenlage in Bezug auf die Thematik von War Rooms im Allgemeinen. Neben der ausgemachten geschichtlichen Entwicklung dieser, setzt sich die vorliegende Arbeit auch mit deren gegenwärtigen sowie möglichen zukünftigen Gebrauch auseinander. Forschungsfrage und Zielsetzung: Aus der Tatsache heraus, dass es zum spezifischen Thema War Rooms nahezu keine literarischen Quellen gibt, sollte das Thema auf die philosophischen Grundaspekte Räumlichkeit, Zeitlichkeit und Medien hin untersucht werden. Hierfür wurde zuerst folgende Forschungsfrage entwickelt: Wie haben sich die den War Room konstituierenden Medien und Konzeptionen von Räumlichkeit sowie Zeitlichkeit im Laufe der Geschichte entwickelt? Allerdings zeigte sich der dabei zustande kommende direkte Blick auf das Thema, ein Blick von außen in den War Room hinein, aufgrund fehlender Literatur als ungeeignet. Das Kapitel über die historische Entwicklung der Idee des Feldherrn (Kapitel 2), welches in den ersten Konzeptentwürfen noch als hinführendes bestimmt gewesen war, barg einen weit passenderen Zugang in sich. Da es sich beim Feldherrn um die zentrale Person eines War Rooms handelt, richtet sich auch dessen grundsätzlicher Aufbau nach seinen Anforderungen. Durch die Augen des Feldherrn schauend, eröffnete sich ein Blick vom Inneren des War Rooms nach außen. Infolgedessen wurde die Forschungsfrage neu gestellt und lautet nun endgültig: Wie haben sich die den War Room konstituierenden Medien und Konzeptionen von Räumlichkeit sowie Zeitlichkeit anhand von Handlungsoptionen und Wahrnehmungsweisen des Feldherrn im Laufe der Geschichte entwickelt? Somit versteht sich das Hauptziel dieser Arbeit in einer Aufarbeitung zum einen der Ursprünge und zum anderen der historischen Weiterentwicklungen der Konzeption von War Rooms. Darüber hinaus erfolgt eine kritische Analyse der philosophischen Grundaspekte Medien, Räumlichkeit und Zeitlichkeit in Bezug auf War Rooms. Vorgehensweise und Methodik Der Aufbau der vorliegenden Arbeit setzt sich aus folgenden drei Teilen zusammen: erstens, die Nachzeichnung der historischen Entwicklung der Idee des Feldherrn anhand einer vierteiligen Feldherrntypologie (Kapitel 2). Zweitens, die Anführung von drei bedeutsamen historischen Beispielen für War Rooms, die jeweils einem Feldherrntyp entsprechen (Kapitel 3). Drittens, die Analyse der zuvor herausgearbeiteten Feldherrnstufen hinsichtlich Medialität, Räumlichkeit und Zeitlichkeit (Kapitel 4). Diese Einleitung (Kapitel 1) lässt durch einen Aufriss der Ausgangssituation und des Forschungsanlasses, zuzüglich einer Darlegung der sich daraus ergebenden Forschungsfragen und des Forschungsziels, einen Grobüberblick über die Diplomarbeit zu. Wie oben erwähnt, fächert sich der erste Hauptteil (Kapitel 2) in vier Abschnitte auf, die jeweils einem Feldherrntyp gewidmet sind. Dabei orientierte sich die chronologisch aufgebaute Typologisierung an folgenden Leitfragen: Was ist für den jeweiligen Feldherrntyp bestimmend?, Welcher Möglichkeitshorizont eröffnet sich ihm überhaupt? und Wo liegen seine Grenzen bzw. Kontingenzen? Das erste Kapitel davon (Kapitel 2.1) beschäftigt sich mit dem einzigen Typ, der ohne War Room agiert. Noch nicht getätigte Innovationen sachtechnischer sowie kommunikationstechnischer Art lassen den genialen Feldherrn fast ausschließlich medial unvermittelt auftreten. Aus diesem Grund ist für ihn vor allem seine persönliche Präsenz bestimmend. Zeitlich beginnend mit Alexander dem Großen, treten erst zur Zeit Napoleons Veränderungen auf dieser Stufe auf. In erster Linie läutet die Steigerung von Feuerkraft bzw. Reichweite der Waffen das Auslaufen diesesFeldherrntyps ein. Bei dem in Kapitel 2.2 vorgestellten technokratischen Feldherrn tritt erstmals die Konzeption eines War Rooms auf. Als historisches Bespiel für diese Figur wird u.a. Moltke der Ältere angeführt, Chef des Großen Generalstabs von 1857 bis 1888. Der technokratische Wesenszug dieses Typs erwächst aus der Vorstellung der vollständigen methodischen Planbarkeit des Krieges. Infolgedessen lassen der Einsatz von Eisenbahn und Telegrafie die Aufmarsch- und Operationsplanungen soweit anschwellen, dass der Feldherr als Einzelperson durch die Schaffung des Generalstabs erweitert wird. Zugleich kommt es auf der Ebene des Schlachtfeldes zu weitreichenden Veränderungen durch gesteigerte Feuerkraft. Trotz oder gerade wegen getätigter Innovationen ist diese Feldherrnstufe stark von Friktionen und Sachzwängen bestimmt, die erst auf der darauf folgenden überwunden werden können. In Kapitel 2.3 erfolgt die Beschreibung des technisch-psychologischen Feldherrntyps. Der psychologische Wesenszug ist auf die Anforderung zurückzuführen, sowohl Front als auch 'Heimat' durch Propaganda vorwiegend mittels Rundfunk zum Zusammenhalt bzw. Durchhalten zu bewegen. Das geschichtliche Beispiel hierfür bildet Hitler. Zudem macht es die fortgeschrittene Komplexität der Waffentechnik erforderlich, dass der Feldherr sein technisches Wissen an vorderster Linie einbringt. In diesem Zusammenhang wird Ludendorff als historisches Exempel angeführt. Ist es dem Feldherrn bereits durch die Erfindung des Telefons möglich, an Brennpunkten medial vermittelt aufzutreten, so kann dies nun auch in physischer Form durch die Kombination aus UKW-Funk und Panzerfahrzeug geschehen. Beide genannten Anforderungen bzw. Wesenszüge, technisch sowie psychologisch, sind erst mit der Erfindung der Funktechnologie ausreichend zu vollbringen. Ermöglicht diese zwar die Überwindung zahlreicher Kontingenzen vorhergehender Feldherrn, so führt gerade der Funk zu einer neuen, dem Kampf um Information. Der vierte und zugleich aktuelle Feldherrntyp wird in Kapitel 2.4 dargestellt. Im Unterschied zu sämtlichen vorhergehenden Typen wurde der informatisierte Feldherr gänzlich eigenständig für die vorliegende Arbeit entwickelt. Beginnend mit dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges bzw. dem 'Ausbruch' des Kalten Krieges ist ihm zugleich die Konzeption des 'nuklearen Feldherrn' untergeordnet. Namensgebend gestaltet sich die begonnene sowie fortschreitende Durchdringung des Feldherrn mit Computertechnologie. Installierung und Ausbau eines digitalen Feldherrnhügels zielen darauf ab, seine Informationsdominanz im andauernden Kampf um Information zu sichern. Im zweiten Hauptteil (Kapitel 3) wird die angeführte abstrahierte Typologie anhand bedeutender realgeschichtlicher War Rooms veranschaulicht. Da der geniale Feldherr ohne War Room agiert, wird nur bei den drei letztgenannten Feldherrntypen je ein Beispiel dargestellt. Aufgrund der zur Verfügung stehenden Literatur eignete sich eine jeweils unterschiedliche Herangehensweise an die drei historischen Beispiele: Während sich die Analyse des Schlieffenplans an den Kategorien Genese, Theorie und Praxis orientiert, geschieht dies im Fall der Cabinet War Rooms anhand der betriebenen Zimmer. Hingegen wird der White House Situations Room hinsichtlich Funktionen untersucht. Das erste Beispiel bildet der Schlieffenplan (Kapitel 3.1), bei dem es sich, wie bereits eingangs erwähnt, um den geschichtlich ersten War Room handelt. Die 1905 entstandene Theorieschrift, die in der Anfangsphase des ersten Weltkrieges auch tatsächlich umgesetzt wurde, entspricht dem Niveau des technokratischen Feldherrn. Als Beispiel für einen War Room auf technisch-psychologischer Feldherrnstufe werden die Cabinet War Rooms (Kapitel 3.2) beschrieben. Diese dienten Churchill während des Zweiten Weltkrieges als geheime Kommandozentrale. Die Räumlichkeiten wurden mittlerweile in ein Museum umgewandelt und sind somit der Öffentlichkeit zugänglich. Drittes Beispiel bildet der White House Situations Room (Kapitel 3.3). In den Tagen nach dem Schweinebuchtfiasko unter US-Präsident Kennedy eingerichtet, ist er bis zum heutigen Tag in Betrieb. Demgemäß finden sich etliche Parallelen zum aktuellen Feldherrntyp, dem informatisierten. Der dritte Hauptteil (Kapitel 4) besteht aus einer zusammenfassenden Rekapitulation der zuvor beschriebenen Feldherrntypen, um dann mit einer philosophischen Untersuchung dieser hinsichtlich Medialität, Räumlichkeit und Zeitlichkeit fortzufahren. In Bezug auf die Methodik der Untersuchung ist zu vermerken, dass es sich bei dieser Diplomarbeit trotz mangelnder literarischer Quellen grundsätzlich um eine Literaturarbeit handelt. Deshalb trägt zur Beantwortung der Forschungsfrage hauptsächlich eine literarische Zugangsweise bei. Die Literaturanalyse verläuft hinsichtlich Wissenschaftlichkeit nicht immer optimal, da strecken- oder abschnittsweise oftmals nur einzelne Quellen ausfindig gemacht werden konnten. Während sich bei den ersten drei Feldherrntypen ein starker Bezug zu Stefan Kaufmann bemerkbar macht, basiert die Beschreibung der Cabinet War Rooms sowie des White House Situations Rooms größtenteils jeweils auf einem Werk. Die Schilderung der Cabinet War Rooms stützt sich darüber hinaus auf einen vom Autor im Dezember 2008 persönlich absolvierten Besuch des Cabinet War Rooms and Churchill Museums in London. Der erste Teil, die historische Entwicklung der Idee des Feldherrn, konzentriert sich auf medienwissenschaftliche und technikhistorische Aspekte. Zugleich wird diese Analyse in den spezifischen historischen Kontext der angeführten Feldherren eingebettet, um ein ausführliches Verständnis für die einzelnen Entwicklungsschritte zu ermöglichen. Der zweite Teil zielt darauf ab, diese im Anschluss anhand realgeschichtlicher Beispiele rein deskriptiv zu veranschaulichen. Obwohl der erste Teil bereits theoretischen Charakter besitzt, wird die eigentliche philosophische Abhandlung bzw. kritische Schlussbemerkung im dritten Teil vollzogen. Bevor nun zum ersten Hauptteil übergegangen wird, werden an dieser Stelle einige im Text immer wiederkehrende Begriffe erläutert. Strategie bezieht sich auf die politisch-militärische Ebene. Sie dient zur Beantwortung folgender Fragen: Wer ist der Feind? Wo und wann soll gegen ihn Krieg geführt werden? Operation umfasst den Verlauf des Aufmarsches gegen einen bestimmten Gegner. Darüber hinaus wird hierbei genau bestimmt, wann und wo genau gegen diesen vorgegangen werden soll. Taktik bezieht sich auf die unmittelbare Gefechtsebene. Logistik behandelt die Steuerung und Bereitstellung von Ressourcen personeller, materieller sowie monetärer Art.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: VorwortIII InhaltsverzeichnisVI 1Einleitung1 1.1Ausgangssituation und Forschungsanlass1 1.2Forschungsfrage und Zielsetzung3 1.3Vorgehensweise und Methodik4 2Die historische Entwicklung der Idee des Feldherrn8 2.1Der Typ des genialen Feldherrn8 2.1.1Der Feldherr: Der Herr des Feldes9 2.1.2Die Anwesenheit des Feldherrn11 2.1.3Die Abwesenheit des Feldherrn13 2.1.4Rekrutierung der Massen und ihre Folgen14 2.1.5Kontingenzen des genialen Feldherrn15 2.2Der Typ des technokratischen Feldherrn16 2.2.1Der Generalstab17 2.2.2Der Feldherr: Meister der Methode19 2.2.3Erweiterte Feuerkraft und ihre Folgen23 2.2.4Konzeption und Einsatz von Eisenbahn und Telegrafie27 2.2.5Kontingenzen des technokratischen Feldherrn30 2.3Der Typ des technisch-psychologischen Feldherrn34 2.3.1Der Feldherr: Manager von Front und 'Heimat'36 2.3.2Der Feldherr: Taktisch-technischer Experte42 2.3.3Aufkommen der 'Frontdistanz' und ihre Überwindung44 2.3.4Konzeption und Einsatz von Panzer und UKW-Funk47 2.3.5Der motorisierte Herr des Feldes50 2.3.6Kontingenzen des technisch-psychologischen Feldherrn - Der Kampf um Information53 2.4Der Typ des informatisierten Feldherrn59 2.4.1Der Feldherr: Demokratisch gewählter Oberbefehlshaber61 2.4.2Die Informatisierung des Feldherrn63 2.4.3Der digitale Feldherrnhügel67 2.4.4Network Centric Warfare - Das Netzwerk als militärische Organisationsform70 2.4.5Selbstsynchronisation durch 'Netzkompetenz'74 2.4.6Entgrenzung des Schlachtfeldes und ihre Konsequenzen76 2.4.7Der Soldat als System(komponente)78 2.4.8Kontingenzen des informatisierten Feldherrn81 3Historische Beispiele für War Rooms85 3.1Der Schlieffenplan85 3.1.1Genese87 3.1.2Theorie91 3.1.3Praxis93 3.1.4Zusammenbruch94 3.2The Cabinet War Rooms95 3.2.1Cabinet Room97 3.2.2Transatlantic Telephone Room97 3.2.3Central Map Room98 3.2.4Personalzimmer100 3.2.5Churchills Zimmer101 3.3The White House Situations Room103 3.3.1Alert Center und Berichterstattung104 3.3.2Communications105 3.3.3Conference Room107 3.3.4Help Desk108 3.3.5Personal109 4Medienphilosophische Aspekte / Kritische Schlussbemerkung110 5LiteraturverzeichnisXX Beitrag in ...XX HochschulschriftXX InternetdokumentXXI MonographieXXI SammelwerkXXIII SpielfilmXXIII ZeitschriftenaufsatzXXIV ZeitungsartikelXXIV 6AbbildungsverzeichnisXXV LebenslaufXXVI KurzfassungXXVII AbstractXXVIITextprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 2.3.5, Der motorisierte Herr des Feldes: Truppen, Befehlshaber sowie Nachrichten konnten fortan mittels Panzer und Funk maschinell in hinreichender Weise bewegt werden. Laut Kaufmann stellte diese Entwicklung in weiterer Folge bloß die Voraussetzung für eine darauffolgende Rationalisierung der Führung dar. Maßgebend für diese Rationalisierung war gesteigerte Effizienz, die sich wiederum aus dem nun technisch Möglichen ableitete. Der Befehlsprozess und die anschließende Ausführung sollten nun endlich selbst motorisierte Geschwindigkeit erlangen. In Guderians Worte gekleidet lautet diese Forderung folgendermaßen: 'Denken, Befehlen und Handeln müssen der Schnelligkeit des Motors und den besonderen Bedingungen der Technik entsprechen, sonst gehen alle Vorteile verloren'. Eine Beschleunigung des Befehlsprozesses wurde v.a. durch die Erstellung klarer Benutzerregeln für den Funkverkehr erzielt. Dabei wurde jeder Stelle eine feste Frequenz zugeteilt, die ähnlich einer Telefonnummer angewählt werden konnte. Bis zur Kompanieebene hinunter lief die Kommunikation sternförmig ab, indem sie zwar auf eine zentrale Stelle zugeschnitten war, zugleich jedoch von allen anderen eingebundenen Einheiten mitverfolgt werden konnte. Kaufmann proklamiert, dass die Kommunikation, wie zuvor auf telegrafischem Niveau, als Linienverkehr konzipiert, allerdings die Befehlsstruktur mittlerweile als Netzwerk organisiert war, welches neben vertikaler nun auch horizontale Verbindungen ermöglichte. Die einzelnen Panzer selbst waren hingegen ausschließlich mit Empfangsgeräten ausgerüstet und standen infolgedessen in strikt monolinearer Verbindung mit ihren Befehlsstellen. Nicht zuletzt hatte der kombinierte Einsatz von Panzer und Funk weitreichende Folgen für die Führung auf taktischer Ebene. Im Schutz des Panzerfahrzeugs konnte sich ein Feldherr nun wieder selbst in die Kampfsituation seiner Einheiten begeben. Darüber hinaus ermöglichte es der Sprechfunk, Befehle erneut unmittelbar per Stimme zu erteilen. Bis auf den fehlenden persönlichen Sichtkontakt untereinander, habe diese Befehlserteilung der des genialen Feldherrn geglichen und sich daher auf einem Quasi-face-to-face-Kommunikationsniveau abgespielt. Wie bis einschließlich Napoleons Zeit, hielten sich höherrangige Befehlshaber abermals an Brennpunkten auf, um durch persönlich erteilte Befehle den Führungsprozess zeitlich abzukürzen. Kaufmann vermerkt hierzu, dass in der Panzerschlacht die der Präsenz des Feldherrn entspringende psychologische Wirkung erneut auftrat, welche seit dem technokratischen Feldherrn völlig verschwunden war. Der nun vorherrschende Herr des Feldes hatte lediglich sein Pferd mit dem Panzer getauscht, wies er doch Merkmale auf, die bereits Clausewitz einem kriegerischem Genius zugeschrieben hatte: Mut, sich der Gefahr auszusetzen und als moralisches Vorbild der Truppe vorauszugehen, um diese anzuspornen und vorwärts zu treiben. Während der technokratische Feldherrntyp auf Grund des distanzierten Führungsstils seine Karriere in Anonymität verbrachte, eignete sich hingegen der motorisierte Herr des Feldes durch seine heroischen Charakteristika umso mehr als Kriegsheld im klassischen Sinne. Neu dabei waren, gemäß Kaufmann, nicht nur Elemente mobiler technisierter Kriegsführung, sondern auch der Glaube, dass dieser Feldherr fähig wäre, zugleich taktisch als auch operativ führen zu können. Nicht zuletzt war es die Propaganda, die diesen Feldherrn zum Helden der Truppen und darüber hinaus zu dem der 'Heimat' machte. Wie geschaffen für propagandistische Zwecke waren die Siege über zahlenmäßig und waffentechnisch überlegene Gegner. Jene verdankten die Deutschen nicht zuletzt dem technologischen Vorsprung durch den Sprechfunk. Auch der enorme Gewinn an Territorium, der vor allem auf die Geschwindigkeit des Panzers zurückzuführen war, eignete sich hervorragend, um der Heimat einen siegreichen Kriegsverlauf zu vermitteln. Parallel dazu stieg der mobile Feldherr immer mehr zum medialen Kriegshelden auf. Ende der 30er Jahre wurde der Vorstoß mittels Panzern nicht mehr nur auf den taktischen, sondern auch auf den operativen Raum angewandt. Das erwähnte Vorgehen bei der Entscheidungsfindung auf taktischer Ebene wurde nun auch zunehmend für den Operationsverlauf selbst praktiziert. Hierbei wurden Entscheidungen vermehrt direkt aus der taktischen Situation heraus getroffen, während sich Anordnungen von zurückliegenden, zentralen Stellen zahlenmäßig reduzierten. Frieser sieht in dieser Führungstechnik 'eine der wichtigsten Ursachen für den überraschenden deutschen Sieg: Der Kreislauf des Führungsvorgangs vollzog sich auf deutscher Seite um ein Mehrfaches schneller als bei den Franzosen und Briten'. Auf diesem Vorteil aufbauend wagte Deutschland schließlich 1940 seinen riskanten Feldzug gegen Frankreich, einem zahlenmäßig überlegenen Gegner. Nach Kaufmann sollte dabei die radikale Ausnutzung technischer Möglichkeiten als Erfolgsrezept dienen: Funktechnische Koordination der sich mit motorischer Geschwindigkeit fortbewegenden Kampfverbände. Ziel dieser Bemühungen war es, den Gegner blitzartig zu überrumpeln, ihn in weiterer Folge durch die Zerstörung seiner Kommunikationsstrukturen zu lähmen und somit Panik unter den gegnerischen Einheiten zu stiften. Bekanntlich ging diese neue Form der Kriegsführung, von deren Erfolg selbst die Wehrmacht überrascht wurde, unter dem Namen Blitzkrieg in die Geschichtsbücher ein. Wie zuvor erwähnt, bedurfte es der beiden sachtechnischen Voraussetzungen, Panzer und UKW-Funk, um den Feldherrn zum Handeln sowohl auf taktischer als auch operativer Ebene zu befähigen. Laut Kaufmann war es durch das auf diese Weise erreichte Kommunikationsniveau der 'Quasi-face-to-face-Führung' nun endlich gelungen, die 'Frontdistanz' zu überwinden. Von seinem schützenden, mobilen Feldherrnhügel aus, dem Panzer, und durch Funk bemächtigt, Befehle wieder persönlich und unmittelbar zu erteilen, stieg der Feldherr abermals zum Herrn des Feldes im clausewitzschen Sinn auf. Gleichwohl sollten auch die Anforderungen an ihn die des genialen Feldherrn sein. Neben Mut musste der Feldherr wieder die Eigenschaft aufweisen, eine Situation spontan erfassen zu können und darauffolgend die bestmögliche Entscheidung zu treffen bzw. den optimalen Einsatz der spezifischen, zur Verfügung stehenden Kampfeinheiten zu befehligen. Es handelte sich dabei nicht um einen strategisch planenden Feldherrn, sondern um einen technisch und taktisch-operativ geschulten Spezialisten. Verglichen mit der Kriegsführung des technokratischen Feldherrn, welche durch Eisenbahn und Telegrafie bedingt, linear abgelaufen war, verlief die des technisch-psychologischen Feldherrn entschieden anders. Die funkspezifische Eigenschaft, in alle Richtungen abzustrahlen, entsprach auch dem Fortbewegungsmodus des Panzers, nicht an Schienen oder Straßen gebunden zu sein. Sowohl Funk als auch Panzer war inhärent, lineare Zusammenhänge zu überwinden bzw. diese erst gar nicht entstehen zu lassen. Mit Kaufmann lässt sich aus den zwei Sachtechnikpaaren – zum einen Telegrafie und Eisenbahn, zum anderen Funk und Panzer – auch eine jeweils feldherrnspezifische Grundbewegung des Operationsablaufs ableiten: Während der Schlieffenplan starr, wie ein gleichmäßiges Uhrwerk, in einer einmaligen Bewegung ausgeführt werden sollte, zielte die neu aufgekommene Kriegsführung auf eine kurzfristig herbeigeführte Konzentration an Gewalt durch Kriegstechnik ab, die sich in mehreren, dynamisch gesteigerten Stößen entladen sollte. An die Stelle einer kontinuierlich umfassenden bzw. einschließenden Bewegung trat nun ein beschleunigter Stoß. Bezweckte die erste Bewegung noch den Gegner physisch zu vernichten, beabsichtigte die zweite eine Paralyse des Gegners, um diesen psychologisch zu brechen.

