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Egypt is in a precarious economic situation reflecting a difficult external environment, political uncertainty, and weak economic policies. International reserves have been declining rapidly to a low level, driven by a sizeable current account deficit and large capital outflows. Large spending increases are driving up the fiscal deficit to unsustainable levels, with high real interest rates and weak growth adding to the mounting debt burden. And weak growth is fueling social pressures. Strong financial support from Arab bilateral donors has been holding the country afloat so far, but the leaking cannot continue much longer and the authorities have been forced to seek support from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and other donors. Egypt is in a precarious economic situation reflecting a difficult external environment, political uncertainty, and weak economic policies. International reserves have been declining rapidly to a low level, driven by a sizeable current account deficit and large capital outflows. Large spending increases are driving up the fiscal deficit to unsustainable levels, with high real interest rates and weak growth adding to the mounting debt burden. And weak growth is fueling social pressures. Strong financial support from Arab bilateral donors has been holding the country afloat so far, but the leaking cannot continue much longer and the authorities have been forced to seek support from the IMF and other donors.

Macroeconomic growth and incomes have been on the rise since the Asian Financial Crisis (AFC), but health service utilization and health outcomes in Indonesia have been slower to improve. Jamkesmas could provide valuable benefits by allowing cardholders to acquire preventative, curative, and catastrophic health care services without fees. When it promotes healthy households, keeps students active, alert, and participating in their education, returns adults to work sooner, and saves households from the high costs of healthcare, Jamkesmas' sizeable individual benefits should be matched by increased social benefits resulting from a healthy and productive population. Jamkesmas has been provided to poor households, but many non-poor have also received Jamkesmas benefits due to dual central and local targeting processes which have led to frequent mismatches and errors in coverage. Health service providers find Jamkesmas difficult and costly to implement resulting in fewer services provided, and funds spent, on Jamkesmas beneficiaries. Local regulations regarding public health center management often conflict with Jamkesmas mandates, leaving health service providers confused and unwilling to use Jamkesmas funds to provide Jamkesmas beneficiaries with planned services. The future costs of an improved Jamkesmas program have not been adequately publicized and Jamkesmas' financial, fiscal, and political sustainability is uncertain.

This paper identifies four primary drivers of proactive disclosure throughout history. The first is the need to inform the public about laws and decisions and the public's right to be informed, to know their rights and obligations. The second is the public's demand for the information needed to hold governments accountable both at and between elections. The third is the demand for information in order to participate actively in decision-making. The fourth is the provision to the public of information needed to access government services, which has expanded significantly in the past decade with growth of electronic access to services or 'e-government.' This paper attempts to advance the debate around that question by analyzing the multiple proactive disclosure provisions in national law and international treaties in order to identify the emerging global consensus on the classes of information which should be included in a proactive disclosure regime. The paper examines the practical challenges related to the implementation of proactive disclosure regimes and some of the lessons learned from which principles for making proactive disclosure work in practice can be derived. It concludes by identifying some future challenges and areas where additional research is needed.

This paper analyzes the role of the leadership in the economic growth in Rwanda, a country that was seriously affected by civil war and the 1994 genocide. It appears that the will and the clear vision of the leadership in Rwanda were one of the central pillars of the very good economic and social performances in Rwanda. This is particularly important because the country has almost no natural resources and the economy and its fundamentals were completely destroyed by the 1994 genocide. This paper thus helps enrich the various economic growth models by stressing the importance of the quality of leadership.

"Of course, a little bit of force is needed when doing push-backs."Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović, ehemalige kroatische PräsidentinKroatien, ein Staat, der gemeinsam mit Slowenien am 25. Juni 1991 seine Unabhängigkeit vom jugoslawischen Bundesstaat erklärte und damit einer der Akteure der schwersten Kriege in Europa nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde, ist seit 2013 Mitglied der Europäischen Union, die vor allem als Friedens- und Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft gegründet wurde. Doch viele Stimmen äußern sich kritisch gegenüber dem Beitritt des Staates und sind der Meinung, dass Kroatien besonders im gesellschaftlichen und wirtschaftlichen Kontext noch nicht bereit dazu wäre, Mitglied der Gemeinschaft zu sein.Die Europäische Kommission sieht das allerdings anders und ist der Meinung, dass die kroatische Politik große Fortschritte macht. Sie äußert sich bereits zuversichtlich über den kommenden Beitritt in den Schengen-Raum, der Bürger*innen der EU die Freiheit gibt, ohne ein Visum in viele Länder der Welt reisen zu dürfen. Doch an den kroatischen Grenzen gibt es Berichten zufolge immer wieder Fälle von Gewalt und Rechtswidrigkeiten von Seiten der Polizei gegenüber Asylsuchenden. Die ehemalige kroatische Präsidentin Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović äußert sich in einem Interview mit dem oben aufgeführten Zitat zu den Menschenrechtsverletzungen.Wenn die kroatische Wirtschaft betrachtet wird, können einige Problematiken beobachtet werden, vor denen kroatische Politiker*innen stehen, wie beispielsweise die Arbeitsmigration von kroatischen Jugendlichen aufgrund von Umständen wie niedrigen Löhnen.Der folgende Beitrag soll auf diese und weitere Aspekte der kroatischen Politik näher eingehen und damit eine Bilanz nach 8 Jahren EU-Mitgliedschaft Kroatiens ziehen. Wie kam es zum Beitritt Kroatiens in die EU und welche Kriterien mussten erfüllt werden? Vor welchen Hindernissen steht der Staat und wie geht die Europäische Union mit diesen um? Diese Fragen sollen im Anschluss geklärt werden, bevor die Frage gestellt werden kann: Ist Kroatien überhaupt bereit für die Europäische Union?EU-Beitritt2003 ging das Beitrittsgesuch Kroatiens nach Brüssel und 10 Jahre später wurde das Land schließlich Mitglied der Europäischen Union. 2011 unterschrieb die Regierungschefin Jadranka Kosor den Beitrittsvertrag und legte damit den Grundstein für den 2013 in Kraft getretenen Beitritt des Landes in die Europäische Union. In diesem langen Prozess kam es zu einigen Hindernissen, die die Beitrittsverhandlungen herauszögerten und nach wie vor die Problematiken innerhalb des Landes widerspiegeln. (vgl. BPB 2013)Die Bevölkerung Kroatiens wurde erst nach dem unterschriebenen Beitrittsvertrag zu der Thematik befragt. Dabei stimmten 67% für einen Beitritt in die Europäische Union. Die Wahlbeteiligung fiel allerdings sehr gering aus, was unter anderem daran liegen könnte, dass die Abstimmung nur sechs Wochen zuvor angekündigt wurde. (vgl. ebd)Der 2011 unterschriebene Beitrittsvertrag war mit einigen Bedingungen verbunden, die bis zum letztendlichen Beitritt im Jahr 2013 erfüllt werden sollten. Hierbei ging es darum, grundlegende Defizite innerhalb des Landes zu beseitigen. Beispielsweise musste der Justizapparat gestärkt werden. Außerdem sollte stärker gegen Korruption vorgegangen sowie eine effizientere Verwaltung gewährleistet werden. Der letzte Punkt umfasst die Privatisierung der Staatsbetriebe. (vgl. ebd)Im Großen und Ganzen möchte die Europäische Union durch die Eingliederung Kroatiens den Übergang zu Marktwirtschaft und Demokratie vorantreiben. Denn Kroatien war Teil des blockfreien, sozialistischen Jugoslawiens mit all den Folgewirkungen (vgl. Kušić 2013).Kopenhagener KriterienAuf dem EU-Gipfel in Kopenhagen wurden im Jahr 1993 Kriterien aufgestellt, anhand derer geprüft wird, ob ein Land dazu bereit ist, in die Europäische Union aufgenommen zu werden. Zusammengefasst sind das folgende Faktoren:Die Gesamtlage innerhalb des Landes muss stabil sein. Das heißt, politische Institutionen, der Rechtsstaat und die Demokratie muss gesichert sein. Außerdem müssen Menschen- und Minderheitsrechte gewahrt werden. (vgl. Grosse-Hüttmann 2004, S. 7)Zudem muss eine funktionierende Marktwirtschaft vorhanden sein, die auf Wettbewerb und Privateigentum beruht. Dadurch sollen die Staaten in der Lage sein, dem Konkurrenzdruck im Binnenmarkt standhalten zu können. (vgl. ebd., S. 7)Der Aquis Communautaire, also alle Verträge der Europäischen Gemeinschaft sowie alle europäischen Gesetze, müssen in nationales Recht übernommen werden. Alle Pflichten und Regeln müssen von dem jeweiligen Staat akzeptiert und eingehalten werden. (vgl. ebd., S. 7 f.)Der Staat muss mit den weitreichenden Zielen der EU sowie der Währungs- und Wirtschaftsunion einverstanden sein, wie sie im Vertrag von Maastricht estgelegt wurden. Dadurch soll verhindert werden, dass neue Mitglieder einen anderen Weg einschlagen als die Europäische Union. (vgl. ebd., S. 8)Da Kroatien nun seit 8 Jahren Mitglied der Europäischen Union ist, scheinen diese Kriterien aus Sicht der Institutionen der Europäischen Union erfüllt zu sein. Dennoch musste der Staat zunächst an einigen Stellen arbeiten, um dieses Ziel erreichen zu können.Flüchtlingsrückkehr und KriegsverbrecherprozesseEine wichtige Bedingung, die im Jahr 2005 gestellt wurde und ein großes Hindernis für den Beitritt darstellte, war der Umgang mit kroatischen Kriegsverbrechern, die in den Unabhängigkeitskriegen Verbrechen begangen haben und zu diesem Zeitpunkt noch nicht ausreichend sanktioniert wurden. Die Europäische Union forderte volle Kooperation mit dem Internationalen Strafgerichtshof. Vor allem ging es dabei um die Auslieferung von Ante Gotovina, der in der kroatischen Offensive Operation "Oluja" Kriegsverbrechen begangen hat. (vgl. Kušić 2021)Gerade wenn es um die Ahndung von Kriegsverbrechern sowie um die Flüchtlingspolitik geht, kann bisher nur ein eher mäßiger Erfolg verzeichnet werden. Die Problematik kann darauf zurückgeführt werden, dass die Staatswerdung Kroatiens mit kriegerischen Auseinandersetzungen erfolgt ist, so dass sich nationalistische Strukturen innerhalb der Gesellschaft und der Politik verfestigt haben. (vgl. Richter 2009, S. 7) Trotz alledem gilt Kroatien als eines der stabilsten Länder auf dem Balkan, der sich derzeit innerhalb eines Prozesses der Wechselwirkung zwischen innenpolitischer Demokratisierung und Stabilisierung befindet. (vgl. Richter 2009, S. 19)Die Premierminister Ivica Račan (2000-2003) und Ivo Sanader (2003-2009) haben versucht, die Wünsche der Europäischen Union im Bereich Flüchtlingsrückkehrer und Kriegsverbrechen umzusetzen. Dabei ging es hauptsächlich um Aspekte wie den Koalitionsfrieden, einen parteiübergreifenden Konsens zugunsten der Union, Stabilisierung und Konsolidierung. Der Preis waren allerdings Reformdefizite im Justizsektor, die die EU ebenfalls zuvor bemängelte.Durch blockierte Anträge, nicht veröffentlichte Fristen oder nicht ausgeführte richterliche Anweisungen kam es schließlich zu Defiziten im Bereich der Rückkehrpolitik und Kriegsverbrechen. Diese Politik führte zwar zu mehr Stabilität und Kontinuität des innenpolitischen Reformprozesses, jedoch wurden die Kopenhagener Kriterien vernachlässigt, so dass sich Defizite im Justiz- und Verwaltungsprozess verfestigen konnten. (vgl. Richter 2009, S. 19)Die von der Europäischen Union anerkannte Genfer Flüchtlingskonvention soll Flüchtlingen auf der ganzen Welt Schutz bieten. Doch oftmals sieht die Realität, auch innerhalb der EU anders aus. Vor allem an der kroatischen Grenze zu Bosnien und Herzegowina berichten Menschen davon, über die grüne Grenze zurückgeschickt zu werden. Ihnen zufolge haben sie keinen Zugang zu Asyl und erfahren oftmals exzessive Gewalt von Seiten der kroatischen Polizei. (vgl. Strippel 2021)Dieses Phänomen wird auch Push-Back genannt und bedeutet, dass Menschen, die auf Asyl in Kroatien hoffen, wieder nach Bosnien und Herzegowina abgeschoben werden, wo sie ebenfalls nicht empfangen werden. Diese Verfahren sollten im Normalfall zur Kenntnis genommen und geprüft werden, doch die kroatische Regierung dementiert das Vorgehen der Polizei. Es wird lediglich betont, dass die kroatischen Außengrenzen geschützt werden.Dadurch, dass es keine Einigkeit über diese Vorfälle gibt, werden diese von der Europäischen Union nicht sanktioniert beziehungsweise zur Kenntnis genommen, obwohl es sich hierbei um die Verletzung von Menschenrechten und Missachtung der Genfer Flüchtlingskonvention handeln würde. (vgl. Strippel 2021) Einen interessanten Podcast zu dieser Thematik wurde vom Bayerischen Rundfunk veröffentlicht, dieser ist unter diesem Link zu finden.Kroatien und der SchengenraumLänder, die Teil des Schengen-Raums der EU sein wollen, müssen sich einer Vielzahl von Evaluierungen unterziehen, die prüfen, ob alle für den Schengen-Raum erforderlichen Vorschriften erfüllt worden sind. Die Evaluierungen bewerten, ob das jeweilige Land in der Lage ist, Verantwortung für die Außengrenzen im Namen der anderen Mitglieder des Raumes zu übernehmen. (vgl. Europäische Kommission 2019)2016 wurde der Schengen-Evaluierungsprozess eingeleitet, der bewerten soll, ob Kroatien die Schengen-Vorschriften und Normen erfüllt. Die Europäische Kommission ist dabei der Auffassung, dass Kroatien Fortschritte bei der Erfüllung der Voraussetzungen gemacht hat, weiterhin aber an deren Erfüllung, insbesondere am Management der Außengrenzen, arbeiten muss. (vgl. ebd.) Der Kommissar Dimitris Avramopoulos, welcher für