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This paper reviews the literature on the development consequences of internal armed conflict and state fragility and analyzes the relationship using data from World Development Indicators, Ukraine Corporate Development Project UCDP/Peace Research Institute of Oslo (PRIO) Armed Conflict Data (ACD), and World Bank state fragility assessments. Our main focus is on a set of development indicators that capture seven of the Millennium Development Goals, but the author also look briefly into the effect of conflict and fragility on growth, human rights abuses, and democratization. The author analyze these relationships using a variety of methods, averages by conflict and fragility status; cross-sectional regression analyses of change in each indicator over the time frame for which we have data; fixed-effects regression analyses of the impact on each indicator for each five-year period 1965-2009; as well as occasional panel time series models and matching techniques. In section two, the author summarizes the methodological choices and presents our conflict data. Section three summarizes the results of our analysis. Finally, section four analyzes the effects of internal armed conflict on the attainment of the individual Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

All countries have a formal economy and an informal economy. But, on average, in developing countries the relative size of the informal sector is considerably larger than in developed countries. This paper argues that this has important implications for housing policy in developing countries. That most poor households derive their income from informal employment effectively precludes income-contingent transfers as a method of redistribution. Also, holding fixed real economic activity, the larger is the relative size of the informal sector, the lower is fiscal capacity, and the more distortionary is government provision of a given level of goods and services, which restricts the desirable scale and scope of government policy. For the same reasons, housing policies that have proven successful in developed countries may not be successful when employed in developing countries.

David J. Bier


President Biden has used the immigration authority known as "parole" to permit many immigrants to enter the country or remain in the country legally. But his actions have deep historical precedent. Under section 212(d)(5) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (8 U.S.C. 1182(d)(5)), the Attorney General and later the Secretary of Homeland Security has had the authority to waive the normal restrictions on entry and allow certain noncitizens to enter the United States since 1952.
Table 1 provides a list of 126 programmatic or categorical parole orders, meaning orders that were nationalized policies intended to permit the entry of certain defined types of noncitizens. This list is certainly not exhaustive. Until recently, programmatic or categorical uses of parole were often not publicized in any formal, consistent, or even public way. The Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) would simply create internal guidance that would only become public if stakeholders or the media publicized it.











For example, one instance in Table 1 is an INS official in 1990 listing six separate categories for parole in operation at the time that no other document refers to before or since. That is an exceptional case. In many cases, however, Congress acknowledged these uses of parole through subsequent or previous congressional actions, allowing for parolees to adjust to legal permanent residence or receive refugee benefits. In some cases, it just acknowledged that these procedures were in effect or expressed support for them.
This list helps dispel some myths. Since the creation of the parole power in the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952—which codified executive powers already in use—Congress has substantively amended the parole authority twice: in the Refugee Act of 1980 (P.L. 96–212, March 17, 1980), barring refugees from being paroled into the United States, and in the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (Public Law 104–208), which made two statutory changes. First, the standard for paroling someone changed from "emergent" or "public interest" reasons to "urgent humanitarian" or "significant public benefit" reasons. Second, each determination had to be made on a case‐​by‐​case basis.
Few at the time thought these changes were substantive, and the categorical parole regulations then in effect were reenacted verbatim. Moreover, the case‐​by‐​case basis requirement was in effect for decades, including for large‐​scale programmatic uses of parole, such as for Cubans and Vietnamese. Case‐​by‐​case determinations always meant an individual determination, even if someone's categorization created a presumption that they met the "emergent/​humanitarian" or "public interest/​significant public benefit" requirement.
In many cases, these parole programs have received almost no attention in many years but contain precedents that the current administration should consider reimplementing. For example, parole used to be available in 1990 for children aging out of eligibility for green cards. In the 1950s, it was used for the employment‐​based first preference category (skilled immigrants) when immigrant visas were unavailable under the cap. These two issues are particularly relevant now, with the employment‐​based cap being exhausted even for Nobel laureates and their children.
Unfortunately, there is no comprehensive set of statistics for the number of people paroled since 1952. Figure 1 shows the data that the INS published from 1982 to 2003. Table 2 shows the programmatic grants under various programs from the 1950s through the year 2000.






