Inhaltsangabe:Introduction: We are living in an internationalized world; global trade keeps increasing and more companies from many countries around the world are going national at an astounding rate. This is a reflection of strong economic growth around the world and the globalization of the economy and corporations. Offices are spread from one continent to another and travel is essential to business. This is the reason why "business travel is increasing," states Hubert Joly, president and chief executive officer of CWT. In today's business world, you might well find yourself as an international manager in a foreign subsidiary of an American firm, facing on a daily basis all aspects of international management. Or you could end up at the home office in Germany coordinating operations with foreign affiliates. Or you could travel to countries like Japan or China, negotiating export sales or dealing with suppliers, customers, or franchise parties. Many different kinds of positions are available in the global arena, and training in international and cross-cultural management and negotiation styles is becoming a critical ingredient in moving up to high-level positions in global organizations. "In 2006, a record 30.1 million U.S. travelers visited overseas markets, an increase of five percent from 2005." One of the top five overseas markets visited by U.S. travelers in 2006 was Germany. China (if combining travel the PRC and Hong Kong) would have tied as second. Contributing to the new record for outbound travel, seven of the top 20 U.S. outbound destination markets posted records in 2006, including Japan and China. Hundreds of thousands of jobs in the Germany owe their existence and sustainment to business travel. In Germany, the effects of a growing European Union and worldwide business travel create a stable demand for modern transport infrastructures and services. The USA is one of the two most important business travel destinations for the German economy, closely followed by China. Two markets will dominate travel interests in the future: the USA and China. No other countries will be as important for business trips as these two different giants. China's economy still enjoys a huge growing potential although its gross domestic product (GDP) has maintained a double-digit growth for four straight years and hit a new high of 10.7 in the first three quarters of 2006. The growth rate of China's labor productivity stood at 9.5 percent last year, beating all other countries across the world. Since undergoing reform and being made more open, however, the speed of economic development has increased by an average of about 10% each year for the past twenty years. The challenge is that even with all the good will in the world, miscommunication is likely to happen, especially when there are significant cultural differences between communicators, such as from the United States, Germany, China and Japan. Whatever the size or nature of a firm, it is clear that an increasing number of managers around the world will be involved in international business. That involvement will include both foreign and/or domestic assignments requiring interactions with people and firms from other countries. The objective of this thesis is to understand and improve the interaction of businessmen from the four largest economies of the world - the United States, Japan, Germany and China. Furthermore it is tried to explain, describe, and compare cultural differences, identify culturally communication and negotiation practices, and to use effective cross-cultural negotiation techniques and strategies within countries and cultures in international business settings. Knowing how even small differences in culture might cause huge misunderstandings in everyday business life, we can foresee them, and hopefully make better communication and negotiation with our business relations in other cultures.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: Table of ContentsII List of FiguresIV List of TablesV List of AbbreviationsVI Introduction1 PART I Culture5 1.Definition of Culture5 2.Models to Classify Cultures7 2.1Cultural Dimensions according to Hofstede7 2.1.1Power Distance Index7 2.1.2Individualism - Collectivism8 2.1.3Uncertainty Avoidance Index8 2.1.4Masculinity - Femininity9 2.1.5Long-Term Orientation10 2.1.6Hofstede's Dimensions for the United States11 2.1.7Hofstede's Dimensions for Germany11 2.1.8Hofstede's Dimensions for Japan12 2.1.9Hofstede's Dimensions for China12 2.2The Iceberg Model of Culture13 2.3The Trompenaars' Model of Cultural Orientation14 PART II Negotiation and Communication Styles19 3.Time Conceptualization / Cultural Time Differences19 3.1Monochronic vs. Polychronic Time21 3.2Interactions between M-time and P-time Cultures24 3.3Working Times25 3.4Paid Annual Leave28 4.Nonverbal Communication31 4.1Body Language and Gestures31 4.2Greetings35 4.3Touch and Personal Space38 5.Cross-Cultural Etiquette42 5.1Table Etiquette / Table Manners42 5.2Dress Etiquette50 5.3Gift-Giving Etiquette53 6.The Do's and Don'ts of Business Behavior59 7.High-Context vs. Low-Context Cultures71 8.Face and Face Saving76 PART III Barriers to Cross-Cultural Communication83 9.Stereotypes and Prejudices83 9.1Definition of Stereotypes and Prejudices83 9.2Origins of Stereotypes87 9.3"Sophisticated" Stereotypes88 9.4Stereotypes Change90 10.Cross-Cultural Communication Problems92 10.1Language Difficulties92 10.2Cultural Barriers93 10.3Sentence Structure Differences94 10.4Nonverbal Communication Problems95 10.5Difficulties with Idioms95 10.6Reasons for Communication Problems97 10.6.1Potential Solutions98 Conclusion101 BibliographyVII Online SourcesXITextprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3.3, Working Times: The working times and ethics of the four countries Japan, Germany, the United States and China differ greatly. In big Japanese cities, long working days (12 hours is typical) and long careers (a lifetime in the same company) are common. They use time to build harmonious agreements and harmonious relationships with each other. This means, effectively, putting people first. The Western visitor may think he is wasting yet more time on wining and dining after the official work day is over, while he is stuck between apparently inconclusive meetings and the final business decision.1 However, that time is everything but wasted. The kind of stiff patterns and conventions of Japanese office life fall away and the people can easier get in touch with each other. Japanese businessmen consider this also as a way to relieve business stress. The German view of time is extremely integrated with careful scheduling. Delegation, although practiced with thoroughness, usually has strings attached. This organization can make innovative decisions painful, since the subordinate's decision time with his boss is kept separate from his communication time with the business partner. The junior employee has full authority over an agreed and accorded range of decisions, but that range can never include the unexpected. If the employee takes the conservative way and blocks the upward progress of a surprise proposal of a foreign business partner, the answer they get to hear is always "I am not empowered to bring this matter to my boss's attention," the business negotiations are stuck. Even if German employees try the back door, and the boss likes the idea, he will be reluctant to overrule his subordinate. The economic emergency of the pas-war years when rules were frequently broken in order to get an urgent job done, was a long time ago. The German attitude to time is changing. Germans leave the office on time and keep themselves freehanded holidays. According to a senior manager of a German car firm: "Japanese competition is really unfair. We work efficiently; they work efficiently and long." Flexibility, enthusiasm, and teamwork are very important in the U.S. workplace. In general, Americans consider working and being productive very important and being busy as well as working extensively may also serve as their way of obtaining self-esteem. Speed in decision-making is in opposite proportion to bureaucracy. "North American industry is often hung on top-down decision-making systems; "why change a winning formula?" is a rhetorical question most frequently asked by the man at the top who invented the formula. For all their protestations about time being money, American middle managers frequently disappoint by their hesitations and procrastination." The decision making process of Chinese businessmen is slow. Foreigners should not expect to conclude their business quickly. Many Chinese will want to refer to the stars or wait for a lucky day before they make a decision. Basically nothing is possible without "guanxi" in China. "Guanxi" means "relations" and it stands for connections defined by reciprocity and mutual obligations." The basis of a contact varies. New relations must be raised intensively and carefully--for example, with invitations for dinners and with small favors or presents, as these will keep the relationship going. All business is personal: it is essential for success or failure to have "guanxi" and belong to a social network. The Chinese separate people into two groups: we and the others, no matter how it is in business life or in private life. Everything is based on reciprocal trust and accomplishment. The time it takes to establish such "guanxi" relationships is often underrated. Westerners should allow for adequate time in their business travels to establish and nurture their relations. Time spent by Western businessmen in building relationships is honored by the Chinese side. "The more time one invests in establishing good relations with business partners, the more important the partners feel and consequently the more face you give them." It is very difficult to compare the actual hours worked, because of a lack of uniform statistics. A major problem is that in some cases national figures distinguish between full- and part-time workers and in others they do not. Possibly, the best way of comparing working time among businessmen from Germany, Japan and the USA, is to look at annual working hours. The Japan Institute of Labor (JIL), based on several national figures, has produced estimates for annual total hours actually worked for Japan, the USA and Germany. The annual number of hours actually worked was 1,970 in Japan in 2000, which was virtually on par with the USA at 1,986 hours. Germany was far behind with 1,525 hours (1999). Therefore the average American worked about 450 hours more than the average German. Figures for average collectively agreed annual working hours are available from the European Industrial Relations Observatory (EIRO) for eight European Union (EU) countries where working time is measured on this basis, while JIL has produced figures for "scheduled" annual working hours in Japan and the USA. Allowing for differences in calculation methods, the Table 6 shows that the differences among the EU countries, Japan and the USA are generally far less when considering normal/scheduled hours than for actual hours. This indicates that the differences between Germany, Japan and the USA lie more in the overtime and additional hours worked. Chapter 3.4, Paid Annual Leave: The amount of paid annual leave to which workers are entitled is another important aspect of working time (a factor which obviously influences the annual duration of working time). In the EU, figures are available from EIRO for the average number of days of collective agreed annual leave. These show an average annual leave entitlement in 2001 of 25.7 days. Germans have a 30-day average. For Japan, figures are available from JIL on the average paid holiday entitlement, which were 18.0 days in 2000. Nevertheless, entitled holidays in Japan are actually not taken. In 2000, only 49.5% of annual leave entitlement (8.9 days) was taken on average. The latest figures available for the USA from the U.S. Department of Labor are the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). They refer to 2001 and cover "average vacation days" in the medium and large private sector. No total figure is available for all workers, but separate ones for varying lengths of service. Therefore, annual vacation days stood at 9.6 days at one year's service, 13.8 days at five years' service, 16.9 days at 10 years' service and 20.3 days at 20 years' service. Special attention has been given to the issue of extensive working hours in China, but the extent and nature of the situation has never been fully understood. There has not been much information provided on exactly what feelings the Chinese workers have towards their working time. Also, depending on the length of the service, the annual paid leave varies between 5 and 15 days. The standard of annual working hours has been estimated to be set as 2,000 hours. The weekly working hours of employees with local urban household registration were found to be 44.2 hours, making it the shortest working time. Employees with rural household registration had the longest weekly working time which was 48.4 hours. The variable time is much more complex than it is possible to convey. It influences the course of communications, and can be responsible for conflict or the escalation of conflict when it leads to miscommunication or misinterpretation. A culturally-fluent approach to conflict means working over time to understand these and other ways communication varies across cultures, and applying these understandings in order to enhance business relationships among those from different countries.

Denne Ph.D. afhandling omfatter fundamentale betragtninger omkring topologier, algoritmer, implementeringer, metoder etc., der kan indg˚a i næste generation af aktive kontrol systemer. Specifikt foresl˚as der en variant af feedforward kontrol refereret til som indesluttet feedforward aktiv kontrol forkortet IFFAK. I denne topologi indg˚ar et sæt reference sensorer, der er positioneret p˚a en overflade, der fuldt ud indeslutter de ønskede stille-zoner, hvori et sæt performance sensorer monitorerer den opn˚aede støjreduktion. Denne indesluttet-feedforward aktiv kontrol (IFFAK) topologi er indlejret i et mange-input-mange-output (MIMO) system, der omfatter b˚ade feedforward og feedback kontrol. Det totale system er refereret til som et hybrid MIMO indesluttetfeedforward FBS (HMIMOIFFFBS). Undersøgelsen af et komplekst multi-kanals aktiv støjreduktion (ASR) system med hybrid feedforward og feedback topologier er motiveret ud fra krav om høj aktiv støjdæmpning i ekstreme støjmiljøer, som f.eks. opleves ombord p˚a luftb˚arne militære platforme. Støjoptagelser erhvervet ombord p˚a s˚adanne fartøjer afslører lydtryk, der ofte overstiger 140 dB re. 20 μPa. Endvidere udviser disse støjsignaler store tidslige s˚avel som spatiale variationer. Naturlige begrænsninger i feedback baserede aktiv kontrol (AK) systemer som typisk anvendes i moderne ASR støjværn, hvor modstøjssignalet notorisk er forsinket i forhold til den primære forstyrrelse, sætter en øvre grænse for, hvor stor en aktiv dæmpning, der kan opn˚aes. S˚aledes, hersker der i krævende militære applikationer et krav om nye mere avancerede og effektive ASR løsninger. Den opn˚aelige ASR i et FFS er i stor udstrækning bestemt af kohærensen mellem sættet af reference sensorer og sættet af fejl- eller performance sensorer. S˚aledes omfatter denne afhandling en del kohærensundersøgelser baseret p˚a diffustfeltsm˚alinger i et støjkammer samt m˚alinger, der er foretaget i en CH-47D Chinook helikopter. Fra disse kohærensanalyser kan det konkluderes, at IFFAK systemet anvendt p˚a pilothjælme giver mulighed for ca. 25 dB støjreduktion ved 100 Hz faldende til ca. 10 dB dæmpning ved 900 Hz. Endvidere, er der ikke nogen umiddelbare tegn p˚a en mætning med stigende antal reference sensorer. S˚aledes vil et større antal reference sensor forventeligt kunne øge den øvre ASR frekvensgrænse for systemet, der bestemmes af den rumlige samplingstæthed. I hybridsystemet indg˚ar der b˚ade et kontinuerlig-tids FBS og et diskret-tids FBS. Disse vil bidrage med yderligere støjreduktion primært overfor bredb˚andet støj henholdsvis overfor periodiske signaler. Tidsforsinkelser udgør en anden bestemmende faktor for den opn˚aelige effekt i et FFS design, men specielt i et FBS design, eftersom fysiske systemer altid opererer kausalt. For at vurdere størrelsesordenen af det tidsforspring som hver reference sensor giver i forhold til hver fejlsensor i det foresl˚aede IFFAK system indføres en størrelse, der betegnes som den spatialt-vægtet middeltidsgevinst. Der eksisterer imidlertid et problem, n˚ar man forsøger at modellere et fysisk system med en endelig rummelig udstrækning og hvor der s˚aledes ikke er nogen indlysende input-output definition med et endeligt-element multi-kanals system. Som regel eksisterer der ikke nogen unik overføringsfunktion eftersom systemet ikke bliver punktvist stimuleret, men derimod stimuleret xii over et areal som for eksempel under diffustfelts belysning. En ny akustisk signalbehandlingsmetode, der betegnes som samlet kanal residual spektral analyse (SKRSA) er udviklet. Denne metode benyttes til ekstraktion af fælles signal information fra forskellige observationspunkter i rummet. Ideen er at separere hvert spektrum i et kohærent spektrum og et residual spektrum. Indholdet i det kohærente spektrum kan opn˚aes som en linear kombination af spektrene fra de andre kanaler, hvorimod indholdet af det residuale spektrum er unikt for den p˚agældende kanal. I et specifikt eksempel, belyses et system best˚aende af et sæt reference sensorer monteret p˚a en Gentex HGU-55/P hjælm, der igen er p˚amonteret en hoved og torso simulator med et diffust lydfelt. Under anvendelse af SKRSA metoden estimeres den spatialt-vægtet middeltidsgevinst til at være i størrelsesorden 800-900μs. Afhandlingen omfatter ogs˚a en detaljeret beskrivelse af en ny id´e til en beregningsmæssig effektiv implementering af et multi-kanals system, hvor b˚ade de adaptive filtre, der indg˚ar i den aktive kontrol s˚avel som de adaptive filtre, der indg˚ar til modellering af systemoverføringsfunktionerne kan antage individuelle længder. En ny og mere generel variant af APA algoritmen er udviklet. Denne adaptive filter algoritme inkluderer parametre for b˚ade wægt-styret og kontrol-effekt-styret lækage, adaptiv tap-vægte regulering s˚avel som numerisk regulering og betegnes MC-αγΠ-APA. En simplificering af denne algoritme, fører til MC-αγΠ-NLMS algoritmen, der er en udbygget variant af NLMS algoritmen. Systemets evne til off-line simultant at kunne identificere et complex system best˚aende af ialt 28 enkelt systemgrene bliver demonstreret. Forskellig adaptive filtre samt parametering heraf bliver udforsket. Et nyt og generelt multi-hastigheds systemkoncept for aktiv kontrol er udviklet. Specifikt implementeres og testes et system, hvor der i alt samples med tre forskellige hastigheder. P˚a multi-hastighedsniveau 0 benyttes en meget høj samplingsfrekvens med henblik p˚a at reducere forsinkelser i konverteringstrinene, der indg˚ar i de sekundære grene. Den ikke adaptive kontrol udføres p˚a det lavere multi-hastigheds niveau 1. Herved tilsikres et kompromis imellem forsinkelser til afgivelse af modstøjssignaler og krav til en endelig system b˚andbredde. Sluttelig foreg˚ar den adaptive kontrol ved det lavere multi-hastigheds niveau 2. Herved begrænses den ofte beregningsmæssige tunge adaptive filter opdatering til en s˚a lav samplingsfrekvens som muligt. I et specifikt eksempel demonstreres, at en beregningsmæssig besparelse p˚a ca. 40% kan opn˚as under opretholdelse af samme ASR ved nedsampling fra multi-hastighedsniveau 1 p˚a 24 kHz til multi-hastighedsniveau 2 p˚a 3 kHz. Det er en almindelig ingeniørpraksis at foretage en antagelse om Gaussisk fordelte signaler. Imidlertid, er mange fænomener i dagligdagen bedst modelleret med s˚akaldte alfa-stabile fordelings funktioner. Dette gælder ogs˚a for støjsignaler, der ønskes undertrykt ved hjælp af et aktivt støjdæmpningssystem. Afhandlingen indholder en kort teknisk beskrivelse af de stabile fordelingsfunktioner samt adaptive filter algoritmer for disse type signaler. Store dele af HMIMOIFFFB systemet samt de udviklede metoder og algoritmer er implementeret i et realtids miljø, der inkluderer en signal processor. I første omgang vil disse blive aftestet p˚a en til form˚alet designet aktive kontrol testenhed. ; This Ph.D. thesis includes fundamental considerations about topologies, algorithms, implementations, methods etc., that can enter in the next generation of active control (AC) systems. Specifically, a new variant of feedforward control referred to as confined feedforward active control (CFFAC) is proposed. This topology is constituted from a set of reference sensors that are positioned on a surface that completely confines the desired zones of quite. A set of performance sensors monitors the achieved noise reduction. This CFFAC topology in turn is embedded in a multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) system that facilitates both feedforward and feedback control. The general system is then referred to as hybrid MIMO confined-feedforward feedback (HMIMOCFFFB) active noise reduction (ANR) system. The investigation of a multi-channel ANR system with hybrid feedforward and feedback topologies is motivated by requirements of high ANR attenuation in extreme noise environments as typically experienced onboard airborne military platforms. Noise recordings acquired on such platforms reveal very high sound pressure levels often exceeding 140 dB re. 20 μPa. Moreover, these noise signals exhibit large temporal as well as spatial variations. Inherent limitations are related to the use of stand-alone feedback AC implementation commonly applied in modern ANR headset. In such systems the anti-noise signal is notoriously behind the primary disturbance in time. Accordingly, in demanding military applications requirements on more advanced and effective ANR system designs prevail. The achievable ANR performance in a feedforward system (FFS) is to a large extent determined by the degree of coherence between the set of reference sensors and the set of error sensors (or performance sensors). Accordingly, this thesis includes a number of coherence analysis that are based on diffuse sound field measurements in a reverberant chamber and measurements conducted onboard a CH-47D Chinook helicopter. From these coherence analysis it can be concluded that the CFFAC system with 10 reference sensors applied to pilot helmets potentially provides approximately 25 dB noise reduction at 100 Hz decreasing to approximately 10 dB attenuation at 900 Hz. Moreover, there is no apparent sign of saturation of the noise reduction with an increasing number of reference sensors. Accordingly, by using more reference sensors the spatial sampling rate is increased which in turn most likely also will lead to an increased ANR bandwidth. The hybrid system is also constituted from a continuous-time feedback system (FBS) and a discrete-time FBS. The continuous-time FBS is primarily responsible for additional broadband noise reduction, whereas the discrete-time FBS primarily is responsible for the attenuation of periodic signals. Owing to the requirement on causal operation of a physical AC system time delays will also to a large extent determine the achievable performance in FFS design and in particular in FBS design. A quantity referred to as the spatially-weighted-averaged acquisition lead time is introduced to represent the averaged time-advance obtained by each reference sensor relative to each performance sensor involved in the proposed CFFAC system. A problem exist when one attempts to model a physical spatially distributed system with no obvious input and output channel definition by a finite lumped-elements multi-channel system. Usually, no unique transfer function x exist as the system is not point-wise excited, but excited over an area as in the case of diffuse sound field illumination. A new method for acoustical signal processing that is referred to as joint-channel residual spectral analysis (JCRSA) is developed. The JCRSA method is used for the extraction of joint signal information from different observation positions in space. The idea is to separate each spectrum in a coherent spectrum and a residual spectrum. The contents of the coherent spectrum can be obtained from a linear superposition of the other signals, whereas the residual spectrum bears information that is unique to each specific channel. In a specific example a system consisting of 10 reference sensors flush-mounted on a Gentex HGU-55/P helmet that in turn is mounted on a head and torso simulator (HATS), is exposed to diffuse sound field illumination. By applying the JCRSA method the spatially-weighted-averaged acquisition lead times provided by the reference sensors relative to the performance sensors are estimated to be as much as 800-900μs. The thesis also includes a detailed description of a new idea for a computational efficient implementation of a multi-channel system in which the adaptive filters for adaptive control as well as the adaptive filters used for plant modeling are allowing to take different lengths. A new and more general variant of the affine projection algorithm has been developed. This adaptive filter algorithm that is denoted by multiple-channel-αγΠ-affine projection algorithm includes parameters for both weight-driven and control-effort-driven leakage, adaptive tap-weight regularization as well as numerical regularization. A simplification of this algorithm leads to the MC-αγΠ-NLMS algorithm that is an extended variant of the NLMS algorithm. Off-line simultaneous system identification capabilities of a complex system involving a total 4 secondary paths, 20 feedback paths and 4 control-performance paths is demonstrated. Different adaptive filters and parameterizations hereof are examined. A novel and general multi-rate adaptive filter for adaptive AC has been developed. Specifically, a system involving 3 different sampling rates has been implemented and the results hereof are presented. In this multi-rate system conversion take place at highly oversampled rates in order to reduce the delays in the secondary paths. The non-adaptive control is performed at a somewhat lower rate. Hereby, a compromise between delays related to the generation of the anti-noise signal and the computational load involved is ensured. Finally, the adaptive control that might be computational intensive takes place at an even slower sampling rate hereby relaxing the requirements on a high bandwidth. It is demonstrated that computational savings as high as 40% can be achieved in a 192, 24, 3 kHz triple-rate system as compared with a 24 kHz single-rate system without sacrificing the ANR performance. It is common engineering practice to apply an assumption of Gaussian distributed signals. However, many phenomena encountered in daily life fall into a generalization of the normal distribution that is referred to as α-stable distributions. Noise sources encountered in the domain of AC are sometimes best fitted to the family of α-stable distributions. This thesis includes a brief technical introduction to the stable distributions and description of the adaptive filter that can be used for AC. Large parts of the HMIMOCFFFB system including the developed methods and algorithms have been implemented in a real-time environment (RTE) that includes a signal processor. Test on the helmet system will continue and a dedicated reference test unit (RTU) for AC is currently being designed.