Migration, Bürgerschaft und Inneres zuständig ist, äußert sich im folgenden Zitat über den voraussichtlichen Beitritt Kroatiens zum Schengen-Raum:"Schengen ist eine der größten und greifbarsten Errungenschaften der europäischen Integration. Seine Stärke hängt jedoch von seiner Aufnahmebereitschaft ab. Kroatien hat nun die Maßnahmen zur Erfüllung der notwendigen Bedingungen ergriffen, und wir müssen dies anerkennen. Als vollwertiges Schengen-Mitglied wird das Land zu einer weiteren Stärkung des Schengen-Raums beitragen und dafür sorgen, dass die EU-Außengrenzen besser geschützt werden." (Dimitris Avramopoulos, Europäische Kommission 2019)Das gesamte Statement der Europäischen Kommission zu dieser Thematik wurde auf deren Internetseite veröffentlicht.Wirtschaftliche Maßnahmen im EU-KontextNach Weidenfeld und Wessels (2002) hat die Europäische Union zusammengefasst drei grundlegende Ziele, wenn es um die Struktur ihrer Mitgliedstaaten und vor allem um Regionen mit Entwicklungsrückstand geht. Zum einen sollen diese Regionen und Länder besonders gefördert werden. Nach Auffassung der Europäischen Union besteht dann ein Rückstand, wenn sich das BIP je Bürger*in auf weniger als 75% des EU-Durchschnitts beläuft. Dieses Ziel gilt als Priorität, weshalb mehr als zwei Drittel der Strukturfonds zur Beseitigung dieser Rückstände verwendet werden. (vgl. Weidenfeld/Wessels 2002)Als zweites Ziel gilt die soziale und wirtschaftliche Umstellung von Gebieten, deren Entwicklungsniveau über dem Durchschnitt liegt. Dennoch weisen diese Gebiete Strukturprobleme, wie beispielsweise Deindustrialisierung, eine hohe Arbeitslosenquote, Bevölkerungsrückgang oder Krisensituationen auf, die mit Hilfe der Mittel der Europäischen Union aufgefangen werden sollen. Das dritte Ziel ist die Anpassung und Modernisierung von Ländern und Regionen. (vgl. ebd.)Das EU-Förderprogramm für den Staat Kroatien beinhaltet 10,74 Milliarden Euro und soll die kroatische Wirtschaft unterstützen. Dabei gehen 40% in Fonds für regionale Entwicklung, 24% in Kohäsionsfonds, 19% in Landwirtschaftsfonds, 14% in Sozialfonds und der Rest in Meeres- und Fischereifonds sowie in eine Jugendbeschäftigungsinitiative. (vgl. Holzner/Vidovic 2018, S. 10)Ziel der Unterstützung ist es vor allem, die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung Kroatiens voranzutreiben, die Armut innerhalb der Gesellschaft zu bekämpfen und den Arbeitsmarkt zu verbessern. Die Inanspruchnahme ist im Vergleich zu anderen EU-Ländern allerdings gering, nimmt aber immer weiter zu. Das langsame Vorgehen könnte damit zusammenhängen, dass die Entwicklungsfähigkeit des Landes derzeit noch nicht so weit ausgeprägt ist, dass die Fonds angemessen verwaltet werden können. (vgl. ebd., S. 25)Ein wichtiges Infrastrukturprojekt, das sich derzeit in Baumaßnahmen befindet und von der kroatischen Regierung mithilfe der EU-Fonds gestartet wurde, ist der Bau der Pelješac-Brücke, welche das Festland mit der vorgelagerten Halbinsel verbinden soll. 357 Millionen von 550 Millionen Kosten werden von der EU getragen. Allerdings erhielt der chinesische Staatskonzern Communications Construction Company den Zuschlag für den Bau, was vielerorts für Erstaunen sorgte. (vgl. Mihm 2021)Weitere Ziele, die die EU-Mitgliedschaft mit sich bringen soll, sind die Ansiedlung einer EU-Einrichtung, die Einführung der goldenen Investitionsregel sowie vor allem der Eintritt in den Schengenraum. (vgl. Holzner, Vidovic 2018)Einfluss des BrexitDas Vereinigte Königreich selbst führte den Euro als Währung nicht ein und trotzdem hat der Austritt Großbritanniens aus der Europäischen Union einen großen Einfluss auf die Währungsintegration und somit auch auf die Währungspolitik Kroatiens und das Verhältnis zur Europäischen Union.Bei den acht Mitgliedsstaaten, die den Euro noch nicht eingeführt haben, den so genannten "Euro-Outs", kann zunehmend die Befürchtung beobachtet werden, dass ihr Einfluss auf den Willensbildungsprozess innerhalb der Union verringert wird. Als Folge dieser Sorge hat sich eine Art Koalition von Staaten entwickelt, die die Interessen einiger Mitglieder vereint. Der Brexit kann also als Auslöser für eine neue Dynamik und Treiber für die Ausdehnung der Eurozone gesehen werden. (vgl. Tokarski; Funk 2018, S. 1)Kroatien gehört zu der Gruppe der "Euro-Outs". Sie sind eine heterogene Gruppe von Staaten, die verschiedenen Wirtschaftsmodellen folgen und sich in unterschiedlichen Stadien ihrer Entwicklung befinden. Rumänien und Kroatien sind darunter die Staaten, die ein Wechselkursregime mit kontrolliertem, variablem Wechselkurs unterhalten. Die Problematik hinsichtlich der ungleichen ökonomischen Bedingungen ist, dass diese die Kooperation zwischen den Mitgliedsstaaten erschweren. Allerdings gilt Kroatien als Spezialfall, denn auch wenn der Euro als Währung noch nicht eingeführt wurde, ist die Wirtschaft weitgehend "euroisiert", da 67% der Verbindlichkeiten und 75% der Anlagen auf dem Euro basieren. (vgl. ebd., S. 1 f.) Die Einführung der europäischen Währung ist also nur eine Frage der Zeit und eine Frage des politischen Fortschritts.ArbeitsmarktAufgrund der Überbewertung des realen Wechselkurses befand sich die Wirtschaft Kroatiens zwischen 2009 und 2014 in einer tiefen Rezession, was dazu führte, dass die Beschäftigungszahlen sanken und das BIP um fast 13% einbrach. Seit dieser Zeit sinken die Zahlen der Arbeitslosen, somit erreichte die Arbeitslosenquote innerhalb des Landes im Mai 2017 den niedrigsten Wert mit 11,7%. (vgl. Holzner, Vidovic 2018, S. 2 f.)Bis heute ist der kroatische Arbeitsmarkt gekennzeichnet durch geringe Erwerbstätigkeit und niedrige Beschäftigung, was ein massives Problem darstellt. Die Beschäftigtenrate ist niedriger als der EU-Durchschnitt. Neben Italien und Rumänien hat Kroatien den höchsten Anteil an inaktiven Bürger*innen innerhalb der Europäischen Union. (vgl. ebd., S. 4 f.)Besonders Jugendliche und Kroat*innen mit primären Ausbildungen sind von Arbeitslosigkeit betroffen. Personen mit Sekundärbildung können die geringste Arbeitslosigkeit aufweisen. Trotzdem wird oft der Mangel an Arbeitskräften vor allem in touristischen Gebieten bemängelt. (vgl. ebd., S. 5 f.)Zur Lösung dieser Problematik fordern Gewerkschaften höhere Löhne für Arbeiter*innen. Einige Vertreter*innen von Unternehmen fordern allerdings die Erhöhung der Quoten für Arbeitsplätze aus dem Ausland. (vgl. ebd., S. 6)ArbeitsmigrationBereits seit den 60er Jahren, in denen viele Gastarbeiter*innen vom Balkan in Länder wie Deutschland und Österreich immigrierten, um ihre Familien zu ernähren, spielt die Thematik Arbeitsmigration in Kroatien eine wichtige Rolle. Bis heute nutzen viele Kroat*innen die besseren Arbeitsumstände und Löhne in Ländern wie Deutschland, um ihren Familien ein besseres Leben ermöglichen zu können.Seit dem Beitritt Kroatiens zur Europäischen Union sind die Zahlen der Migrant*innen aus Kroatien um 38% gestiegen. Insbesondere war hierfür die Öffnung des kroatischen Arbeitsmarktes verantwortlich, der es kroatischen Staatsbürger*innen ermöglichte, in anderen Mitgliedsländern der Europäischen Union ihren Lebensunterhalt zu verdienen. Die Mehrheit der Kroat*innen ist im Alter zwischen 25 und 54 Jahren und findet Beschäftigung in der Industrie sowie in der Bauwirtschaft. (vgl. Holzer, Vidovic 2018)Aufgrund von Faktoren wie der unterdurchschnittlichen Entlohnung hat Kroatien der Auswanderung dieser Bürger*innen wenig entgegenzusetzen. Dem Regierungsprogram 2016-2020 ist lediglich ein vages Statement zu der Auswanderung kroatischer Jugendliche und junger Erwachsenen zu entnehmen. Das Ziel ist es, mehr Arbeitsplätze zu schaffen und dadurch junge Leute dazu zu bewegen, in Kroatien zu bleiben. (vgl. ebd., S. 9)EuroskeptizismusSeit einiger Zeit befindet sich die gesamte Europäische Union in einer Krise, die mehrere Teilkrisen umfasst und deshalb auch Polykrise genannt wird. Dazu zählt unter anderem auch der Euroskeptizismus, der in allen Mitgliedsländern zunehmend wahrzunehmen ist. Dieser kann mit einzelnen Politiken oder dem Erhalt von Souveränitätsrechten begründet werden. (vgl. Weiss, S. 14)Auch wenn der Euroskeptizismus mittlerweile weit verbreitet ist, gibt es zwischen den Mitgliedsstaaten Unterschiede in der Ausprägung. Besonders neue Mitgliedstaaten, wie auch Kroatien, empfinden die Thematik des Kompetenz- und Souveränitätstransfers an die Europäische Union problematisch. Dieser Machtverlust wird als sensibel, historisch abrufbar aber auch politisch instrumentalisierbar wahrgenommen. (vgl. ebd., S. 14)LegitimitäskriseDie Europäische Union leidet also derzeit unter einem Stimmungstief, das mehrere Ursachen hat. Vor allem aber hagelt es immer mehr Kritik zum Thema Demokratiedefizit, Handlungsunfähigkeit und mangelnder Bürgernähe. Viele Bürger*innen begegnen der EU misstrauisch, da sie für sie sehr intransparent und wenig demokratisch erscheint. (vgl. Höreth 2004, S. 41)Aufgrund dessen machte es sich die EU bereits im Jahr 2002 zum Ziel, verfassungsmäßige und institutionelle Voraussetzungen zu schaffen, die demokratische Grundsätze innerhalb der erweiterten EU sowie die Steuerungsfähigkeit nach innen und die Handlungsfähigkeit nach außen ermöglichen sollen. Dieses ambitionierte Ziel konnte allerdings bislang nicht erreicht werden, da einzelne Mitgliedsstaaten auf die Gewichtung ihrer Stimmen im Ministerrat nicht verzichten wollten. (vgl. ebd., S. 41) Nach Höreth (2004) basiert das Demokratiedefizit nicht nur auf technische Probleme des Politikmanagements, sondern auf grundlegende Legitimitätsprobleme, die die Anerkennungswürdigkeit der EU in Frage stellen.FazitWie auch die anderen Mitgliedstaaten der Europäischen Union hat Kroatien mit den Hindernissen der Polykrise zu kämpfen. Doch die Gesamtsituation des Staates zeigt, dass das Land sich vor allem mit Themen wie dem Umgang mit Flüchtlingen im Rückstand befindet, was damit zusammenhängen könnte, dass sich politische, soziale und ideologische Strukturen, die sich im Laufe der Geschichte, aber vor allem während der Unabhängigkeitskriege gebildet haben, verfestigt haben.Die geringe Wahlbeteiligung und die 67%ige Zustimmung zum Beitritt in die Europäische Union lässt relativ offen, wie die kroatische Gesellschaft zu der Europäischen Union steht. Zunächst konnte allerdings das Gefühl geweckt werden, dass eine gewisse EU-Euphorie in der Gesellschaft Kroatien zu beobachten war. Nun aber äußern sich, wie in der gesamten Europäischen Union erkennbar, immer mehr Menschen skeptisch gegenüber der EU. Es erscheint immer noch so, als ob die Gesellschaft den Entscheidungsprozessen der Europäischen Union nur schwer folgen kann und sie sich damit unsicher fühlen.Die kroatische Regierung hat einige Maßnahmen getroffen, um den EU-Beitritt des Staates zu ermöglichen. Trotzdem gibt es Kritiker*innen, die der Meinung sind, die EU habe es Kroatien zu einfach gemacht. Nach ihr wurden die Kopenhagener Kriterien erfüllt, sonst hätte das Land nicht zu einem offiziellen Mitglied der Europäischen Union werden können.Doch ein genauerer Blick in die Strukturen des Staates und vor allem auf die Grenze zu Bosnien und Herzegowina zeigen: das Land muss weiterhin an sich arbeiten, um den Kriterien gerecht werden zu können. Die Europäische Union darf die Augen nicht verschließen, wie es derzeit getan wird, indem zuversichtlich über den Beitritt in den Schengen-Raum diskutiert wird. Als Friedensgemeinschaft ist die Aufgabe der Europäischen Union, Menschenrechte zu wahren und dort genauer hinzuschauen, wo diese verletzt werden. Allerdings setzt der Beitritt Kroatiens in die Europäische Union gleichzeitig auch ein wichtiges Zeichen und bringt den Staat, als einer der stabilsten Länder auf dem Balkan, dazu, aktiv zu werden und als Vorbild für den restlichen Balkan zu fungieren.Auch wenn der Beitritt kritisch hinterfragt werden kann, sollte also gesagt werden, dass der Staat durchaus Schritte macht, die ohne die Europäische Union wahrscheinlich nicht stattgefunden hätten. Kroatien profitiert sowohl wirtschaftlich, als auch gesellschaftlich von den Vorteilen der EU. Allerdings verlangsamen Defizite innerhalb der Politik, wie beispielsweise lange Verwaltungsverfahren die Fortschritte, so dass die Europäische Union zum einen Geduld zeigen, aber zum anderen die Problematiken innerhalb des Landes nicht ignorieren sollte.LiteraturverzeichnisBundeszentrale für politische Bildung (2013): 1. Juli: Kroatien tritt der EU bei. Online verfügbar unter https://www.bpb.de/politik/hintergrund-aktuell/164274/1-juli-kroatien-tritt-der-eu-bei-28-06-2013, zuletzt geprüft am 14.09.2021.Europäische Kommission (2019): Schengen-Beitritt: Kroatien vor dem Beitritt zum Schengen-Raum. Online verfügbar unter https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/de/IP_19_6140, zuletzt geprüft am 30.09.2021.Holzner, Mario (2018): Wirtschaftliche Perspektiven für Kroatien. wiiw Forschungsbericht. Wien: The Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies.Horeth, Marcus (2004): Die erweiterte EU in der Legitimitätskrise. In: Der Bürger im Staat 54 (1), S. 41–48.Kušić, Siniša (2021): Kroatiens Weg in die EU . Hg. v. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. Online verfügbar unter https://www.bpb.de/apuz/158164/kroatiens-weg-in-die-eu, zuletzt geprüft am 14.09.2021.Mihm, Andreas (2021): Chinesen bauen Brücke in Kroatien, die EU zahlt. Hg. v. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. Online verfügbar unter https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/kroatien-china-baut-peljesac-bruecke-und-die-eu-zahlt-17461739.html, zuletzt geprüft am 30.09.2021.Richter, Solveig (2009): Zielkonflikte der EU-Erweiterungspolitik? Kroatien und Makedonien zwischen Stabilität und Demokratie. Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik.Schrooten, Mechthild (2004): Ökonomische Perspektiven der EU-Osterweiterung. In: Der Bürger im Staat 54 (1), S. 17–20.Steindorf, Ludwig (2013): Ein kurzer Gang durch die Geschichte Kroatiens. Hg. v. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. Online verfügbar unter https://www.bpb.de/apuz/158166/ein-kurzer-gang-durch-die-geschichte, zuletzt geprüft am 30.09.2021.Tokarski, P.; Funk, S. (2018): Die Nicht-Euro-Staaten in der EU nach dem Brexit. In: SWP-Aktuell (68), S. 1–8.Weidenfeld, W.; Wessels, W. (2002): Jahrbuch der Europäischen Integration 2002/2003. Bonn: Europa Union Verlag.Weiss, S. (2004): Die Erweiterung aus der Sicht der Beitrittskandidaten. In: Der Bürger im Staat 54 (1), S. 11–17.