Humanitarian and public interest parole categories (1952—present): This type of parole has evolved over time in the types of categories that fall under it. In 1964, the INS associate commissioner listed several categories of immigrants who would be granted parole: to "either attend to sickness or burial or some close family affair," "accompany servicemen, members of the Armed Forces where the wife or some child would have been technically inadmissible," reunite a mentally handicapped child who would otherwise be excludable with their family, or deal with medical emergencies. Since 1982, at least some of these reasons have been included in regulations. In 1980, the INS provided examples of parole, including children coming for medical treatment, people coming to donate a kidney, and a Chinese woman who was allowed to visit her 81‐​year‐​old adoptive mother, who had been expelled by the communists from China. In 1990, the INS described a "small sampling" of the kinds of humanitarian and public interest categories of parole available at the time: 1) Someone's immediate family member just died or is dying, and consular officers lack time to process a visa or deny the visa; 2) People coming for organ, blood, or tissue donation; 3) Extradited criminals, informants, witnesses; and 4) National security assets (e.g., Soviet dissidents and foreign U.S. spies). In September 2008, ICE, USCIS, and CBP signed a memorandum of agreement on the use of parole by the agencies. This document listed, among other programs described below, parole categories for 1) registered sources of the U.S. intelligence community, 2) transiters through the United States to legal proceedings in a third country, 3) trainees, 4) individuals necessary for prosecutions or investigations, 5) confidential informants, 6) extraditions, 7) civil court participants, and 8) international organization event participants.
Parole from detention (1954—1980): On November 12, 1954, Ellis Island and several other INS detention centers were closed, and detainees were paroled into the United States. The number of detained immigrants fell from a monthly average of 225 to less than 40. Paroles were carried out under section 212(d)(5) of the INA. The INS promulgated a regulation on January 8, 1958, authorizing this practice of parole from ports of entry rather than detention. From 1954 until 1981, "most undocumented aliens detained at the border were paroled into the United States." Even after 1982, when the use of parole was narrowed, its use continued "when detention is impossible or impractical." The INS associate commissioner testified in 1964 that the closing of the detention facilities met the requirement of the parole statute because "it created a better image of the American Government and American public."
Orphan parole (1956): The Refugee Relief Act of 1953 created 4,000 slots for orphans adopted by U.S. citizens, but when the slots were filled, the attorney general authorized the entry of additional orphans under his parole authority on October 30, 1956. A total of 925 orphans were paroled.
Adjustment of status: On September 11, 1957, Congress enacted Public Law 85–316, which authorized the adjustment of status to legal permanent residence of any eligible orphaned paroled into the United States.
Hungarian parole (1956): On November 13, 1956, President Eisenhower ordered that 5,000 Hungarians be paroled into the United States. On December 1, 1956, he revised the limit to 15,000 Hungarians before eliminating the limit on January 2, 1957. By June 30, 1957, 27,435 parolees had entered, and the total reached 31,915 by 1958. For context, only 109 immigrants were admitted from Hungary in 1956, and only 321,625 immigrants were admitted worldwide. The Justice Department said in 1957 that this was "the first time that the parole provision has been applied to relatively large numbers of people." Several U.S. charitable organizations helped prepare their parole applications and to find housing and jobs for them.
Adjustment of status: On July 25, 1958, Congress enacted legislation (P.L. 85–559) that allowed Hungarians to adjust their status to legal permanent residence if they were "paroled into the United States" at any point after October 23, 1956 (including after the enactment of the act) if they had been in the United States for at least two years. Ultimately, 30,491 received legal permanent residence in this way. This set a precedent for handling adjustments of later parolees.
Pre‐​Examination Parole (1957—1959): Regulations of December 6, 1957 provided that someone who was subjected to pre‐​examination in the United States prior to requesting an immigrant visa in Canada who was found inadmissible in Canada "shall be paroled" into the United States. This regulation was revoked in 1959.
Crew Members Parole (1957—present): Regulations of December 6, 1957 provided for the parole of noncitizen crewmembers under certain circumstances and stated that shipwrecked or castaway crew members "shall be paroled." On December 8, 1961 and March 22, 1967, expanded the grounds for parole to asylum seekers from communist countries. On July 27, 1990, this parole was expanded to crewmen facing persecution in any country. On March 6, 1997, this provision was updated and reenacted, and it was revised and reenacted again on February 19, 1999. On April 4, 2004, the parole of lightering crews that were not eligible for D‑1 visas for technical reasons was authorized. The parole of crew members was recognized in Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (Public Law 104–208, 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(13)(A)).
Cuban parole (1959—1965): Starting about January 1, 1959, following the communist revolution, the Eisenhower administration used parole to allow a "small percentage" of Cubans who had left the island and entered illegally into the United States (INS 1960). By June 1961, there were 4,000 paroled Cubans in the United States (INS 1961). By December 31, 1961, there were 12,200 in parole status. In 1962, Cuban illegal entrants ceased to be referred for deportation hearings and were instead paroled into the United States (INS 1962). By June 1962, the number of Cubans on parole rose to 62,500 (INS 1962). Commercial travel between the U.S. and Cuba was suspended in 1962, and only a few thousand more Cubans made it off the island through the Red Cross (INS 1963). Altogether, about 107,116 Cubans were paroled into the United States from 1959 to 1965.
Adjustment of status: The Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966 (P.L. 89–732, November 2, 1966) made it possible for Cuban parolees, including future parolees, to adjust their status to legal permanent residence after two years in the United States if they entered after 1959.
Guam parole (1959—1974): Starting in April 1959, the INS began to parole into the United States some Filipinos to work with the Defense Department and the Government of Guam on the island under the Parolee Defense program. At least 16 orders establishing and renewing Guam parole programs went out between 1960 and 1969, and an INS internal memo of January 27, 1960 established the initial rules for the program. Workers received INS Form I‑94 stamped, "Paroled into Guam under section 212(d)(5) I&N Act until the purpose of parole has been served not exceeding—–." Parolees could enter for up to a year and could be extended at least twice. On November 15, 1962, the INS created the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Parole Program to parole workers from the Philippines and the Trust Islands into Guam to help with emergency repairs to homes and defense installations following a storm (INS 1963). From FY 1963 to FY 1974, 26,501 workers received parole to enter Guam temporarily. The Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Parole Program ended in 1970, and the Parolee Defense program was eliminated in 1975 in favor of admitting workers under the H‑2 nonimmigrant work visa program.
Refugee‐​escapee parole (1960—1965): On July 14, 1960, Congress passed the Fair Share Law (Public Law 86–648), a joint resolution to "enable the United States to participate in the resettlement of certain refugees." The law directed the INS to parole into the United States any refugee who fled from a communist or Middle Eastern country in an amount not to exceed 25 percent of the total number of such refugees accepted by other countries in the world, and it allowed any of those paroled to receive legal permanent residence after two years. During fiscal year 1961, 2,942 refugees entered as parolees (INS 1961), the largest portion of which were from Yugoslavia. In 1962, the total reached 8,260 (INS 1962). By 1966, the total had reached 19,705 (INS 1966). Public Law 86–648 included a sunset date for this use of parole of July 1, 1962, but authorization to continue to parole was extended indefinitely by section 6 of the Migration and Refugee Assistance Act Public Law 87–510 (July 1, 1962). Section 16 of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 ended this parole program, and the law introduced a new capped category of immigrant visas for refugees.
Adjustment of status: Public Law 86–648 of 1960 (the original statute establishing the refugee‐​escapee parolees) allowed parolees to adjust their status to legal permanent residence after two years in the United States. Section 16 of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 terminated this provision.
First Preference parole (1961): In January 1962, the INS reported that "recent changes in regulations" allowed for the parole of two groups of first preference skilled workers who could not receive green cards or immigrant visas as a result of the annual caps: 1) those who were abroad if they will be coming to work in defense industries; and 2) anyone in the United States. It's not clear exactly what change in regulation made this possible, but in 1964, the INS associate commissioner testified that this was the policy for "many years." He testified, "The basis for this policy was this incompatible situation that seemed to exist in that, with one hand, the Service was in effect making a finding that the alien's services were urgently needed and, at the same time, in contradiction, we were seeking to expel him." Congress revised the caps in 1965, which may have ended this practice.
Hong Kong Chinese parole (1962—1965): On May 23, 1962, Attorney General Robert Kennedy ordered the INS to parole into the United States Chinese who had fled to Hong Kong so long as they were "relatives of United States citizens and resident aliens" or "Chinese persons possessing special skills needed in the United States" (INS 1962). By the end of FY 1963, the total number reached 7,047 (INS 1963). Processing continued into 1964, during which the total reached 10,617 (INS 1964). The number reached 13,619 in 1965 (INS 1965). By 1966, the total reached 14,757 (INS 1965, Table 14B). A few stragglers were approved in 1966 but did not arrive until later, bringing the total to 15,111 (INS 1966). The program ended in June 1965.
Adjustment of status: The INA was amended in 1960 to allow parolees to adjust their status to legal permanent residence for the first time—which many were eligible to do since parolees generally had to meet the standards for an immigrant visa except for a cap spot being available—but no law provided any special category for Hong Kong parolees. Nonetheless, when Congress created a new general refugee category in December 1965, the administration used it to enable most other Hong Kong Chinese refugees to adjust their status. On October 5, 1978, P.L. 95–412 authorized adjustment of status for "any refugee, not otherwise eligible for retroactive adjustment of status, who was or is paroled into the United States by the Attorney General pursuant to section 212(d)(5) of the Immigration and Nationality Act before September 30, 1980."