Good afternoon ladies and gentlemen. I am very pleased that you were all able to accept my invitation to join me here today on this landmark occasion for nursing education. It is fitting that all of the key stakeholders from the health and education sectors should be so well represented at the launch of an historic new development. Rapid and unpredictable change throughout society has been the hallmark of the twenty-first century, and healthcare is no exception. Regardless of what change occurs, no one doubts that nursing is intrinsic to the health of this nation. However, significant changes in nurse education are now needed if the profession is to deliver on its social mandate to promote peopleÃ'´s health by providing excellent and sensitive care. As science, technology and the demands of the public for sophisticated and responsive health care become increasingly complex, it is essential that the foundation of nursing education is redesigned. Pre-registration nursing education has already undergone radical change over the past eight years, during which time it has moved from an apprenticeship model of education and training to a diploma based programme firmly rooted in higher education. The Secretary General of my Department, Michael Kelly, played a leading role in bringing about this transformation, which has greatly enhanced the way students are prepared for entry to the nursing profession. The benefits of the revised model of education are clearly evident from the quality of the nurses graduating from the diploma programme. The Commission on Nursing examined the whole area of nursing education, and set out a very convincing case for educating nursing students to degree level. It argued that nurses of the future would be required to possess increased flexibility and the ability to work autonomously. A degree programme would provide nurses with a theoretical underpinning that would enable them to develop their clinical skills to a greater extent and to respond to future challenges in health care, for the benefit of patients and clients of the health services. The Commission has provided a solid framework for the professional development of nurses and midwives, including a process that is already underway for the creation of clinical nurse specialist and advanced nurse practitioner posts. This process will facilitate the transfer of skills across divisions of nursing. In this scenario, it is clearly desirable that the future benchmark qualification for registration as a nurse should be a degree in nursing studies. A Nursing Education Forum was established in early 1999 to prepare a strategic framework for the implementation of a nursing degree programme. When launching the ForumÃ'´s report last January, I indicated that the Government had agreed in principle to the introduction of the proposed degree programme next year. At the time two substantial outstanding issues had yet to be resolved, namely the basis on which nurse teachers would transfer from the health sector to the education sector and the amount of capital and revenue funding required to operate the degree programme. My Department has brokered agreements between the Nursing Alliance and the Higher Education Institutions for the assimilation of nurse teachers as lecturers into their affiliated institutions. The terms of these agreements have been accepted by all four nursing unions following a ballot of their nurse teacher members. I would like to pay particular tribute to all nurse teachers who have contributed to shaping the position, relevance and visibility of nursing through leadership, which embodies scholarship and excellence in the profession of nursing itself. In response to a recommendation of the Nursing Education Forum, I established an Inter-Departmental Steering Committee, chaired by Bernard Carey of my Department, to consider all the funding and policy issues. This Steering Committee includes representatives of the Department of Finance and the Department of Education and Science as well as the Higher Education Authority. The Steering Committee has been engaged in intensive negotiations with representatives of the Conference of Heads of Irish Universities and the Institutes of Technology in relation to their capital and revenue funding requirements. These negotiations were successfully concluded within the past few weeks. The satisfactory resolution of the industrial relations and funding issues cleared the way for me to go to the Government with concrete proposals for the implementation of degree level education for nursing students. I am delighted to announce here today that the Government has approved all of my proposals, and that a four-year undergraduate pre-registration nursing degree programme will be implemented on a nation-wide basis at the start of the next academic year, 2002/2003. The Government has approved the provision of capital funding totalling Ã'£176 million pounds for a major building and equipment programme to facilitate the full integration of nursing students into the higher education sector. This programme is due to be completed by September 2004, and will ensure that nursing students are accommodated in purpose built schools of nursing studies with state of the art clinical skills and human science laboratories at thirteen higher education sites throughout the country. The Government has also agreed to make available the substantial additional revenue funding required to support the nursing degree programme. By 2006, the full year cost of operating the programme will rise to some Ã'£43 million pounds. The scale of this investment in pre-registration nursing education is enormous by any yardstick. It demonstrates the firm commitment of myself and my Government colleagues to the full implementation of the recommendations of the Commission on Nursing, of which the introduction of pre-registration degree level education is arguably the most important. This historic decision, and it is truly historic, will finally put the education of nurses on a par with the education of other health care professionals. The nursing profession has long been striving for parity, and my own involvement in the achievement of it is a matter of deep personal satisfaction to me. I am also pleased to announce that the Government has approved my plans for increasing the number of nursing training places to coincide with the implementation of the degree programme next year. Ninety-three additional places in mental handicap and psychiatric nursing will be created at Athlone, Letterkenny, Tralee and Waterford Institutes of Technology. This will yield 392 extra places over the four years of the degree programme. A total of 1,640 places annually on the new degree programme will thus be available. This is an all-time record, and maintaining the annual student intake at this level for the foreseeable future is a key element of my overall strategy for ensuring that we produce sufficient "home-grown" nurses for our health services. I am aware that the Nursing Alliance were anxious that some funding would be provided for the further academic career development of nurse teachers who transfer to one of the six Universities that will be involved in the delivery of the degree programme. I am happy to confirm that up to Ã'£300,000 in total per year will be available for this purpose over the first four years of the degree programme. In line with a recommendation of the Commission on Nursing, my Department will have responsibility for the administration of the nursing degree budget until the programme has been bedded down in the higher education sector. A primary concern will be to ensure that the substantial capital and revenue funding involved is ring-fenced for nursing studies. It is intended that responsibility for the budget will be transferred to the Department of Education and Science after the first cohort of nursing degree students have graduated in 2006. In the context of todayÃ'´s launch, it is relevant to refer to a special initiative that I introduced last year to assist registered nurses wishing to undertake part-time nursing degree courses. Under this initiative, nurses are entitled to have their course fees paid by their employers in return for a commitment to continue working in the public health service for a period following completion of the course. This initiative has proved extremely popular with large numbers of nurses availing of it. I want to confirm here today that the free fees initiative will continue in operation until 2005, at a total cost of at least Ã'£15 million pounds. I am giving this commitment in order to assure this yearÃ'´s intake of nursing students to the final diploma programmes that fee support for a part-time nursing degree course will be available to them when they graduate in three years time. The focus of todayÃ'´s celebration is rightly on the landmark Government decision to implement the nursing degree programme next year. As Minister for Health and Children, and as a former Minister for Education, I also have a particular interest in the educational opportunities available to other health service workers to upgrade their skills. I am pleased to announce that the Government has approved my proposals for the introduction of a sponsorship scheme for suitable, experienced health care assistants who wish to become nurses. This new scheme will commence next year and will be administered by the health boards. Successful applicants will be allowed to retain their existing salaries throughout the four years of the degree programme in return for a commitment to work as nurses for their health service employer for a period of five years following registration. Up to forty sponsorships will be available annually. The new scheme will enable suitable applicants to undertake nursing education and training without suffering financial hardship. The greatest advantage of the scheme will be the retention by the public health service of staff who are supported under it, since they will have had practical experience of working in the service and their own personal commitment to upgrading their skills will be informed by that experience. I am confident that the sponsorship scheme will be warmly welcomed by health service unions representing care assistants as providing an exciting new career development path for their members. Education and health are now the two pillars upon which the profession of nursing rests. We must continue to build bridges, even tunnels where needed to strengthen this partnership. We must all understand partnerships donâ?Tt just happen they are designed and must be worked at. The changes outlined here today are powerful incentives for those in healthcare agencies, academic institutions and regulatory bodies to design revolutionary programmes capable of shaping a critical mass of excellent practitioners. You have an opportunity, greater perhaps than has been granted to any other generation in history to make certain those changes are for the good. Ultimately changes that will make the country a healthier and more equitable place to live. The challenge relates to building a seamless preparatory programme which equally respects both education and practise as an indivisible duo whilst ensuring that high tech does not replace the human touch. This is a special day in the history of the development of the Irish nursing profession, and I would like to thank everybody for their contribution. I want to express my particular appreciation of two people who by this stage are well known to all of you – Bernard Carey of my Department and Siobhán OÃ'´Halloran of the National Implementation Committee. Bernard and Siobhán have devoted considerable time and energy to the project on my behalf over the past fourteen months or so. That we are here today celebrating the launch of degree level education is due in no small part to their successful execution of the mandate that I gave them. We live in a rapidly changing world, one in which nursing can no longer rely on systems of the past to guide it through the new millennium. In terms of contemporary healthcare, nursing is no longer just a reciprocal kindness but rather a highly complex set of professional behaviours, which require serious educational investment. Pre-registration nurse education will always need development and redesign to ensure our health care system meets the demands of modern society. Nothing is finite. Today more than ever the health system is dependent on the resourcefulness of nursing. I have no doubt that the new educational landscape painted will ensure that nurses of the future will be increasingly innovative, independent and in demand. The unmistakable message from my Department is that nursing really matters. Thank you.

Technical Report 2018-08-ECE-141 Technical Report 2002-12-ECE-012 Defense Presentations (I) Ozgur Aktunc, Rajani Sadasivam, Urcun Tanik, Kazuhiro Abe, Praneet Deo This technical report is a reissue of a technical report issued December 2002 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alabama at Birmingham August 2018 · . Technical Repm12002-12-ECE-012 Defense Presentations (I) Ozgur Aktunc, Rajani Sadasivam, Urcun Tanik, Kazuhiro Abe, Praneet Deo TECHNICAL REPORT Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alabama at Birmingham December 2002 ' . Masters Thesis Presentation Ozgur Aktunc Thesis advisor: Dr. Murat M. Tanik The Role of Component Technologies on Enterprise Engineering Department of [locbi, 2002 Publications · ~1:~fk~c~srr~s~ lo:;;lu~i{lg:, ~;.~:~':Is~: .~ ~!,~ M. World Conference on Intcgr,lted Design & Process Technology, 2000, Proceedings co. • 2. o. Aktonc, P. Oeo, aniverslty of Alebllma at Blnninoham, september 2001, p.4L • • .}~·~.!.:~·. ~t1t~U!o~i.r8::e~we:~ at Birmingham, October 2001, p.47. • 3. o. Aklunc and M. M. Tanlk. ·p-SubmiSSion and Review ~;,~ • A component model defines a set of standards for component Implementation, cuslomization, composition, evolution, and deployment. • Component models set the standards for application developers, help the businesses to Implement the business logic Into their systems In a methodology. Current Component Models • There are numerous component models today. • The main component models are: "; Microsoft's .Net !. Sun Mlcrosystems' Enterprise Java Beans f. OMG's CORBA Component Model (CCM) Usage of components and objects • Objects - suitable to describe the problem domain of a system. • Components - suitable to describe the functionality of a system. • ";Objects vs. components" = ";identity vs. services". [6] • CBSE = components + objects Component Model Operation A component model operates on two levels; • Defines how to construct an Individual component. Microsoft's .Net Model, ! unknown interface. • Sets the communication and Interaction standards of the components. Component Model Implementations and Services • Standardizes the run-time environment. • Defines the specification of Interfaces to both general and domain-specific run-time services. • General services include user Interface management services, system management services etc. • Domain- specific services can Include financial, healthcare and telecommunication services. [ 4] 4 Services lniOJ!.11"1'''"' J i ,.,.,.;~.;, l lo"'"'"'O"i~ J ! Pa tltq) rmi'i.ep ).I.e N-Queens Problem • The domain was chosen the combinatorial N-Queens problem . • This problem has applications in • Communication. • VLSI testing. • Dead lock prevention. • Memory management. • Traffic control. Component Technologies • Component technologies have flourished surrounding the established component models such as Microsoft's COM and Sun's JavaBeans . • Component technologies and models have been the driving forces of each other. Research collaboration test-bed • We built a research collaboration test-bed using component technologies and utilizing enterprise engineering principles. • The prototype Is built on a Java three-tier architecture with an Oracle database storing a large number of N·Queens solutions. • We had the chance to apply several component technologies such as servlets, XML and Database Management. Our problem solving domain: N­Queens research environment This soll« -ECE-012, Ur~verclly of Alabama at Olrmlnghe.m, October :>001. R. S. SadQSJvam, U. J . Tnnik, and M. M. Tanik 'A Tesi-Bed for llle Corrolallon Center lor Digital Servlcos,"; Technical R&port 2001 - 08-ECE-006, University ol Alabama 81 Blrmlngham, August U. T anlk, A framework lor lnlemet Enterprtso F.ng:J(Iij , , lffML Ole., May 2002. Future Work • To programmatically identify software components and assemble them in a structured manner by using late binding techniques • To build the Correlation Engine References P. Dao, Ernarprlse Dovck>flmont Using Java and XML Teehnologlos, Master's Thesis, UAB, BirrnlngMm. At2001. U. J. Tanlk. M.M Tanik, nrld L Jolo!ian, ";'nternet Enterprise Enginoorf11g: A Zero-limo rramewortc based on T Slmlegy.' Proc. cl IEEE SOOfC9 (CREC}, at the Un/119Jsity of Te- 17 Preliminary Consultations Pr-Ies: After COO>IAialion with Or. Ych, Or. Kozmetsky. and Or. Ramamoonlly, I continued to study and assimilate mei~k Aller discussion .;tt, 0ts and tecllnologles U$Od in EleCtronic Eolerprlse Eng(necMg (EEE) Aller d:.:ussion with 0.JeKMI(>Ie entOIJ)Iise prOIOIY1)C calfud F.ng!io;r.tex1doclor.oom using Olfolhtt-SileU leelrnology (bocame a case s!ud)? All above actMiios led me to unoersmr.d I he importance of mappff!Q l)uslnoss IJ(OCGSS to enterprise uo1o comp&lEII\CY tor Cho service inclllstry Personal Publications Relevant to lEE Thesis Jnh:t TnnLk. Murat Ttl'l{l:. and I,IX!f, Jdlllbit. l ntt mtt E 1U t'l)ri~ PAf:,JJlttrin~: A uz.m.Hult' . f'r:unt-.u·k based un ";'f -Sfr~ttCJ•''. l:Ef:.l1 S1lodiN.Stoo». 2001. John Tmk and KaR2dllro Abe, 11\Q Japlnes~Amefkan Handshak&: The Into mot CMmensfon, . SOPS T•a.nsacllon: Joumnl or lntegratod Design ood Process Sclence, VelA, No.1. PI> 57·72, 2000. Resulting Pressures Eootromle: 1o= E~1lny (Fklr, 2001} ~t-Bttsifle';$ & e-Ccmmtm:o. HOlY k> Progrsm {DeJa!, 0.1"' & Nie1o. 2001) !N'rocess E(fg9, Cte81/Jlg Cuslom/N Va:U• and ovsines:s Weall1> kl 1/le lnfi:mel Em {Kc'ell & Mc:Dona/0. 2(JQ()) Et>le !Jiil, 2000) Zero T"";"; (Kozme/slry & Yeh, 200(1) Cracking lito Value Clxlo, HJ.v Suct;esSfuiBvsli>esses Ate C'o~ealir>g W•am> Ill lf>e Nm• EcofiOtny (Arthur AndctSM, 2000) Drumbeal2000 (Macrorne 00fl1ic gtowth and kai\Siormalion allr'lbuled to new technOICokml to11:os shaping lll•wol ld ecOllO!IIy, cspeefally dueiO lhe lmf)QCI 01 me !nleJrlel[Price Waletho!>Sej. . Hyper-eompeHllon In o glObal ma1~01 Rapid tecmorogylran~lormatiOOS A vary ln~1conr.edcd oooaomic value chain EmergIJy on tho lnlemol. Resulting Internet Enterprise Needs As a rewlt, a need exfsls lor a : I. Formal a;scipline such as kllemot Enlerprise Engineering (lEE) - lor syarornalic construcUoo ol on nne onrorpfiSes • Reliollly • Cct·ol:.ctiYcty • Timely 2. Process-cenlrtc management - For baclcond automation of ptocess • lor elllly by focusing tnelf eiiOtiS on lll1fliC>Vo>g Ulelr process as lhelr chief core Clyplr.g and Development 9. Government Initiatives In Cytlemtntalion 14. Larg&-scale Enterprise Ooveloprnent Ellvtmrlments IS. Enabl'rl!J Tochnotogles and CO lont~ . =:.:.~r.~e Cosmos- Holistic Framework for Managing Change l:'lr~li'Uo;'t• ~ . l.o~fll UffMF. )In\,ltm~i\t• A•-tt\11)'~1n~ s""; iHI>· ,,., k~litr Process-Driven Service Software Thesis Presentation by Kazuhlro Abe September 19,2002 21 Acknowledgements ~ Dr. Leon Jololian t. Dr. Murat Tanik ~v Dr. Raymond Yeh I', Dr. C.V. Ramamoorthy I', Brian Young, CEO f,";~u~k,. .,.,;-_.~-:.:r-:,•;;•.-:.";!':t:~!'f~-.:'::·'1- :-•1.N -1 : Three-Tier Software I • _____A _r_c_h_i=~.~--J ifM&\BJ" ' ~hJ!tiif:~!fi~\mmJ ii)11-j§~ Three-Tier Software Architecture Da1a layer - Conceptual Procoss Logic laye.- Prii$Gnlatlon layer Outline ;o,. Three-Tier Software Architecture ~',. Service-Based Software . Process-Based Software We propose . ~ An Architecture and Infrastructure for Process-Driven Service Software Three-Tier Software Architecture -Physical •· Put a middle tier between client user interface and database management systems (DBMS) ";' Overcame many limitations of two· tier architecture • Pertormance, scalabllily, llexibility, _ • .,,~ ~••m••:~ ~---· . ·- Data Layer ~ Low-level manipulation of data ~Technologies: • DBMS • Directory I', Issues and Challenges: • Dialects in SOL • Stored Procedures 22 Process Logic Layer $ High-level manipulation of data ~Technologies: • Object Oriented Middleware (OOM) - ION A Orblx, Highlander VisiBroker • Message Oriented Middleware (MOM) - IBM MOSories, TIBCO Rendezvous Presentation Layer $ Construction and delivery of presentation ~; Technologies: • Thin-Client Browser-based Application, Citrix • Thick-Client- Stand-alone Apps., Java Apple!, Java Web Start Service-Based Software Process Logic Layer (Cont.) ~. Issues and Challenges: • Complexity of Development • Vendor Dependency • Difficulty of Integration • Difflcully of Maintenance Presentation Layer (ConL) ~ Issues and Challenges: • Thin-Client- Limited User Interface and Interaction • Thick-Client- Management of Code, Delivery Service-Based Software - Service Unit f> Examples • Stock Quote Service • Weather Service 23 Service-Based Software - Objective , Another abstraction layer on components - Characteristics (Cont.) & Compared to objects and components, services have higher abstraction and are more understandable by domain experts. 6o Unlike objects and components, services are platform independence. --- t---.'.-.- - +-- -- Service-Based Software - Characteristics fJ Developing services requires programming knowledge. $ Services are built to be used by each other and other applications. Service-Based Software - Sample Architecture f·.:· . ~· . :: . . ·.:)_._;. .· ::: t --- ·-- +-- - -··____;_· Process-Based Software G Process specifications executed on a process engine • A process specification describes llow of the process and the interaction between components. 24 Process-Based Software (Cont.) Typical CBS g ~ ~· Process-Based SofiNvare 1. By having a process engine, a process and component integration are separated. Process-Based Software - Example (Cont.) r:~=$!4j!:J:. ·n,.,.,.Mil:l!7i!£l/,.,.~t I Process-Driven ~::::~:::$] Process-Based Software -Example Process-Based Software -- ·- . bt-'VW---~ ";I"M~W'r.,._~t#O't> .-;~. '1.'1.(";. ~··v n·.,.re•~"";";";";'·.,. . -~ _,.,.,,. ___ . ~,.,. ._,.,._._ 'O. _ w. __,.-·--~­~ . ·- __.-.,.,. -·.Jrol,. .~. -·-~. . ::::";";''~""; . \0-. ~·-~f'--~ ~---~ ~·"' . ~.,.,·r -.o._-~ --~···_.,.L'Dt_ ,.M'). - Example (Cont.) Process-Driven Service Software 6> A new kind of service that is constructed with process technologies Service-Based Software + Process-Based Software • Process-Driven Service Software 25 Process-Driven Service Software - Architecture Process-Driven Service Software - Composition 41 Example S1ock Quote E-mail Service !!zW::f~ l:l.\jif%~sa':'t6i~WMWE~ Process-Driven Service Software -Effect Process-Driven Service Software - Architecture (Cont.) Process-Driven Service Software 1, Process-Driven Service Editor 2. UDDI Registry 3. Process Registry - Composition (Con t , - Infrastructure 26 Process-Driven Service Software - Infrastructure (Cont.) 4. Dynamic Web Service Adapter 5. 6. 7. Process Engine UDDI Adapter Process Adapter .- · ;,. . ~@ Comparison -· - --.·.- .--· ";•' ~d:~)'l '"' . . --- Future Work ·~ . t4 Od. 2001). ~ 8/zTaJic Frame1W>rlt 2.0: DocumorJ and Msssage Spocillcailon, Microsoft Corporallon. Oec. 2000. 27 A THESIS DEFENSE ENTERPRISE DEVEWPMENT USING JAVA AND XML TECHNOWGJES BJ• Pmnrtl R. 0811 Pre.re11tatio11 Outiine • Ntw bnrintss tHJironnttNI. • En!erplist sol~rtions. o Thm-titr mrhiterfurr m()((fl }mm mvcr.sidc tcdJ!iologiu. o XML ttrh11olo!,J'· • NQIItt/IJ Jni!J/>It appiirotibJJ. Rwtlls '!/ J!Jt tbtsis work and j11tnrr uvmt. o DtJIIOHS!mlion '!/tiN tiNsir 11'/Jrk. Be11ejits ojE11tetp1ises lntegmtio11 Fa. t~' opm11io11ol mi.-. • Lo1m·prod11dion costs. UJI'fl' lilvtJIIO!)' (f)i/Y. Backgrom/(1 • Co11;p/rltd Doc/Jclor '![E 11gi11ttring 1i1 ]1111t, 1998 in Indio. • )oi11rd UllivmirJ• of AfobaJJJa at Bin11i11gho'" (UAB) for molltr's prugrrmt in Elutriral and C0111p111tr EJiflimnng in Srpttml~tr. 1999. o Fot· /aJI 12 months worki11g 1111rftrlbe gllidaJite oJDr.l~l(l'af To11iA1 for JJIOJiu'r tbrsis mtitltd ";Hnte1pn>-e De;.~lfJ/)JJtwl Usingjm'll ond XML Trdmologiu."; New .B11si11ess E11vironmenl o 1 llftl'lltf ond Ntfl/lfni. EttJnomy - INimtll ";";' dw"!,tJ !ht ~ bJuiMmJ 6f>ti>J/t, - 'J'bm isM"' Nrtswrk EtrJI1Mry tllltf}!/1/l. ••bttr bnsilrt1JtllnJ!k n•it!J pm11ttf1111NI t'YJHJ/1/1/ll'l (WIY /ht /nltl"iitl. • E111trplist ilttcgmlio!l - .1'• thm is" Hrtd of F.ntttpti.ll 1 •111,nlfi•11. - F.NtrtptiN IJII'I,mliM .un JJ:IiJ I# Itt tht i~ltfiiJliiNJ ofmrio:u nlfitJ #f/NisiJii$f(i i• o Ji!lflt sojhtt11r. Enterprise SystemJ • Tlim it a ll(tr/ to mare mtopJise [)'JftJJIS rtt/J tnltNitft ttdJJlo!ogiu - jtlni Stn{tiJ. - )rim Dnltt&n UIIRtditi{J {/DTJQ. - }om Srntr Put;t.J 2 /.;";Nitrpriw Etltifon 0217F.). - J' ·luJ!r morr. AdvaNtages of Java Se1vlct Tccbnolo._zy • Smwts art JRbrt d/ifitAI that trotlitiD11nl CCI programs. • Stw!tU ( Oif bt iJ:rotpQra!ttl m~b olbtr jniXl ltcbr.o/ogiff li.U ]SJ> and ]DBC S rmltU ot~ s'!ft. S emlriS pmtJtflt a compo11wl·bt1mi, ph(fomNildej>mdtlll lllttbod for buildi11g tvtb-btuul upplirotioll!. • Sttvlett btu a Jfi/>POI1 I!{ n~b .ft- wtb mvn: St~vltt.r 1!1111t a life o•de t/Jal ituludtt iml() and tlui!!!J'() .rlagu. JDBC: ]atJa DataBase Co!lmt'livity • ]DBC i1 a StoAdord Query l.at~glltJ8t (JQLJ database o«tss API. Providu pn;gmt/111/ttY 1vitb tt llll{forlll inttlfoce to arws ttodOltf t!atabtucs nog,ardleff o/ t!fffmtJctS i tt illlj>leJIItltfalion. XMJ.J Technology Xl\1L Jltmtft for eXttlltible Markup l.otJ,glfage. Ftoturv of XJ.1L - Al'-11• J!K .!fillb• installtd aJid t'O!?Jigmld IVving t!JJ: front tnt! 1vith )SP .• ~b:Ozg11r Aklullc will JIJOI'k 011 ibir projttl. Mon~ge the data 1110rt tjfitiMI/y. Mr.Sacbli1 Cbi11tbofikar will n•ork OJJthis prry'ttf. lmp!Vl!t tbe midd!tJJJaJ~ peifomtanct Jvilh ]2EE. Mr.IV:Jja11i SndaJbivon nli/1 work OJ/ this projttl. • Dn~tlop Rmm11J-Rmon11 rollobomli011 m:ter ll>ing nn·biterfllml ji'OIJitiiJOrk o/ N -QIIet/11 npplitnlim:. Mi:}Jilal Ynldiz n·illwork Oil Ibis pnyecl. D e1no ll.ft l'tltio 11 • DtmQI/.J/mtioJI o[the N -Queens Af!Pikotion. 33