Relevance of research topic. The number of Ukrainian holding-type organizations and their land bankcontinues to grow, "displacing" small and medium-sized producers from the agricultural economy.Since 2019, state policy has been refocusing on forced support for small and small-scale farms, and after the Ukrainian decentralization reform the leadership of the united territorial communities of the new tools they received depends on the development of small and medium-sized businesses. Formulation of the problem. Today, the actualization of local economic development requires significant financial resources from the united territorial communities. And the formation of their budget depends on the effectiveagricultural sector operation. After the Ukrainian reform of local self-government and decentralization, the economic development of the territories and of Ukraine as a whole, depends on the using of new tools and resources by the community leadership. The solution of theagrarian sphere problems of the united territorial communities is in the plane ofsmall agrarian entrepreneurship state support, strengthening of the state control over the activity of large agro-traders, as well as their social and financial responsibility to the united territorial communities. Analysis of recent research and publications. Theoretical questions on the study of small agrarian entrepreneurship in the development of united territorial communities were engaged in such scientists of the Institute of Economics of NASU, Institute of Agrarian Economics of NAAS of Ukraine, as Shemyakin D., Finagina O. V., Lysetsky A. S., Onishchenko O. M., and other national and foreign scientists. Selection of unexplored parts of the general problem. The issue of the impact of decentralization on theagricultural sector development of the united territorial communities needs to be detailed and further researched. Setting the task, the purpose of the study. The article aim is to investigate the theoretical aspect of organizational and legal foundations of the formation of united territorial communities in Ukraine, assess thesmall agricultural business current state and trace its relationship with the activities of united territorial communities for economic development. Method or methodology for conducting research. The set of general scientific methods of cognition and special methods of economic research are used in the work. Among them: analysis and synthesis, generalization and comparison, system-structural and comparative analysis, systematic method of cognition of economic processes and phenomena, index method and method of statistical groupings for analysis of united territorial communities activity development of the agro-industrial complex of Ukraine. Presentation of the main material (results of work). The article considers the theoretical aspect of organizational and legal foundations of the united territorial communities formation in Ukraine, assesses the current state of small agricultural business and reveals it's main relationships with the united territorial communities activities for region economic development. Territorial communities are voluntary associations of residents of city, village and settlement councils, which directly receive funding from the state budget for the development of education, medicine, sports, culture, and social protection. Financial support from the state gives more opportunities to local communities to implement their own projects. The more active the territorial community, the more projects will be implemented and theterritorial communityprofitability level will be higher, which it will spend on the development of territories. This is the main incentive to attract additional investment to improve people's living standards. In 2020, theUkrainian Cabinet of Ministers adopted 24 orders on the definition of administrative centers and approval ofregional community's territories. There are 1469 territorial communities in our country. After the launch of the decentralization process in Ukraine – the transfer of powers and resources to places from which the community itself determines the direction of funding, small communities require forresource lack for rural development. The solution has beena decision to consolidate several councils by merging, which allowed communities to use common resources for territorial development. Ukraine owns 60.3 million hectares, which is about 6% of Europe's territory.There are 32.7 millionarable land hectares of land in the structure ofUkrainian agricultural territory, of which almost 9 million are used as pastures, hayfields and other agricultural lands. The quarter of agricultural land was never distributed, remaining on the balance of the state. Thus, state and the communal property include 10.5 million hectares of agricultural land, which is 26% of the total area, of which 3.2 million hectares – in the permanent use of state enterprises, 2.5 million hectares – in stock, and the rest – for rent. Almost 40% of the total number of Ukrainian enterprises in the agricultural sector and 38% of the area of agricultural land cultivated by agricultural enterprises are absorbed by agricultural holdings and large agricultural traders. On June 1, 2019, there were more than 160 large agricultural holdings in the country, they cultivate more than 3.6 million hectares of agricultural land. Thus, today in Ukraine the number of holding-type organizations and their land bank continues to grow, "displacing" small and medium-sized producers from the agricultural economy. Thecommunity agrarian branch is a complex multi-sectoral system, the individual subsystems of which are unevenly represented in different territorial formations, but are in close interaction with each other. The role of small agrarian businesses in the development of united territorial community'sagriculture is constantly growing. In recent years, the share of farms has increased by 30%. With the development of farming in the agricultural regions of Ukraine, the opportunities to solve the problem of employment in rural areas and the revival of territories in general are increasing. Therefore, state support for agricultural producers is an important step in order to obtain funds for small business development in the agro-industrial sector. If earlier the preference of vectors of state support was in large agro-traders, then from 2019 the policy of the state was reoriented to the strengthened support of small and small-scale farms. Such support is confirmed by financial preferences for small agribusiness through regional branches of the Ukrainian State Farm Support Fund. Agricultural cooperatives will receive state support through cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture of Ukraine with the assistance of the Department. Thus, today the promissory note form of payment has been abolished, and 70% of the cost of their equipment has been reimbursed for cooperatives. As a result of the crisis of 2014-2016, many Ukrainians started doing business and many successful cases of micro and small agricultural enterprises operating in the regions appeared in the country. However, barriers to rural development are a lack of financial resources and a lack of economic knowledge. Therefore, in order to maximally support farms and agro-industrial entrepreneurship in rural areas by the state, high-quality interaction and communication on the ground is needed. Thus, in addition to financial support, the state program also includes advising agricultural producers. Experienced specialists will help to structure the business, calculate the financial and create a business plan. In 2020, the budget of financial support for the agro-industrial sector of Ukraine is set at 4 billion UAH, which is only 43% of the limit – does not meet 1% of GDP. the real need for financial state support of a key sector of Ukraine's economy. The implementation of the program of financing micro and small agribusiness has great potential not only in the country, but also within each united territorial community. Each of them, which participates in the program of state support of small agrarian business, annually receives about 75 thousand UAH of taxes to its budget. On a national scale, this is an additional UAH 75 million ($ 3.06 million) in taxes to local budgets over 5 years. The possibility of organizational and legal forms of micro and small agribusiness, according to the current legislation of Ukraine, to hire labor – partially solves the problem of unemployment in rural areas. A significant contribution is also made by micro and small agribusiness in increasing the volume of gross domestic product in Ukraine. Small and medium business in Ukraine brings 55% of gross domestic product to the country's economy, and micro and small business 16%, while in Europe the figure is twice as high, and their efficiency is 10 times higher than in our country. It is the subjects of small and medium-sized businesses in the field of agriculture that are powerful catalysts and stimulators of business activity, determine the unification of all participants in economic relations in the country. Therefore, state support and effective development of united territorial community'sagribusiness create the basis for the emergence and functioning of the institutional environment. Thus, giving 12% of Ukraine's GDP and providing jobs for members of the local community, small agribusiness entities need the development of agricultural equipment suppliers, agricultural processors, research institutions that conduct breeding work and develop modern technologies, logistics infrastructure, market structures, as well as institutions of agricultural education. The agro-industrial sphere of the community is the main means of ensuring the socio-economic development of territorial united territorial communitiesand the effective functioning of rural areas. However, the distribution of agricultural land and land ownership remains an urgent problem for united territorial communities, as in addition to the territorial base, the land is a means of agricultural production. The population of the united territorial community is the main consumer of agricultural products produced by small agricultural enterprises. So, it provides a reproduction of labor for the industry. The vector of development of united territorial community'sagricultural production depends on the availability of natural, productive and labor resources of the community. The most energy-intensive are the production of vegetable crops, sugar beets, potatoes, industrial crops, as well as certain livestock industries, which are more often engaged in by farms and small agricultural enterprises. The study found that in Ukraine, government measures are the main obstacle to the development of agro-industrial entrepreneurship in united territorial communities, because it creates an extremely unfavorable climate for the development of small and medium enterprises or prohibits it altogether. For many years in a row, the sources of budget formation, which are generally local taxes, remain a significant problem in the development of agriculturally oriented united territorial communities. The limitation of incomes of agricultural enterprises and the population is the low efficiency of agricultural enterprises, the main reason for which is the low wages of peasants. The reason for this problem in the agricultural sector is low productivity, which forms the added value of agricultural products. Examining the structure of Ukrainian small agrarian business, its players in general education were classified into two large groups: 1. Farmers and agricultural producers living and working in rural areas. They live in a society within the lands of which they rent shares, pay all the necessary taxes, provide residents of general education with jobs, finished agricultural products at affordable prices. 2. Farmers who are registered in Ukrainian cities, however, use the land of the community, paying only the rent of agricultural land, depleting them due to non-compliance with crop rotations. Such agro-traders enjoy state support, soft loans and other preferences, receive super-profits and in no way contribute to the development of agricultural areas and society. These are the activities of large agro-industrial holdings, the form of interaction with rural general education and the mechanisms of social responsibility which need to be worked out with the help of the following measures by the government and agricultural producers: 1) development and restoration of the infrastructure of the united territorial communities and its elements used by agricultural holdings; 2) use of modern ecologically safe agrotechnologies. 3) training of qualified specialists in the field of agro-industrial complex, their employment in modern agro-industrial companies; 4) state support, restoration and preservation of recreational and health facilities of the united territorial communities, including agricultural lands, which are leased by large agricultural holdings; 5) involvement in the economic activity of the agricultural holding of farms on a partnership basis. Thus, partnerships and cooperation between large agricultural holdings and small agricultural producers of united territorial communities can contribute not only to the development of small agricultural businesses in Ukraine, but also to the socio-economic development of society and rural areas in general. The field of application of results. Thescientific research results on the problems of small agricultural entrepreneurship in the development of united territorial communities can be used in the field of state regulation of agribusiness and united territorial communities to support local agricultural producers. Conclusions according to the article. The agro-industrial sphere of the communities is the main means of ensuring the socio-economic development of territorial communities and the effective functioning of rural areas, because the development of farming opportunities increases the problem of rural employment and the revival of territories in general. That is why state support for agricultural producers is an important step to obtain funds for small business development in the agro-industrial sector.

Full list of authors: Janssen, Michael; Falcke, Heino; Kadler, Matthias; Ros, Eduardo; Wielgus, Maciek; Akiyama, Kazunori; Baloković, Mislav; Blackburn, Lindy; Bouman, Katherine L.; Chael, Andrew; Chan, Chi-kwan; Chatterjee, Koushik; Davelaar, Jordy; Edwards, Philip G.; Fromm, Christian M.; Gómez, José L.; Goddi, Ciriaco; Issaoun, Sara; Johnson, Michael D.; Kim, Junhan; Koay, Jun Yi; Krichbaum, Thomas P.; Liu, Jun; Liuzzo, Elisabetta; Markoff, Sera; Markowitz, Alex; Marrone, Daniel P.; Mizuno, Yosuke; Müller, Cornelia; Ni, Chunchong; Pesce, Dominic W.; Ramakrishnan, Venkatessh; Roelofs, Freek; Rygl, Kazi L. J.; van Bemmel, Ilse; Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration.--This Open Access article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. ; Very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) observations of active galactic nuclei at millimetre wavelengths have the power to reveal the launching and initial collimation region of extragalactic radio jets, down to 10–100 gravitational radii (rg ≡ GM/c2) scales in nearby sources1. Centaurus A is the closest radio-loud source to Earth2. It bridges the gap in mass and accretion rate between the supermassive black holes (SMBHs) in Messier 87 and our Galactic Centre. A large southern declination of −43° has, however, prevented VLBI imaging of Centaurus A below a wavelength of 1 cm thus far. Here we show the millimetre VLBI image of the source, which we obtained with the Event Horizon Telescope at 228 GHz. Compared with previous observations3, we image the jet of Centaurus A at a tenfold higher frequency and sixteen times sharper resolution and thereby probe sub-lightday structures. We reveal a highly collimated, asymmetrically edge-brightened jet as well as the fainter counterjet. We find that the source structure of Centaurus A resembles the jet in Messier 87 on ~500 rg scales remarkably well. Furthermore, we identify the location of Centaurus A's SMBH with respect to its resolved jet core at a wavelength of 1.3 mm and conclude that the source's event horizon shadow4 should be visible at terahertz frequencies. This location further supports the universal scale invariance of black holes over a wide range of masses5,6. © 2021, The Author(s). ; A.C. is an Einstein Fellow of the NASA Hubble Fellowship Program. J.P is an EACOA fellow. Z.Y. is a UKRI Stephen Hawking Fellow. We thank the following organizations and programmes: the Academy of Finland (projects 274477, 284495, 312496, 315721); the Agencia Nacional de Investigacion y Desarrollo (ANID), Chile via NCN19_058 (TITANs) and Fondecyt 3190878; the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung; an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship; Allegro, the European ALMA Regional Centre node in the Netherlands, the NL astronomy research network NOVA and the astronomy institutes of the University of Amsterdam, Leiden University and Radboud University; the Black Hole Initiative at Harvard University, through a grant (60477) from the John Templeton Foundation; the China Scholarship Council; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACYT, Mexico, projects U0004-246083, U0004-259839, F0003-272050, M0037-279006, F0003-281692, 104497, 275201, 263356, 57265507); the Delaney Family via the Delaney Family John A. Wheeler Chair at Perimeter Institute; Direccion General de Asuntos del Personal Academico-Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (DGAPA-UNAM, projects IN112417 and IN112820); the EACOA Fellowship of the East Asia Core Observatories Association; the European Research Council Synergy Grant "BlackHoleCam: Imaging the Event Horizon of Black Holes" (grant 610058); the Generalitat Valenciana postdoctoral grant APOSTD/2018/177 and GenT Program (project CIDEGENT/2018/021); MICINN Research Project PID2019-108995GB-C22; the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation (grants GBMF-3561, GBMF-5278); the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) sezione di Napoli, iniziative specifiche TEONGRAV; the International Max Planck Research School for Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Universities of Bonn and Cologne; Joint Princeton/Flatiron and Joint Columbia/Flatiron Postdoctoral Fellowships, research at the Flatiron Institute is supported by the Simons Foundation; the Japanese Government (Monbukagakusho: MEXT) Scholarship; the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Research Fellowship (JP17J08829); the Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS, grants QYZDJ-SSW-SLH057, QYZDJSSW-SYS008, ZDBS-LY-SLH011). We further thank the Leverhulme Trust Early Career Research Fellowship; the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (MPG); the Max Planck Partner Group of the MPG and the CAS; the MEXT/JSPS KAKENHI (grants 18KK0090, JP18K13594, JP18K03656, JP18H03721, 18K03709, 18H01245, JP19H01943, 25120007); the Malaysian Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) FRGS/1/2019/STG02/UM/02/6; the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives (MISTI) Funds; the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) of Taiwan (105-2112-M-001-025-MY3, 106-2112-M-001-011, 106-2119-M-001-027, 107-2119-M-001-017, 107-2119-M-001020, 107-2119-M-110-005, 108-2112-M-001-048, and 109-2124-M-001-005); the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, Fermi Guest Investigator grant 80NSSC20K1567, NASA Astrophysics Theory Program grant 80NSSC20K0527, NASA grant NNX17AL82G, and Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51431.001-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555, and NASA NuSTAR award 80NSSC20K0645); the National Institute of Natural Sciences (NINS) of Japan; the National Key Research and Development Program of China (grant 2016YFA0400704, 2016YFA0400702); the National Science Foundation (NSF, grants AST-0096454, AST-0352953, AST-0521233, AST-0705062, AST-0905844, AST-0922984, AST-1126433, AST-1140030, DGE-1144085, AST-1207704, AST1207730, AST-1207752, MRI-1228509, OPP-1248097, AST-1310896, AST-1337663, AST-1440254, AST-1555365, AST-1615796, AST-1715061, AST-1716327, AST1716536, OISE-1743747, AST-1816420, AST-1903847, AST-1935980, AST-2034306); the Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 11573051, 11633006, 11650110427, 10625314, 11721303, 11725312, 11933007, 11991052, 11991053); a fellowship of China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2020M671266); the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC, including a Discovery Grant and the NSERC Alexander Graham Bell Canada Graduate Scholarships-Doctoral Program); the National Research Foundation of Korea (the Global PhD Fellowship Grant: grants 2014H1A2A1018695, NRF-2015H1A2A1033752, 2015-R1D1A1A01056807, the Korea Research Fellowship Program: NRF-2015H1D3A1066561, Basic Research Support Grant 2019R1F1A1059721); the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) VICI award (grant 639.043. 513) and Spinoza Prize SPI 78-409; the New Scientific Frontiers with Precision Radio Interferometry Fellowship awarded by the South African Radio Astronomy Observatory (SARAO), which is a facility of the National Research Foundation (NRF), an agency of the Department of Science and Innovation (DSI) of South Africa; the South African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of Science and Innovation and National Research Foundation; the Onsala Space Observatory (OSO) national infrastructure, for the provisioning of its facilities/observational support (OSO receives funding through the Swedish Research Council under grant 2017-00648) the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics (research at Perimeter Institute is supported by the Government of Canada through the Department of Innovation, Science and Economic Development and by the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Research, Innovation and Science); the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (grants PGC2018-098915-B-C21, AYA2016-80889-P, PID2019-108995GB-C21); the State Agency for Research of the Spanish MCIU through the 'Center of Excellence Severo Ochoa' award for the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (SEV-2017-0709); the Toray Science Foundation; the Consejeria de Economia, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad of the Junta de Andalucia (grant P18-FR-1769), the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (grant 2019AEP112); the US Department of Energy (US DOE) through the Los Alamos National Laboratory (operated by Triad National Security, LLC, for the National Nuclear Security Administration of the US DOE (Contract 89233218CNA000001); the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 730562 RadioNet; ALMA North America Development Fund; the Academia Sinica; Chandra TM6-17006X and DD7-18089X; the GenT Program (Generalitat Valenciana) Project CIDEGENT/2018/021. This work used the Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment (XSEDE), supported by NSF grant ACI-1548562, and CyVerse, supported by NSF grants DBI-0735191, DBI-1265383, and DBI-1743442. XSEDE Stampede2 resource at TACC was allocated through TG-AST170024 and TG-AST080026N. XSEDE JetStream resource at PTI and TACC was allocated through AST170028. The simulations were performed in part on the SuperMUC cluster at the LRZ in Garching, on the LOEWE cluster in CSC in Frankfurt, and on the HazelHen cluster at the HLRS in Stuttgart. This research was enabled in part by support provided by Compute Ontario (http://computeontario.ca), Calcul Quebec (http://www.calculquebec.ca) and Compute Canada (http://www.computecanada.ca).We thank the staff at the participating observatories, correlation centres, and institutions for their enthusiastic support. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO. ALMA#2016.1.01198.V. ALMA is a partnership of the European Southern Observatory (ESO; Europe, representing its member states), NSF, and National Institutes of Natural Sciences of Japan, together with National Research Council (Canada), Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST; Taiwan), Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA; Taiwan), and Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI; Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, Associated Universities, Inc. (AUI)/NRAO, and the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ). The NRAO is a facility of the NSF operated under cooperative agreement by AUI. APEX is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Institut fur Radioastronomie (Germany), ESO, and the Onsala Space Observatory (Sweden). The SMA is a joint project between the SAO and ASIAA and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. The JCMT is operated by the East Asian Observatory on behalf of the NAOJ, ASIAA, and KASI, as well as the Ministry of Finance of China, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the National Key R&D Program (No. 2017YFA0402700) of China. Additional funding support for the JCMT is provided by the Science and Technologies Facility Council (UK) and participating universities in the UK and Canada. The LMT is a project operated by the Instituto Nacional de Astrofisica, Optica, y Electronica (Mexico) and the University of Massachusetts at Amherst (USA), with financial support from the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia and the National Science Foundation. The IRAM 30-m telescope on Pico Veleta, Spain is operated by IRAM and supported by CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France), MPG (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Germany) and IGN (Instituto Geografico Nacional, Spain). The SMT is operated by the Arizona Radio Observatory, a part of the Steward Observatory of the University of Arizona, with financial support of operations from the State of Arizona and financial support for instrumentation development from the NSF. The SPT is supported by the National Science Foundation through grant PLR-1248097. Partial support is also provided by the NSF Physics Frontier Center grant PHY-1125897 to the Kavli Institute of Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago, the Kavli Foundation and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation grant GBMF 947. The SPT hydrogen maser was provided on loan from the GLT, courtesy of ASIAA. The EHTC has received generous donations of FPGA chips from Xilinx Inc., under the Xilinx University Program. The EHTC has benefited from technology shared under open-source license by the Collaboration for Astronomy Signal Processing and Electronics Research (CASPER). The EHT project is grateful to T4Science and Microsemi for their assistance with Hydrogen Masers. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System. We gratefully acknowledge the support provided by the extended staff of the ALMA, both from the inception of the ALMA Phasing Project through the observational campaigns of 2017 and 2018. The grants listed above collectively fund the Event Horizon Telescope project. ; Peer reviewed

This dissertation, entitled "How to Embed Sustainability in the Core of Higher Education Institutions: Drivers of, Barriers to, & Patterns behind the Implementation Processes of Sustainability Curricula – Insights from a Quantitative Meta-Study with Data from around the Globe," addresses the question of how sustainability curricula1 can be implemented and established in higher education institutions2. This research question is based on the assumption that sustainable development requires new ways of thinking and acting in the world. Accordingly, universities – as hubs for knowledge generation, innovation, and education – provide a central leverage point for sustainably developing society at large. Therefore, the institutionalization of sustainability curricula is not only socially demanded, but also stipulated in numerous political statements from the international community (e.g., those of the UN and UNESCO) and operationalized via Sustainable Development Goal No. 4: "Quality Education". Previous findings on how such implementation can be successful and what factors support or inhibit the process have come primarily through case studies of individual higher education institutions. These studies provide important insights but have been largely descriptive rather than analytical and leave open questions about the generalizability of their findings – for example, the extent to which other universities can be guided by the experiences of the respective higher education institutions. The present dissertation addresses this research gap. Through a meta-study (i.e., an analytical comparison of existing case studies), generalizable findings on the implementation processes of sustainability curricula are explored. In the first step, a case universe was collected in order to provide a database for deeper analyses. In two further analysis steps that built on the case universe from Step 1, certain factors that promote or inhibit the implementation of sustainability curricula (Step 2) and specific implementation patterns (Step 3) were examined. The following paragraphs provide greater details and an overview of the respective findings. In the first step, a database of peer-reviewed English-language case studies from around the globe that report on such processes was created. A total of 230 case studies were identified, 133 of which focus on the implementation processes of sustainability curricula.3 A bibliometric analysis of the 230 case studies revealed that this field of research is growing, although the discourse is primarily dominated by authors from North America, Europe, Oceania, and Asia, with South America and Africa being underrepresented. In addition, a citation analysis demonstrated that some universities incorporate findings from other countries whereas other universities act in isolation. This observation leaves open the question of the extent to which universities learn from one another in order to advance the implementation of sustainability curricula. In the second step of the analysis, the qualitative data of the collected case studies (sample of 133 case studies) were compared using the case survey method, which is a specific type of a meta-1 Sustainability curricula include courses, programs, and certificates from all fields of study that deal in some form with sustainability topics. For a more-detailed discussion of what education for sustainable development (ESD) entails, see Section Error! Reference source not found. 2 Higher education institutions (HEIs) include universities, universities of applied sciences, and other institutions that offer at least a bachelor's degree. 3 A detailed explanation of the case sample and subsamples can be found in Section Error! Reference source not found. analysis. The focus of the comparison lay on the drivers of and barriers to the processes of sustainability curriculum implementation at higher education institutions. Driving- and inhibiting factors have been thoroughly examined theoretically in the discourse on education for sustainable development (ESD), especially those pertaining to higher education institutions. However, no large body of data has yet been created to empirically test these hypotheses. The present meta-study found that the following factors lead to the deep-rooted and comprehensive establishment of sustainability curricula: strong leadership support; the establishment of sustainability curricula in the areas of education, research, campus operations, and outreach activities; formal participation of internal (including students) and external stakeholders; and engagement by sustainability champions (change agents), who are often the first to implement sustainability curricula and can face strong resistance. Other enabling factors include strategic planning, coordination, communication, having a vision, external political influence, the presence of a window of opportunity (e.g., an environmental disaster, a change in presidency), and the availability of interdisciplinary meeting spaces. On the other hand, the strongest cited barriers to the implantation of sustainability curricula were found to be the lack of interdisciplinary meeting spaces, the lack of a vision, the lack of incentives, the lack of resources, an overly full curriculum, and an unsupportive / overly bureaucratic organizational structure. The third step of the analysis also built on data from the 133 case studies and explored whether certain types or patterns of implementation processes occur. Through the analysis, six implementation patterns were identified that share similar driving- and inhibiting factors. The respective interplay between factors leads to various degrees of sustainability curriculum implementation in terms of how deeply rooted and comprehensive this implementation is. As discussed in greater detail below, in descending order of the level of achieved deep-rooted change, these patterns are (1) a collaborative paradigm shift, (2) bottom-up institutional change, (3) top-down institutional change, (4) the presence of many barriers that hinder institutional change, (5) externally driven initiatives, and (6) initiatives that are scattered due to a lack of coordination. Across all patterns, two phases could be identified: First, the impetus to implement ESD may be initiated not only by internal actors, but also by external ones. This initiation can take hold from the "bottom-up" (i.e., by students or faculty), from the "top-down" (i.e., at the presidential level), or in both directions simultaneously. The following key factors appear to be important in driving the initial implementation forward: a culture of open communication between all stakeholders in which feedback and reflection are welcome and even actively solicited, the development of a shared understanding and vision that further create a sense of ownership and long-term success, a high level of collaboration among all stakeholders, and existing initiatives that lead to knowledge sharing and other resources. In this regard, informal collaboration and cooperation can partially compensate for a lack of presidential-level support and/or a formal communication structure. Furthermore, developing a strategy with individual steps and shared responsibility leads to more-successful implementation of ESD at higher education institutions. The presented findings add a complementary empirical perspective to the discourse on the establishment of ESD at higher education institutions. First, the case studies that specifically address the implementation processes of sustainability curricula are reviewed and analyzed here for the first time as part of a research landscape. This research landscape reveals where research on such implementation processes has been or is being conducted. On this basis, both researchers and funders can reflect on the status quo and plan further research- or funding endeavors. Second, this dissertation offers the opportunity to compare a multitude of individual case studies and thus to develop new and generalizable insights into the implementation of sustainability curricula. The empirical analysis uses 133 case studies to identify key factors that promote or inhibit the implementation of sustainability curricula and to add a complementary perspective to the discourse, which has thus far been dominated by theoretical considerations and individual case studies. The analysis thereby offers a new perspective on generalizable influencing factors that appear to be important across different contexts. Thus far, specific patterns of implementation processes have been infrequently studied, and with few datasets. This dissertation analyzes the complex interplay between over 100 variables and provides one of the first research attempts at better understanding the processes that lead to the deep-rooted and comprehensive implementation of sustainability curricula. Internal and external practitioners of higher education institutions can find examples and evidence that can be useful in planning the next steps of their sustainability curriculum implementation. In the future, higher education institutions will play an even greater role in the journey toward sustainable development. This dissertation offers generalizable empirical findings on how universities can succeed in recognizing their own responsibility to that end and in realizing this transformation through the implementation of ESD. ; Diese Dissertation "How to Embed Sustainability in the Core of Higher Education Institutions: Drivers of, Barriers to, & Patterns behind the Implementation Processes of Sustainability Curricula – Insights from a Quantitative Meta-Study with Data from around the Globe" geht der Frage nach, wie nachhaltigkeitsbezogene Curricula1 an Hochschulen2 implementiert und etabliert werden können. Der Fragestellung liegt die Annahme zu Grunde, dass eine nachhaltige Entwicklung mit veränderten Denk- und Handlungsmustern dringend erforderlich ist und Hochschulen – als Hubs für Forschung, Innovationen & Bildung – einen zentralen Hebelpunkt für eine nachhaltige Entwicklung der Gesellschaft leisten. Daher ist die Institutionalisierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula nicht nur gesellschaftlich gefordert, sondern auch in zahlreichen politischen Statements der Weltgemeinschaft, z.B. der UN und der UNESCO, festgeschrieben und durch das Sustainable Development Goal Nr. 4 "Quality Education" operationalisiert. Bisherige Erkenntnisse wie eine solche Implementierung gelingen kann und welche Faktoren den Prozess befördern oder hemmen, liegen vor allem durch Fallstudien einzelner Hochschulen vor. Diese bilden wichtige Erkenntnisse, sind zum Großteil aber eher deskriptiv als analytisch und lassen Fragen nach der Generalisierbarkeit der Erkenntnisse offen – also inwiefern weitere Hochschulen sich an den jeweiligen Erfahrungen orientieren können. An dieser Forschungslücke setzt die vorliegende Dissertation an. Durch eine Meta-Studie, den analytischen Vergleich existierender individueller Fallstudien, werden generalisierbare Erkenntnisse zum Implementierungsprozess von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula erforscht. In einem ersten Schritt wurde eine Grundgesamtheit von Fallstudien erhoben, um die Datengrundlage für tiefergehende Analysen zu generieren. In zwei weiteren Analyseschritten wurden, aufbauend auf der erhobenen Grundgesamtheit der Fallstudien aus Schritt 1, bestimmte Faktoren, die die Implementierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula fördern oder hemmen (Schritt 2), sowie spezifische Implementierungsmuster (Schritt 3) untersucht. Die folgenden Abschnitte erläutern Details und präsentieren einen Überblick über die jeweiligen Ergebnisse. In einem ersten Schritt wurde eine Datenbank aus Englisch-sprachigen Fallstudien angelegt, die weltweit über Implementierungsprozesse von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula an Hochschulen berichten. Insgesamt wurden 230 Fallstudien identifiziert, wovon sich 133 Fallstudien im Kern mit der Implementierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula beschäftigen3. Eine bibliometrische Analyse der 230 Fallstudien zeigt, dass dieses Forschungsfeld wächst. Der Diskurs ist vor allem durch Forschende und Fallstudien aus Nordamerika, Europa, Ozeanien und Asien geprägt, wobei Forschende und Fallstudien aus Südamerika und Afrika unterrepräsentiert sind. Zudem zeigt eine Zitationsanalyse, dass einige 1 Nachhaltigkeitsbezogene Curricula werden hier verstanden als Kurse, Programme und Zertifikate alle Fachrichtungen, die sich in irgendeiner Form mit nachhaltigen Themen beschäftigen. Eine detaillierte Diskussion welche Typen von Bildung für Nachhaltige Entwicklung im Diskurs vertreten sind, findet sich in Abschnitt Error! Reference source not found. 2 Hochschule wird hier als Sammelbegriff genutzt für Universitäten, Fachhochschulen sowie weitere Institutionen, die mindestens einen Bachelor Abschluss anbieten. 3 Eine detaillierte Beschreibung der Fallstudien Stichprobe und die Unterteilung in Untergruppen ist in Abschnitt Error! Reference source not found. erklärt. Fallstudien von Hochschulen die Erkenntnisse aus anderen Ländern miteinfließen lassen, während andere eher isoliert agieren. Dies lässt die Frage offen, inwiefern Hochschulen global miteinander im Austausch stehen und voneinander lernen, um die Implementierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula voran zu treiben. In einem zweiten Analyseschritt wurden die qualitativen Daten der gesammelten Fallstudien (Stichprobe von 133 Fallstudien) anhand der Case-Survey-Methode (Art der Meta-Analyse) verglichen. Im Fokus standen dabei die Treiber und Barrieren der Prozesse,um Nachhaltigkeitscurricula an Hochschulen zu implementieren. Treibende und hemmende Einflussfaktoren auf den Implementierungsprozess von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula sind im Diskurs zur Bildung für Nachhaltige Entwicklung (BNE), speziell bezogen auf Hochschulen, ein theoretisch eingehend betrachtetes Feld. Hingegen fehlte bislang eine große Datenlage, um diese Hypothesen empirisch zu prüfen. Diese Forschungslücke füllt die vorliegende Arbeit, wobei die empirische Analyse ergeben hat, dass folgende Faktoren zu einer tiefen und breiten Etablierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula führen: Eine starke Unterstützung durch die Führungsebene (z.B. Präsidium, Dekanat); die Etablierung von Nachhaltigkeit sowohl in Lehre, Forschung, Campus, als auch der Austausch mit lokalen Akteurinnen und Akteuren; die formelle Partizipation interner (auch Studierende) und externer Akteurinnen und Akteure; und das Engagement von "Nachhaltigkeits-Champions" (change agents), die oft zuerst Nachhaltigkeitscurricula implementieren und gegen Widerstände ankämpfen. Weitere befördernde Faktoren sind: Strategische Planung, Koordination, Kommunikation, Vision, politischer Einfluss, eine günstige Gelegenheit (window of opportunity) (z.B. Umweltkatastrophe, Wechsel im Präsidium) sowie interdisziplinäre Begegnungsräume. Als stärkste Barrieren wurden folgende genannt: Fehlen von interdisziplinären Begegnungsräumen, fehlende Vision, fehlende Anreize, fehlende Ressourcen, überfülltes Curriculum, wenig unterstützende / zu bürokratische Organisationsstruktur. Der dritte Analyseschritt baut ebenfalls auf der Datenlage der 133 Fallstudien auf und erforscht, ob bestimmte Typen bzw. Muster von Implementierungsprozessen auftreten. Durch die Analyse wurden sechs typische Implementierungsmuster identifiziert. Dabei führt das jeweilige Zusammenspiel der Faktoren zu einer Implementierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula in unterschiedlicher Tiefe und Breite, welche nachfolgend durch die absteigende Reihenfolge der Muster indiziert ist: (1) "a collaborative paradigm shift", (2) "bottom-up institutional change", (3) "top-down institutional change", (4) "the presence of many barriers that hinder institutional change", (5) "externally driven initiatives", and (6) "initiatives that are scattered due to a lack of coordination". Über alle Muster hinweg wurden zudem zwei Phasen identifiziert. Zum einen kann der Anstoß zur Implementierung von BNE nicht nur von internen, sondern auch von externen Akteurinnen und Akteuren initiiert werden. Zum anderen kann sich diese Initiierung dann sowohl "bottom-up", also durch Studierende, Lehrende, etc., als auch "top-down", also z.B. durch das Präsidium, oder auch von beiden Ebenen gleichzeitig durchsetzen. Um den ersten Anstoß gewinnbringend zu nutzen, sind folgende Schlüsselfaktoren wichtig: Eine offene Kommunikationskultur zwischen allen Akteurinnen und Akteuren, in der Feedback und Reflektion willkommen sind und auch aktiv eingeholt werden. Die Entwicklung einer Vision, die von allen Beteiligten geteilt wird, kreiert Ownership und einen langfristigen Erfolg. Eine hohe Kollaboration aller Akteurinnen und Akteure, aber auch bestehender Initiativen führt zur Teilung von Wissen und weiteren Ressourcen. Dabei kann eine informelle Kollaboration und Kooperation teilweise die fehlende Unterstützung der präsidialen Ebene und/oder eine formelle Kommunikationsstruktur ausgleichen. Weiterhin führt die Entwicklung einer Strategie mit einzelnen Schritten und geteilter Verantwortung zu einer erfolgreicheren Implementierung von BNE an Hochschulen. Die vorgestellten Erkenntnisse stellen eine ergänzende empirische Perspektive im Diskurs um die Etablierung von BNE an Hochschulen dar. Erstens sind die Fallstudien, die sich konkret mit den Implementierungsprozessen von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula befassen, das erste Mal als Forschungslandschaft analysiert worden. Auf dieser Grundlage können sowohl Forschende sowie Fördergebende über den Status Quo reflektieren und weitere Schritte planen, aber auch Praktikerinnen und Praktiker Beispiele auffinden. Zweitens bietet die vorliegende Dissertation die Möglichkeit die Vielzahl an Einzelfallstudien zu vergleichen und somit neue und generalisierbare Erkenntnisse zu entwickeln. Die empirische Analyse anhand von 133 Fallstudien zur Identifizierung von Schlüsselfaktoren, die eine Implementierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula fördern oder hemmen, stellt eine ergänzende Perspektive im Diskurs dar, der von theoretischen Überlegungen und individuellen Fallstudien geprägt ist. Damit eröffnet sich eine neue Perspektive auf Einflussfaktoren, die in jedem Kontext wichtig zu sein scheinen. Vor allem spezielle Muster an Implementierungsprozessen wurden bisher kaum und mit weniger Datensätzen untersucht. Diese Dissertation analysiert das komplexe Zusammenspiel aus über 100 Variablen und bietet damit eine der ersten Arbeiten, die Prozesse, die zu einer tiefen und breiten Implementierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula führen, besser zu verstehen. In Zukunft werden Hochschulen eine noch größere Rolle auf dem Weg einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung spielen. Diese Dissertation bietet generalisierbare empirische Erkenntnisse wie es Hochschulen gelingen kann ihre Verantwortung wahrzunehmen und durch die Implementierung von BNE zu realisieren.