Russian Orthodox Old Believer parole (1963): The Russian Orthodox Old Believer church was being forced out of Turkey to the Soviet Union, where they would be persecuted. In response, the INS authorized the parole of 210 church members on May 10, 1963.
Adjustment of Status: On October 5, 1978, P.L. 95–412 authorized adjustment of status for "any refugee, not otherwise eligible for retroactive adjustment of status, who was or is paroled into the United States by the Attorney General pursuant to section 212(d)(5) of the Immigration and Nationality Act before September 30, 1980."

Cuban airlift parole (1965—1973): Starting on December 1, 1965, based on a November 6, 1965 memorandum of understanding with the Cuban government, the Johnson administration operated daily "Freedom Flights" from Cuba to Miami. During its operation, 281,317 Cubans were paroled into the United States. At its peak year, 46,670 Cubans arrived via parole in 1971. This compares to 361,972 total immigrants that year. The airlifts were funded by congressional appropriations. In May 1972, the flights were suspended by the Cuban government before being terminated permanently on April 6, 1973.
Adjustment of status: The Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966 made it possible for Cuban parolees entering after 1959, including future parolees, to adjust their status to legal permanent residence after two years in the United States.
Czechoslovak parole (1970): Following the failed uprising against the Soviets in Czechoslovakia on September 4, 1968, Secretary of State David Rusk asked the president to authorize the attorney general to parole for Czechoslovaks fleeing the fallout of the failed anti‐​communist uprising. When the refugee numbers permitted under the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 ran out, every member of the House Judiciary Committee wrote in November 1969 to the administration to request that it parole Czechoslovakian refugees. On January 2, 1970, the attorney general authorized the use of parole. Nearly 5,000 were processed from February to November 1970, with 6,500 total. These parolees were given I‑94 documents that stated that the period of admission was "indefinite" and the purpose of the parole was "refugee." This type of indefinite parole document was still available throughout the 1980s for other parole types.
Adjustment of Status: On October 5, 1978, Public Law 95–412 authorized adjustment of status for "any refugee, not otherwise eligible for retroactive adjustment of status, who was or is paroled into the United States by the Attorney General pursuant to section 212(d)(5) of the Immigration and Nationality Act before September 30, 1980."

Soviet Union minority religious groups (1971): Following a letter from Rep. Peter Rodino of the House Judiciary Committee, on October 1, 1971, Attorney General John Mitchell announced that the United States would parole Soviet religious minorities who secured exit permits from the Soviet Union. The first four arrived on January 7, 1972, and in FY 1973, 200 were processed this way (INS 1973).
Adjustment of Status: On October 5, 1978, Public Law 95–412 authorized adjustment of status for "any refugee, not otherwise eligible for retroactive adjustment of status, who was or is paroled into the United States by the Attorney General pursuant to section 212(d)(5) of the Immigration and Nationality Act before September 30, 1980."

Advance Parole (1971): Advance parole appears to date to 1971 when the INS implemented a regulation in 1971 deeming an adjustment of status application abandoned if a person left the country while it was still pending unless "he had previously been granted permission by the Service for such absence." If someone had entered with a nonimmigrant visa and tried to adjust status, they would have had to prove "nonimmigrant intent" (i.e., intention to leave) upon reentry, which would be impossible with a pending adjustment of status application, and the only alternative to a visa is parole. Advance parole would not have helped prior to the effective date of the 1960 act, which authorized parolees to adjust their status (under a normal immigrant visa category) for the first time. The first advance parole regulation from 1982 stated that "parole [may be] authorized for an alien who will travel to the United States without a visa." Since then, advance parole has often been the top reason for granting parole. In several acts since then (1986, 1990, and 1996), Congress specifically mentioned how "advance parole" can be granted to people already paroled into the United States (8 U.S.C. 1151(c)(4)(A)).
Ugandan Asian parole (1972): The Ugandan government ordered Ugandan Asians to leave the country in 1972, and Attorney General Mitchell responded by initially ordering the INS to parole 1,000 Ugandan Asians. It ended up paroling almost 1,200 into the United States in FY 1973 (INS 1973). Another roughly 1,300 came thereafter.
Adjustment of Status: On October 5, 1978, P.L. 95–412 authorized adjustment of status for "any refugee, not otherwise eligible for retroactive adjustment of status, who was or is paroled into the United States by the Attorney General pursuant to section 212(d)(5) of the Immigration and Nationality Act before September 30, 1980."