�쓽�븰怨�/諛뺤궗 ; [�븳湲�] [�쁺臾�] Leprosy is rather endemic in Korea, where the disease has been feared and disliked by most of the people. In 1948, author, for control of the disease in shorter periods of time, proposed to utilize patients own labor capacity based on the medical aspects, their labor ability and sociological factors. So-called "Campaign for Hope Village Movement" which was launched that year under the leadership of the Korean Leprosy Association was based on author's proposal for "A Classification of Leprosy Patients by Labor Capacity". Thereafter in 1953, clinical use of sulfone derivative, D.D.S. (Diamino-diphenyl sulfone) was begun for the patients in all leprosaria in Korea. In 1958, curability of the disease with D.D.S. was internationally accepted with the recognition at the 7th International Congress of Leprology. In those days, under the Compulsory Segregation Law, leprosy patients in Korea were still forced to reside in leprosaria in spite of the fact that a considerable number of patients were in the state of cure with labor capacity for self-support. These circumstances, scientific and sociological progress in the field, made author devise "A Classification of Leprosy Patients for Their Social Rehabilitation" to let leprosy problem emerge out of the dark shadows of the past. This new classification was derived from "Classification by Labor Capacity" which was proposed in 1948. This new classification was based on clinical, bacteriological, epidemiological and sociological data which were derived from the results of survey by author under the direction of Dr. Joon Lew, Professor of Microbiology Department. Its value and usefulness in the field were discussed in detail in the following chapters. Chapter 1 Epidemiological Studies of Leprosy in 1948 Around 1945, after liberation of Korea from the Japanese administration, many wandering patients became a nationwide problem which demanded an immediate solution. At that time, considerable number of leprosy patients were isolated in several leprosaria; 6,000 patients in So-Rok-Do Leprosarium, 700 in Ae-Yang-Won (Yowsoo), 750 in Ae-Rak-Won(Taegu), and patients more than 600 were in Sang-Ae-Won(Pusan) which was once closed under the Japanese administration. These patients out-numbered the total patients during the Japanese administration. Yet considerable nuber of leprosy patients were wandering all around the country. In epidemiological point of view, certain measures had to be done for these patients. In these days, the Korean Government had not yet been established, budgets were totally inadequate to cope with the problem, and leprosy was considered an incurable disease. As a preliminary step toward the control of the disease, with the assistance of fellow-workers of the Department of Microbiology, author carried out the first extensive survey of leprosy patients to accomplish epidemiological studies of the disease. Materials and Methods Wandering patients were surveyed to outline their exact number and to obtain epidemiological data. In 1948, wandering patients were scattered in 19 places throughout the country. They had their own organizations, in which leaders governed them. Visiting these centers of gathering and having close co-ordination of the leaders, extensive survey was carried out. In the survey of instigutionized patients, those in So-Rok-Do Leprosarium, Ae-Yang-Won (Yowsoo), Ae-Rak-Won (Taegu) and Sang-Ae-Won (Pusan) were chosen for the purpose. Results This survey includes only that information which was verified. For that reason, the totals shown in the survey do not always match other totals, the differences being attributed to the subjects of the survey. (�뀪) Estimation of the total number of the patients in 1948: As the result of the survey wandering patients were 4,387 non-institutionized known patient 5,575 in number, meanwhile isolated cases in leprosaria were 8,350. Author estimated a total number of patients to be approximately 40,000. (�뀫) Other epidemiological studies: (1) Types, age and sex distribution study; Comparative studies were also carried out. (2) Occupation; Comparison was made between leprosaria patients and wandering patients. Occupational change before, at the time of, and after the onset was also discussed. (3) Distribution by provinces; By this study, high and low endemic areas in Korea were disclosed. Changes in addresses before, at the time of, and after the onset were also surveyed. (4) Age of onset; It was found that, among 3,296 cases in this survey, 926 cases (29.7%) in 16 to 20, 809 cases (25.5%) in 11 to 15,516 cases (15.3%) in 21 to 25,331 cases (9.7%) in 26 to 30 and 294 cases (9.3%) were in 6 to 7 years of age in order of frequency. (5) Incubation period; Out of 2,808 patients only 156 cases (81 males and 75 females), those who could definitely remember the contact with other leprosy patients prior to onset were selected. Detatiled analysis of the results was attempted. (6) Seasonal difference in onset; Spring (Feb.�댘Apr.) was the highest with incidence of 456 (32.2%), 387 (27.3%) in autumn (Aug.�댘Oct.) 304 (21.4%) in summer (May�댘July) and 269 (19.0%) in winter (Nov.�댘Jan.). (7) Initial symptoms and sites of onset; Comparative studies were carried out. (8) Religion; Changes in religion before, after and at the time of onset were surveyed. (9) Schooling; Comparative study was made between schooled and non-schooled group in various aspects. (10) Medical care in community at the time and after onset. (11) Various beliefs about the disease; Survey was made regarding their superstition and belidfs on the cause of the disease. (�뀬) Classification of leprosy patients for their labor capacity; Based on the above-mentioned epidemiological data and the sociological circumstances in 1948, the following classification was devised to utilize self-supporting labor capacities of those wandering patients. A total of 2,009 wandering patients were surveyed, analysed and classified into five groups according to thier physical capacity for labor. Group �뀪 : Very light cases; physically capable for heavy labor as normal person were 761 cases (37.8%). Group �뀫 : Those, capable for enduring ordinary labor were 375 cases (18.7%). Group �뀬 : Those, only capable for light labor were 530 cases (26.4%). Group �뀭 : Those, able to do self-care but physically unable for labor at all were 35 cases (1.7%). Group �뀮 : Far-advanced, disfigured or old patients who need someone else for care in daily life were 77 cases (3.9%). Group "N" : Indicates those who pretended to be or thought to be leprosy patients but normal 231 cases (11.5%) belonged to this group. Total of 1,897(94.4%) out of 2,009 cases surveyed had the physical capacities for some kinds of productive labor. This indicated the possibility of utilizing their labor capacities for their economical welfare and self-support of those wandering patients when unused acres of the countryside were allocated for them. Meanwhile they could have properly regulated medical treatment with less budgets. Under the socio-economical circumstances in 1948, author proposed this self-supporting isolation colony system could be a key to proper solution in taking care of those wandering patients. So-called "Campaign for Hope Villages", which was organized and developed all over Korea under the active leadership of the Korean Leprosy Association was entirely baed on the data of this survey. Until June 1950 when the Korean Civil Conflict broke off, "Hope Villages Movement" was able to accomodate approximately 5,000 wandering patients in 16 Hope Villages. Table 1. Classification of 2,009 Wandering Patients by Their Labor Capacity. �봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�뵵�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�뵵�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�뵵�봺�봺�봺�봺 Group �봻 Labor capacity �봻 Number of case �봻 % �����������뵾���������������������������뵮���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻 �봻 N �봻 231 �봻 11.5 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Labor �봻Heavy labor �봻 I �봻 761 �봻 37.8 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Group �봻 �봻Subtotal�봻 992 �봻 49.3 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻Mod labor �봻 �뀫 �봻 375 �봻 18.7 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻Light labor �봻 �뀬 �봻 530 �봻 26.4 �����������뵾���������������������������뵶���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻total �봻 1,897 �봻 94.4 �����������뵾���������������������������뵮���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Non-labor�봻Able for self-care �봻 �뀭 �봻 35 �봻 1.7 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Group �봻Unable for self-care �봻 �뀮 �봻 77 �봻 3.9 �����������뵾���������������������������뵶���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻Total �봻 112 �봻 5.6 �����������뵶�������������������������������������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Grand total �봻 2,009 �봻 100 �������������������������������������������������뵶�������������������뵶�������� Chapter 2 Epidemiological Studies and a New Classification of Leprosy Patients for Their Social Rehabilitation in 1962. In 1953, administration of D.D.S. (Diamino-diphenyl sulfone) was started to those in all leprosaria and in Hope Villages as a drug of choice, and it actually produced many cured cases as it was recognized at the 7th International Congress of Leprology in 1958. In spite of these facts, considerable number of those cured cases were still in the state of isolation as leprosy patients, though they should had been freed and emerged into normal community as normal person. Their rights as healthy individuals were denied and they were forced to remain in leprosaria consuming considerable amounts of national budgets. This paradoxical condition led author develope a new classification of patients, so-called "New Classification of Leprosy Patients for Their Social Rehabilitation" which was based on the clinical, bacteriological, epidemiological and sociological data acquired. Materials and Methods Total of 19,980 cases in all national and private leprosaria and Hope Villages were surveyed with co-operation of fellow-workers of Department of Microbiology, fellow members of the Korean Leprosy Association and Korean Army military physicians. Filling up the formulated charts through detailed individual physical examination, results were analysed. Standards of Classification Cases were divided into two main groups, one those with positive bacteriological tests, and the other with negative. These two main groups were then subdivided into five classes (�뀪-�뀮) based on labor capacity, general appearance as leprosy patients and other sociological factors. Class �뀪 : Appearance of normal person with normal labor capacity. Class �뀫 : Suspicious appearance of leprosy patient with normal labor capacity. Class �뀬 : Definite appearance of patient but with moderately impaired labor capacity. Class �뀭 : Advanced cases with capacity only for light labor. Class �뀮 : Cases, far-advanced and needing care. Results Survey of 19,980 cases in the year of 1962 by new classification was shown in Table 2. Table 2. Classification of 19,980 Patients for Their Social Rehabilitation �봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�뵵�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺 Bact. �봻 Positive / Negative �뵜�������������������������������������������������������� Institution \ Grade �봻 �뀪 �뀫 �뀬 �뀭 �뀮 �뀪 �뀫 �뀬 �뀭 �뀮 ���������������������뵾�������������������������������������������������������� National Leprosaria �봻 590 1,006 968 835 361 956 880 778 1,228 646 ���������������������뵾�������������������������������������������������������� Private Institutions�봻 625 29 464 412 114 2,690 2,000 1,391 863 263 ���������������������뵾�������������������������������������������������������� Total(%) �봻1,215 1,735 1,432 1,247 475 3,646 2,800 2,169 2,091 909 �봻(6.8) (8.7) (7.2) (6.2) (2.4)(18.2)(14.0)(10.9)(10.5)(4.5 ���������������������뵾�������������������������������������������������������� Grand Total(%) �봻 4,382(22.7) / 1,722(8.6)/ 8,615(43.1) /3,000(15.0) ���������������������뵶�������������������������������������������������������� Through this survey, cured cases, non-infectious to tohers with negative bacteriological tests, were found to be 8,615 cases; 43.11% (Class �뀪, �뀫 and �뀬 with negative smear). Children from leprosy parents were 1,833 cases (9.17%) and non-leprosy cases, 428 (2.14%) respectively. As a conclusion, at least 10,876 cases (54.4%) could either go home to join their families as healthy person or could settle in somewhere else without any possible spread of the disease to normal communities. So-called "Campaign for Resettlement Villages" of Korean Government and of the Korean Leprosy Association was originated from the data of this survey. Chapter 3 Re-classification of leprosy Institutions Based on these data, re-classification of leprosy institutions was proposed. 1. Hospitals for bacteriologically positive cases (Class �뀪, �뀫 and �뀬 of positive patients). 2. Hospitals for disabled cases (bacteriologically positive and negative Class �뀭 and �뀮). 3. Hospitals for corrective surgery cases (bacteriologically negative Class �뀫, �뀬 or Class �뀪). After surgical correction, they are to be sent to Resettlement Villages. 4. Resettlement Villages for bacteriologically negative Class �뀫 and �뀬. 5. Society for bacteriologically negative Class �뀪. The above-mentioned "Campaign for Resettlement Villages" made total of 10,007 cases gather and engage in self-supporting living in 65 Resettlement Villages in Korea. This campaign not only gave leprosy patients self-maintaining and self-supporting life but also reduced the national budgets considerably for the control of the disease. This resettlement projects are to be expanded more in near future and are to have attention of International Congress of Leprology. ; restriction

/박사 ; During the last decade since the liberation in 1945, Korea, unfortunately, has not had enough political and social stability to study her nationwide health needs and the problems in its care. Most of the administrative and educational measures taken in the field of public health and medical care have been temporary emergency one : or because of traditional inertia, blindly imported foreign systems have been followed. In order to attain our final goal of providing best-quality comprehensive medical care for all people who need it and at minimum cost : We need an adequate and proper plan, set up on the basis of understanding the health needs at both local and national levels. The principal purpose of this study, therefore, were to obtain the information concerning the following aspects of health and health care through the study of the citizens of Seoul : 1. The measurement of health needs. 2. The extent of unmet need for medical attention. 3. The cost of medical care. 4. The attitudes of the folks towards illness, doctors and other healers, and health facilities available. 5. An analysis of socio-economic and cultural anthropologic factors. The source of information for this study consists of a two-stage systamatic sample, namely, 933 households consisting of 5,159 persons, a representative cross-section which is about one three-hundredth of all households (281, 601) and of the total population of Seoul (1,574,868) as of September 1, 1955. For the first stage, the sampling unit was the "Pan", which is the smallest cluster of households, and the sampling rate was 1/100 ; and for the second stage, the sampling unit was the household, and the rate was 1/3. In this sample, the loss rate was only 0.5%, which is extremely lower than that in other countries. Also, we were able to see a relatively constant sampling ratio between the various characteristic variables, too. Therefore, the data obtained from this sample can be assumed to represent the native population reasonably well. In order to exclude every possible bias, well-trained non-medical senior women college students were used as the interviewers. The form used consisted of the open-end questionaire, which was revised after a pilot study. For the determination of health needsm, the method of symptom-approach using 40 kinds of symptoms was used. The questionaire asked about the experiences during the preceding 6 months. As the survey was carried out during the one-month period from August 1, 1956, the data obtained from this study are the experiences of Seoul citizens from February 1 to July 31, 1956 ; 86.3% of those questioned were female heads of housholds. The findings of the survey are as follows : 1. It was found that 63.6% of Seoul citizens had no symptoms ; 36.4% of Seoul citizens had one or more symptoms during the 6-month period, averaging 1.9 symptoms during the half-year. Therefore, the morbidity incidence rate was 74 symptoms per 100 citizens. The most prevalent symptoms were related to diseases of the digestive system, nutritional, and parasitic infection. The frequency rate of this particular disease group of digestive system is much higher than that obtained in the study of hospital cases. The morbidity rate of females was more than two times that of males in the age groups of 15-44. In the male, the morbidity incidence was lowest in the age groups of 15-24 and highest in the age group of 65 and over ; however, in the female, the incidence was lowest in the age group of 5-14, and highest in the 45-64 age group. There were significant differences in the morbidity rate among the different socioeconomic family groups, those low in income and in educational standards having a higher rate ; the more overcrowded the living accommodation, the higher was the rate. Farmer, unemployed, and daily worker groups had higher morbidity rate than other occupational groups. 2. Only 42.8% of their symptoms did Seoul citizen regard as being and illness, and for 57.2% of their symptoms, medical care was not sought. Particularly, where repeated or frequent bleeding gums, poor vision, unexplained loss of weight, repeated nose bleeds, continued loss of appetite, unexplained tiredness (reqularly), persistant cons pation, persistant pains in the joints were the eminent symptoms ; more than 70% of these were not regarded by the people as abnormal conditions demanding medical care. This shows that increasing the number of medical personnel or the facilities for medical care will do little to improve the general health and the medical care of the people unless there is adequate health education for the people. If we make a similar survey at the rural level and compare the results with this data, we can easily confirm the assumption that the demand rate for medical care in rural communities will be much lower than that in Seoul, though the people in rural areas might have higher morbidity rates than that in Seoul. 3. The loss of work or other regular activity due to illness during the period of 6 months was 138 days per 100 persons, which was incurred by the 5.4% of entire citizen it was 124 days per 100 males and 152 days per 100 females. Among the various age groups, the lowest rate was in the 5-14 age group for both sexes, and the highest rate was in the 45-64 age group for males and in the over 65 age group for females. 4. Only 44% of the demand for medical care was met ; 15% of the demand was unmet, while the rest (41%) is uncertain. Consequently, it could be said that only one fifth of health needs was cared by medical personnel and related facilities. (Whole symptoms × 42.8/100 × 44.2/100 = 18.0). Among those whose symptoms were not cared for, 78% claimed economic difficulty as their reason, such as "no money" or "too expensive". This shows that the second inportant things to do for the inprovement of health and medical care is to provide some provision for the payment of the cost of medical care, so that every patient can get what he or she at any time and without delay or postponement. This might well be done by reorganizing existing medical personnel, facilities, and medical care expenses. 5. The total cost of medical care during the 6 months was HW 10,700 per family (including no-patient families), and HW 2,000 per person. Twice this cost of medical care is 7.2% of the average annual family income (HW 300,000) of Seoul City. In general, many factors, such as low income, high morbidity in the community, a higher demand for medical care account for the high ratio of medical cost to income. Therefore, it is presumed that in our rural communities, the cost of medical care would surpass 7.2% of the average annual family income. Only 1/1,000 of citizen incurred as much as a half of entire medical costs, and 1/40 of citizen incurred 87% of total charges while upon 39/40 of citizen fell 13% of the total charges. Low income families spent a greater proportion of their incomes on the costs of sickness than did the well-to-do and the wealthy. The mean costs and the median cists per illness paid to medical doctors was HW10,300 and HW1,500 respectively, while that paid to herb doctors was HW16,100 and HW1,700 respectively. The high mean cost of HW23,400 paid to hospitals, while its median is only HW1,000, is due presumably to serious cases coming to the hospital. But it is rather ridiculous that mean costs paid to specialists should be less than half that paid to general practitioners. It is also surprising that they paid a mean of HW9,800 and a median of HW2,500 for moxa and acupuncture compared with a mean of HW9,400 and a median of HW1,500 for general practitioner. These phenomena show that there is much waste in the medical expenditures of the people. The analysis of medical costs according to payment to doctors, hospitals, and for drugs, etc.,was rather difficult to make since the current accounting system in this country does clearly differentiate these categories. 6. The responses given to interviewers regarding what was believed to be the cause of whether due to demos, curse, witchcraft, sin, and fear or fright, were frank and revealing ; in general, those questioned born in the southern provinces of Korea gave more superstitious answers than those born in the northern provinces of Korea. Among the different religious groups, Christians gave the least superstitious answers. 7. Regarding the choice of healer, 83.4 of those questioned preferred medical doctors ; of these 71.9% were in general practice, 5.9% were specialists, 0.9% were foreign doctors, 4.7% denoted hospitals. Only 12.7% preferred herb-doctors ; the rest chose other healers or patent drugs. However, only 71.5% of them actually visited medical doctors and as many as 14.5^ of them visited herb-doctors, and the number visited drugstore or superstitious healer increased to two and a half times of the number they wanted, Such a phenomenon might be interpreted as due to the belief that herb-doctors charge less than medical doctors in general. But actual figures reveal the opposite, for 73.0%, 22.3%, and 4.7% of the cost paid to healers were to medical doctors, herb-doctors, and other healers respectively. Facts already mentioned reveal that herb-doctors charge more per illness than medical doctors on an average. The higher the educational level of the head of the household, whether male or female, the stronger the choice for medical doctors. Administrative warkers, specialistic and technical workers, and sales business groups had stronger choice for medical doctors than the other occupational groups, christian families had stronger choice for medical doctors than the other religious groups. 8. Inquiring what kind of treatment were given at the clinic of various healers visited, it is surprising to find that consultation, injections, dressings, prescription and even operation were frequently done at drugstores, and injections by herb-doctor. Mean duration and median duration of care given per illness was 13.1 days and 2.9 days respectively in general ; however that of cared by herb-doctors were the longest being 17.0 days and 4.4 days. About a half of patients had treatment lasting three days or less and 14% of patients spent one month or longer for the care of their illness. 9. Very few seems to have their own family doctor. The most prevalent reason for their choosing healer is nearness and convineance, and hearing good rumour. More than 30% of the patients changed their doctor or healer during treatment. The primary reason given for their change of healar was the "effectiveness of the treatment." ; other reasons such as "expensive charge", "unkindness" or "recommendation by family doctor" had little role in causing them to change healers. The only one exception was seen in the case of one hospital where the complaint of unkindness was decisive. Random advertisement of healers and drugs, and free also of any drugs without doctor's prescription should be controled ; and the competition for patients between general hospitals and general practitioner should be abolished. 10. Relatively few interviewees could indicate why they like or dislike a doctor or herb-medicine was preferable for such vague conditions as "cold", "women's disease", "Internal disease", "General malaise", etc. About 59% of the interviewees commented favorably on "tonics" ; and actually, more than 5% of sampled familieg used "tonics" costing an average HW15,400 during the period, which is 7.7% of entire annual expenditures from medical care. The family groups higher in income used "tonics" more frequently than the lower income groups. 11. Only 54.4% of interviewees recognized distinction between a general hospital and a doctor's clinic. Those living in Songpuk-Ku, and Chung-Ku knew this distinction, whereas those living in Yong-wan-Ku and Yondongpo-Ku had a relatively poor understanding of a general hospital . The higher the educational standard of the interviewees, the better their understanding of the general hospitals were "excellent medical doctors", "good facilities", "cheap cost", and "clean". On the other hand, the main unfavorable comments were "unkindness", and "keeps us waiting". Only 22.4% of respondents ever heard the word "health center". Most people generally had poor understanding about the location, function, financing and administration of health centers. The higher the educational standard of the female heads of households, the better their knowledge about health centers. Only 5.7% of responding families ever visited to health center ; the higher in income and in educational standards, the higher was the rate. 12. Regarding medical insurance, 45.5% of interviewees gave favorable opinions, while 24.2% had no opinions and 30.3% had adverse opinions. Regarding a national health service, 40.9% responded favorably, 26.9% were indifferent, and 32.2% responded adversely. The group lowest in educational standards and in income had favorable respond to a national health service system. ; restriction