Pitanje mogućnosti formiranja ekološkog pokreta u Srbiji u kontekstu postsocijalistiĉke transformacije društva i procesa evrointegracija, predstavlja predmet bavljenja ove doktorske disertacije. Rad se sastoji iz tri veće celine i poglavlja u kome su izneta zakljuĉna razmatranja. U prvom delu rada, razvijeni su uporedno-istorijski, kontekstualni, konceptualni i metodološki okvir istraţivanja, kao polazne osnove za dalje analize. Kako bi mogle biti obuhvaćene sve relevantne dimenzije kompleksnog fenomena ekološkog pokreta i sloţena mreţa ĉinilaca koji utiĉu na njegov nastanak i razvoj, u istraţivanju su kombinovano korišćene razliĉite metodološke tehnike: anketno ispitivanje stavova i praksi na reprezentativnom uzorku graĊana Srbije (N=1952) i predstavnika lokalnih samouprava (N=232), polustrukturisani intervjui sa predstavnicima nevladinih organizacija (N=44), kao i dve studije sluĉaja zajednica sa izraţenim ekološkim problemima - Panĉeva i Bora. Drugi deo rada je posvećen opisu i analizi pojedinaĉnih elemenata ekološkog pokreta: ekoloških aktivista, ekoloških grupa / organizacija, ekoloških mreţa, kolektivnog identiteta i ekoloških konflikata. Na osnovu detaljne analize karakteristika osnovnih elemenata pokreta, u zakljuĉnom poglavlju drugog dela rada daje se odgovor na pitanje: da li u Srbiji postoji ekološki pokret? Osnovni istraţivaĉki nalaz je da u Srbiji nije došlo do formiranja klasiĉnog participativnog tipa ekološkog pokreta, kakav je prisutan u zemljama Zapada. TakoĊe, nema ni naznaka znaĉajnijeg prisustva elemenata transakcionog ekološkog aktivizma (pokreta), ĉiji je prisustvo zabeleţeno u zemljama Centralne Evrope. Umesto toga, svedoci smo razvoja specifiĉnog modela ekološkog kolektivnog delanja koji smo nazvali "ekološkim trećim sektorom". Naime, za razliku od participativnog i transakcionog delanja, koji imaju naglašeno politiĉku dimenziju, aktivnosti organizacija u okviru trećeg sektora su preteţno "apolitiĉne" po karakteru, usmerene na pruţanje usluga u oblastima iz kojih se, u sklopu neoliberalnih reformi, drţava povukla. Pored nerazvijenosti konfliktne (politiĉke) dimenzije, ekološki treći sektor odlikuje i atomizovano delanje profesionalnih ekoloških organizacija, koje samo izuzetno (pod spoljnim pritiscima ili podsticajima) uspostavljaju fiziĉke veze (mreţe) meĊu sobom, dok se na planu kolektivnog identiteta razvija samo kognitivna dimenzija (formalno prihvatanje odreĊenih ekoloških vrednosti i naĉela koja ĉine sastavni deo ekološkog diskursa dominantnog na Zapadu). GraĊani, po pravilu, nisu ukljuĉeni u rad ovih organizacija, izuzev kao korisnici usluga. U trećem delu rada se razmatraju razlozi usled kojih ne dolazi do razvoja participativnog i/ili transakcionog ekološkog pokreta (aktivizma). Za potrebe objašnjenja nastanka specifiĉne hibridne forme ekološkog trećeg sektora, kreiran je sintetiĉki eksplanatorni model koji kombinuje elemente razvijene u okviru razliĉitih teorijskih pristupa fenomenu društvenih pokreta. Eksplanatorna shema je formulisana na sledeći naĉin: za pokretanje kolektivnog delanja i nastanak ekološkog pokreta neophodno da prethodno budu ispunjeni sledeći uslovi: potrebno je da postoji izvesno socijalno-konstruisano nezadovoljstvo (problem) kod većeg broja pojedinaca / profesionalnih zastupniĉkih organizacija (socijalno-konstruktivistiĉka reinterpretacija klasiĉnih pristupa); zatim, grupa pojedinaca koja oseća dati problem / zalaţe se za njegovo rešavanje, mora posedovati odreĊene resurse za pokretanje i odrţavanje 5 kolektivne akcije (pristup teorije mobilizacije resursa); šire okruţenje treba da bude relativno povoljno kako bi nagovestilo mogućnost pozitivnog ishoda aktivnosti koja se ţeli realizovati (pristup strukture politiĉkih mogućnosti), a vrednosni okvir na takav naĉin podešen da usmerava na delanje predstavnike profesionalnih ekoloških organizacija i / ili neposredno ugroţenu populaciju (nezadovoljne) i (eventualno) širi krug podrţavalaca (pristup Novih društvenih pokreta). Na proces formiranja ekološkog pokreta, kroz ĉetiri neposredna faktora (socijalna-konstrukcija ekoloških rizika, dostupnost i karakteristike resursa, struktura politiĉkih mogućnosti, vrednosni sistem),indirektno deluju širi društveni procesi - postsocijalistiĉka transformacija i evropeizacija srpskog društva, kao i ĉinioci duţeg trajanja ((pred)socijalistiĉko nasleĊe). Testiranje postavljenih eksplikativnih hipoteza je pokazalo da ni jedan od uslova neophodnih za formiranje ekološkog pokreta, nije delimiĉno ili u potpunosti zadovoljen. Postojeći ekološki problemi su dominantno odreĊeni u kategorijama niskog rizika i male vaţnosti u odnosu na druga društvena pitanja, usled ĉega je i njihov podsticajni kapacitet za kolektivnu (re)akciju bitno sniţen. Pored toga, vladajuće shvatanje prema kome u ekološkoj modernizaciji leţi rešenje za gotovo sve ekološke probleme, pokazuje se kao ĉinilac koji nepovoljno utiĉe na graĊanski aktivizam, jer upućuje na pasivno išĉekivanje uvoĊenja obećanih mehanizama odrţivog razvoja. Većini graĊana na raspolaganju stoji vrlo ograniĉena koliĉina resursa, usled ĉega, u velikom broju sluĉajeva, oni odustaju od uĉešća u ekološkim akcijama. Ekološke organizacije, takoĊe, imaju poteškoća da obezbede neophodne resurse za rad, a dodatni problem predstavlja i naĉin njihove mobilizacije, usled kojeg gube samostalnost postajući zavisne od stranih izvora finansiranja. Kao posledica, ekološko delanje je atomizovano, a rivalitet i konflikti unutar ekološkog civilnog sektora, naglašeni; ekološke mreţe se teško formiraju i odrţavaju, kolektivni identitet je slab (nad njim prevagu odnose partikularni interesi), a kritiĉko delovanje ekoloških organizacija, nerazvijeno. Struktura politiĉkih mogućnosti se, uprkos postojanju relativno povoljnog zakonskog okvira, pokazuje zatvorenom prema uĉešću graĊana u donošenju odluka. GraĊani percipiraju predstavnike vlasti kao neprijemĉive za njihove potrebe, što se nepovoljno odraţava na njihovu spremnost da se organizuju i pokušaju da nametnu svoje zahteve. S druge strane, ekološke organizacije su iskljuĉene iz procesa odluĉivanja i svedene na ulogu asistenata u podizanju kapaciteta drţave za sprovoĊenje programa u oblasti zaštite ţivotne sredine. Konfliktno delanje organizacija je ograniĉeno, s jedne strane, time što ne dobijaju podršku moćnih aktera (meĊunarodne ekološke organizacije, strani donatori), a sa druge, finansijskim uslovljavanjem od strane drţavnih struktura. Karakteristike kulturološkog konteksta se, takoĊe, pokazuju nepovoljnim za razvoj ekološkog pokreta u Srbiji. Dominacija materijalistiĉkog sistema vrednosti i s njim povezano visoko vrednovanje ekonomskog razvoja, koje u senci ostavlja ekološke probleme, negativno utiĉe na ekološko aktiviranje graĊana. Ipak, uprkos preteţno materijalistiĉkoj vrednosnoj orijentaciji, graĊanima su vrlo bliske vrednosti Nove ekološke paradigme. MeĊutim, od naĉelnog prihvatanja vrednosti karakteristiĉnih za ovu paradigmu do aktivnog delanja, u kontekstu materijalne oskudice, put je dug i vrlo neizvestan. Zakljuĉno poglavlje je posvećeno rezimiranju i diskusiji empirijskih nalaza, kao i razmatranju širih implikacija nerazvijenosti ekološkog pokreta na zaštitu ţivotne sredine u Srbiji. ; he environmental movement in Serbia, in the context of post-socialist transformation and the EU integration process. The paper consists of three major parts and the concluding chapter. In the first part a comparative - historical, contextual, conceptual and methodological framework of the research is developed, as a starting point for the further analyses. In order to capture all relevant dimensions of the complex phenomenon of environmental movement and the composite set of factors that influence its emergence and development, the study is using a combination of different methodological techniques: a survey of attitudes and practices based on a representative sample of Serbian citizens (N = 1952) and local government representatives (N = 232), in parallel with the semi-structured interviews with representatives of non-governmental organizations (N = 44), and the two case studies of communities with serious environmental problems – the municipalities of Pancevo and Bor. The second part contains the description and analysis of individual elements of the environmental movement: environmental activists, environmental groups / organizations, environmental networks, collective identity and environmental conflicts. Based on a detailed analysis of the characteristics of the key elements of environmental movement, the concluding chapter of this part of the paper offers an answer to the question - is there an environmental movement in Serbia? The main research finding is that participatory type of environmental movement that is typical for the Western countries has not been formed in Serbia. There are even no indications of the existence of significant elements of transactional environmental activism (movement), that is present in the countries of Central Europe. Instead, we are witnessing the development of a distinct model of collective environmental action that we have named "the third environmental sector". Different from the participative and transactional activism which have an emphasized political dimension, the nature of the activities of the third sector organizations is mostly "non-political", aimed at providing services in those areas that the state has withdrew from, in the context of neo-liberal reforms. In addition to the underdeveloped conflict/political dimension, the environmental third sector is characterized by atomized actions of professional environmental organizations, which establish physical connections (networks) among themselves only as an exception (under external pressures or incentives), while at the level of collective identity only the cognitive dimension is being developed (the formal acceptance of the environmental values and principles which form an integral part of the environmental discourse dominant in the West). Citizens, as a rule, are not included in the work of these organizations, except as users of services. In the third part, the reasons for the absence of the participatory and / or transactional environmental movement (activism) are discussed. In order to explain the emergence of the specific hybrid form of the environmental third sector, a synthetic explanatory model was established, combining elements developed within different social movement theories. The explanatory scheme has been formulated as follows: for the launch of collective action and the emergence of the environmental movement certain conditions are necessary to be met - a certain level of socially-constructed 8 dissatisfaction (problem) needs to be generated in large numbers of individuals / professional advocacy organizations (social constructivist reinterpretation of classical approaches); then, a group of individuals who perceive the problem / advocates for its solution must possess appropriate resources to initiate and sustain a collective action (the Resource Mobilization Theory approach); the wider context should be relatively favorable as to suggest the possibility of a positive outcome of the action (the Political Opportunities Structure approach); the value framework should be set up in such a way to initiate the action of professional environmental organizations and / or the directly affected population, and possibly also of a wider circle of supporters (the New Social Movements approach). Through the four direct factors (social – construction of environmental risks, the availability and characteristics of resources, the structure of political opportunities, the value system), the process of development of the environmental movement is indirectly affected by wider-scale social processes – the post-socialist transformation and Europeanization of Serbian society, as well as by the factors of longer duration ((pre-) socialist heritage).The testing of the set of explicative hypotheses showed that the necessary pre-conditions for the formation of the environmental movement in Serbia have neither been fully, nor even partially met. In comparison with other issues, the existing environmental problems are dominantly defined in the terms of low-risk and low-importance, due to which their capacities to induce collective (re)action are significantly reduced. In addition, the prevailing concept of environmental modernization, presented as a solution to almost all environmental problems, proves to be a factor that adversely affects civic activism, as it leads to passive anticipation of the promised introduction of mechanisms for sustainable development. Since the majority of citizens have access only to very limited resources, they, in many cases, tend to give up their participation in environmental actions. Environmental organizations also face difficulties in obtaining necessary resources for their operation. An additional problem lies in the way resources are being mobilized: becoming increasingly dependent on foreign funding, organizations tend to lose their autonomy. As a result, the environmental action is atomized and rivalries and conflicts within the environmental civil society accentuated; environmental networks are difficult to establish and maintain and the collective identity is weak (due to domination of particular interests); the conflictual dimension of environmental organizations remains undeveloped. Despite the relatively favorable legal framework, the structure of political opportunities seems closed to the participation of citizens in the decision-making process. Citizens perceive government representatives as unresponsive to their needs, which negatively affects their readiness to act in an organized way and to attempt to impose their demands. On the other hand, environmental organizations are excluded from the decision-making process and reduced to the assisting role in the capacity building of the state bodies for the implementation of programs in the field of environmental protection. Conflicting action of such organizations is limited, on the one hand by the lack of support from powerful actors (international environmental organizations, international donors), and on the other - by the financial preconditions imposed by the state authorities. The characteristics of the cultural context also appear to be unfavorable for the development of the environmental movement in Serbia. The dominance of the materialistic value system and the related high priority attributed to the economic 9 growth, leaves the environmental problems on the margins, thus negatively affecting the environmental activation of citizens. However, despite the predominantly materialistic value orientation, the values of the New environmental paradigm are very familiar to the citizens. Still, in the context of material insecurity, the road from the general acceptance of such values to active action towards reaching them, is long and very uncertain. The concluding chapter is devoted to summarizing and discussing the empirical findings, as well as to considerations of implications of the under-developed environmental movement to the overall state of environmental protection in Serbia.