Asylum parole (1972—1980): Following the United States acceding to the Protocol to the U.N. Convention on the Status of Refugees in 1968, the INS had no uniform process or status providing to asylum recipients because Congress had not created a specific status for them, but some were granted "individual parole." The April 10, 1979 regulations specifically provided for immigration judges to "grant asylum by parole under section 212(d)(5) of the Immigration and Nationality Act."
Adjustment of Status: The Refugee Act of 1980 (P.L. 96–212, March 17, 1980) provided the opportunity for those granted asylum to adjust their status to receive legal permanent residence.

Cuban third country parole (1973—1978): On October 26, 1973, the INS created a parole program for Cubans outside of Cuba who had family in the United States (INS 1975). A total of 11,577 were paroled in FY 1974, 6,940 in FY 1975, 2,341 in FY 1976, 413 in FY 1977, and 580 in FY 1978.
Adjustment of status: The Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966 made it possible for Cuban parolees entering after 1959, including future parolees, to adjust their status to legal permanent residence after two years in the United States.

South American/​Chilean parole (1975—1979): On June 12, 1975, the INS permitted 400 detained Chilean dissidents (and their families) to be paroled into the United States. A total of 1,600 people were ultimately paroled from 1975 to 1977. On October 27, 1976, the INS again authorized parole of 200 households, representing 800 people in FY 1977, and included some Uruguayans and Bolivians. On June 14, 1978, the parole of 500 households was authorized, and 2,000 people were admitted, including some Brazilians and Argentinians. More would have come if the government of Argentina had allowed more of them to leave.
Adjustment of Status: On October 5, 1978, Public Law 95–412 authorized adjustment of status for "any refugee, not otherwise eligible for retroactive adjustment of status, who was or is paroled into the United States by the Attorney General pursuant to section 212(d)(5) of the Immigration and Nationality Act before September 30, 1980."

Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Laotian parole (1975—1980): In late March 1975, a parole program was authorized for Vietnamese orphans, and the first 2,279 Vietnamese orphans were flown out on April 2, 1975 (INS 1975), and on April 18, 1975, the president authorized a large‐​scale evacuation to Guam using parole. In FY 1975 alone, about 135,000 received parole. Congress funded (partially retroactively) the processing under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act (Public Law 94–23, May 23, 1975). In August 1975, the program was expanded to Cambodians and Vietnamese with special connections to the United States, and on May 6, 1977, 11,000 more were authorized from Vietnam, Cambodia, or Laos. The three countries were grouped together in expansive programs starting August 11, 1977, January 25, 1978, June 14, 1978, December 5, 1978, April 13, 1979, October 16, 1979, and December 15, 1979. From 1975 to the middle of 1980—when the Refugee Act was enacted and replaced the parole programs—more than 330,000 Vietnamese, Cambodians, and Laotians were paroled into the United States. These refugees were all assessed on a case‐​by‐​case basis.
Adjustment of status: In 1977, Congress passed Public Law 95–145 (October 1977) that authorized adjustment of status to anyone from Vietnam, Laos, or Cambodia who was paroled as a refugee before March 31, 1979—that is, about two years in the future. On October 5, 1978, Public Law 95–412 extended the date to September 30, 1980 and allowed any refugee to adjust from any country.
Soviet and Eastern European parole (1977—1980): On January 13, 1977, the attorney general created a Special Parole Program for 4,000 Soviet Jewish refugees (INS 1977). In December 1978, another program was initiated for 5,000 Soviet Jews and Romanians (INS 1978). On June 14, 1978, the INS launched another parole program for Eastern European refugees, with 3,260 processed in FY 1978 and 8,740 processed in FY 1979 (INS 1978). On April 12, 1979, 25,000 additional entries were authorized and occurred under parole in 1979. On October 16 and December 15, 1979, 3,000 additional entries were authorized per month until the enactment of the Refugee Act in March 1980.
Adjustment of Status: On October 5, 1978, Public Law 95–412 authorized adjustment of status for "any refugee, not otherwise eligible for retroactive adjustment of status, who was or is paroled into the United States by the Attorney General pursuant to section 212(d)(5) of the Immigration and Nationality Act before September 30, 1980."

Lebanese parole (1978): On December 6, 1978, the attorney general announced the creation of a new parole program for 1,000 victims of civil strife in Lebanon, and by 1980, 349 had been used, and 107 were pending.
Adjustment of Status: On October 5, 1978, Public Law 95–412 authorized adjustment of status for "any refugee, not otherwise eligible for retroactive adjustment of status, who was or is paroled into the United States by the Attorney General pursuant to section 212(d)(5) of the Immigration and Nationality Act before September 30, 1980."

Cuban prisoner parole (1978, 1985): On December 6, 1978, following an invitation by the Castro regime to take them, the attorney general announced the creation of a new parole program for 3,500 political prisoners who were then imprisoned or released since August 1978 plus their family. Ultimately, 12,000 Cubans were paroled in FY 1979. On December 14, 1984, Cuba and the United States signed an agreement under which the United States would take 3,000 Cuban political prisoners through parole and the refugee program. In fiscal year 1988, the State Department and INS approved 2,040 prisoners for entry to the United States, and 928 entered the United States.
Adjustment of status: The Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966 made it possible for Cuban parolees entering after 1959, including future parolees, to adjust their status to legal permanent residence after two years in the United States.