DER NATURARZT 1896 Der Naturarzt (-) Der Naturarzt 1896 (1896) ( - ) Einband ( - ) [Exlibris]: Aus dem Legat des † Schuldirektors Matthäus Schmiedbauer in Schwanenstadt ( - ) Titelblatt ([I]) Inhalt. (Inhalt.) (II) I. Sachverzeichnis. (II) II. Personen- und Ortsverzeichnis. (VI) II. Personen- und Ortsverzeichnis. (VI) 24. Jahrgang. (Nr. 1. Januar / 1896) (1. Januar 1896.) ([1]) Aus Wissenschaft und Leben. Zur Jahreswende [Gruss des Bundesvorstandes] Voranzeige. Die nächste Bundesversammlung wird am 5. und 6. April 1896 in Cassel stattfinden. ([1]) Approbierte und nicht approbierte Naturärzte. (2) Ein Wort zur Tropenhygiene. (6) Erste Hilfeleistung bei Zahnschmerzen. (6) Aus der Anatomie und Physiologie. Die Haut. Aufgabe und Thätigkeit der Haut. Erkältung. Abhärtung. Hautpflege. (8) Zur Sozialhygiene. 1. Aus Baden. (12) [Tabelle]: Aus Baden. Grosse Sterblichkeit der Cigarrenarbeiter, Zahlen aus dem Sterberegister 1887 bis einschliesslich 1893. Zahl der gestorbenen Cigarrenarbeiter gegenübergestellt der Zahl der an Lungentuberkulose Gestorbenen. (12) Rettung eines Fusses. (14) Zwei Erfolge von "Heilmitteln". (17) Patent-Medizin in Amerika. (18) Niedriger hängen! (19) Sprechsaal. (21) Bundesnachrichten. Bundesvorstand. Verzeichnis. Steuern. Vereine, für welche Aerzte gesucht werden. Aus den Vereinen. (23) Aus der Zeit. Aus dem Reichstag. Aus dem sächsischen Landtage. Vom Reichsversicherungs-Amt. Vom Apotheken-Handel. Dr. Dressel's Nervenfluid. "Malzaxtrakt-Gesundheitsbiere". Auch ein "Naturheilkundiger". "Schwarzer" Medizin-Aberglauben. Aus dem Kampfe gegen den Alkohol. Zur Schulhygiene. Eau de Cologne - als Branntwein. Vom Laufen. (26) Bücherschau. (30) Feuilleton. Wert der Gesundheit. Citate aus dem Werk von Dr. Paul Gizycki: Vom Baume der Erkenntnis, Fragmente zur Ethik und Psychologie aus der Weltliteratur (31) [Gedicht]: O Gesundheit, herrlichst selige, . Ariphron, übersetzt von Thudichum (31) Es ist ein köstlich Ding um die Gesundheit . Michael Montaigne, Gedanken und Meinungen, übersetzt von Bode (31) Zehn Gebote der Frau. (31) Briefkasten. (32) 24. Jahrgang. (Nr. 2. Februar / 1896) (Nr. 2. Februar 1896.) ([33]) Aus Wissenschaft und Leben. Wie ich Naturarzt wurde. ([33]) Vom Wert der Mineralwässer. (35) Aus der Anatomie und Physiologie. Wirkung kalter Abwaschungen und Bäder. Seife, Schminken. Temperatur des Wassers. Baderegeln. Brausebäder. (36) Zur Sozialhygiene. 2. Aus Sachsen. 3 Aus Preussen. (42) Noch zwei Erfolge von "Heilmitteln". (45) Zur Tuberkulose-Frage. (46) Kniegelenkentzüdung nebst 279 Geschwüren. (47) Heilung von Rhachitis. (48) Ein interessanter Prozess. [Dresden. Interessanter Wettkampf zwischen Medizin- und Natur-Heilkunde. Der Naturheilkundige Karl Schüller musste sich wegen fahrlässiger Tötung verantworten.] (50) Sprechsaal. (52) Bundesnachrichten. Bundesvorstand. Verzeichnis. Steuern. Vereine, für welche Aerzte gesucht werden. Aus den Vortragsgruppen. Aus den Vereinen. (53) Aus der Zeit. Im Sächsischen Landtag [Verhältnis der Lehrer zu den Naturheilvereinen]. Ist die Furcht so gross? unwissend oder unwahr? Zur Impffrage. Vivisektion. Geheimmittel. Zur Schulhygiene. [Pflichtstunden der Lehrer sollen nicht erhöht werden, 42,7 % sämtlicher Lehrer sind krank.] In Innsbruck [internationale Ausstellung für körperliche Erziehung, Gesundheitspflege und Sport. Protektorat Erzherzog Ferdinand Karl von Oesterreich]. Ein Elternabend [Schädlichkeit des Rauchens und des Genusses von Bier und Branntwein bei Kindern]. Hängeböden als Schlafräume. Auch ein Prozess. (59) Bücherschau. (61) Feuilleton. [Erzählung]: Zerbrochenes Glück. von Emmy von Borgstede. (61) Briefkasten. (66) 24. Jahrgang. (Nr. 3. März / 1896) (Nr. 3. März 1896.) ([67]) Mitteilungen über die Bundesversammlung siehe Seite 85. ([67]) Aus Wissenschaft und Leben. Heilung von Brandwunden. ([67]) Aus der Anatomie und Physiologie. Von den Haaren, Nägeln etc. Nicht unwichtig ist die Pflege des Haares. Die Nägel. Hühneraugen. Warzen. Bei spröder Haut, aufgesprungenen Händen. Wunde Hautstellen. (70) Akute Fälle. Drei Heilberichte aus der Berliner Naturheilanstalt. (73) Lehrer und Naturheilvereine in Sachsen. (74) Sprechsaal. (77) Bundesnachrichten. Bundesvorstand. Aus den Vortragsgruppen. Die Bundesversammlung wird zu Ostern 1896 in Cassel im "Vereinshaus", Cölnische Strassse 17, abgehalten. [Tagesordnung]. (82) [4 Tabellen]: (1) Kassen-Bericht 1895. (2) Gewinn- und Verlust-Conto 1895. (3) Bilanz am 31. Dezember 1895. (4) Priessnitzfonds 1895. (100) [Naturheilverein Cassel] Programm für die zu Ostern 1896 in Cassel stattfindende Bundesversammlung des Deutschen Bundes der Vereine für Gesundheitspflege und für arzneilose Heilweise. (102) Aus der Zeit. Der Geschäftsausschuss des deutschen Aerztevereinsbundes. Der Geschäftsausschuss der Berliner ärztlichen Standesvereine. Zum kapitel "Unlauterer Wettbewerb". Professor Röntgens Entdeckung. [Professor von Bergmann: Fremdkörper, die keine Beschwerden hervorrufen, im Körper belassen. Dubois-Reymond nannte Karl von Reichenbachs Behauptungen Verirrungen - Und nun?] Also doch? Ein Aufruf an die Naturheilvereine des Königreichs Sachsen. Die Gesundheitslehre in der Fortbildungsschule. Aerzte-Streik [weil Krankenkassen den Naturheilkundigen Wenzel zulassen]. Der Regierungspräsident zu Potsdam [Nebenbeschäftigung von schulpflichtigen Kindern zu Erwerbszwecken] (103) Bücherschau. (106) Feuilleton. Sommertage im heiligen Lande. Allerlei Hygienisches aus meinem Reise-Tagebuch. Von Adolf Damschke. I. (106) Briefkasten. (108) 24. Jahrgang. (Nr. 4. April / 1896) (Nr. 4. April 1896.) ([109]) Aus Wissenschaft und Leben. Naturheilkunde und Medizin. Zugleich eine Antwort an Dr. R. (Leipziger Zeitung vom 24. Dez. 1895) von Dr. med. Hermann Hufschmidt, dirigierender Arzt der Natureilanstalt Ottenstein-Schwarzenberg i. sächs. Erzgebirge. ([109]) Aus der Anatomie und Physiologie. Die Harnorgane. Nieren. Blase. Erkrankungen der Harnorgane. Verhütung derselben. (113) [2 Abb.]: (1) Fig. 1. Die Nieren (schematisch.) (2) Fig. 2. Lauf des Blutes durch die Gefässknäuel. (114) [Abb.]: Fig. 3. Verlauf der Harnkanälchen. (115) [Abb.]: Fig. 4. Schnitt durch eine Niere. (schematisch.) (116) Ein Jahr unter der Herrschaft der physikalisch-diätetischen (Naturheil-)Methode. Fortsetzung der Statistik in No. 11 (1895) von Dr. Kantorowicz (Hannover) (119) Heilung von Schuppenflechte. (120) Einige Vergiftungen durch Gebrauchsgegenstände und Speisen. (121) Zum Krankenkassengesetz. (123) Sprechsaal. (124) Bundesnachrichten. Bundesvorstand. Verzeichnis. Vereine, für welche Aerzte gesucht werden. Steuern. Aus den Vortragsgruppen. Aus den Vereinen. (126) Aufruf an alle Naturärztinnen und Naturärzte Deutschlands. (133) Aus der Zeit. Im Reichstage [Antrag zur Aufhebung des Impfzwangs]. Von der sächsischen Landtagskammer [Gesetz betr. ärztliche Bezirksvereine und nicht approbierte "Heilkünstler"]. [Erlaubnis zur Errichtung einer] Privat-Krankenanstalt. Ein Gutachten über die Lage der Kellner. Zur Schulhygiene. Nichtapprobierter Dr. med. Helft! [Verkäuferinnen können ihre Arbeit nicht anders als stehend verrichten. Oft zwölf- bis fünzehnstündiges Stehen ist gesundheitsschädigend. Aufruf des Berliner Frauenvereins: Frauen werden aufgefordert. sich durch Unterschrift zu verpflichten, jene Geschäfte zu bevorzugen, wo den Angestellten die Möglichkeit gegeben ist, sich zu setzen.] Arzneiliche Vergiftungen. Hydropath. Magnetopath. Hochgradige Schwindsucht! Wer hat Lust? (134) Bücherschau. (137) Feuilleton. Sommertage im heiligen Lande. Allerlei Hygienisches aus meinem Reise-Tagebuch. Von Adolf Damschke. II. (137) Briefkasten. (140) 24. Jahrgang. (Nr. 5. Mai / 1896) (Nr. 5. Mai 1896.) ([141]) Aus Wissenschaft und Leben. Der Fall Langerhans. Zur Frage des Behringschen Heilserums. [Diphtherie-Heilserum, Nutzen und Risiken] ([141]) Die Gefahren und Folgen der modernen Frauenheilkunde. (144) In Wörishofen. Die glänzenden Erfolge Pfarrer Kneipp's, die zahlreichen Auflagen seiner Bücher, haben dem einfachen schwäbischen Pfarrer einen Ruf verliehen der alle fünf Erdteile durch hallt. Aus dem kleinen Landstädtchen Wörishofen ist einer der besuchtesten Kurorte geworden. (147) Heilung eines von Pfarrer Kneipp und der Medizin aufgegebenen Falles von Gicht und Neurasthenie (151) Zur Sozialhygiene. (154) Aus der sächsischen zweiten Kammer. (156) Bundesnachrichten. Protokollarischer Bericht über die Bundesversammlung am 5. und 6. April 1896 in Cassel. Bundesvorstand. Vereine, für welche Aerzte gesucht werden. Verzeichnis. Aus den Vortragsgruppen. Aus den Vereinen. (157) Aus der Zeit. Generalmajor von Lippe. In der balneologischen Gesellschaft. Auf dem XIV. Kongress für innere Medizin. Zur Viehimpfung. Her M. von Egidy. In Württemberg. Zur Schulhygiene. In der Schule zu Szameitkehmen im Kreise Pillkallen hat jeder Schüler in der Klasse ein Paar Filzkorken für den Winter stehen. [von der Gemeinde angeschafft, Kinder brauchen nicht in nassen Schuhen in der Schule zu sitzen.] Lungenschwindsucht als Invaliditätsursache. Dr. W. Häusler. "Praktischer Vertreter der arzneilosen Therapie". Von der Krankenbehandlung auf der Insel Tonoag (Neuhebrifen) erzählt der Missionar G. Kurze. Auch ein Jubiliäum! Am 14. Mai sind es 100 Jahre, dass Dr. Jenner die erste Impfung vornahm. (168) Bücherschau. (171) Feuilleton. [Gedicht]: Festgruss. Gesprochen auf dem Casseler Bundestag. (171) Briefkasten. (172) 24. Jahrgang. (Nr. 6. Juni / 1896) (Nr. 6. Juni 1896.) ([173]) [3 Gedichte]: (1) Das Mass [Pythagoras] (2) Unsere Mässigkeit [Engel] (3) Gäben wir die Hälfte dessen, was wir, krank uns machend, essen, . [Rückert] (-) Aus Wissenschaft und Leben. Welche Faktoren sind einer rascheren Ausbreitung des Naturheilverfahrens hinderlich? Festrede von Philo vom Walde, gehalten auf der Bundesversammlung in Cassel. ([173]) Der Gesetzentwurf über die ärztlichen Ehrengerichte. (179) Ueber Haar-, Nägel- und Hautpflege. [Entgegnung von Herrn Spohr, Oberst a. D., auf den Artikel von W. Siegert in "Der Naturarzt" Nr. 3. März 1896. Entgegnung auf den Artikel von A. Scholta in "Der Naturarzt" Nr. 4. April 1896. Schuppenflechte "Psoriasis" ist eine Folge von Metall- namentlich Quecksilbervergiftung.] (182) Gefahren der modernen Frauenbehandlung. (Nachtrag. Siehe Seite 144.) (188) Die Impffrage im Reichstage. (189) Die Naturheilkunde im österreichischen Herrenhause. [Auszug aus der Rede von Graf Curt Zedtwitz] (191) Bundesnachrichten. Verzeichnis. Steuern. Vereine, für welche Aerzte gesucht werden. Aus den Vortragsgruppen. Aus den Vereinen. (195) Aus der Zeit. Vom Prinzregenten von Lippe-Detmold. Zum Fall Langerhans. [Urteil von Prof. Paul Ehrlich, Direktor der staatlichen Kotrolstation]. Tod durch Heilserum. Behandlung des Scharlachs mit "Antistreptococcen-Serum". Vorgehen einer Krankenkasse gegen gesundheitsschädigende Betriebseinrichtungen. Für Aerzte und Redaktionen. Von der Freiheit der Ueberzeugung. [Aerzte, welche der Homäopathie und der Naturheilkunde anhängen, sind auszuschliessen von der Aufnahme in den Verein der Aerzte in Merseburg und Anhalt.] Ja, die Laienkritik! (203) Bücherschau. (205) Briefkasten. (206) 24. Jahrgang. (Nr. 7. Juli / 1896) (Nr. 7. Juli 1896.) ([207]) Aus Wissenschaft und Leben. Ein Sieg der Naturheilmethode. ([207]) Zur Behandlung der Migräne. (211) Welche Faktoren sind einer rascheren Ausbreitung des Naturheilverfahrens hinderlich? Festrede von Philo vom Walde, gehalten auf der Bundesversammlung in Cassel. (Schluss.) (212) [Gedicht]: Allen Gewalten zum Trutz [J. W. v. Goethe] (216) Die Behandlung der Gicht. (216) Aerztliche Gutachten über Handesartikel. (218) Noch einmal: "Heilung der Schuppenflechte". [Entgegnung von Herrn A. Scholta auf die Kritik von Oberst Spohr in "Der Naturarzt" Nr. 6. Juni 1896.] (219) Berichtigung: Im Spohrschen Artikel in voriger Nummer sind einige Druckfehler zu berichtigen: (219) Sprechsaal. (219) Bundesnachrichten. Vereine, für welche Aerzte gesucht werden. Steuern. Verzeichnis. Aus den Vortragsgruppen. Aus den Vereinen. (223) Aus der Zeit. Dr. med. Schulze [begeht seine goldene Hochzeit]. Naturheilanhänger, welche Mitglieder von Tierschutzvereinen sind [Hinweis auf den internationalen Kongress der Tierschutzvereine]. Herr Franz W. Kubiczek [österreichischer Schriftsteller, ist am 3. Juni 1896 in Wien gestorben.] Eine Naturheilanstalt auf gemeinnütziger Grundlage. "Von einem Naturarzt behandelt" Zur Haftbarkeit der Aerzte. Von der ärztlichen Verantwortung. Vom ärztlichen Berufsgeheimnis. Von der Würde des ärztlichen Standes. "Lungen- und Kehlkopfleiden". Zur Schulhygiene. Zur Sozialhygiene. Der II. Deutsche Kongress für Volks- und Jugendspiele findet vom 10. bis 13. Juli 1896 in Münschen statt. Noch eine Impfung! Zum Begriff "Naturheilanstalt". Einfluss der Gewohnheit auf den Schlaf. Alkoholgenuss in den Tropen. (231) Bücherschau. (236) Feuilleton. Molière und die Aerzte. Eine litterar-historische Studie von Alfred Moulet (professeur d'Ècole Normale), Versailles. I. (237) Briefkasten. (240) 24. Jahrgang. (Nr. 8. August / 1896) (Nr. 8. August 1896.) ([241]) Feuilleton. Molière und die Aerzte. Eine litterar-historische Studie von Alfred Moulet (professeur d'Ècole Normale), Versailles, II. (237) Briefkasten. (240) Aus Wissenschaft und Leben. Aus meiner Studienzeit. Von Dr. med. Anna Fischer-Dückelmann, ([241]) Das medizinische Frauenstudium in Amerika. (246) Ueber Bartflechte. (250) Eine heilgymnastische Methode bei Herzschwäche. (252) Pestalozzi und der Kampf gegen den Alkohol. [Adolf Damaschke zitiert aus der Zeitschrift "Das Schweizer Blatt" und zwar aus der Nummer vom Donnerstag, den 14. Hornung 1782. Er meint, es scheine aufzufallen, dass der Vorschritt der sittlichen und politischen Erleuchtung, den man sich anmasst, nicht so gross sei.] (254) Ein seltener Fall aus der Frauenheilpraxis. (257) Eine Richtigstellung. [Entgegnung von Herrn Spohr, Oberst a. D., auf die Kritik von W. Siegert in "Der Naturarzt" Nr. 7. Juli 1896.] (258) Bekanntmachung. Ausbildung und Prüfung von Naturheilkundigen (259) Bundesnachrichten. Vereine, für welche Aerzte gesucht werden. Steuern. Verzeichnis. Aus den Vortragsgruppen. Aus den Vereinen. (260) Aus der Zeit. Vom Ober-Verwaltungsgericht. Wieder ein Sieg der Wasserheilanwendung! Noech einmal der Fall Langerhans. Der 24. deutsche Aerztetag zu Nürnberg. Paul Krüger, der viel genannte Präsident der Republik Transvaal, trinkt weder Bier noch Wein noch stärkere Sachen, und zwar von Kindheit an. Alkohol auf Bergtouren. Ueber Alkoholmissbrauch bei Kindern. Weibliche Fabrikinspektion. Zur Sozialhygiene. Verlegung des Lohntages. Weibliche Aerzte in Australien. Zum Kapitel Frauenärzte. Apothekengeschäfte. Geheimschwindel und Apotheken. Bienen- und Insektenstiche. Zur Tropenhygiene. Kurpfuscherei. Armut und Sterblichkeit. Lesefrucht aus Pestalozzi. Früher oder später, aber immer gewiss wird sich die Natur an allem Thun der Menschen rächen, das wider sie selbst ist. Aus einer verwesenden Kultur. [Tagestoilette der Römerin]. Licht aus Afrika. Für Radfahrer [Fahrrad ist nicht mehr als Gegenstand des Sports, sondern als Verkehrsmittel anzusehen.] Morphium-Opfer. (265) [Tabelle]: Armut und Sterblichkeit (269) Bücherschau. (270) 24. Jahrgang. (Nr. 9. September / 1896) (Nr. 9. September 1896.) ([275]) Aus Wissenschaft und Leben. Die Baubudenfrage, ihre Bedeutung für die Sozialhygiene und den Alkoholismus. Von einem Steinsetzer. [Über Arbeit und Leben der Steinsetzer]. ([275]) Ein Sieg der Naturheilkunde in Bautzen. (280) Etwas über Kopf- und Bartflechten, ihre Entstehung und naturgemässe Heilung. (282) Der Schnaps in Afrika. (289) Eine Existenzfrage der Naturheilmethode. [Sind Naturheilbäder als gewöhnliche Badeanstalten oder als konzessionspflichtige Privat-Krankenanstalten zu betrachten?] (290) Bundesnachrichten. Zum Preisausschreiben. Inbezug auf das Bundes-Preisausschreiben: "Die Gefahren in der Zeit der geschlechtlichen Entwicklung", ein Wort für Eltern und Lehrer (s. "Naturarzt" 1894, S. 313) ist die Entscheidung [.] getroffen worden [W. Siegert und Dr. med. Kühner]. Vereine, für welche Aerzte gesucht werden. Steuern. Verzeichnis. Aus den Vortragsgruppen. Aus den Vereinen. (297) Aus der Zeit. Frau Erwine Ronge [25 Jahre Thätigkeit auf dem Gebiete der Naturheilkunde]. Heinrich Spörl-Gamma [gestorben]. Verein abstinenter Lehrer. Zur Impffrage. Zur Nachahmung. [Aarau in der Schweiz, Mitglieder des schweizerischen Lehrerinnenverbandes verpflichteten sich, kein Korsett mehr zu tragen keine Handschuhe mehr anzulegen, Kleiderröcke nur "fussfrei" anfertigen zu lassen.] Heilserum! Von der ärztlichen Ueberzeugungsfeiheit. [Es wurde Dr. med. Baur als "Kneipparzt" aus dem ärztlichen Verein ausgeschlossen.] M. von Egidy. Aus dem Kampf gegen den Branntwein. Geheimmittel gegen Trunksucht [.]Vor dem Ankauf des Mittels wird gewarnt. Zur Schulhygiene. "Das ist gut". [Überschrift des satyrischen Artikels in der Zeitschrift "Jugend", über eine Naturheilanstalt]. Aus dem Reichs-Versicherungs-Amt. Ist eine Krankenkasse für die Kurkosten eines geretteten Selbstmörders haftbar? (302) Bücherschau. (305) Feuilleton. [Gedicht]: Und schreib' ich jemals ein Gedicht! (306) Briefkasten. (306) 24. Jahrgang. (Nr. 10. Oktober / 1896) (Nr. 10. Oktober 1896.) ([307]) Aus Wissenschaft und Leben. Aus schwerem Kampf. [Der Standpunkt der Aerzte, die das Naturheilverfahren anwenden, ist kein leichter.] ([307]) Die Alkoholfrage und die Naturheilvereine. (308) Ein Kapitel für die Hausfrauen. [Besonders wichtige Entdeckung: Bereitung von alkoholfreien, ungegorenen Weinen oder Fruchtsäften; bekömmliches und vollwertiges Getränk; Kleine wertvolle Schrift über dieses Thema von Prof. Dr. Müller-Thurgau. Anleitung zum Sterilisierungsverfahren: Flaschen im Waschkessel. Naturheilvereine könnten mitwirken, thörichten Bierkonsum umwandeln in Verbrauch von ungegorenen Weinen.] (311) Nochmals die Baubudenfrage. Praktische Vorschläge zur Lösung derselben. Von einem Steinsetzer. [Gesetzliche Maßnahmen, um Leben und Gesundheit der Bauarbeiter zu schützen]. (313) Etwas über Kopf- und Bartflechten, ihre Entstehung und naturgemässe Heilung. (Fortsetzung.) (315) Naturheilverfahren und Philosophie. (322) Heilung von Gehirnhaut-Entzündung. (325) "Praktischer Naturheilkundiger", eine Gerichtsentscheidung. Im Namen des Königs! [Der Strafsenat des Königl. Sächs. Oberlandesgerichts hat in der Strafsache gegen den Naturheilkundigen Friedrich Hermann Klöden für Recht erkannt:] (326) Zur Krankenkassenfrage. (327) Sprechsaal. (328) Bundesnachrichten. Verzeichnis. Steuern. Vereine, für welche Aerzte gesucht werden. Aus den Vortragsgruppen. Aus den Vereinen. (329) Aus der Zeit. Der frühere Vorsitzende des Vereins Dresden, Her Hydropath Gotthardt, der noch Schüler von Priessnitz war, ist hochbetagt am 6. August verstorben. Etwa 40 Naturärzte Sachsens [traten zu Beratung zusammen]. Gerling - angeklagt [Verfasser der Broschüre "Blattern und Schutzpockenimpfung]. Zur Impffrage in England. Schnapsreklame. Die in der deutschen Kolonialausstellung schwarzen Reichsangehörigen wollte der Physikus des Kreises Teltow einer ärztlichen Kontrole unterwerfen. [.] Auch bei den Mahareros stiess der Herr Kreisphysikus auf energischen Wiederstand! Fritjof Nansen, der berühmte Nordpolfahrer [nahm keinen Alkohol mit sich an Bord seines Schiffes "Fram"] William S. Bryan, der bekannte Präsidentschaftskandidat der Vereinigten Staaten [.] meidet Alkohol und Taback. Gipfel der "organischen Heilmittel". Eine neue Schutz-Impfung und zwar gegen Schlangengift. Lücke im Unfallversicherungsgesetz. Rückenmarksschwindsucht. Vom Beispiel der Erzieher. [Bericht des "Vereins gegen den Missbrauch geistiger Getränke, Meister sollen Vorbild für Lehrlinge sein.] Die Berliner trinken doppelt so viel Bier als Milch. Zur Sozialhygiene. (333) Bücherschau. (337) Feuilleton. [Gedicht]: Gebet Hygieia's im Namen ihrer Schützlinge. [.] Aus dem "Corpus inscriptionum hygieinicarum", Tom. III, pag. 567 f., nach einer am Lacus Vermensis gefundenen Inschrift übersetzt von Dr. Schmidkunz. (337) Briefkasten. (338) 24. Jahrgang. (Nr. 11. November / 1896) (Nr. 11. November 1896.) ([339]) Aus Wissenschaft und Leben. Gesundheitsschutz im Buchdruckgewerbe. ([339]) Kurpfuscherei. (345) Etwas über Kopf- und Bartflechten, ihre Entstehung und naturgemässe Heilung. (Fortsetzung.) (347) Bildet ein Vortrag über Gesundheitspflege eine öffentliche Angelegenheit? (352) "Praktischer Naturheilkundiger" und "Heilkünstler". Ein Briefwechsel [zwischen dem Polizei-Präsident von Berlin und Herrn Gerling]. (353) Durch die Naturheilkunde gerettet! (353) Eine verhütete Operation. (355) Bericht über die ordentliche Generalversammlung der deutschen Naturärzte und Praktiker in Berlin. (355) Sprechsaal. (359) Bundesnachrichten. Verzeichnis. Vereine, für welche Aerzte gesucht werden. Steuern. Aus den Vortragsgruppen. Aus den Vereinen. (360) Aus der Zeit. Ein Sieg in Oesterreich. [Beschluss der österreichischen Regierung, an sämtlichen Universitäten des Landes Lehrstühle für Wasserheilverfahren. Oesterreich geht hier allen anderen Kulturstaaten voran und erwirbt sich dadurch ein hervorragendes Verdienst. Wirken von Vincenz Priessnitz, schlesischer Bauer, und Pfarrer Kneipp]. Heinrich Mertens † [Am 6. d. M. verstarb in Rendsburg der Zeichenlehrer und Photograph Ludwig Christian Heinrich Mertens im hohen Alter von 76 Jahren. Gründer von Naturheilvereinen]. Kurpfuscherei. Frau Prediger Ronge [Anlässlich ihres 25 jährigen Jubiläums als ausübende Naturheilkundige erhielt Frau Ronge vom Bundesvorstande und drei Ortsvereinen gestiftetes Ehrengeschenk: zwei fünfarmige prächtige Leuchter.] Der parakt. Arzt Dr. Franz van Vagedes [vom Landesgericht freigesprochen]. Wie Friedrich der Grosse über den Genuss von Kaffee und Bier dachte. Bitte! Den Freunden des Küssens empfiehlt der Gesundheitsrath von Chicago, die Lippen vor dem Küssen mit carbolisiertem Rosenwasser abzureiben. (363) Bücherschau. (366) Feuilleton. Das ist auch gut. Eine Bazillengeschichte in zehn Postkarten. Geschrieben aus Anlass des in der "Jugend" erschienenen Artikels "Das ist gut". [Helene, Frau von Kurt, einem Forscher, schreibt an Melanie, deren Vater Kurts Ansichten nicht teilt.] (367) Briefkasten. (370) 24. Jahrgang. (Nr. 12. Dezember / 1896) (Nr. 12. Dezember 1896.) ([371]) Aus Wissenschaft und Leben. [Brief]: An die Leser! [Adolf Damaschke beschliesst seine Thätigkeit als Schriftleiter des "Naturarzt", und ebenso sein Amt als Bundesschrfitführer. Er wird Chefredakteur der "Kieler Neuesten Nachrichten".] ([371]) Gesinnungsgenossen! [Bitte um finanzielle Unterstützung für Reinhold Gerling.] Reinhold Gerling ist unter Anklage gestellt worden. In seiner Widerlegung der Denkschrift des Reichsgesundheitsamtes "Blattern und Schutzpockenimpfung" soll er die Behörden und Verfasser beleidigt haben. [.] Gerling vertritt in dieser Frage [Reichsimpfgesetz] die Ansicht von Hunderttausenden. (372) Meine Stellung zum Vegetarismus. (372) Etwas über Kopf- und Bartflechten, ihre Entstehung und naturgemässe Heilung. (Schluss.) (377) Nachschrift. [zu "Etwas über Kopf- und Bartflechten, ihre Entstehung und naturgemässe Heilung."] (381) Krankheitsursachen und Krankheitssymptome. (382) Scharlach. (386) Bundesnachrichten. Bekanntmachung, Ausbildungskursus für Naturheilkundige betreffend. Bekanntmachung, Prüfung der Naturärzte betreffend. Verzeichnis. Steuern. Vereine, bezw. Orte, für welche Aerzte gesucht werden. Aus den Vortragsgruppen. Aus den Vereinen. (389) Soll der entscheidende Schlag doch geführt werden? [Sitzung im Kultusministerium, einziger Gegenstand der Tagesordung: Aerzte aus der Gewerbeordung ausscheiden? Es handelt sich hier um Sein oder Nichtsein aller Laien-Aerzte!] Der Verein abstinenter Aerzte. Gegen die Naturheil-Institute. Wegen fahrlässiger Tötung. Morphium. Eine Unsitte [Kinder an einem Arm fassen und über ein Hindernis hinwegheben. Man fasse die Kinder beim Heben unter beiden Armen.] Wasseranwendung vor 350 Jahren. (394) Bücherschau. (397) Unhygienische Redensarten. (398) Briefkasten. (402)

The Great Depression in Weber County, Utah, is an Oral History Project by Mack S. Taft for completion of his Master's Thesis at Utah State University during the summer of 1969. The interviews address the Great Depression through the eyes of individuals in several different occupations including: Bankers, Laborers, Railroad Workers, Attorneys, Farmers, Educators, Businessmen, Community and Church Leaders, Housewives, Children and Physicians. All of these individuals lived in Weber County from 1929 to 1941. The interviews were based on what they remembered about the depression, how they felt about those events and how it affected their life then and now. ; This is an oral history interview with Junior Edward Rich. Dr. Rich discusses the difficulties of practicing medicine during the Depression: collecting fees, changes in obstetric procedure, and taking script as payment. He also discusses the closing of the Ogden State Bank. ; 25p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 sound disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Junior Edward Rich Interviewed by Mack S. Taft circa 1960s Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Junior Edward Rich Interviewed by Mack S. Taft circa 1960s Copyright © 2016 by Weber State University, Stewart Library iii Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. The working files, original recording, and archival copies are housed in the University Archives. Project Description The Great Depression in Weber County, Utah, is an Oral History Project by Mack S. Taft for completion of his Master's Thesis at Utah State University during the summer of 1969. The forty-five interviews address the Great Depression through the eyes of individuals in several different occupations including: Bankers, Laborers, Railroad Workers, Attorneys, Farmers, Educators, Businessmen, Community and Church Leaders, Housewives, Children and Physicians. All of these individuals lived in Weber County from 1929 to 1941. The interviews were based on what they remembered about the depression, how they felt about those events and how it affected their life then and now. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management This work is the property of the Weber State University, Stewart Library Oral History Program. It may be used freely by individuals for research, teaching and personal use as long as this statement of availability is included in the text. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Rich, Junior Edward, an oral history by Mack S. Taft, circa 1960s, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, University Archives, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. 1 Abstract: This is an oral history interview with Junior Edward Rich. Dr. Rich discusses the difficulties of practicing medicine during the Depression: collecting fees, changes in obstetric procedure, and taking script as payment. He also discusses the closing of the Ogden State Bank. The interviewer is Mack Taft. MT: What was your profession during the Depression years? JR: I was an M.D., a doctor. MT: What do you remember about your profession at that time, the difficult times that you had, if there were some? JR: Well, it was a trying time for the doctors. They all had certain costs of operation, and the income of the doctors dropped off so radically. I know in my own experience that I was probably collecting maybe 90 percent of the fees outstanding, while during the Depression years, it dropped off to where I was probably only collecting 10 percent. In fact, some months I had difficulty paying my nurse, and paying my overhead, rent, incidentals, and medical supplies, and so on. People were just unable to pay for the service that was rendered. Of course we were working harder than ever because it seemed like there was more work at that time, and a person couldn't do anything other than render the service and put the charge on the books, and hope that sometime the person might be able to pay. But the question was getting enough income to take care of fixed commitments and expenditures that one had to meet, and some months, it was actually operating in the red. You were digging into what little reserve you had to meet the expenses to keep going. 