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :보건대학원 환경보건학과,2020. 2. 윤충식. ; Ultrasonic humidifiers are commonly used in Korea because of cold and dry weather during winter and early spring, but there can be problems due to microbial growth in the humidifier reservoir. Humidifier disinfectants were widely used from 1994 to 2011 in Korea to prevent microbial contamination in ultrasonic humidifiers, but sales were then prohibited by the government following an outbreak of severe lung injury among humidifier disinfectant users. The main raw materials used for humidifier disinfectants were polyhexamethyleneguanidine (PHMG), oligo(2-(2-ethoxy)ethoxyethyl guanidine chloride (PGH), and methylchloroisothiazolinone/methylisothiazolinone (CMIT/MIT). Of these, PHMG phosphate (CAS No. 89697-78-9) was the most widely sold product, accounting for the overwhelming majority of fatalities. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the characteristics of PHMG in aqueous solution and investigate the behavior of airborne particles generated by the use of PHMG as a humidifier disinfectant; determine the difference in oligomer types and content between PHMG products and aerosols and estimate the airborne concentration of oligomers during humidifier use; and calculate the inhaled and deposited doses or fractions in the human lung using the ICRP and MPPD models for particles generated when a humidifier disinfectant containing PHMG was sprayed. First, three types of PHMG were selected (manufactured in Korea, USA, and China), with dynamic light scattering (DLS) used to determine their behavioral characteristics in aqueous solution. To determine the airborne behavioral characteristics, PHMG was diluted to obtain high (62.5–65 ppm) and low (6.25–6.5 ppm) concentrations, and then real-time monitoring instruments were used to measure the effect of using a diffusion dryer and thermodenuder for controlling moisture in a cleanroom. A polycarbonate filter sample was analyzed by field emission-scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM)-energy dispersive spectrometry to determine the particle morphology. The DLS intensity results for the three products showed a slightly right-shifted (~100 nm) bimodal distribution relative to the airborne particle size distribution. The size of the airborne PHMG particles increased during the spraying due to aggregation, with the particle size of aggregated particles confirmed by FE-SEM to be approximately ≥20 nm. As the PHMG concentration increased by 10 times, the airborne concentrations measured using a real-time monitoring instrument increased by 2–3 times for nanoparticles and 45–85 times for 1–10-μm particles during humidifier operation; however, 99% of the particles generated could be classified as PM1. Without ventilation, even after operating the humidifier, the PHMG particles could be airborne for approximately 2 h until the background concentration was reached. Therefore, we found that airborne behavior was affected by the PHMG concentration, but this did not vary according to product manufacturer. Second, LC-qToF was used to identify PHMG components in raw materials and airborne, and post-acquisition data processing was analyzed using UNIFI software. Samples in the air were diluted with the same conditions using three types of PHMGs to evaluate the behavioral characteristics (Chapter 2) at 8 h and had an impinger at 0.5 m and 1 m when the humidifier was sprayed. PHMG has been known to exist in the linear type (type A–C) and branched or cyclic type (type D–G). As a result of PHMG raw material analysis, various types existed, as shown in previous studies, among which the Oxy product was classified as type A–E, and BOC and Scunder products were classified as type A–E, except for type D. Additionally, the three products were composed of oligomers with 1–3 monomers, and compared to the linear type, dimer had the highest quantity in all products in type A and C. The linear structure in the Oxy product accounted for 90.6%, and Scunder and BOC products had linear structures of 78.6% and 75.8%, respectively. As the number of monomers increased (as the molecular weight increased), they were not detected at low concentrations. In a branched or cyclic structure, dimer of type E has the highest quantity in all products. In PHMG components of samples in the air, samples at 0.5 m showed a similar pattern with the component of raw materials, and dimers had the highest quantity in types A and C, and monomers in type B. However, high concentration samples collected at 1 m (65 ppm for Oxy product and 62.5 ppm and 125 ppm for Scunder and BOC products, respectively) were mainly detected for the low-molecular-weight compounds, such as monomer or dimer. Additionally, the concentration of the oligomer in air was estimated to be 35.89 µg/m3 at 6.5 ppm and 390.96 µg/m3 at 65 ppm for the Oxy product. Finally, based on data obtained in Chapter 2, inhaled and deposited doses were estimated using the ICRP and MPPD models. The ICRP model is widely used to evaluate the particle deposition in the respiratory tract for the general population and uses empirical equations based on experimental data, whereas the MPPD model is based on the ICRP model. Four types of scenarios were used in this study: adults and children and then daily and during sleep. Although the results of the two models varied due to differences in input parameters, the trend was similar. Infants and children tended to have similar or higher deposition doses and fractions than adults. Moreover, the areas of deposition were divided into the head airway, tracheobronchial, and alveolar regions. When the humidifier was sprayed, the highest number concentration was found at 15.4 nm, and the highest deposition fraction or dose by PM1 was noted in the pulmonary and head airways. Therefore, this study investigated the characteristics of raw materials of humidifier disinfectant containing PHMG sprayed in the air, and then estimated the inhaled and deposited dose in humans using the ICRP and MPPD models. Particles in raw materials of PHMG had a bimodal distribution in the region near 100 nm, and raw materials of PHMG consisted of oligomers in the linear type (type A–C). Characteristics of PHMG in the air were identified — most particles were PM1 and existed as aggregated single particles of approximately 20 nm in size. Aerosol had a high proportion of monomers, and the proportions of type C monomers were high at 1 m. Infants and young children showed high deposition doses or fractions in the ICRP and MPPD models. ; 겨울과 봄이 춥고 건조한 한국은 주로 초음파식 가습기를 많이 사용한다. 그러나 가습기 저장탱크 내 미생물 번식으로 인한 가습기 폐질환은 과거에 문제가 되어 왔기때문에 국내에서는 1994년부터 2011년까지 초음파 가습기의 미생물 오염을 막기 위하여 가습기 살균제를 사용해왔다. 하지만 2011년 가습기 살균제 사용자들에서 심각한 폐질환이 발생하여 현재는 정부에 의해 판매가 금지되었다. 가습기 살균제에 사용되는 주요 원료로는 polyhexamethyleneguanidine (PHMG), oligo(2-(2-ethoxy)ethoxyethyl guanidine chloride (PGH), methylchloroisothiazolinone /methylisothiazolinone (CMIT/MIT)가 있었고, 그 중 PHMG가 함유된 제품이 가장 많은 피해자가 발생하였다. 따라서 본 연구의 목적은 첫번째로 수용액에서의 PHMG 입자특성을 확인하고, 가습기 살균제로 사용된 PHMG의 공기 중 거동을 조사하는 것, 두번째로 고분자인 PHMG 제품과 공기 중 에어로졸에서 PHMG 단량체(oligomer) 유형과 함유량을 파악하고, 공기 중 노출 농도를 추정하는 것, 세번째로 공기 중 가습기 살균제 입자를 ICRP 모델을 이용하여 인체에 흡입노출 되었을 때 흡입량과 침착량을 추정하는 것이다. 먼저, 다양한 PHMG를 이용하여 실험하기 위해 제조사가 다른 PHMG (한국, 미국 및 중국에서 제조) 제품을 선택했다. 수용액에서의 거동 특성을 확인하기 위해 동적 광산란 장치(DLS)를 이용하였으며, 공기 중 특성은 PHMG를 희석하여 높은 농도 (62.5–65ppm)와 낮은 농도 (6.25–6.5ppm)로 희석한 후, 실시간 모니터링 장비(SMPS, OPS, PAS)로 측정하였다. 이때 클린룸 내 수분을 제어하기 위해 수분제어장치를(diffusion dryer, thermodenuder) 실시간 모니터링 장비에 장착하였다. 또한 공기 중 형태학적 입자특성을 확인하기 위하여 전자 현미경(FE-SEM-EDS)으로 분석하였다. DLS 결과는 공기 중 입자 분포에 비해 약간 오른쪽으로 치우친 (~ 100 nm) 이봉 분포(bimodal distribution)의 형태를 나타냈다. 전자현미경에 의해 확인 된 입자는 대략 20 nm 이상의 단일입자가 응집된 형태로 존재하였고, 공기 중에 분무되면서 PHMG 입자의 응집으로 크기가 증가된 것으로 추정된다. PHMG 원액 농도가 10 배 증가함에 따라, 실시간 모니터링 장비로 측정 한 공기 중 농도는 나노 입자의 경우 2–3 배, 1-10μm 입자의 경우 45–85 배 증가했다. 그러나 생성 된 입자의 99 %는 PM1이었다. 제조사에서 권장희석농도로(6.5 ppm) 가습기를 작동하고, 중단 한 이후에 환기를 하지 않는다면 배경 농도에 도달 할 때까지 PHMG 입자가 공기 중에 약 2 시간 존재할 수 있다. 따라서 PHMG 공기 중 거동특성은 제조업체가 다른 제품이라고 해서 크게 영향을 받지 않는 것으로 보인다. 두번째로, PHMG 구성 성분을 확인하기 위하여 LC-qToF를 이용하여 분석하였고, Unifi 프로그램을 이용하여 물질의 분자량과 구조를 고려하여 데이터 처리를 하였다. 가습기 분무 시 공기 중 샘플은 앞의 연구와 같은 조건으로 실험하였고, 샘플링은 임핀저를 이용하여 0.5 m와 1 m에서 8시간동안 채취하였다. PHMG 는 선형 타입(타입 A-C)과 가지 및 원형 타입 (타입 D-G)이 존재한다고 알려져 오고 있다. 원액분석결과 선행연구에서 알려진 것과 같이 다양한 타입이 존재하였고, 그 중 옥시 제품은 타입 A-E가 존재하였고, BOC와 Scunder 제품은 타입 A-E 중 타입 D를 제외하고 존재하였다. 또한 세 제품 구성성분 모두 단량체가 1-3개인 올리고머 수준으로 존재하였다. 공기 중에 분사된 PHMG 구성성분은 0.5 m 에서 채취된 샘플의 경우 원액구성성분과 유사한 패턴을 보였으나 농도가 낮거나 거리가 멀어지면(1 m) 주로 저분자인 단량체 (monomer, dimer)위주로 검출되었고, 주로 C 타입의 단량체인 monomer의 검출 비율이 높았다. 또한 공기 중 올리고머는 추정식을 이용하여 농도를 추정하였으며, 옥시제품의 권장희석배수인 200:1로 희석한 6.5 ppm에서 농도는 35.89 µg/m3 이었고, 65 ppm에서는 390.96 µg/m3 이었다. 마지막으로, 첫번째 연구인 실시간 기기로 측정한 공기 중 입자 농도 자료에 근거하여 인체 내 흡입 및 침착량을 ICRP 및 MPPD 흡입노출 모델을 사용하여 추정하였다. ICRP 모델은 일반 모집단의 폐에 침착되는 입자를 평가하는 데 널리 사용되며 실험 데이터를 기반한 실험식을 사용하며, 이것을 발전시켜 개발한 것인 MPPD 모델이다. 이 연구에서 4 가지 유형의 시나리오는 노출 집단은 성인과 어린이, 그리고 환경은 일상생활과 수면시의 조합으로 사용되었다. 입력변수의 차이로 인해 두 모델이 차이는 있으나, 성인이 어린이에 비해 침착량 및 및착분률이 유사하거나 높은 경향을 보인다. 침착량 산정시 기관지 내 침착부위는 3군데로 나뉘어 지는데, 머리기도, 기관지, 폐포 영역 각각의 노출량을 추정할 수 있다. 가습기가 분무 될 때, 15.4 nm에서 가장 높은 수농도의 침착량을 보였고, 질량농도에 의한 침착량은 두 모델 모두 폐포, 기관지, 머리기도 영역 순으로 높았다. 결론적으로, 본 연구는 가습기 살균제인 PHMG의 원액과 공기 중으로 분무 시 입자 특성을 확인 한 후 ICRP 모델을 이용하여 인체 호흡기 내 흡입 및 침착량을 추정하였다. PHMG 원액 입자는 100 nm 근처의 영역에서 이봉 분포를 보였고, 주 성분은 주로 선형 유형의 올리고머로 구성되었다(타입 A-C). 공기 중 PHMG의 특성은 대부분의 입자가 PM1이고 약 20-100 nm의 단일 입자가 응집 되어 존재하는 것으로 확인되었다. 공기 중 PHMG 에어로졸의 성분은 주로 올리고머 비율이 높았고, 0.5 m에서 측정된 샘플은 원액의 구성성분과 유사했으나 1 m에서 측정된 샘플은 단량체 중 타입 C가 높은 비율을 차지하였다. 따라서 공기 중 입자의 대부분은 저분자인 단량체(주로 monomer, dimer 등)가 나노입자로 응집되어 있는 형태로 존재한다. ICRP 및 MPPD 모델을 사용하여 추정 된 흡입 및 침착량은 영아 및 어린이의 개월 수가 낮을수록 높은 수치를 보였다. 본 연구에서 제조사가 다양한 PHMG 제품을 이용하여 실험한 결과 전체적으로 세 제품이 유사하였기 때문에, 옥시 제품 외 PHMG를 함유한 다른 가습기 살균제 제품도 본 연구와 유사한 결과를 보일 것으로 생각된다. ; CHAPTER I. 1 I-1. Hum Id If Ier d Is Infectant Inc Ident and the prev Ious stud Ies 2 I-2. Object Ives and study des Ign 7 CHAPTER II. 11 II-1. Introduct Ion 12 II-2. Methods 15 II-2-1. Preparat Ion of PHMG 15 II-2-2. Character Izat Ion of PHMG In aqueous solut Ion 17 II-2-3. Measurement and analys Is of a Irborne PHMG part Icles 18 II-3. Results 24 II-3-1. Character Ist Ics of PHMG In aqueous solut Ion 24 II-3-2. Behav Ioral character Ist Ics of a Irborne part Icles dur Ing and after hum Id If Ier operat Ion 26 II-3-3. F Ield em Iss Ion-scann Ing electron m Icroscope-energy d Ispers Ive spectrometry analys Is 40 II-4. D Iscuss Ion 42 II-5. Conclus Ions 50 CHAPTER III. 53 III-1. Introduct Ion 54 III-2. Mater Ials and Methods 56 III-2-1. Mater Ials 56 III-2-2. Sampl Ing of a Irborne PHMG 60 III-2-3. Analys Is of PHMG 63 III-3. Results 70 III-3-1. Character Ist Ics of raw mater Ials In PHMG products 70 III-3-2. Intens Ity and est Imated concentrat Ion of sample collected In the a Irborne 77 III-4. D Iscuss Ion 89 III-5. Conclus Ions 94 CHAPTER IV. 97 IV-1. Introduct Ion 98 IV-2. Methods 100 IV-2-1. Preparat Ion of PHMG 100 IV-2-2. Measurement of a Irborne PHMG part Icles 101 IV-2-3. Resp Iratory depos It Ion models 105 IV-3. Results 114 IV-3-1. ICRP model 114 IV-3-2. MPPD model 124 IV-4. D Iscuss Ion 131 IV-5. Conclus Ions 134 CHAPTER V. 137 REFERENCES 141 APPEND ICES 150 국문 초록 166 ; Doctor

All authors: Psaltis, Dimitrios; Medeiros, Lia; Christian, Pierre; Özel, Feryal; Akiyama, Kazunori; Alberdi, Antxon; Alef, Walter; Asada, Keiichi; Azulay, Rebecca; Ball, David; Baloković, Mislav; Barrett, John; Bintley, Dan; Blackburn, Lindy; Boland, Wilfred; Bower, Geoffrey C.; Bremer, Michael; Brinkerink, Christiaan D.; Brissenden, Roger; Britzen, Silke Broguiere, Dominique; Bronzwaer, Thomas; Byun, Do-Young; Carlstrom, John E.; Chael, Andrew; Chan, Chi-kwan; Chatterjee, Shami; Chatterjee, Koushik; Chen, Ming-Tang; Chen, Yongjun; Cho, Ilje; Conway, John E.; Cordes, James M.; Crew, Geoffrey B.; Cui, Yuzhu; Davelaar, Jordy; De Laurentis, Mariafelicia; Deane, Roger; Dempsey, Jessica; Desvignes, Gregory; Dexter, Jason; Eatough, Ralph P.; Falcke, Heino; Fish, Vincent L.; Fomalont, Ed; Fraga-Encinas, Raquel; Friberg, Per; Fromm, Christian M.; Gammie, Charles F.; García, Roberto; Gentaz, Olivier; Goddi, Ciriaco; Gómez, José L.; Gu, Minfeng; Gurwell, Mark; Hada, Kazuhiro; Hesper, Ronald; Ho, Luis C.; Ho, Paul; Honma, Mareki; Huang, Chih-Wei L.; Huang, Lei; Hughes, David H.; Inoue, Makoto; Issaoun, Sara; James, David J.; Jannuzi, Buell T.; Janssen, Michael; Jiang, Wu; Jimenez-Rosales, Alejandra; Johnson, Michael D.; Jorstad, Svetlana; Jung, Taehyun; Karami, Mansour; Karuppusamy, Ramesh; Kawashima, Tomohisa; Keating, Garrett K.; Kettenis, Mark; Kim, Jae-Young; Kim, Junhan; Kim, Jongsoo; Kino, Motoki; Koay, Jun Yi; Koch, Patrick M.; Koyama, Shoko; Kramer, Michael; Kramer, Carsten; Krichbaum, Thomas P.; Kuo, Cheng-Yu; Lauer, Tod R.; Lee, Sang-Sung; Li, Yan-Rong; Li, Zhiyuan; Lindqvist, Michael; Lico, Rocco; Liu, Jun; Liu, Kuo; Liuzzo, Elisabetta; Lo, Wen-Ping; Lobanov, Andrei P.; Lonsdale, Colin; Lu, Ru-Sen; Mao, Jirong; Markoff, Sera; Marrone, Daniel P.; Marscher, Alan P.; Martí-Vidal, Iván; Matsushita, Satoki; Mizuno, Yosuke; Mizuno, Izumi; Moran, James M.; Moriyama, Kotaro; Moscibrodzka, Monika; Müller, Cornelia; Musoke, Gibwa; Mus Mejías, Alejandro; Nagai, Hiroshi; Nagar, Neil M.; Narayan, Ramesh; Narayanan, Gopal; Natarajan, Iniyan; Neri, Roberto; Noutsos, Aristeidis; Okino, Hiroki; Olivares, Héctor; Oyama, Tomoaki; Palumbo, Daniel C. M.; Park, Jongho; Patel, Nimesh; Pen, Ue-Li; Piétu, Vincent; Plambeck, Richard; PopStefanija, Aleksandar; Prather, Ben; Preciado-López, Jorge A.; Ramakrishnan, Venkatessh; Rao, Ramprasad; Rawlings, Mark G.; Raymond, Alexander W.; Ripperda, Bart; Roelofs, Freek; Rogers, Alan; Ros, Eduardo; Rose, Mel; Roshanineshat, Arash; Rottmann, Helge; Roy, Alan L.; Ruszczyk, Chet; Ryan, Benjamin R.; Rygl, Kazi L. J.; Sánchez, Salvador; Sánchez-Arguelles, David; Sasada, Mahito; Savolainen, Tuomas; Schloerb, F. Peter; Schuster, Karl-Friedrich; Shao, Lijing; Shen, Zhiqiang; Small, Des; Sohn, Bong Won; SooHoo, Jason; Tazaki, Fumie; Tilanus, Remo P. J.; Titus, Michael; Torne, Pablo; Trent, Tyler; Traianou, Efthalia; Trippe, Sascha; van Bemmel, Ilse; van Langevelde, Huib Jan; van Rossum, Daniel R.; Wagner, Jan; Wardle, John; Ward-Thompson, Derek; Weintroub, Jonathan; Wex, Norbert; Wharton, Robert; Wielgus, Maciek; Wong, George N.; Wu, Qingwen; Yoon, Doosoo; Young, André; Young, Ken; Younsi, Ziri; Yuan, Feng; Yuan, Ye-Fei; Zhao, Shan-Shan; EHT Collaboration ; The 2017 Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) observations of the central source in M87 have led to the first measurement of the size of a black-hole shadow. This observation offers a new and clean gravitational test of the black-hole metric in the strong-field regime. We show analytically that spacetimes that deviate from the Kerr metric but satisfy weak-field tests can lead to large deviations in the predicted black-hole shadows that are inconsistent with even the current EHT measurements. We use numerical calculations of regular, parametric, non-Kerr metrics to identify the common characteristic among these different parametrizations that control the predicted shadow size. We show that the shadow-size measurements place significant constraints on deviation parameters that control the second post-Newtonian and higher orders of each metric and are, therefore, inaccessible to weak-field tests. The new constraints are complementary to those imposed by observations of gravitational waves from stellar-mass sources. © 2020 American Physical Society. ; The authors of the present paper thank the following organizations and programs: the Academy of Finland (Projects No. 274477, No. 284495, No. 312496); the Advanced European Network of E-infrastructures for Astronomy with the SKA (AENEAS) project, supported by the European Commission Framework Programme Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation action under Grant Agreement No. 731016; the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung; the Black Hole Initiative at Harvard University, through a grant (No. 60477) from the John Templeton Foundation; the China Scholarship Council; Comision Nacional de Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnologica (CONICYT, Chile, via PIA ACT172033, Fondecyt Projects No. 1171506 and No. 3190878, BASAL AFB-170002, ALMA-conicyt 31140007); Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACYT, Mexico, Projects No. 104497, No. 275201, No. 279006, No. 281692); the Delaney Family via the Delaney Family John A. Wheeler Chair at Perimeter Institute; Direccion General de Asuntos del Personal Academico, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (DGAPA-UNAM, project IN112417); the European Research Council Synergy Grant "BlackHoleCam: Imaging the Event Horizon of Black Holes" (Grant No. 610058); the Generalitat Valenciana postdoctoral grant APOSTD/2018/177 and GenT Program (project CIDEGENT/2018/021); the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation (Grants No. GBMF-3561, No. GBMF-5278); the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) sezione di Napoli, iniziative specifiche TEONGRAV; the International Max Planck Research School for Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Universities of Bonn and Cologne; the Jansky Fellowship program of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO); the Japanese Government (Monbukagakusho:MEXT) Scholarship; the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Research Fellowship (JP17J08829); the Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS, Grants No. QYZDJ-SSW-SLH057, No. QYZDJSSW-SYS008, No. ZDBS-LY-SLH011); the Leverhulme Trust Early Career Research Fellowship; the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (MPG); the Max Planck Partner Group of the MPG and the CAS; the MEXT/JSPS KAKENHI (Grants No. 18KK0090, No. JP18K13594, No. JP18K03656, No. JP18H03721, No. 18K03709, No. 18H01245, No. 25120007); the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives (MISTI) Funds; the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) of Taiwan (105-2112-M-001-025-MY3, 106-2112-M-001-011, 106-2119-M-001-027, 107-2119-M-001-017, 107-2119-M-001-020, and 107-2119-M-110-005); the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, Fermi Guest Investigator Grant No. 80NSSC17K0649 and Hubble Fellowship Grant No. HST-HF2-51431.001-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under Contract No. NAS5-26555); the National Institute of Natural Sciences (NINS) of Japan; the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grants No. 2016YFA0400704, No. 2016YFA0400702); the National Science Foundation (NSF, Grants No. AST-0096454, No. AST-0352953, No. AST-0521233, No. AST-0705062, No. AST0905844, No. AST-0922984, No. AST-1126433, No. AST-1140030, No. DGE-1144085, No. AST-1207704, No. AST-1207730, No. AST-1207752, No. MRI-1228509, No. OPP-1248097, No. AST-1310896, No. AST-1312651, No. AST-1337663, No. AST-1440254, No. AST-1555365, No. AST-1715061, No. AST-1615796, No. AST-1716327, No. OISE-1743747, No. AST-1816420); the Natural Science Foundation of China (Grants No. 11573051, No. 11633006, No. 11650110427, No. 10625314, No. 11721303, No. 11725312, No. 11933007); the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC, including a Discovery Grant and the NSERC Alexander Graham Bell Canada Graduate Scholarships-Doctoral Program); the National Youth Thousand Talents Program of China; the National Research Foundation of Korea (the Global PhD Fellowship Grant: Grants No. NRF-2015H1A2A1033752, No. 2015-R1D1A1A01056807, the Korea Research Fellowship Program: NRF-2015H1D3A1066561); the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) VICI award (Grant No. 639.043.513) and Spinoza Prize SPI 78-409; the New Scientific Frontiers with Precision Radio Interferometry Fellowship awarded by the South African Radio Astronomy Observatory (SARAO), which is a facility of the National Research Foundation (NRF), an agency of the Department of Science and Technology (DST) of South Africa; the Onsala Space Observatory (OSO) national infrastructure, for the provisioning of its facilities/observational support (OSO receives funding through the Swedish Research Council under Grant No. 2017-00648) the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics (research at Perimeter Institute is supported by the Government of Canada