Iranian parole (1979—1982): On April 16, 1979, following the Islamic revolution in Iran, the INS granted "extended voluntary departure" to Iranians in the United States and began paroling others into the country. Precise parole figures were not kept, but "a large number" ("thousands") were paroled. Part of this parole effort was a program under which—as the State Department put it—"not too many questions were asked" about B‑2 visa applicants from Iran, and those clearly not qualified were often paroled anyway. In 1983, Iranians were included under the Refugee Act cap for the first time, which—the administration said—replaced "the practice of the past several years of admitting them through the Attorney General's parole authority."
Adjustment of Status: On October 5, 1978, authorized adjustment of status for "any refugee, not otherwise eligible for retroactive adjustment of status, who was or is paroled into the United States by the Attorney General pursuant to section 212(d)(5) of the Immigration and Nationality Act before September 30, 1980."

Cuban/​Haitian entrant parole (1980): In April 1980, thousands of Cubans began arriving in Florida from Mariel, Cuba, by boat. Initially, these Cubans were granted parole for 60 days and allowed to seek asylum under the procedures of the newly‐​passed Refugee Act of 1980 (P.L. 96–212, March 1980). As the crisis escalated, INS declared on June 20, 1980 that it would extend 6‑month parole documents to Cubans and Haitians who had already arrived. On October 21, 1980, these 6‑month paroles were then authorized to be extended again to those who arrived before October 10, 1980. More than 125,000 Cubans and 25,000 Haitians were paroled. Congress passed a statute that recognized the existence of the Cuban and Haitian "entrant status" parole in 1981. Congress specifically authorized benefits for both past and future Cuban and Haitian parolees in The Refugee Education Assistance Act of 1980 (P.L. 96–422, October 10, 1980). On December 28, 1987, INS finalized a special regulation on the parole of Mariel boatlift Cubans detained since the boatlift ended, which resulted in about 7,000 additional paroles (or re‐​paroles).
Adjustment of Status: The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1980 (P.L. 99–603, November 6, 1986) allowed any Cuban or Haitian who entered before 1982 and either received Cuban/​Haitian entrant status or had a "record created" with the INS.

Parole from detention (1982—present): In 1981, the INS reversed its prior practice of not detaining people unless they were deemed a flight risk or a danger to the community. A court enjoined the policy, and the INS issued an interim regulation on July 9, 1982 that detailed the grounds under which it would issue parole from detention. On October 19, 1982, it finalized the regulation. This included the following categories of people eligible for parole from detention: people needing medical care, pregnant women, young children and teenagers whose processing will take longer than 30 days and who cannot be held with an accompanying adult; people with U.S. family eligible to petition for an immigrant visa for them; witnesses going to testify; people subject to prosecution; any other person whose "continued detention is not in the public interest." On March 6, 1997, INS reiterated its categories for those eligible for parole under the language of the new parole statute. On December 21, 2000, the INS revised its procedures for the parole of people ordered removed who could not be removed.
Khmer border parole (1986): In May 1986, the attorney general created a parole program for Cambodians who fled the Khmer government to Thailand, had approved immigrant petitions filed by U.S. citizen family in the United States, and had no visa available to them because of the caps. A total of 53 approvals were made in 1986, and only 418 were made as of March 1988. In 1991, 1,123 received parole. This program ended in FY 1992. About 3,500 total paroles were issued.
Adjustment of Status: The Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act of 1989 (P.L. 101–167, November 21, 1989) allowed any Cambodian paroled into the United States between 1988 and September 30, 1990 (about ten months in the future) to adjust to legal permanent residence after one year if they had been denied refugee status.

Parole for U.S. expats (1987): On December 12, 1987, the United States announced that it would parole former‑U.S. citizens who renounced their U.S. citizenship and then were ordered deported by their new state of nationality.
Soviet/​Moscow Refugee Parole (1988—present): In August 1988, the attorney general overturned the presumption that Soviet Jews qualified as refugees. On December 8, 1988, he created a "public interest" parole program for 2,000 Soviets per month who were denied refugee status. Parolees needed to have sponsors in the United States and were not eligible for refugee benefits. A total of 7,652 were paroled in FY 1989. Congress reinstated the presumption of refugee status for Jews and Evangelical Christians from the Soviet Union in 1989 (P.L. 101–167, November 21, 1989). Parole continued after this change in part because Jews had a plausible offer of alternative resettlement in Israel and continued after the Soviet Union dissolved under the label of the Moscow Refugee Parole Program. About 17,000 Soviets were paroled from 1992 to 1998 (INS 1996, 1998). On August 6, 2007, responsibility for the Moscow Refugee Parole Program was transferred to USCIS. In July 2011, it was canceled.
Adjustment of Status: The Foreign Operations Appropriations Act of 1989 (P.L. 101–167, November 21, 1989) allowed any Soviet paroled into the United States between 1988 and September 30, 1990 (about ten months in the future) to adjust to legal permanent residence after one year if they had been denied refugee status. In 1992, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were added explicitly. This provision was then repeatedly reauthorized.