2 In fact, at that time, there was an organization, I've forgotten the name now, that amongst the professional men and some of the merchants, that set up a script type of money. The farmers would bring in the produce - they had a large department area down, I think it was in the Berthana building on the ground floor - four bare walls and so on, and just merchandise piled around the walls of the building, and so on. And one would take the script in there and receive vegetables or fruits and produce of different types. That would kind of give you an idea of the way the economy was going. People would bring vegetables and fruits into that place, and then they would get script and come up and pay the doctor with the script - or the dentist, or the other individuals - and he, in turn, would go down to that building and pick up a few vegetables, and so on. That seems a rather primitive way of doing business, but still during the Depression, that was what was going on - that was in the years about 1930, 1931, and 1932 through there. And then there were certain outfits that set up on gas stations that were pretty much the same way. They would give you, for a little fee to set up membership, they would sell you gas for cost. Even some of the professional men were having their nurses deliver statements within a near radius rather than put out money to pay the postage, and so on because even the postage amount that was expended became prohibitive considering the income that was coming in. Many of the things that we resorted to were with just the idea of keeping going because at that time rents were a kind of a fixed expenditure, and other things, they didn't vary much, and it was a problem. A lot of charitable work was 3 being done, a lot of home work being done, and more operating work in the offices that could be done because the people just didn't have the means of paying the hospital. I imagine the hospitals also were creating a good deal of credit, and putting amounts on the books that previously were paid for by cash. So everything was in a precarious position. Of course a lot of the professional men at the time, due to the boom years of 1928-29 with the stock market going up and so on, many professional men had opened trading accounts, and not only professional men, but others were operating on a margin account, which at that time, were about 10 percent. A person had to put up about 10 percent money for the total cost of the purchase, and carry the account of margin. Then when the stock market, of course, began to drop, why every few points the broker would call for more money to maintain the 10 percent spread. And as a result it finally got to the point where the person couldn't put up the money, and they had to let the stock go, and they'd lose everything that they had in it. Of course a corrective thing came along later whereby they had to put up a 50 percent or even 100 percent margin, and then, of course, naturally they were protected against their own vice, so to speak. But when you think of, for instance, as a personal experience, I watched a stock like, say, Anaconda Copper. Professional men, many of them would buy into the exchange market rather than buy land and so on because it's an easy way of doing it. It doesn't require a good deal of outside management and distraction from their practice and so on. And I had been interested in Anaconda Copper, just as an instance, and I'd watched it go from $176 to the neighborhood 4 of $56. And so, after it got down there, I started buying some Anaconda Copper stock, thinking that it couldn't get. it's a giveaway, and so on. And I went ahead and bought it, and it kept dropping and dropping and finally it got down to a point where I thought that I ought to even up my purchase, it was so much lower. It got down around in the $20s and finally I wound up buying my last purchase at $4 a share. And it went down to $3 a share after that. Now that just gives you an idea of the values. Now, for instance, Electric Bond and Share went down from $556 to 75 cents a share, and when you think of value, you can see how people were broke. People who owed money for stocks were just hopelessly wiped out. But the person that owned the stocks outright, of course, and could hold them throughout that whole thing, were not particularly hurt because it turned out to be a paper loss. But the one great lesson of the Depression years in borrowing was the fact that if you owned it outright, you couldn't be hurt, but if you owned it on margin, and owed the banks for it, then, of course, that is where you could be wiped out and be hurt because you had a two-way spread. For instance, if a person had a loan at the bank and had gone ahead and borrowed money to buy some commodity or some stock or property or so on, and he put up, say, what he thought at the time was just absolutely gold, maybe triple A bonds, and then one would never figure that the bonds would never, maybe at the worst, go below 90, why some of these bonds that were put up as collateral went down maybe as low as $25 on the hundred. It was the matter of the two-way spread. Not only was the value of the thing you bought going down, 5 but the value of the collateral that you put up was going down, so that you had a two-way spread, and it was more difficult all the time to raise money. And, of course the banks were, at that time during the heyday of '29, were encouraging people to take loans. Why, when things got tough, then they began to tighten down, and sure, when the loan was made, oh, no, this was fine, they required you to put up a little collateral. During the Depression years, as it got tougher, the banks got tougher, and of course they called for more and more collateral, until finally a fellow only had the gold left in his teeth to put up. And all he could do was say, "Well, there it is," and the banks, of course, went ahead and threw the collateral on the market, and it just forced prices down, down, down. And that was the panic of all this, that caused it. But it was very difficult on the profession. I know two or three doctors that had stock in ranches and things like that, and they finally wound up having to let all their stock go because assessments were made on the stock and the assessments couldn't be paid, so they just had to kiss the whole thing goodbye. One doctor here in Ogden had a very large investment in some Nevada ranches and so on, and, in 1928, he could have sold those out for about $300,000, as I remember it. He wound up letting it all go because he couldn't pay a $2 assessment on the stock. He lost the whole thing. So that many doctors were hurt, and some doctors in the profession were having such a tough time of it that the society had to kind of come to their aid with the doctors that were getting along fairly good putting up a little fund each month to kind of carry them over and keep them in business and let them keep their self-respect .I mentioned 6 about the script, and that helped some, but you took short-cuts that you'd never dream of before to conserve your capital and your outlay. MT: Do you remember any specific little innovations that you used to speed up your collection or to increase your business, other than script? JR: At that time it was so difficult to know the exact economic status of the individual that you were treating in the profession, that rather than to send out letters and things of that nature requesting help in meeting our financial obligations, we hired an individual, who was tickled to death to get the work because there were so many out of work, to personally visit the people who were not making any payment whatsoever to ascertain their circumstances and whether or not they could make some small payment in the way of money, or even in the way of goods, or something that could be used. That worked out very satisfactorily for us. I don't know, I say us, because at that time I was associated with my father, Dr. Edward I. Rich, in a partnership, and that helped because we got an exact, intimate knowledge of the family's condition. If they couldn't [pay], well, they couldn't, and you went along rendering the same aid, like I say, with the hope that eventually they might get to the point where they might be able to make some payment on the account. MT: When did you start your practice? JR: In January of 1926. And I practiced up until 1965, January 1965. At the end of 40 years, the last 30 years of my practice were devoted to general surgical work, and so on. I left in June of 1942, and spent three and one-half years in the service during the war. Other than those years, and being away occasionally for 7 short times, or for graduate work and conventions, I practiced in Ogden for the full time. MT: Who were some of the new doctors that came in right during the Depression years - do you recall? JR: Well, there was Dr. Wilbur Wilson, and Dr. C. J. Olsen, and let's see, those were two, and Dr. Wes Anderson started up about 1931 or '32. He was interning up at the hospital at that time. And also Dr. Olsen and Dr. Wilson were both interns about 1929, 1930 or thereabouts - that would be in Ogden. Dr. Reed Rich over at Montpelier, Idaho, was interning about that time. MT: Now, are there any other doctors at that time that are still around that were established prior to the crash of the stock market? JR: These are the only ones that I can think of. When I first came here and started practicing in 1926, I think that all of the doctors have either died or retired that were practicing then. But there are two or three of them that are alive that are retired. One is Dr. Vern Ward, and he is an obstetrician, you know, but he lives up here. And there is Dr. George Phizter, and he lives up on 29th Street. He was in neurology at that time. Dr. Olsen wasn't a doctor then, but he was in Salt Lake as a laboratory man and he graduated later. Even though I'm younger, I had been in practice at least two or three years when he was an intern. Dr. Frank Bartlett is out at the chronic disease hospital in Roy, but he may be able to give you quite a little help. He may be alert enough. MT: Now, let's go back into this area we explored before on the bank closing. 8 JR: Of course the closing of the Ogden State Bank had a distinctive shocking effect upon our local community here. It was really the first thing, I think, that brought home the seriousness of the Depression. At the time there was a good deal of information in the papers about the situation through the East and the many banks that were closing. And the thing began to snowball, and people became so apprehensive that this run started on the Ogden State Bank. People just all of a sudden decided that they ought to get their money and put it in a sack instead of leaving it in the bank. And when the run started on the Ogden State Bank, it was probably one of the older and more stable banks. It had done a lot of service for the community. It had probably been a little more liberal than many of the other banks in granting loans to ranchers and stockmen and that long-range loan plan where the loan can be readily liquidated. As a result of having a disproportionate amount of their loanable funds out in this type of loan, why with this demand for cash, they found it difficult to convert these loans into cash adequate to meet the demands of the depositors. It seemed like kind of a groundswell of fear that came up, and as the run started, why they couldn't get any funds. They appealed to the First Security Bank, which was a federal bank and having difficulty of its own. In fact, just after the closing of the Ogden State Bank, it had a run. The fact that the First Security Bank was able to tell them, "Line up for your money, and we'll pay all of you," it kind of quelled it down. There was a big meeting in the lobby of the bank, at which the president of the bank reassured them and said that the money was there, and all they had to 9 do was line up and get it. That kind of put the quietness on the run, and established some form of sense in the public. But the Ogden State Bank went ahead and tried to meet their demands, and ran out of cash and couldn't raise any more. And, as a result, they closed up and went into a forced liquidation of their assets. In spite of that, they paid off practically 100 percent. I know that I was a depositor in the bank, and, as I recall, I received all my money, which was in a checking account, at the end of about a year and a half of liquidation. But they sold out assets at probably 10 or 15 percent of their real value under a forced liquidation program, and it was too bad because the bank need never have closed. They had assets of two to three to one, but they just couldn't convert them. But the thing was, it was not just the banks that were having the problem in assets and in getting liquid. The same thing pertained to individuals. I know that at the time prior to the 1929 crash, when everything was favorable, and everyone was skyrocketing prices and outbidding each other for anything, especially in the way of securities, that a person didn't hesitate at all to go into debt to buy securities because they were sold on the idea that they were 100 percent gilt-edged. So, many people were encouraged, and now I feel that the bankers were somewhat at fault for this because they encouraged people. They had plenty of money, and they encouraged people to come in and take loans on collateral that probably wasn't nearly adequate after things got worse. And people would go ahead and buy a stock, and then, of course, after the crash came, they only owned 10 percent of it because that's all the money that they 10 had to put up under the margin requirements. Every time the stocks would drop 10 points, the stock market would call them and they wanted more collateral, they wanted more money. And the person would keep putting up the money until finally they had exhausted all their means of raising any money. And loan companies, people that had money in the building and loan companies, were drawing it out until the building and loan companies were broke. The thing was that a person would go ahead to a bank and want to borrow some money, and they would put up a normal amount of collateral, and the collateral probably was even some gilt-edged bonds that people wouldn't ever expect to go down. But the bonds that ordinarily shouldn't ever go below 90 went down to 26 percent, and the stocks that were selling up in the 100s went down to practically zero. But when you see a stock like General Motors go down to about 7 percent a share, which - considering the splits and everything of stocks - you can imagine how cheap these stocks got. But it was a trying time. Now, some doctors in our community lost a lot of money. The friend that lost the money on the ranches in Nevada finally had his stock assessed. And, as I remember, it was only about a $2 assessment per share. As I remember, he couldn't even raise the money to pay the $2 assessment per share and had to let all his stock go, so that he not only lost his stock, but he also still owed the banks for some of the money that he had borrowed to buy the stock. So he was really paying for a dead horse afterward. That was the sad part about some of these things. You not only lost, but you still owed. But that was the problem at that time. 11 And I think one of the greatest lessons to be learned from the individuals that experienced this thing, who happened to be at that age in life where he was buying things and in an attempt to look out for the future, and his retirement and this sort of thing, is that they didn't owe. The one thing that I learned was never to buy anything on borrowed money. In fact I've always said since that the only justification for anyone to borrow money was if they were properly putting it in their own business to tide them through a time when they had full control of it. But to borrow money to put in somebody else's business is just sure death. MT: Do you feel that you would have developed that much conservatism if you hadn't lived through the Depression? Or do you feel that's a contributing factor of the Depression in your life? JR: Well, I think that lesson comes because of having experienced the Depression, and that it probably had a very good effect even nationally, that people became more conservative. From the standpoint of venturing into the unknown, and to go through this experience, I think that it has paid off, personally, many times over, because it has changed my whole thinking about investments, about what is worthwhile, what isn't worthwhile, and the true values in life and in our economic life. In fact, I had an experience prior to this Depression during my school years, during my junior and senior years in medical school in Pennsylvania. I went to Europe for four months and it was at the time that the German nation was going through the wringer. I remember going into Germany when the mark was 18,000 to the dollar. I spent six weeks in Germany during this time overseas, and when I came out, it was 65 million to the dollar. Of course it didn't cost me anything to 12 live there because I had outside dollars. I changed one dollar a day and then wished that I could only change 50 cents because it was only costing me 10 or 15 cents to live a day. But for the person that had to make their money there, they contracted a salary and at the end of two weeks, the salary wouldn't have been enough to buy a good meal. So that was a very early experience in this business of what inflation and depression and other things can do to an economy. This was in 1923 when Hitler made his first push. In fact, in Munich one night they had these big meetings and so on. He failed in that, and that was when the money and the economy were going to pot. And of course our Depression was just the aftermath of all these things overseas and so on. In fact I've always said that Hoover was just such an unfortunate man to have gone into the Depression when he did, when this was the backwash of the whole worldwide affair, for which he got blamed. He was probably our most able, intelligent and best educated man that we've ever had in the presidency. In fact, I knew Herbert Hoover. I'd taken care of his son, along with another San Francisco doctor when I was at Stanford in San Francisco. I had occasion to meet him and know him and develop a good deal of respect and admiration for him that made me feel kind of doubly bad that he got behind the eight-ball on this kind of thing as a result of just a set of circumstances that would have probably killed anyone. MT: Before we started the recording, you said that you felt that perhaps President Roosevelt was responsible for part of this. Would you explore that just a bit? 13 JR: Well, I've always felt that the bank closing was really unnecessary, that the election in November and the time of the election, and this time that Roosevelt was elected into office was the critical time of the whole Depression. That was when the banks were closing and that is when everything was going to pot fast. Hoover asked, after he was defeated in the election, he called upon Roosevelt to come in and jointly work with him on this. And Roosevelt sat back there and wouldn't help in any way, and wouldn't consent to anything even though Hoover said, and I recall reading it in the paper publicly, that any credit would go to Roosevelt. All he wanted was to stop this sort of thing. But Roosevelt wouldn't even give a recommendation or even meet with President Hoover. He wouldn't even accept an invitation to meet with him until after he went into office. And when he was officially in office, then of course he took his first steps to start correction of this thing, which should have been done several months before. I mean that's the way I remember the thing, and the way things were going, because I remember the bank business in a state of panic and fear that was building up and up and up. And it could have been stopped if the two of them had gotten together and taken some of these steps. MT: What else do you remember about the time, the economy, and what people did to exist? JR: Well, everybody of course economized, and during the early days of the Depression, it made such an impact on people's minds that even after things got going along fairly well, there was this extreme reversal instead of a tendency to spending, as prior to the Depression - which partly accounted for the big boom 14 and everything. People reacted and there was a tendency not to normally spend, but also since many people had that debt still hanging over their heads from things they lost, rather than go into bankruptcy that many of them were working to pay off. As a result, a lot of the money that people were finally making when they had jobs and were doing very well, was going toward repaying things that had been carried on credit during those lean years. As a result the economy was rather slow coming back, even though the government was pumping money into all of these public works and so on. But it always reminded me of how a group can be panicked, or like a stampede of cattle. But after the big flare is over and solved, then you begin to repair the damage that never would need to have been in the first place. As a result it was we had a few good years, and along about 1934 and '35, things began to go pretty good. And then we had a Depression, which in many ways was probably even more severe than the Depression of the early 30s. That was in 1937 that things got bad, but because of the fact that the people had been conditioned to this sort of thing, they didn't panic, they didn't stampede, and as a result some phase of the economy didn't realize that we were in that severe depression in 1937. But actually we never recovered from the Depression until World War II came along, and then the spending on armaments and the preparation for war and furnishing other countries and so on [turned] the wheels of industry to such an extent that we finally pulled out of it. And of course that was in spite of all the pump-priming and all the money that was laid out through the years of the early Roosevelt administration. We still had not recovered from 15 the Depression. We were being carried artificially, and so on, and it was only when World War II came along. It's a sad commentary that the expenditures of the war were necessary to take us out of the deflation. Yet, still, that has held true in other cases as well, since World War II. But I think that it was a long, drawn-out affair in recovery because of a re-adjustment of people. People had lost their homes and their ranches and so on because of being in debt. They went and moved to other parts of the country, took up probably other businesses, and went into other vocations or professions and what not. As a result, it was a great period in the country of readjustment. Maybe as a result of all of it, it was for the better, like going through the fire and coming out a bit purified, at least in our thinking. But it was an experience. After the first mad rush of panic, then the expression became not so much one of fear and panic as it was one of slow, tough rebuilding process. MT: Which section of people were more severely affected by the Depression - those who lived in the country, those who lived in the city? JR: Well, that would be difficult to say. I feel that the group that was probably least affected were those that were probably rural and kind of living on the land, that their pattern of living was not affected as much as the person who was depending upon a salary check. The ability to buy things became unavailable, even though they might have been fortunate enough to continue on in a job. Of course from the standpoint of the professional man, and maybe the people who were living on the farm or the ranch, while they maintained more of their own standard of living and were less affected unless their ranch or farm was taken 16 away from them as a result of being in debt - and many people were in debt for numerous things that they didn't really need. They had gone into debt because they were booming time, and then the debt time came along. But generally speaking, I'd say the person living in the city was strapped more because the basic elements of living were more difficult for them to get than the person who was on the ranch or the farm. In fact some of them on the ranches and the farms got along very well, and were very little affected by the Depression if they had escaped this debt, this death trap. A lot of people economized. There was very little traveling, very little, if any, unnecessary expenditure. In fact, people that previously liked to take a trip to the coast and so on, if they took a trip at all - I know people in this town that ordinarily would take a bedroom suite, this that and the other - would ride a chair car. Just to give you an example of people that still had means, but this idea that they didn't, that this forced retrenchment of expenditures would cause them to go ahead and ride a chair car down there because it was less expensive. This feeling of retrenchment was so profound and as a result all that did was aggravate the overall spiral. It was this sort of fear and panic that got us into the trouble. It wasn't that we didn't have everything that we had before; it was just that there was no circulation of profit. Everything was entrenched. There wasn't money available. Nobody was making it available. It went down in the sack, what they had. MT: What would have been some of the problems of a new doctor just coming into practice at the time? 17 JR: Well, his problem of course was not - you didn't have very many doctors in the community. The society, which now has probably a couple of hundred, we only had about 24 or 30 members. But a doctor coming in had a difficult time because he couldn't collect enough cash to really pay his expenses. He'd be fairly busy, but he was putting everything on his books, and probably 95 percent or better credit. How much of that he could collect at a later date was purely problematic, so that made it a very trying time. I know that doctors at that period - might not be just at that period - but it was more of a general pattern that you always took calls. I remember through those years, and it always carried over even until I retired, I always answered a home call, especially as a younger man. If an older doctor called me about a night call that he was unable to take, and so on, I was always tickled to death to take it for someone. And of course these younger men did a lot of night calls that way, which made it possible for them to exist. They were glad to get them, and at that time too. The pattern has changed for young men coming now. In the hospitals at that time, for interns and that type of thing, they weren't paying anything except just room and board. That was all that a young doctor ever expected in the way of remuneration during his hospital years, where now the hospitals pay very fancy salaries for interns and residents, which makes it possible. Of course, another thing was that the younger doctors at that time were either single or had just married. The practice now is that doctors marry at the beginning of their medical education because it's rather prolonged. Of course it was prolonged 18 then, but this pattern has changed. As a result, a doctor starting out now starts up with a family, with probably several children, where at that time, he was a single doctor or a newly-married doctor. It was possible for them to get along a little bit easier because the demand financially was not as great. MT: What would a young doctor receive for a house call at that time? JR: Well, $4 was the going charge, $2 for an office visit, and $4 for a home visit. Of course that included any medicines and so on that you left with the patient, and any it was necessary to administer at the time. Night calls usually went up to $5 and $6 and so on. At that time, a woman could go to the hospital. In fact while I was a county physician back in the late 1920s and early 1930s, I made arrangements with the hospital, and this is when we first started taking maternity cases into the hospital. I made an arrangement with the hospital for a woman to go in and, for $30, that covered her entire hospital arrangement. Not only the delivery room changes and the drugs that were necessary, but the anesthetic, her bed and room for the 10 day period, which was the amount of time we used to keep a maternity case, and also took care of the baby and the operation of the circumcision, if that was indicated. The cost of that was sort of an overall, catch-all price that covered that. And of course at that time, the doctor charge was $30 for the care of the maternity case, and that included the prenatal visits throughout the nine months of pregnancy, the delivery, the care at the hospital, the care of the baby including circumcision, and so on, and six weeks care afterwards for both the mother and the baby. 19 The services, I guess two or three days in the hospital for the mother, which is about as long as a maternity case is kept in now, would probably run right in the neighborhood of $200-$300, besides the fact that any drugs are charged for separately and the operation upon the baby, such as circumcision, is a separate charge. The anesthesiologist has a separate charge, and the doctor in many communities - I know especially out along the coast - that the delivery charge is entirely separate from the prenatal charge and the postnatal charge. And the doctor who is in obstetrics and delivers the baby has nothing to do with the baby. When he delivers the baby, it's turned over to a pediatrician who looks after it, and his charges are separate. So the total charge of having a baby is very, very considerable over the way it used to be. Now I charged years ago, of course during the Depression years and before the Depression - the Depression didn't alter our charges, the only thing that the Depression altered was the fact that we didn't collect what we charged - but most deliveries at that time were done in the home, and the charge was no different whether they went to the hospital or had them in the home. You furnished all the materials that they paid for at the hospital, but that was just part of the overall charge. MT: How many did you deliver at home, do you recall? JR: Well, as I say, I did some maternity work as part of my general practice up until about 1939. Then I started doing just general surgery, and as a result of being in the service during World War II doing nothing but surgery, I was chief of surgical services when I came back. But I used to do a lot of maternity work during the '20s and '30s, and my father, who I was associated with, he did a lot of 20 obstetrical work during his time. In fact he delivered over 5,000 babies during his career. In fact, he practiced about 54 years, and then he just died about two years ago. He was just a few weeks short of 101. But he was one of the early pioneer physicians in this area, so it was quite interesting to be associated with him because I carried on doing a lot of work. For instance I used to do a lot of tonsil work in the office which a lot of doctors didn't do, just because Father got me in the habit of doing it and I continued on even after it was kind of the acceptable procedure to do them in the hospital. Of course a lot of these things are done there because the public has demanded it, not because it's better, but because they go for certain things in the medical profession. And that is one reason for the higher prices is that a doctor doesn't dare do some of things even though it's better and safer for them because if anything happened to them, why the public is suit conscious. As a result, the public has made it so that they aren't getting the same care because a doctor won't venture for them, even where they haven't any chance the other way. The doctor isn't going to do it.