through the Department of Innovation, Science and Economic Development and by the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Research, Innovation and Science); the Russian Science Foundation (Grant No. 17-12-01029); the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (Grants No. AYA2015-63939-C2-1-P, No. AYA2016-80889-P, No. PID2019-108995GB-C21); the State Agency for Research of the Spanish MCIU through the "Center of Excellence Severo Ochoa" award for the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (SEV-2017-0709); the Toray Science Foundation; the Consejeria de Economia, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad of the Junta de Andalucia (Grant No. P18-FR-1769), the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (Grant No. 2019AEP112); the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) through the Los Alamos National Laboratory [operated by Triad National Security, LLC, for the National Nuclear Security Administration of the U.S. DOE (Contract No. 89233218CNA000001)]; the Italian Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Universita e della Ricerca through the grant Progetti Premiali 2012-iALMA (CUP C52I13000140001); the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Grant Agreement No. 730562 RadioNet; ALMA North America Development Fund; the Academia Sinica;Chandra TM6-17006X; the GenT Program (Generalitat Valenciana) Project CIDEGENT/2018/021. This work used the Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment (XSEDE), supported by NSF Grant No. ACI-1548562, and CyVerse, supported by NSF Grants No. DBI-0735191, No. DBI-1265383, and No. DBI-1743442. We thank the staff at the participating observatories, correlation centers, and institutions for their enthusiastic support. ALMA is a partnership of the European Southern Observatory (ESO; Europe, representing its member states), NSF, and National Institutes of Natural Sciences of Japan, together with National Research Council (Canada), Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST; Taiwan), Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA; Taiwan), and Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI; Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, Associated Universities, Inc. (AUI)/NRAO, and the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ). The NRAO is a facility of the NSF operated under cooperative agreement by AUI. APEX is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Institut fur Radioastronomie (Germany), ESO, and the Onsala Space Observatory (Sweden). The SMA is a joint project between the SAO and ASIAA and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. The JCMT is operated by the East Asian Observatory on behalf of the NAOJ, ASIAA, and KASI, as well as the Ministry of Finance of China, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the National Key R&D Program (No. 2017YFA0402700) of China. Additional funding support for the JCMT is provided by the Science and Technologies Facility Council (UK) and participating universities in the UK and Canada. The LMT is a project operated by the Instituto Nacional de Astrofisica, Optica, y Electronica (Mexico) and the University of Massachusetts at Amherst (USA). The IRAM 30-m telescope on Pico Veleta, Spain, is operated by IRAM and supported by CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France), MPG (Max-PlanckGesellschaft, Germany) and IGN (Instituto Geografico Nacional, Spain). The SMT is operated by the Arizona Radio Observatory, a part of the Steward Observatory of the University of Arizona, with financial support of operations from the State of Arizona and financial support for instrumentation development from the NSF. The SPT is supported by the National Science Foundation through Grant No. PLR-1248097. Partial support is also provided by the NSF Physics Frontier Center Grant No. PHY1125897 to the Kavli Institute of Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago, the Kavli Foundation and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation Grant No. GBMF 947. The SPT hydrogen maser was provided on loan from the GLT, courtesy of ASIAA. The EHTC has received generous donations of FPGA chips from Xilinx Inc., under the Xilinx University Program. The EHTC has benefited from technology shared under open-source license by the Collaboration for Astronomy Signal Processing and Electronics Research (CASPER). The EHT project is grateful to T4Science and Microsemi for their assistance with hydrogen masers. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System. We gratefully acknowledge the support provided by the extended staff of the ALMA, both from the inception of the ALMA Phasing Project through the observational campaigns of 2017 and 2018. We would like to thank A. Deller and W. Brisken for EHT-specific support with the use of DiFX. We acknowledge the significance that Maunakea, where the SMA and JCMT EHT stations are located, has for the indigenous Hawaiian people.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yaadahalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 662 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 597 ha (90%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 7 ha (1%) by rock outcrops and 58 ha (9%) by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 21 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 32 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm), 28 per cent soils are deep (100 to 150 cm), 20 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 2 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) and 8 per cent soils are shallow (25-50 cm).  About 22 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 49 per cent loamy soils and 19 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 86 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 6 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 84 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 6 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 84 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded in the microwatershed.  An area of about 2 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 44 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 22 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 20 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 2 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 62 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 28 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 88 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 2 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (<10 ppm) in an area of about 75 per cent and 15 per cent of the soils are medium (10-20 ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (<0.5 ppm) in an area of about 74 per cent and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in an area of 16 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 455(69) 87(13) Guava - 130(20) Maize 58(9) 433(65) Sapota - 131(20) Bajra 109(16) 433(65) Pomegranate - 528(80) Groundnut - 138(21) Musambi 389(59) 139(21) Sunflower 389(59) 139(21) Lime 389(59) 139(21) Redgram - 528(80) Amla 66(10) 475(72) Bengal gram 397(60) 81(12) Cashew - 66(10) Cotton 389(59) 88(13) Jackfruit - 131(20) Chilli - 542(82) Jamun - 397(60) Tomato 58(9) 401(60) Custard apple 476(72) 65(10) Brinjal 120(18) 421(64) Tamarind - 397(60) Onion 161(24) 101(16) Mulberry - 131(20) Bhendi 299(45) 242(37) Marigold - 542(82) Drumstick - 528(80) Chrysanthemum - 542(82) Mango - 46(7)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yaadahalli-2 is located at North latitude 160 49' 50.825" and 160 48' 22.582" and East longitude 770 10' 36.282'' and 770 8' 22.441" covering an area of about 661.39 ha coming underYaddalli, Bandhalli and Honagera villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yaadahalli-2 micro watersheds of Hattikuni subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Yaadahalli-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 19 (52.78%) were marginal, 6 (16.67%) were small and 5 (13.89 %) were semi medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 127 (55.70%) men and 101 (44.30 %) were women. The average population of landless was 6.7, marginal farmers were 6.5, semi medium farmers were 5.7 and medium farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents (56.14%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 74.12 per cent illiterates, 25.44 per cent pre university education and 2.63 per cent attained graduation.  About, 77.78 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 60.09 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 52.78 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 33.33 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 61.11 per cent possess TV, 2.78 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.44 per cent possess mobile phones and 33.33 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 22.22 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.56 per cent possess tractor, 5.56 per cent possess bullock cart and 13.89 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.33 per cent possess local cow and 2.78 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.89, women available in the micro watershed was 1.69, hired labour (men) available was 7.83 and hired labour (women) available was 5.97.  Further, 19.44 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 2.63 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1150.00 kms for about 12.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 65.61 per cent (24.20 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 30.71 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 9.00 live bore wells and 9.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 25.00 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 107.16 per cent.  Out of the sample households 77.78 percent possessed bank account and 47.22 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 38.89 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 14.29 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 64.29 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 92.31 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.50570.78 , 33213.31, 61554.52, 57120.33, and 40238.12 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.03, 1: 2.90, 1: 2.30, 1: 1.40, and 1:1.50, respectively.  Further, 30.56 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 230574.94 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 62213.89 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 14 horticulture trees and 44 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 15694.44 for land development and Rs. 27083.33 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.78 per cent depends on own funds and 11.11 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 61.11 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 25.00 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 80.56 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (55.56%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 77.78 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 83.33 per cent of the households and 16.67 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 83.33 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 41.67 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 91.67 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 8.33 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (83.33%), pulses (88.89%) and oilseeds (52.78%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (63.89 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (47.22%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (77.78%), inadequacy of irrigation water (58.33%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (77.78%), high rate of interest on credit (77.78%), low price for the agricultural commodities (77.78 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (63.89%), inadequate extension services (27.78 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (72.22%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 576 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 70 per cent in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 30 ha by rock outcrops, others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire cultivated area is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 2 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are shallow (25-50 cm), 5 per cent are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 4 per cent are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 58 per cent are deep (100-150 cm) and 1 per cent soils are very deep (>150 cm) soils in the microwatershed.  About 2 per cent are sandy soils at the surface, 54 per cent are loamy soils and 14 percent soils are clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum area of about 68 per cent is non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 57 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 14 per cent area is nearly level (0-1% slope) soils.  An area of about 57 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 14 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) soils in the microwatershed.  About an area of 2 per cent in the microwatershed is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 5 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 49 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8- 8.4) and 15 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) soils.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 1 percent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 60 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 10 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire area is low (4.5 ppm) in 59 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 17 per cent soils.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 23 (4) 234 (41) Guava - 23 (4) Maize 23 (4) 234 (41) Sapota - 23 (4) Bajra 23 (4) 234 (41) Pomegranate - 23 (4) Groundnut - 52 (9) Musambi - 23 (4) Sunflower - 23 (4) Lime - 23 (4) Redgram - 228 (40) Amla 23 (4) 29 (5) Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - 23 (4) Jackfruit - 23 (4) Chilli 23 (4) 29 (5) Jamun - - Tomato 23 (4) 29 (5) Custard apple 52 (9) - Brinjal 23 (4) 29 (5) Tamarind - - Onion 23 (4) 29 (5) Mulberry - 23 (4) Bhendi 23 (4) 29 (5) Marigold 23 (4) 29 (5) Drumstick - 23 (4) Chrysanthemum 23 (4) 29 (5) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 5 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yadgir Rf-2 is located at North latitude 160 51' 34.686" and 160 50' 14.901" and East longitude 770 12' 14.251'' and 770 10' 18.907" covering an area of about 564.17 ha coming under Hattikuni, Katagi Shahapura, Yadahalli and Honageri villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir Rf-2 micro watersheds of Hattikuni subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir Rf-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 12 (34.29%) were marginal, 11 (31.43%) were small, 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium and 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 89 (56.33%) men and 69 (43.67 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.8, marginal farmers were 4.4, small farmers were 4.8, semi medium farmers were 3.7 and medium farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents (39.87%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 50.00 per cent illiterates, 0.63 percent were functional literates, 43.03 per cent pre university education and 2.53 per cent attained graduation.  About, 88.57 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.86 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 33.54 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 54.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.43 per cent possess TV, 82.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 11.43 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.00 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 11.43 per cent possess bullock cart and 5.71 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.86 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.53, women available in the micro watershed was 1.42, hired labour (men) available was 7.38 and hired labour (women) available was 6.74.  Further, 60.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 6.96 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1114.83 kms for about 6.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 72.89 per cent (40.31 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 25.10 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 5.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 14.29 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Sorghum, Cotton, Groundnut and Maize and cropping intensity was recorded as 89.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 88.57 percent possessed bank account and 82.86 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 82.86 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Sorghum, Cotton, Groundnut and Maize was Rs.37227.18, 25478.65, 34967.43, 43716.27 and 27475.11 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.20, 1: 1.40, 1: 1.50, 1: 0.80 and 1:1.80 respectively.  Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.57 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 69780.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 33694.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 8 horticulture trees and 42 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 14.29 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5428.57 for land development and Rs. 228.57 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.86 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 48.57 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 28.57 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 62.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (74.29%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 74.29 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  About, 14.29 per cent of farmers practicing summer ploughing as soil and water conservation practice.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households and 8.57 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 80.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 51.43 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.14%), pulses (68.57%) and oilseeds (28.57%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (65.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (60.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (34.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40.00%), high rate of interest on credit (28.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (28.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (34.29%), inadequate extension services (31.43%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (62.86%), Less rainfall (34.29%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (31.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Itakal-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 540 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 522 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 18 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 92 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 4 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm).  About 4 per cent area of the microwatershed has loamy soils and 92 per cent clayey soils.  About of 86 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 20 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 16 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 83 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands of the microwatershed.  