Orderly Departure Vietnam parole (1989—1999): In February 1989, the attorney general created a parole program to supplement the Orderly Departure refugee program from Vietnam, which was offered only to those denied refugee status. About 770 entered in 1989. Parole was also used for Vietnamese with immigrant visa petitions approved but who could not immigrate due to the caps. Some Laotians and Cambodians also were paroled. This program was created after the attorney general overturned the presumption that Vietnamese (and others) in refugee camps qualified as refugees under the Refugee Act of 1980. Parolees had to prepay their travel expenses. The program was closed at the end of fiscal year 1999 after about 32,000 paroles.
Adjustment of Status: The Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act of 1990 (P.L. 101–167, November 21, 1989) allowed any Vietnamese paroled into the United States between 1988 and September 30, 1990 (about ten months in the future) to adjust to legal permanent residence after one year if they had been denied refugee status. On November 6, 2000, Congress enacted the Foreign Operations Appropriations Act of 2001 (Public Law 106–429), which authorized adjustment of status for citizens or natives of Vietnam, Cambodia, or Laos paroled before October 1, 1997, even if they had not been denied refugee status.

Hungarian and Polish parole (1989): In the middle of 1989, Hungary and Poland's communist governments fell, meaning that refugees from those countries no longer feared persecution on political grounds. On November 21, 1989, the INS began denying them refugee status and paroled some 832 people who were already in the process, had been interviewed, and had family in the United States.
Adjustment of Status: Section 646 of the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (Public Law 104–208, September 30, 1996) granted legal permanent residence to these parolees.

Undated 1990s parole categories: In 1990, the INS described the following grounds for parole at the time without giving a date for when they started being used:
Spouses of U.S. military members who cannot qualify for visas because of the caps;
Aged‐​out children of immigrant visa applicants who had waited for years for a visa;
Children of immigrant visa recipients who failed to immigrate soon after visa receipt and for whom a visa number is not immediately available;
Someone who was trying to legalize their status by getting an immigrant visa, but the State Department erred in scheduling an appointment because there were no visa numbers available for them and is attempting to return to their U.S. residence.
Adopted children of U.S. citizens who do not qualify as orphans; and
Unaccompanied children in refugee camps with family in the United States.

Chinese parole (1990): On April 11, 1990, the president ordered the attorney general to defer the removal of unauthorized Chinese until January 1, 1994. The INS determined that parole for detained Chinese should be considered in the public interest.
Adjustment of Status: Congress enacted the Chinese Student Protection Act of 1992 (Public Law 102–404, October 9, 1992) that provided permanent residence to Chinese who were covered by the president's order and in the United States on April 11, 1990, if they were inspected and admitted or paroled.

Parole of asylum seekers (1990—present): Paroling asylum seekers is a subset of parole under the 1982 regulations, the final category of which (public interest) was amenable to several interpretations. On May 1, 1990, INS launched a "pilot parole program" for detained asylum seekers with a limit of 200. The pilot was expanded and made permanent everywhere on April 20, 1992. From 1993 to 1996, there were about 3,800 to 4,500 asylum paroles. On October 7, 1998, the INS made having established a "credible fear" of persecution a presumptive category of eligibility for parole. On November 6, 2007, DHS eliminated this presumption. On December 8, 2009, DHS reinstated the presumption to parole those establishing a credible fear of persecution. Despite a memorandum from the DHS secretary in 2017 that stated parole should be used "sparingly," the 2009 directive remained in force, though widely flouted during the Trump administration years. On March 29, 2022, DHS lowered the standard to parole someone who had not yet established credible fear.
Haitian Guantanamo parole (1991): A 1991 coup led to refugee flows by sea from Haiti to the United States. The U.S. government intercepted the boats and relocated Haitians to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, for processing. In September 1991, the INS announced a new parole program for Haitians at Guantanamo Bay who demonstrated a "credible fear" of persecution. The program continued until May 1992 when it was suspended. A small number of Haitians continued to be paroled thereafter, but they faced a strong presumption that they should be returned to Haiti. They received one‐​year parole authorizations. About 13,000 Haitians received parole from 1992 to 1996 (INS 1996, 1998; INS Parole Report 1999).
Adjustment of Status: The Haitian Refugee Immigration Fairness Act (P.L. 105–277, October 21, 1998) provided for the adjustment of status to legal permanent residence for any Haitian in the United States as of December 31, 1995 who applied for asylum or was paroled into the United States after a finding of credible fear.

ABC Settlement Parole (1991): On January 31, 1991, the INS settled a lawsuit that challenged its asylum adjudication policies for certain Salvadorans and Guatemalans. As part of the agreement, certain Salvadorans and Guatemalans were permitted to reapply for asylum. Among these were 20,000 who were paroled into the United States to reapply in fiscal years 1993 and 1994.
Adjustment of Status: Section 203 of the Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act (P.L. 105–100, November 2019) permitted these Guatemalans and Hondurans subject to the settlement agreement to apply for suspension of deportation (which provides legal permanent residence) under the lower pre‐​1996 standards.

Adoptee parole (1994): On November 25, 1994, the INS created a new parole program for children adopted by U.S. citizens who did not fall into the "orphan" category required to receive an immigrant visa.
Adjustment of Status: Congress passed Public Law 104–51 (November 15, 1995) to amend the definition of "child" to create green card eligibility for these children and other adoptees moving forward.

Cuban Migration Accord paroles (1994—present): On September 9, 1994, the United States and Cuba signed an agreement to pursue policies designed to reduce illegal immigration, including the United States maintaining a minimum level of 20,000 legal admissions of Cubans per year. The U.S. Coast Guard interdicted Cubans and moved them to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. On October 14, 1994, the White House announced that the INS would parole unaccompanied children, people over age 70, and chronically ill people at Guantanamo Bay. On December 2, 1994, it announced it would consider paroling family units if children would be adversely affected by staying in Guantanamo Bay on a case‐​by‐​case basis. On May 2, 1995, the United States agreed to accept all 18,500 Cubans currently detained at Guantanamo Bay detention facility through parole, but end the practice of taking Cubans there and simply return them to Cuba. In order to meet the 20,000 immigration quota, the United States created the Special Cuban Migration Program to grant parole to about 5,000 Cubans per year through a lottery (which was restricted to those who met at least two of the following criteria: 1) having any relatives living in the United States, 2) 3 years of work experience, and 3) a high school or college degree). In 1995, 1,898 were granted parole through the lottery out of 189,000 applicants. On March 15, 1996, the second parole lottery registration was opened. There were 433,000 applicants. On June 15, 1998, the final registration period was opened for the lottery, and 541,00 applied by July 15, 1998. Those qualifying under the 1998 registration continued to be paroled thereafter. Since 1998, the Cuban government has refused to allow another registration to occur in the country. Around 75,000 Cubans were paroled under these programs from 1994 to 2003 (the last year that statistics were available).
Adjustment of Status: All Cubans paroled after 1959 are eligible to adjust to legal permanent residence after one year in the United States under the Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966.