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Budagumpa-1microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 363 ha in Koppaltaluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 83 per cent is covered by soils, 13 per cent by rock out crops, four per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 17 soil series and 21 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 14per cent of the area is having sandy at the surface, 16 per cent loamy soils and 53 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 44per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 11 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 73 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 39 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 44 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 0.75%) in 2 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 29per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 54 per cent area of the soils.  Available potassium islow (337 kg/ha) in 39 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 48per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 81 of the area and sufficient in 3 per cent of the area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 63(17) 137(37) Pomegranate 62(17) 145(40) Maize 25(7) 174(48) Guava 25(7) 135(37) Bajra 107(30) 110(30) Jackfruit 62(17) 98(27) Redgram 62(17) 130(36) Jamun 13(3) 186(51) Bengal gram 38(11) 165(45) Musambi 100(28) 107(30) Groundnut 12(3) 171(47) Lime 100 (28) 107(30) Sunflower 100(28) 129 (35) Cashew 10(3) 161(44) Cotton 88(24) 112(31) Custard apple 184(51) 77(21) Chilli 107(30) 45 (12) Amla 145(40) 115(32) Tomato 107(30) 45(12) Tamarind 13(3) 90(25) Drumstick 64(18) 156(43) Marigold 25(7) 174(48) Mulberry 64(18) 187(51) Chrysanthemum 25(7) 174(48) Mango 13(3) 51(14) Jasmine 25(7) 127(35) Sapota 62(17) 98(27) Crossandra 25(7) 130(36) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment and drainage line treatment palnshave been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The data indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Budagumpa-1 micro watershed among them 8 (22.86%) were marginal farmers, 7 (20 %) were small farmers, 7 (20 %) were semi medium farmers, 6 (17.14%) were medium farmers, 2(5.71%) were large farmers and 5 (14.29%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 157 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 89 (56.69%) men and 68 (43.31 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 5, marginal, small and semi medium farmers were 7 and medium and large farmers were 6. On an average the family size was 4.  The data indicated that 20 (12.74%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 76 (48.41 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 47 (29.94 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (8.92%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Budagumpa-1had 42.04 per cent illiterates, 1.27 per cent functional literates, 22.93 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.92 per cent of them had middle school, 12.74 per cent them had high school education, 5.10 per cent of them had PUC education and 6.37 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicated that, 77.14 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 8.57 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were general labour.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 40.76 per cent of the household members, 23.57 per cent were agricultural labourers, 11.46 per cent were general labours and 0.64 per cent were in private sector, were in trade and business, housewives and children's and 21.02 per cent of them were students. In case of landless farmers 70.83 per cent of them were general labours and 29.17 per cent of them were students.  In case of marginal farmers 42.86 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 17.86 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 3.57 per cent of them were general labour and 35.71 per cent of them were students. In small farmers 61.29 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 16.13 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 3.23 per cent of them were in private service and 3.23 per cent of them were doing trade& business and housewives. In case of semi medium farmers 50 per cent of them were agriculturist, 34.62 per cent of them were agriculture labour and 11.54 per cent of them were students. In medium farmers 37.84 per cent of them were agriculturist, 35.14 per cent of them were agricultural labour and 21.62 per cent of them were students. Similarly in case of large farmers 54.55 per cent of them were agriculturist and 45.45 per cent of them were agricultural labour. 2  The results showed that 0.64 per cent of them participated in cooperative bank and 99.36 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless, marginal, semi medium, medium and large farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Small farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions.  The results indicated that 65.71 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 25.71 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 8.57 per cent of the households possess Pacca house.  The results showed that, 74.29 per cent of the households possess TV, 48.57 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 17.14 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 31.43 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 8269, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1676, bicycle was Rs.2166, motor cycle was Rs.29583 and mobile phone was Rs.2303.  The result showed that about 17.14 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 28.57 per cent of them possess plough, 8.57 per cent of the households possess power tiller, 11.43 per cent of the households possess tractor, 17.14 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 91.43 per cent of the households possess weeder, 5.71 43 per cent of the households possess harvester, 2.86 per cent of the households possess thresher and 5.71 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18333; the average value of plough was Rs. 1250, the average value of power tiller was Rs. 25000, the average value of tractor was Rs. 475000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 10666, the average value of weeder was Rs. 80, the average value of harvester was Rs.35000, the average value of thresher was Rs. 37000 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3000.  The results indicated that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 17.14 per cent of the households possess local cow, 5.71 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 2.86 per cent of the households possess sheep.  The data indicated that in case of marginal farmers, 25 per cent of the households possess local cow and 12.50 per cent of the households possess local cow, buffalo and sheep respectively. In case of small farmers, 14.29 per cent of households possess bullock and 28.57 per cent possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullock and 14.29 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo. 66.67 medium farmers possess bullock and 16.67 farmers possess local cow and 100 per cent of the large farmers possess bullock and 50 per cent of them possess local cow. 3  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2, average own labour (women) available was 1.61, average hired labour (men) available was 8.80 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.38.  The data showed that in case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.25, average own labour (women) was also 1.11, average hired labour (men) was 7.67 and average hired labour (women) available was 7. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.71, average own labour (women) was 1.71, average hired labour (men) was 12.14 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.71. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.43, average hired labour (men) was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.33. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 3.17, average own labour (women) was 2.17, average hired labour (men) was 6.67 and average hired labour (women) available was 5. In case of large farmers average own labour men available was 2.50, average own labour (women) was 2.50, average hired labour (men) was 5 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the household opined equally that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Budagumpa-1 micro watershed possess 25.14 ha (43.40%) of dry land and 32.78 ha (56.60 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.43 ha (91.85%) of dry land 0.48 ha (8.15%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 7.89 ha (89.65 %) of dry land and 0.89 ha (10.14 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 4.05 ha (35.39 %) of dry land and 7.39 ha (64.61%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.77 ha (41.56%) of dry land and 10.93 ha (58.44%) irrigated land. Large farmers possess 13.10 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 345927.24 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 353,684.73. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 552,160.94 for dry land and Rs. 1,660,504.12 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 316,666.67 for dry land Rs. 898,181.80 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land and Rs. 541,073.38 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 283,020.83 for dry land and Rs. 384,222.22 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers the average land value was Rs. 137,391.84 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 14 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, there were 1functioning and 1 defunctioning open wells in the micro watershed. 4  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 40 per cent of the farmers and open well was source of irrigation for 2.86 per cent.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 35.71 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.96 per cent of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 0.89 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 9.31 ha of irrigated land, medium farmers were having 11.34 ha of irrigated land and large farmers were having 1.62 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 24.12 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown groundnut (11.58ha), ladies figure (1.29 ha), maize (26.93 ha), mango (2.43 ha), onion (0.40 ha), paddy (0.85 ha), sorghum (1.21 ha), tomato (0.81 ha) in kharif season. Also grown groundnut (2.43 ha) and maize (0.48 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown groundnut, ladies figure, maize and paddy. Small farmers have grown groundnut, maize, paddy and sorghum. Semi medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize and tomato. Medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize, mango, onion and tomato. Large farmers have grown groundnut, ladies figure and maize.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Budagumpa-1 micro watershed was found to be 72.72 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 98.73 per cent, in small farmers it was 90.79, in semi medium farmers it was 90.48, in medium farmers it was 89.13 per cent and in large farmers it was 32.56 per cent.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have bank account and 77.14 per cent of the households have savings. 100 percent of marginal, small and large farmers possess both bank account savings respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 100 per cent of possess bank account and 85.71 per cent farmer's savings. In Medium farmers, 100 per cent of farmers possess bank account and 66.67 per cent have savings respectively.  The results indicated that, 75 per cent of marginal, 71.43 per cent of small, 28.57 per cent of semi medium, 16.67 per cent of medium farmers and 50 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 6.67 per cent have availed loan in cooperative Bank, 26.67 per cent have availed loan from friends/relatives, 53.33 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank and 13.33 per cent have availed loan from money lender.  The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs.50833.33, Rs. 109000, Rs. 316000 and Rs, 310000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 119,466.67.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production.  The results indicated that, 81.82 per cent of the household's barrowed private credit for agriculture production and 18.18 per cent of the household's barrowed private credit for social functions like marriage. 5  Results indicated that 100 per cent of households were unpaid their institutional loan.  Results indicated that 54.55 per cent of the households have partially paid their loan and 45.45 per cent have unpaid their private credit.  The results indicated that 25 per cent of the households were opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 75 per cent of the households were opined that higher rate of interest.  The results indicated that, 9.09 per cent of the households were opined that easy accessibility of credit, 54.55 per cent of the households were opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement and 18.18 per cent of the households were opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 20131.66. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22249.38. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 2117.73. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.11.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 52091.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69130.38. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 17039.32. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.33.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 79623.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67722.91. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -11900.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.85.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23029.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22625.29. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -403.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.98.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 65128.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49400. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. -15728.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.76.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 38242.52. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. -13542.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.65.  The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 25.71 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 106000. In marginal farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 28,750 and agriculture was Rs. 81,118.75. In small farmers the average income from business was Rs. 25,000, wage was Rs. 18,571.43, agriculture was Rs. 68,921.43 and dairy farm was Rs. 3,500. In semi medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 8,571.43, wage was Rs. 9,285.71 and agriculture was Rs. 72,142.86. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 10,833.33, agriculture was 6 Rs. 67,500, and dairy farm was Rs. 333.33. In case of large farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 10,000, agriculture was Rs. 110,000 and dairy farm was Rs. 1,000.  The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 23000, in marginal farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.5750 and agriculture was Rs.40875. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from business was Rs. 115,000, wage was Rs. 6,600, agriculture was Rs. 24,571.43 and dairy farm was Rs. 15,000. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.20000, wage was Rs. 1,600 and agriculture was Rs. 29,285.71. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 4,000, agriculture was Rs. 28,000 and dairy farm was Rs. 500. In large farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.500, agriculture was Rs.55000 and dairy farm was Rs.500.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 34 coconut and 131 mango trees in their field and also planted 2 coconut trees in their back yard.  The results indicated that, households have planted 2 teak, 76 neem and 5 tarmind trees in their field and also planted 1 neem tree in their back yard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5,200.14 for land development, Rs. 2,314.43 in irrigation facility, Rs.2714.29 for improved crop production and Rs.971.43 for improved livestock management.  Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2500 for land development, Rs. 750 for irrigation facility, Rs.1375 for improved crop production and Rs.875 for improved livestock management. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2857.14 for land development, Rs. 1142.86 in irrigation facility, Rs.1714.29 for improved crop production and Rs.428.57 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7515 for land development, Rs. 4715 in irrigation facility, Rs.4428.57 for improved crop production and Rs.1142.86 for improved livestock management. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 11666.67 for land development, Rs. 4666.67 for irrigation facility, Rs.5166.67 for improved crop production and Rs.1833.33 for improved livestock management. Large farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 9000 for land development, Rs. 3000 for irrigation facility, Rs.5000 for improved crop production and Rs.2500 for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, for land development, 2.86 per cent of the farmers were depend on government subsidy, 40 per cent were depend on loan from the bank and 2.86 per cent of the households were depend on soft loan. 2.86 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy; own funds and soft loan for land development for irrigation facility respectively and 28.57 per cent were dependent on loan from the bank for irrigation facility. Similarly for improved crop production, 7 31.43 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank, 8.57 per cent were dependent on their own funds and 2.86 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loan. For improved livestock management 17.14 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from bank, 8.57 per cent were dependent on own funds and 2.86 per cent were dependent on soft loan.  The results indicated that, Bajra, ladies finger, maize, paddy, sorghum and tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut and mango were sold to the extent of 90.99 per cent and 66.67 per cent respectively. Average price obtained by bajra was Rs.1300/q, groundnut was Rs.3531.82/q, ladies finger was Rs.1250/q, maize was Rs.1145/q, mango was Rs.2000/q, paddy was Rs.1450/q, sorghum was Rs.2100/q and tomato was Rs.1000/q.  The results indicated that, 40 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 42.85 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 2.85 percent of the households sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that 17.14 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 57.14 per cent of them have used tractor and 11.43 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 25 percent of marginal farmers, 28.57 per cent of small farmers, 57.14 per cent of semi medium farmers, 66.67 percent of medium farmers and 50 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing including 100 per cent of marginal farmers, small farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers and 83.33 per cent of the medium farmers respectively.  The results indicated that, 14.29 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 25 per cent of marginal, 28.57 per cent of small farmers and 14.29 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding opined that bunds required full replacement.  The results indicated that 14.29 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by government.  The results indicated that, 97.14 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 57.14 per cent, 25.71 per cent of them were using bore well and 14.29 per cents of the households were using lake/tank for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 54.29 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 12.50 per cent of marginal, 100 per cent of small, 14.29 8 per cent of semi medium, 16.67 per cent of medium and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 20 per cent of the landless, 25 percent of the marginal, 14.29 per cent of the small, 42.86 per cent of the semi medium, 33.33 percent of the medium farmers and 50 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 97.14 per cent, 5.71 per cent, 17.14 per cent, 25.71 per cent, 82.86 per cent, 85.71 per cent and 77.14 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, oilseed; vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 91.43 per cent, 80 per cent, 68.57 per cent, 11.43 per cent, 11.43 per cent and 17.14 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that milk were market surplus for 2.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil and wild animal menace on farm field was experienced by 82.86 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases was experienced by 37.14 per cent of the farmers, inadequacy of irrigation water was experienced by 31.43 per cent of the households, high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was experienced and high rate of interest on credit was experienced by 40 per cent of the farmers, low price for the agricultural commodities was experienced by 71.43 per cent of the farmers, lack of marketing facilities in the area was experienced 80 per cent of the households, inadequate of extension services experienced by 71.43 per cent of the households, lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market was experienced by 74.29 per cent of the households and less rainfall was experienced by 2.86 per cent of the farmers. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Food, water, and shelter, as fundamental components of human existence are no less critical in an aviation unit than the number of enemies shot down, as a combat force can be made or broken over necessities. During World War II, Russian pilots returned to bases where food and housing were not to be taken for granted, and free time was dictated by forces largely outside their control. The overall living conditions of Russian pilots during the war were varied, unpredictable, and improvised. ; Winner of the 2020 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the Junior Arts/Humanities category. ; Borscht, Barracks, and Bears: How Russian Pilots Lived in WWII Sarah Clark HI 355: WW2 Colloquium Phase 3 Word Count: 3,307 December 6, 2019 Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 1 Introduction What were the living conditions of Russian pilots in WWII? Food, water, and shelter, as fundamental components of human existence are no less critical in an aviation unit than the number of enemies shot down, as a combat force can be made or broken over necessities. During World War II, Russian pilots returned to bases where food and housing were not to be taken for granted, and free time was dictated by forces largely outside their control. The overall living conditions of Russian pilots during the war were varied, unpredictable, and improvised. When the war began, pilots unused to wartime conditions had to adapt quickly to their new conditions. One pilot recalled: the sun was baking hot on the street. I walked slowly towards the airfield and came up to the dispersal area. It was like a disturbed anthill. They were repairing the old shelters. Here and there they were digging new ones. They assigned the headquarters dug-out for the use of the staff. Fyodorov and Godunov decided to use an enormous plywood container in which, at one time, an aircraft had arrived from the factory in parts…We had supper –field rations, as if we were at the front—and spent the night in the dug-out. Tired after the day's work and even more so after the previous sleepless night, everyone soon dropped off. Of course, after comfortable quarters, snow-white sheets and a soft bed, it is not cosy to sleep on a plank bed; but aircrew get used to anything.1 Food Sources Throughout the war, sources of food varied, but the three most common were rations, villagers, and American Lend-Lease food. Rations were the primary source of food for Russian pilots. The military had its own rationing system, separate from and prioritized above the civilian system.2 At first, most foods were produced and distributed by state associated farms and collectives. Throughout the war, more and more initiative was given to peasants to make food production a private enterprise to increase production and reduce the burden on state-owned 1 Kaberov, Swastika in the Gunsight, 5. 