An area of about 65 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and 31 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 22 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5 to 7.3), 52 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) and 23 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%), 57 per cent medium (0.50-0.75%) and 9 per cent is low ( 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area 89 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) and 8 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium of the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) 28 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 60 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in 37 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 244(45) Guava - 65(12) Maize 65(12) 179(33) Sapota - 65(12) Bajra 65(12) 179(33) Pomegranate - 220(41) Groundnut 65(12) 24(4) Musambi - 220(41) Sunflower - 220(41) Lime - 220(41) Redgram - 220(41) Amla 65(12) 24(4) Bengal gram - 155(29) Cashew - - Cotton - 155(29) Jackfruit - 65(12) Chilli 65(12) 179(33) Jamun - - Tomato 65(12) 24(4) Custard apple 65(12) 179(33) Brinjal 65(12) 24(4) Tamarind - - Onion 65(12) 24(4) Mulberry - 65(12) Bhendi 65(12) 179(33) Marigold 65(12) 179(33) Drumstick - 65(12) Chrysanthemum 65(12) 179(33) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Itakal-1 is located at North latitude 160 54' 13.021" and 160 53' 26.25" and East longitude 770 24' 24.188'' and 770 23' 10.84" covering an area of about 118.39 ha coming under Gurumitkal village of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Itakal-1 micro watersheds of Mothakapalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Itakal-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 21 (60.00%) were marginal, 4 (11.43%) were small, 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 107 (62.21%) men and 65 (37.79 %) were women. The average population of landless was 6.2, marginal farmers were 4.7, small farmers were 5, semi medium farmers were 4.3 and medium farmers were 4.5.  Majority of the respondents (40.12%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 24.42 per cent illiterates, 0.58 percent were functional literates, 70.36 per cent pre university education and 7.56 per cent attained graduation.  About, 80.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 47.67 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 40.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 57.14 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 80.00 per cent possess TV, 42.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.43 per cent possess mobile phones and 54.29 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 14.29 per cent possess bullock cart and 20.00 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow and 5.71 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.54, women available in the micro watershed was 1.03, hired labour (men) available was 5.14 and hired labour (women) available was 8.86.  Further, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 80.49 per cent (29.68 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 19.51 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 3.00 live bore wells and 3.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 14.29 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 97.14 percent possessed bank account and 14.29 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 102.86 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 40.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 30.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (90.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 54.55 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 36.36 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar and Paddy was Rs.43067.31, 90445.62, 39213.13, 139598.90 and 48958.89 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.62, 1: 1.29, 1: 1.96, 1: 1.90 and 1:0.80 respectively.  Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 137397.14 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 49711.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 46 horticulture trees and 14 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 8.57 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7571.43 for land development and Rs. 2857.14 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 42.86 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 82.86 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.86 per cent have sold in regulated markets. 3  Further, 62.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (60.00%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 71.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 57.14 per cent of the households and 54.29 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 94.29 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 22.86 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.29 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 5.71 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (80.00%), pulses (37.14%) and oilseeds (40.00%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (77.14%) wild animal menace on farm field (68.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (68.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (68.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (68.57%), high rate of interest on credit (80.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (48.57%), inadequate extension services (28.57%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (48.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Som et resultat af menneskelige aktiviteter er lægemidler og biocider allestedsnærværende i miljøet på sporstofniveau. Store mængder af disse stoffer, også kendt som miljøfremmede stoffer (på Engelsk XTCs: Xenobiotic Trace Chemicals), frigives dagligt fra: (i) husholdninger og sundhedsfaciliteter, som følge af indtagelse og bortskaffelse; (ii) dyrehold og tilsvarende faciliteter, som følge af dyrs indtagelse; og (iii) industrianlæg. En betydelig del af disse udledninger når frem til kommunale renseanlæg, hvor de miljøfremmede stoffer kun delvist bliver fjernet. I sidste ende udledes de miljøfremmede stoffer således til miljøet, f.eks. til ferskvandsområder der fungerer som recipienter for renseanlæg, hvor de udgør en trussel for levende organismer. Renseanlæg er blevet identificeret som en vigtig punktkilde for udledning af miljøfremmede stoffer til miljøet. På grund af det høje antal af markedsførte og forbrugt kemikalier, og de usikkerheder forbundet til prøveudtagning og analysemetoder, er der dog stadig store udfordringer forbundet med kvantificering af i hvor høj grad miljøfremmede stoffer bliver fjernet i forbindelse spildevandsrensning. Udvikling af robuste modelleringsværktøjer til at forudsige miljøfremmede stoffers skæbne i renseanlæg kan hjælpe med at overvinde denne udfordring. Men dybtgående forståelse af de mekanismer og processer, der styrer miljøfremmede stoffers fjernelse under spildevandsrensning, er stadig nødvendig. Målet med nærværende ph.d.-projekt var at udfylde huller i vores viden omkring modellering af miljøfremmed stoffers skæbne i renseanlæg og efterfølgende. Vi ville gerne forbedre forståelsen af miljøfremmede stoffers skæbne og dermed forbedre modellernes forudsigelsesevne: (i) ved processkalaen, med fokus på sorption og biologisk nedbrydning af miljøfremmede stoffer i biologiske renseanlæg; (ii) i fuldskala renseanlæg, hvor vi ville vurdere effekten af gendannelse og driften af renseanlægget på fjernelsesgraden; og (iii) i integrerede renseanlæg-landbrugssystemer. Forskellige modelleringsværktøjer, velegnede til hvert specifikt formål i undersøgelser, blev udviklet, udvidet eller anvendt innovativt. Følgende velkendte modeller blev anvendt: Activated Sludge Modelling framework for Xenobiotics (ASM-X); den generiske renseanlægsmodel SimpleTreat Activity; og den dynamiske jord-plante model til forudsigelse af kemikaliers skæbne i landbrugssystemer. Vi kombinerede eksperimentelle og modelbaserede observationer til at vurdere sorption af ioniserbare miljøfremmede stoffer til aktiveret slam og nedbrydning af miljøfremmede stoffer i "moving bed"-biofilmreaktorer (MBBRs). De fleste miljøfremmede stoffer er ioniserbare, og kan således være til stede i neutral og / eller ioniseret form i spildevand. Vi viste, at pH-betingelser, og i mindre grad, dosering af jernsalt til kemisk phosphorfjernelse, med sikkerhed påvirker faststof-væskepartitioneringen af det zwitterioniske antibiotikum ciprofloxacin i aktivt slam. Elektrostatiske interaktioner og kompleksdannelse er således dominerende sorptionsmekanismer. Vi observerede non-lineær sorption (n=0.62–1.33) under forskellige pH-, redox- og jernsalt doseringsforhold. Vi foreslog derfor en udvidelse til traditionelle sorptionsmodeller for ciprofloxacin og andre zwitterioniske miljøfremmede stoffer, som beskriver ionisering som funktion af pH og ændret sorptionspotentiale for ioniserede stoffer. Miljøfremmede stoffer findes typisk i spildevand i koncetrationsniveauer mellem ng L-1 og ug L-1, hvilket medfører at de ikke kan bruges som substrater for vækst. Vi vurderede effekten af primære metaboliske processer i MBBRs på fjernelse af miljøfremmede stoffer. Undersøgelsen blev udført ved at sammenligne kinetikken i pre-denitrificerende MBBRs kørt i enkelttrins- og tretrinskonfigurationer. Sidstnævnte konfiguration produceret en langvarig udsættelse af biofilmen for faldende belastning med COD, hvilket påvirkede kinetikken af heterotrof denitrifikation og nedbrydning af miljøfremmede stoffer. Vi fandt at nedbrydningskonstanten for en række miljøfremmede stoffer var afhængig af denitrifikationspotentialet i biofilmen, hvilket indikerer, at nedbrydning af miljøfremmede stoffer var en co-metabolisk proces. Der er beskrevet en række faktorer der påvirker fjernelsen af miljøfremmede stoffer i fuldskala renseanlæg. Relevant effekt kan tilskrives (i) faststoffers opholdstid i den biologiske rensningsproces; og (ii) dannelse af miljøfremmede stoffer via f.eks. delvis nedbrydning af menneskelige metabolitter. Mange miljøfremmede stoffer udskilles af mennesker i form af metabolitter, som efterfølgende kan omdannes til moderstoffet igen. I dette projekt vurderede vi effekten af gendannelse og faststofsopholdstid på sulfamethoxazols skæbne i fuldskala renseanlæg. Vi brugte en metode baseret på sammenligning af ASM-X modelforudsigelser med værdier fra litteraturen. Vores undersøgelse viste, at effekten af gendannelse under sekundær spildevandsrensning er bestemt af: (i) størrelsen af renseanlæggets opland, idet høj grad af gendannelse i kloaksystemet kan forventes i store oplande; og (ii) typen af opland (med eller uden hospital). Dette peger på anvendelsen af en integreret tilgang til miljøfremmede stoffers skæbne-vurdering i spildevandsssystemer (kloaksystemer og rensningsanlæg). Endvidere forudså vi og fandt forbedret fjernelse af sulfamethoxazol i renseanlæg der kører med faststofsopholdstider på mere end 16 dage. Ved faststofsopholdstider over denne værdi kan der forventes forbedrede nedbrydningskinetikker på grund af vækst i langsomtvoksende organismer (f.eks. specialiserede nedbrydere) eller på grund af blandede substratudnyttelsesstrategier. Miljøfremmede stoffer bliver som regel kun delvist nedbrudt i renseanlæg, og er derfor tilstede i udledninger fra renseanlæg og i spildevandsslammet. Udbringning af slam på marker og brug af renset spildevand eller ferskvand der modtager renset spildevand til kunstvanding af marker medfører i sidste ende optagelse af miljøfremmede stoffer i fødevareafgrøder. I dette projekt udviklede og afprøvede vi et generisk simuleringsværktøj til at forudsige miljøfremmede stoffers skæbne fra forbrug til optagelse i vinterhvede via nedbrydning i renseanlæg i en række geografiske scenarier i EU. Værktøjet kombinerede SimpleTreat Activity-modellen og den dynamiske jord-plante model, med særligt fokus på at forudsige skæbnen af ioniserbare stoffer. Ionisering har, som vist i vores første studie, store konsekvenser på faststof-væske partitioneringen, og på fordelingen ind i kornets væv. Vi udvalgte tre miljøfremmede stoffer som anvendes i store mængder, nemlig biocidet triclosan, det vanddrivende middel furosemid og antibiotikummet ciprofloxacin. Vi valgte tre reelle geografiske scenarier for områder i Den Europæiske Union og brugte gennemsnitlige forbrugsdata eller udledningsværdier fra forskellige EU-lande. Vi fandt at furosemid blev meget svagt nedbrudt i spildevandsrensning og blev signifikant akkumuleret i hvede. Optagelse af furosemid var større når udledning til jord-plante-systemet opstod via kunstvanding med ferskvand, i forhold til udbringning af slam. Set i lyset af de få eksperimentelle data indikerer vores modelberegninger et behov for uddybende undersøgelser af miljøfremmede stoffers skæbne i landbrugssystemer. Ophobning i fødevareafgrøder kan resultere i indirekte eksponering af mennesker for miljøfremmede stoffer via kosten; denne eksponering kan estimeres ved hjælp modelsimuleringer. Det præsenterede simuleringsværktøj kan således anvendes til pre-screening og prioritering af kemikalier samt til at undersøge betydningen af miljøfremmede stoffers emmisionsveje (f.eks. udbringning af gødning irrigation med behandlet spildevand) i forbindelse med akkumulering i fødevareafgrøder. ; As a result of widespread human activities, pharmaceuticals and biocides are ubiquitously present at trace levels in the environment. Large amounts of these substances, also identified as xenobiotic trace chemicals (XTCs), are released daily from: (i) households and healthcare facilities, following human consumption and disposal; (ii) husbandry and other analogous facilities, following veterinary consumption; and (iii) industrial facilities. A significant fraction of these emissions reaches municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), where XTCs undergo incomplete removal partly due to WWTP design limitations. These chemicals are thus eventually released to the environment, e.g. in freshwater bodies receiving WWTP effluents, representing a threat to living organisms. WWTPs have been generally identified as a major point source of XTC emissions to the environment. Nevertheless, due to the high number of marketed and consumed chemicals, and to the uncertainties associated to sampling and analytical methodologies, quantifying the elimination of XTCs during wastewater treatment still remains a challenge. Developing robust modelling tools to predict the fate of XTCs in WWTPs can help overcoming this challenge. However, in-depth understanding of mechanisms and processes, determining XTCs removal during wastewater treatment, is still required. This PhD thesis aimed at filling knowledge gaps in the field of XTC fate modelling during and beyond wastewater treatment. We aimed at improving the comprehension of XTC fate, and thus the predictive capabilities of fate models: (i) at process scale, with a focus on sorption and biological transformation of XTCs in biological treatment systems; (ii) in full-scale WWTPs, assessing the impact of retransformation and WWTP operation on XTC elimination; and (iii) in integrated WWTP-agricultural systems. Different modelling tools, suiting the specific purposes of our investigations, were developed, extended and/or innovatively applied. Fate models used as reference in this thesis include: the Activated Sludge Modelling framework for Xenobiotics (ASM-X); the generic WWTP model SimpleTreat Activity; and the dynamic soil-plant model for fate prediction in agricultural systems. Experimental and model-based observations were combined to assess sorption of ionizable XTCs onto activated sludge and XTC biotransformation in moving bed biofilm reactors (MBBRs). Most XTCs are in fact multispecies chemicals, being present in neutral and/or ionized form in wastewater. We demonstrated that pH conditions and, to a lesser extent, iron salt dosing for chemical phosphorus removal can significantly affect solid-liquid partitioning of the zwitterionic antibiotic ciprofloxacin onto activated sludge. Electrostatic interactions and complexation are thus dominating sorption mechanisms. Under a range of pH, redox and iron salt dosing conditions, non-linear sorption (n=0.62–1.33) was observed. Extensions to traditional partitioning models were accordingly proposed for ciprofloxacin and other zwitterionic XTCs, accounting for: (i) high non-linearity of XTC sorption; or (ii) ionization with changing pH and different sorption potential of ionized species. Furthermore, XTCs are typically present in ng L-1 to µg L-1 concentrations in wastewater, being referred to as non-growth substrates, and their biological degradation can be associated with microbial growth processes. In this PhD thesis, we assessed the influence of primary metabolic processes on XTC biotransformation in MBBR biofilm. Our investigation was performed by comparing biotransformation kinetics in pre-denitrifying MBBRs operated in single-stage and three-stage configurations. The latter configuration produced a prolonged biofilm exposure to organic electron donor (COD) loading and complexity tiered by segregated and integrated biofilm reactors, which significantly influenced kinetics of heterotrophic denitrification and XTC biotransformation. Biotransformation rate constants for a number of non-recalcitrant XTCs were found correlated to the denitrification potential of MBBR biofilm, suggesting that XTC degradation occurred via microbial co-metabolism. In addition, enhanced biotransformation kinetics was shown for a number of XTCs (sulfamethoxazole, erythromycin, atenolol) as compared to previous findings for conventional activated sludge. A number of factors have been described to influence the elimination of XTCs in full-scale WWTPs. Specifically, relevant impact was attributed to (i) solid residence time (SRT), at which biological treatment is operated; and (ii) the formation of XTCs due to, e.g., deconjugation of human metabolites. Many XTCs are in fact excreted by humans in the form of conjugates, which can undergo biotic retransformation to parent chemicals. In this PhD thesis, we specifically assessed the influence of retransformation processes and SRT on the fate of sulfamethoxazole in full-scale WWTPs. A methodology based on the comparison of ASM-X predictions and literature data was used. We demonstrated that the impact of retransformation during secondary wastewater treatment is determined by: (i) the size of WWTP catchments, with major in-sewer retransformation expected in large catchments; (ii) the type of catchment (hospital or urban catchment). This evidence accordingly suggests an integrated approach to XTC fate assessment in wastewater systems (sewer networks and WWTPs). Furthermore, improved elimination of sulfamethoxazole was found and predicted in WWTPs operated at SRT greater than 16 d. Beyond this critical SRT, enhanced biotransformation kinetics may occur due to the enrichment of slow-growing organisms (e.g., specialist degraders) or mixed substrate utilization strategies. This finding supported our experimental evidence of enhanced sulfamethoxazole biotransformation kinetics in denitrifying MBBRs. As a result of incomplete biodegradation in WWTPs, XTCs persist in effluents and sewage sludge. Reuse of municipal biosolids and treated wastewater or use of freshwater for agricultural purposes eventually leads to XTC uptake into food crops. In this PhD thesis, we developed and tested a generic simulation tool to predict the fate of XTCs from consumption, through wastewater treatment and eventually to the uptake by winter wheat for a number of geographical scenarios in the European Union. The tool combined was specifically addressed for fate prediction of ionizable XTCs (the biocide triclosan, the diuretic furosemide and the antibiotic ciprofloxacin). Furosemide was found rather persistent to wastewater treatment (removal efficiency ≤ 40%) and to further undergo significant accumulation in wheat. Uptake of furosemide was predicted to increase (+20% of emissions to soil) when emissions to the soil-plant system occurred via freshwater irrigation, as compared to soil amendment with biosolids. Due to the scarce availability of experimental data, our model predictions indicate the need of deepening investigations of XTC fate in agricultural systems. Accumulation in food crops may result in indirect human exposure to XTCs via dietary intake, which can be eventually estimated using model predictions. The presented simulation tool can thus be used for pre-screening and priority setting of chemicals, and to explore the impact of additional XTC emission pathways (e.g., manure application, irrigation with reclaimed WWTP effluent) in terms of food crop accumulation.