Cuban Wet Foot, Dry Foot parole (1995—2017): On May 2, 1995, the U.S. government announced that it would not parole any Cubans intercepted at sea, even if in U.S. waters, but it would parole anyone on U.S. soil or arriving at a port of entry. The Customs and Border Protection field manual provided that Cuban asylum seekers "may be paroled directly from the port of entry" except for those who "pose a criminal or terrorist threat." Subsequently, the number of Cubans paroled at ports of entry (mainly along the southwest border) increased significantly. From 2004 to 2016, 226,000 Cubans were paroled at U.S. land borders. On January 12, 2017, DHS canceled the wet foot, dry foot parole process.
Adjustment of Status: All Cubans paroled after 1959 are eligible to adjust to legal permanent residence after one year in the United States under the Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966.

Iraqi parole (1996): On September 17, 1996, the United States began airlifting some Iraqi Kurds to Guam, where they were granted parole. A total of 6,550 Iraqi Kurds who worked with the United States and 650 opposition activists were granted parole starting in September 1996.
Adjustment of Status: The FY 1999 Omnibus Appropriations Act (Public Law 105–277, October 21, 1998) waived the cap on green cards for those adjusting after receiving asylum for Iraqis evacuated via parole but did not create a special green card category.

Cuban Medical Professional Parole (CMPP) Program (2006—2017): On August 11, 2006, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) created a new parole program for Cuban doctors in third countries conscripted by the government of Cuba. In fiscal year 2007, 480 of 28,000 Cuban physicians applied for parole. As of December 2010, 1,574 physicians were paroled. On January 12, 2017, DHS canceled the program except for dependents of the physicians already in the program.
Adjustment of Status: All Cubans paroled after 1959 are eligible to adjust to legal permanent residence after one year in the United States under the Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966.

Parole in Place for family of U.S. veterans (2007—present): On June 21, 2007, DHS announced that it would grant parole to a spouse of a U.S. active duty soldier, enabling the spouse to adjust to a green card. This policy continued for the next six years. On November 15, 2013, DHS issued a memorandum that provided clearer guidance on this program and expanded it to include veterans of the armed forces. On November 23, 2016, DHS expanded the program to cover family of deceased veterans and adult or married children of veterans. The National Defense Authorization Act of 2020 (P.L. 116–92) expressed congressional support for an ongoing parole program for relatives of U.S. military members.
Adjustment of Status: Spouses of U.S. citizens have an uncapped opportunity to apply for a green card, but parole enables them to apply for a green card by allowing them to meet the requirement that they were "admitted or paroled" prior to applying.

Cuban Family Reunification Parole (2007—2017, 2021—present): On November 21, 2007, the DHS created a new parole program for any Cuban with an approved family‐​based petition for legal permanent residence. In December 2017, USCIS shut down its field office in Cuba and suspended the program. In 2014, DHS started requiring a fee for the parole program. On May 16, 2022, DHS announced that it would resume processing Cuban Family Reunification Parole cases.
Adjustment of Status: All Cubans paroled after 1959 are eligible to adjust to legal permanent residence after one year in the United States under the Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966.

Haitian Orphan Parole Program (2010): Following a 2010 Earthquake, on January 18, 2010, DHS announced that it would parole Haitian orphans in the process of being adopted by U.S. citizens. It accepted applications through April 2010.
Adjustment of Status: Help Haitian Adoptees Immediately to Integrate Act of 2010 (Help HAITI Act, Public Law 111–293, December 2010) authorized DHS to adjust the status of adoptees to legal permanent residence even if the formal adoption process was not complete in Haiti as a result of the Earthquake.