2 Ganson, "Food Supply," 78. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 2 sources.3 Typical rations for the Russian armed forces consisted of a simple breakfast of porridge known as kasha, a type of soup called borscht for lunch, and bread with pickles or cucumbers for dinner, and for aviators 100 grams of vodka after combat missions.4 In general, variety and items such as meat, fat, and fresh fruits and vegetables were hard to come by. Throughout the war, Russians both were allocated and received fewer daily calories than the soldiers of several other countries. In early 1941, Russian infantrymen were allocated 2,954 calories a day, which was increased to 3,450 in September.5 Members of active flying units were supposed to receive 4,712.6 Compared to other Allied nations, this basic allowance was low. For instance, the United States allocated 4,748 calories for front-line soldiers, and Britain allocated 5,300 for soldiers fighting in cold weather.7 Despite official instructions, it was common for Russians to receive less than their daily allotted calories, placing them even farther below their Allied comrades. Pilots overcame the lack of food and added variety by trading with nearby villagers if based near or in a village. There are multiple accounts of pilots and technicians going into towns to exchange unused items such as underwear or more common items such as "tobacco, cigarettes, bread, and sugar for milk, sour cream, eggs, and butter and sometimes meat."8 Exchanges could be a one-time or reoccurring transaction. For instance, while in Romania, one squadron member paid a Romanian for a daily supply of ten eggs.9 However, making deals with the locals was not always favored by senior officers, as squadron members were arrested and 3 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 126; Ganson, "Food Supply," 75-76. 4 Collingham, "Fighting on Empty," 319. 5 Collingham, "Fighting on Empty." 319. 6 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 127. 7 Collingham, "Out of Depression," 434; Collingham, "Fighting on Empty," 319. 8 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 145, 186. 9 Mariinskiy, Airacobra, 142. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 3 imprisoned in some units.10 Yet, the prevalence of such transactions illustrates the desperation for sufficient and adequate food. Pilots not only traded with villagers and peasants, but they also took advantage of their surroundings. They scavenged through the remains of old villages, especially on the way towards Berlin in 1944 and 1945.11 One of the most common items searched for was alcohol. For instance, one fighter pilot, heading towards Berlin, recalled that "in the deserted workshops of the sugar mill the omnipresent procurement officers…found tanks of spirits."12 In other locations, where natural resources such as rivers were more abundant, pilots occasionally resorted to fishing to provide fresh meat in desperate times, when the food supplied in the mess hall was either meager or nonexistent.13 Another way variety was increased was through the introduction of American Lend- Lease items, especially in 1943 and after. For instance, dairy items from America like dried eggs and milk powder, hard to come by in Russia, supplemented protein and fat intake, and packaged meats such as Spam were a welcome respite from dried fish.14 To show this one pilot reported that "American food, it was a feast—canned meat, dried eggs, canned milk."15 While American food was only a tiny sliver of what the air forces ate during the war, it certainly provided a respite from the standard fare. 10 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 145. 11 I Remember, "Airmen: Ivan Konovalov," https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ivan-konovalov/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. 12 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 77-78. 13 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 114. 14 Collingham, "Fighting on Empty," 340; I Remember, "Airmen: Kolyadin Victor Ivanovich," https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ kolyadin-victor-ivanovich/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. 15 Pennington, Wings, Women, and War, 119. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 4 Factors that Affected Food Squadron location, when correlated with timeframe, was one of the most significant factors affecting food availability and type, including geographic location, distance relative to frontlines, and proximity to inhabited villages. Geographic location was significant because Russia is a massive country, and front lines stretched for hundreds of miles. Food supplies were inadequate to begin with, and the distribution system was incomplete and inefficient. These issues were only compounded by the rapidly advancing German forces during Operation Barbarossa.16 Not every unit received equal amounts of food, and food reserves were not in place, especially at the beginning, resulting in troops at the front and rear being shorted.17 To show the variation, one fighter pilot, who spent some time near the front lines at Smolensk, wrote "I'm still amazed that—whether advancing or retreating—we were always well supplied with food."18 Conversely, other pilots reported periodic food shortages lasting several days near front lines.19 Therefore food availability varied greatly from one unit to the next. Distance from the front impacted food supply because it affected the ability of food to reach airfields. At the beginning of the war, food shortages were common in contested areas, such as the North Caucasus and Ukraine.20 Plus, reserves were either too far away or not built up enough to sustain prolonged shortages.21 During German advances supplies were not always able to be delivered, causing aircrews to survive on what meager items they had stockpiled.22 Other 16 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 113. 17 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 115. 18 Drabkin, Barbarossa, 85. 19 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 186. 20 Pennington, Wings, Women, and War, 79. 21 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 115. 22 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 186; Pennington, Wings, Women, and War, 79. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 5 times, aircrews were forced to pick up supplies with their aircraft because the ground vehicles were unable to reach their airfields.23 The type of action an air unit was supporting, such as a retreat or an advance, also affected their food supply. When a regiment formally moved to a new airfield in preparation for an operation, and if time allowed, the airfield would be prepped by a service battalion consisting of combat support and maintenance personnel, who stocked up supplies and prepared the housing and airfield facilities for the arrival of the unit.24 Thorough preparation resulted in efficiency and ease of movement. However, when movement to a new airfield was either hastily planned or unplanned as a result of an unexpected retreat, there was no preparation, resulting in the opposite effect: no supplies. For instance, while retreating in 1942, one pilot wrote that upon reaching the assigned base they "found nothing there—no staff, no mess hall, no fuel" because the ground support had been unable to reach the base in time to prepare it.25 However, the unit in that scenario ended up being fed by a woman from a local village, illustrating the last essential component of location: proximity to an inhabited area.26 Airfields were frequently built near villages. Consequently, instead of official housing, pilots would be billeted with the town residents. Occasionally villagers had items unavailable to military members, such as fresh vegetables from their gardens or dairy products, such as milk. 27 One last factor to consider in analyzing food supply is unit type: bombers versus fighters. Food for both types of units was dreary and monotonous with occasional highlights of canned 23 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 67. 24 Bessette, "Soviet Military Transportation Aviation," 196. 25 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 108. 26 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 108. 27 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 85, 176. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 6 American food, items gained from the locals, or the rationed chocolate and Coca-Cola.28 For instance, in 1942, one bomber pilot reported eating brown bread, a lot of cereal, and in the fall-potatoes, while another bomber pilot reported eating a breakfast of gruel, bread, butter, and tea the following year.29 Fighter pilots reported similar types of food including soup, tea, and bread.30 Overall, food was more affected by location, type of action, and timeframe than type of unit because units across all aircraft types experienced times of relative abundance and shortage, based on locational and situational factors. Housing Housing was also based on location and situation. The spectrum ranged from sleeping in and under aircraft using tarps and covers as blankets to large houses in nearby villages, and later even villas. Pilots were usually billeted separately from the enlisted technicians. Commonly, the technicians were kept closer to the aircraft in dugouts, huts, or trenches, so that they were quickly accessible and ready for action, while it was more common for pilots to live outside the airfield. However, there were times when pilots and technicians lived together, such as one tail gunner who lived in the same local home as her pilot.31 Housing Situations One of the main differences in airfield accommodations was the age of the airfield. New airfields were usually less developed because they were formed during war when a base was needed during a rapid advance or unplanned retreat. Hasty quarters usually consisted of dugouts built into the ground, sometimes made by female workers from nearby cities, such as 28 I Remember, "Airmen: Kolyadin Victor Ivanovich," https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ kolyadin-victor-ivanovich/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. 29 I Remember. "Airmen: Kolyadin Victor Ivanovich," https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ kolyadin-victor-ivanovich/ [accessed 14 October 2019]; I Remember, "Airmen: Ivan Konovalov," https://iremember.ru /en/memoirs/airmen/ivankonovalov/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. 30 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 78. 31 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 176. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 7 Leningrad.32 Pilots also lived in trenches or around the aircraft until more permanent quarters could be made.33 Again, there were exceptions. New airfields were better prepared when movements were planned well in advance, and airfield service battalions were available to go to the airfield first and prepare it for the unit, which included billeting arrangements.34 Conversely, older airfields, many of which had been training schools or air bases before the war, already had a developed infrastructure. They had permanent quarters or at least buildings that could be readily turned into barracks. For instance, one pilot recalled living in an old school building on an airfield that had been a training school two years before the war.35 Even in 1944, when the Russians refitted three Ukrainian air bases for the Americans, they refitted an artillery barracks and school buildings for the Americans to live in.36 Also, as the Russians moved east in 1944 and 1945 they utilized barracks on former German airfields. If housing was not available on the airfield, pilots were billeted in the homes of villagers or other available buildings, within several miles of the airfield. Even within the homes there was a lot of variation. Usually the home's residents still lived there, and one of two scenarios occurred: either a couple or as many as possible pilots would be billeted there. For example, one pilot recalls that "the overcrowding was horrendous, but room was found for me. In a crooked hut…having delicately pushed the hostess to the oven in her kitchen."37 Houses could become crowded and uncomfortable when pilots, other officers, and non-maintenance personnel, were forced to live together. Alternatively, other pilots were billeted alone and given a lot of space and 32 Kaberov, Swastika in the Gunsight, 91. 33 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 106. 34 Bessette, "Soviet Military Transportation Aviation," 196. 35 Reshetnikov, Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front, 33. 36 Plokhy, Forgotten Bastards, 35. 37 Reshetnikov, Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front, 138. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 8 relatively nice accommodations. Also, nearby villages were occasionally abandoned, resulting in pilots living in vacant homes.38 Overall, village billeting was varied. Uncontrollable Factors Another variable that should not be overlooked is the effect of the war on housing options. Barracks and dugouts were not immune to German air raids. When permanent buildings or dugouts were destroyed, pilots slept in hastily rebuilt dugouts or under the aircraft. Combat readiness also dictated how close aircrews slept to their aircraft because if a raid was expected, pilots needed to be ready to defend their airfield at a moment's notice.39 Bombings, when the signal of a German advance, also contributed to units moving from new bases and having to find new quarters altogether. Other times, the housing at a new base was inhabitable. For instance, one mechanic wrote that "all of the habitable dwellings nearby were mined by the Germans, so we had to live under the wings of our aircraft."40 Therefore, stable and safe housing was not to be taken for granted in combat conditions. Weather also played devil's advocate with housing. Mud, rain, and snow are all part of life in Russia and had devastating effects on airfield usage and quality of life inside aircrew quarters. During the rainy season, dugouts were flooded with inches to feet of water, either forcing pilots to pump the water out in colder seasons or live under the aircraft in warmer weather.41 Snow, on the other hand, made its way into primitive buildings in the form of ice. Escaping the cold was impossible. Changes in weather patterns and the beginning of colder seasons also resulted in insect and animal infestations, such as fleas, rats, and mosquitos. One rat 38 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 26. 39 Tomofeyeva-Yegorova, Black Sky Red Death, 106. 40 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 151. 41 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 110, 173. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 9 infestation was so bad a pilot remarked that "they were routinely crushed under people's feet."42 Overall, weather was just one more variable that made housing unpredictable. Commodities Not only was housing itself varied and often improvised, but commodities nowadays taken for granted were as well. Most of what the pilots had for furniture, light, and linens were makeshift. Oil drums and shell casings were used as crude lamps and stoves. Any available material was burned in those stoves, including used bomb fuse-boxes.43 Beds, tables, and any other furniture were typically cobbled together from planks, wood scraps, straw, and aircraft covers. Pillows were stuffed with everything from weeds to straw. Again, there were exceptions, especially later in the war, when air units took over German airfields or lived in residences currently or previously owned by the wealthy. For example, one pilot wrote that his unit was "billeted for a rest in some factory-owner's villa…on soft feather beds," and remarked that "the conqueror's position has its advantages."44 Overall though, pilots did not live in luxury. They made what they needed from what was available. Personal Free Time The small amount of free time in between tasking, or during rough weather, helped the pilots let loose and mentally cope with being in combat. On a personal level, people kept busy with what was available. Those who had books read them and then shared them, which led to book discussions.45 Games requiring little space, such as dominos, chess, and cards were played; although, some commands forbade cardplaying, calling it bourgeois.46 People who were musically gifted and carried their instrument, such as a guitar or accordion, around would play 42 Pennington, Wings, Women, and War, 116. 43 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 124. 44 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 73. 45 Reshetnikov, Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front, 138. 46 Drabkin, Barbarossa, 42. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 10 for their fellow airmen. Some of the women would knit, embroider, or sew new pairs of silk underwear. And everyone looked forward to letters from home, especially when the Germans occupied territory where their loved ones lived. For instance, one pilot wrote that when she received the first letter from her mother, five months into the war, she "felt such relief! All these months I had worried about my family, whether they were suffering somewhere under German occupation."47 Pilots were desperate for news about the wellbeing and whereabouts of relatives and friends. Unit Free Time Beyond the personal level, units organized events amongst themselves. Some had a newsletter that members would write in and distribute amongst the unit.48 Usually those had a political overtone. Nevertheless, they were an opportunity for people to use skills other than flying, such as creative writing, journalism, and drawing. Activities such as talent shows and performances were also organized, including events such as formal readings, performance of plays or sketches, and solo acts. For example, one squadron had the only Gypsy to fly for Russia in the war, who performed dances of his culture, until he died in combat.49 Parties and dances were also held, especially in some of the female units, to celebrate successful missions with dancing and singing.50 Celebrations were an outlet for the emotion created by the stresses of combat and unpredictable living conditions. Occasionally if located near a larger city, such as Leningrad, and if tasking allowed, pilots were able to partake in urban activities, such as movies, concerts, and dance classes. At times, events were formally organized by unit commanders to increase morale and let their 47 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 81. 48 Kaberov, Swastika in the Gunsight, 6. 49 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 61. 50 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 71 . Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 11 personnel get away from the humdrum of front-line duties, while other times, attending a movie or performance was not command mandated. For instance, one corps commander gave circus tickets to his officers and ordered them to go on a night when no flights were scheduled.51 While in a different squadron a group of pilots was invited to a musical premiere in Leningrad while the city was being barraged by the Germans.52 Not only did pilots seek out entertainment, but entertainment sought them out, in the form of traveling performers, artists, and mobile theaters that traveled throughout the eastern front, providing performances for units unable to go to a city or populated area. Relationships Beyond mere activities, relationships were another way to pass the time. Wedding ceremonies were a change from the more frequent funeral ceremonies. Pilots married either pilots from other commands or members of various service battalions. To illustrate the difference between a funeral and wedding, an airman wrote, "the regiment personnel celebrated a festive and memorable event. And it had nothing to do with war, blood, or death. It was quite the opposite of a funeral."53 Joyous occasions were a welcome relief from the cruel ways of combat. Relationships were unavoidable in squadrons where technicians and combat support staff were frequently female. Even in units with only female pilots, relationships were not uncommon with male members of the same or other units. There was one female pilot, for example, whose former commanding officer proposed after the war ended.54 Relationships were crucial in motivating pilots to return from every flight and survive the war, while also serving to satisfy the soft side of human existence. 51 Reshetnikov, Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front, 157. 52 Kaberov, Swastika in the Gunsight, 178. 53 Antipov & Utkin, Dragons on Bird Wings, 75. 54 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 201. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 12 However, humans were not the only ones to fulfill this need for affection, as pets were not forbidden. Often, stray dogs or cats were picked up when a unit passed by an abandoned area. They were either adopted by a whole unit or individuals, as was the case with the Gypsy and his dog, Jack.55 However, there were other scenarios, where a pet would be left behind by higher-ups who briefly visited the unit. For example, Alexander Novikov, then Air Force supreme commander, left behind a bear cub he had been given. At the squadron, the small cub ate and slept with the men, which became difficult as she grew. In the end, she was killed by outsiders, and the air unit refused to eat her.56 While an unusual scenario, it still shows the connections unit members made with animals that ended up in their possession. Focusing on caring for a pet was a needed distraction. Conclusion During World War II, the men and women in the Russian air forces lived an unpredictable life, dictated by the whims of combat. Food would be available one day and not the next. Moving from base to base increased unpredictability, as not all locations were supplied equally, especially when close to combat or advancing German forces. Air force units stretched from Leningrad to Ukraine, which strained the initially inadequate supply system. Time was not always available for building new housing, resulting in external billeting and quickly-built dugouts. Improvisation was the name of the game, as the pilots had to make do with the food, materials, and housing they could scavenge or trade for. Pilots with imagination and creativity were able to create a home away from home that at least met the bare minimum of their needs, despite limited free time to decompress and get away from combat stressors. 55 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 61. 56 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 69. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 13 Research Question: What were the living conditions of Russian pilots in WWII?Outline 1. Introduction 1.1. Research question 1.2. Idea of the variability, range of living conditions 2. Living Conditions 2.1. Food 2.1.1. Food sources 2.1.1.1. Rations 2.1.1.1.1. Calorie comparison 2.1.1.2. Local sources 2.1.1.3. American food 2.1.2. Factors affecting food 2.1.2.1. Location 2.1.2.1.1. Timeframe 2.1.2.1.2. Movement type 2.1.2.1.3. Billeting 2.1.2.2. Unit type 2.2. Housing 2.2.1. Introduction 2.2.2. Housing Situations 2.2.2.1. New Airfields 2.2.2.2. Old Airfields 2.2.2.3. Living in Villages 2.2.3. Uncontrollable Factors 2.2.3.1. Combat Conditions 2.2.3.2. Weather 2.2.4. Commodities 2.3. Free Time 2.3.1. Personal Level 2.3.1.1. Hobbies: sewing, knitting, poetry, music 2.3.1.2. Letters from home 2.3.2. Unit Level Activities 2.3.2.1. Newspapers, performances 2.3.2.2. Nearby towns 2.3.2.2.1. Leader/command initiated 2.3.3. Relationships 2.3.3.1. People 2.3.3.2. Pets 3. Conclusion Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 14 Bibliography Primary Sources Drabkin, Artem. Barbarossa and the Retreat to Moscow: Recollections of Fighter Pilots on the Eastern Front. South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books LTD, 2007. I Remember. "Airmen: Kolyadin Victor Ivanovich." https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ kolyadin-victor-ivanovich/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. I Remember. "Airmen: Ivan Konovalov." https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ivan-konovalov/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. Kaberov, Igor. Swastika in the Gunsight: Memoirs of a Russian Fighter Pilot 1941-1945. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 1999. Kramarenko, Sergei. The Red Air Force at War: Air Combat over the Eastern Front and Korea: A Soviet Fighter Pilot Remembers. Barnsley, England: Pen & Sword Military, 2008. Mariinskiy, Evgeniy. Red Star Airacobra: Memoirs of a Soviet Fighter Ace, 1941-45. Solihull: Helion & Company, 2006. Noggle, Anne. A Dance with Death: Soviet Airwomen in World War II. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1994. Reshetnikov, Vasiliy. Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front: 307 Missions Behind Enemy Lines. South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books LTD, 2008. Timofeyeva-Yegorova, A. Red Sky, Black Death: A Soviet Woman Pilot's Memoir of the Eastern Front. Bloomington: Slavica Publishers, 2009. Scholarly Books Pennington, Reina. Wings, Women, and War: Soviet Airwomen in World War II Combat. Modern War Studies. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001. Plokhy, Serhii. Forgotten Bastards of the Eastern Front: American Airmen Behind the Soviet Lines and the Collapse of the Grand Alliance. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2019. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 15 Scholarly Articles Bessette, John. "Soviet Military Transport Aviation" in The Soviet Air Forces edited by Paul Murphy, 188-211. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1984. Collingham, Lizzie. "The Soviet Union—Fighting on Empty" in The Taste of War, 317-346. New York: Penguin Press, 2012. Collingham, Lizzie. "The United States—Out of Depression and into Abundance" in The Taste of War, 415-466. New York: Penguin Press, 2012. Ganson, Nicholas. "Food Supply, Rationing, and Living Standards" in The Soviet Union at War, 1941-1945 edited by David Stone, 69-92. South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books Ltd, 2010. Moskoff, William. "The First Priority: Feeding the Armed Forces" in The Bread of Affliction: The Food Supply in the USSR During World War II, 113-134. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Additional Sources Antipov, Vladislav, and Igor Utkin. Dragons on Bird Wings: The Combat History of the 812th Fighter Regiment. Translated by James F. Gebhardt. 1st English ed. Kitchener, ON: Aviaeology, 2006.