Haitian Earthquake paroles (2010—2016): Following a 2010 Earthquake, on January 13, 2010, ICE suspended deportations to Haiti, and ICE began to generally parole detained Haitians. CBP at ports of entry along the U.S.-Mexico border likewise began to parole Haitians rather than detain them for transfer to ICE. On January 25, 2010, DHS authorized an automatic extension of advance parole documents through March 12, 2010 for Haitians who had traveled outside the United States prior to the Earthquake after receiving advance parole. From 2010 to 2016, about 16,000 Haitians were paroled after being deemed inadmissible at ports of entry.
Central American Minors (CAM) parole (2014—2017, 2021—present): On November 14, 2014, DHS and the State Department announced a combination refugee and parole program for Salvadoran, Guatemalan, and Honduran children with U.S. family sponsors in legal status in the United States (and the minor children of the child and in‐​country parent of the child if married to the sponsoring U.S. parent). On July 26, 2016, DHS expanded the program to include other relatives, including siblings and any in‐​country biological parent of the child. On August 16, 2017, DHS announced it would be canceling the parole program. On March 10, 2021, DHS and the State Department announced it would be restarting the program for those who previously applied before the termination in 2017. On June 15, 2021, they announced the program would reopen to new applicants, including children whose parents were in the United States with pending asylum applications. The parole is indefinite. On April 11, 2023, it expanded the program to allow sponsorship by parents of children who have pending T visa applications. As of December 2016, there were 10,758 applicants for the CAM program. Of these applicants, 873 had received refugee status, and 2,086 had received parole. In 2017, another 2,700 were permitted to enter.
Haitian Family Reunification Parole (2014—present): On December 18, 2014, DHS created a new parole program for any Haitian with an approved family‐​based immigrant visa petition if they have a priority date within two years of being current. On August 2, 2019, DHS announced it would terminate the program but would extend the parole of current participants. On October 12, 2021, it reversed its decision and continued the program.
Filipino World War II Veterans Parole (FWVP) program (2016—present): On May 9, 2016, DHS created a new parole program for Filipino World War II veterans who have approved family‐​based immigrant visa petitions. On August 2, 2019, DHS announced its plans to terminate the program but would extend the parole of current participants. On December 28, 2020, it proposed a regulation to finalize this change. On October 12, 2021, it reversed its earlier decision and continued the program.
International Entrepreneur Parole (2017): On January 17, 2017, DHS created a parole program for certain entrepreneurs. On July 11, 2017, DHS published a rule delaying the effective date of the program. In December 2017, the rule delaying the rule was vacated by a court and was forced to implement the rule. From 2017 to 2019, 30 people applied, and only one approval was granted.
Parole + Alternatives to Detention program (2021): On July 31, 2021, Border Patrol created a policy of paroling detained immigrants at the border when ICE cannot accept custody of the person, there isn't a risk to national security or public safety, processing capacity exceeds 75%, and arrivals exceed discharges, the average processing time exceeds two days, and arrivals will likely exceed discharges the following day. On November 2, 2021, the Border Patrol chief formalized this policy with respect to family units. On July 18, 2022, Customs and Border Protection expanded this policy to cover both families and single adults. On March 8, 2023, the policy was blocked by a federal district court judge after about 700,000 paroles.
Afghan evacuation parole (2021): After the Taliban seized control of Afghanistan on August 15, 2021, the U.S. military began to fly thousands of Afghans to U.S. military bases in the region. On August 23, 2021, DHS launched a new parole operation under Operation Allies Welcome (OAW). In the next few weeks, it paroled more than 75,898 Afghans into the United States. After the initial evacuation, DHS received 50,000 parole requests from Afghans, adjudicated about 9,500, and denied all but about 500. In September 2022, DHS stated that Afghans abroad would generally no longer be considered for parole at all. On June 8, 2023, DHS announced it would extend the parole of Afghan parolees in the United States. The Extending Government Funding and Delivering Emergency Assistance Act of 2021 (P.L. 117–43, May 2022) provided refugee benefits to Afghan parolees, explicitly appropriating money for those benefits, and directing the creation of a plan to process pending Afghan parole applications between July 31, 2021, and September 30, 2022 or paroled into the United States after September 30, 2022 if a spouse or child of an Afghan parolee or parent or legal guardian of an unaccompanied Afghan child.
Uniting for Ukraine (2022): After the Russian invasion of Ukraine, DHS decided to parole Ukrainians arriving at the U.S.-Mexico border ports of entry, formally announcing the policy on March 11, 2022, and about 23,000 were paroled with 1‑year admissions. On April 27, 2022, DHS created a new parole program for Ukrainians with U.S. sponsors. As of May 2022, DHS had paroled about 125,000 Ukrainians under the Uniting for Ukraine sponsorship program with 2‑year admissions. The Additional Ukraine Supplemental Appropriations Act of 2022 (P.L. 117–128, May 2022) provided refugee benefits to Ukrainians paroled between February 24, 2022 and September 30, 2023 or paroled into the United States after September 30, 2022 if a spouse or child of a Ukrainian parolee or parent or legal guardian of an unaccompanied Ukrainian child. On March 13, 2022, DHS extended the parole of the 23,000 paroled at ports of entry.
Adjustment of Status: A Ukrainian Adjustment Act (H.R.3911) was introduced in 2023.

Cuban, Haitian, Nicaraguan, and Venezuelan parole sponsorship processes (2022—2023): On October 19, 2022, DHS created a parole program for Venezuelans with U.S. sponsors modeled on Uniting for Ukraine with a cap of 24,000. On January 9, 2023, DHS replaced this cap with a combined 30,000 per month cap for Venezuela, Haiti, Cuba, and Nicaragua (each of which received its own parole sponsorship programs the same day). 1.5 million applicants had applied by May 2023, and about 131,000 had been admitted.
Adjustment of Status: All Cubans paroled after 1959 are eligible to adjust to legal permanent residence after one year in the United States under the Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966. A Venezuelan Adjustment Act (H.R. 7854) was introduced in 2022.

Family Reunification Parole Processes (2023): On July 10, 2023, DHS created family reunification parole programs for Colombians, Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans who have approved immigrant visa petitions. Parole applicants had to be invited by the U.S. government. This announcement followed up on the May 2023 announcement that the United States wanted to accept as many as 100,000 individuals from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras through the family reunification pathway. As of May 2023, there were 73,500 eligible for the program, but many more were waiting for their immigrant visas to be approved.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Abbagiri Tanda-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 644 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 88 per cent is covered by soils, 10 per cent rock outcrops, 2 per cent is by water bodies and 150 cm).  About 3 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 54 per cent soils are loamy and 31 per cent clayey soils at the surface  About 14 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 9 per cent in the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 74 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 5 per cent area is gently sloping (3-5% slope).  An area of about 68 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 20 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 15 per cent soils are strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5), an area of about 37 per cent soils are moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), an area of about 18 per cent soils are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) in soil reaction and an area of 17 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 72 per cent area.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in an area 18 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in an area of 70 per cent.  About 29 per cent is low (145 kg/ha) in available potassium, 51 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 9 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 83 per cent area.  Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 27 (4) 103(16) Pomegranate - 271(42) Maize 23 (4) 97 (17) Guava - 253 (39) Bajra 23 (4) 356 (55) Jackfruit - 253 (39) Groundnut - 417 (65) Jamun - 266 (41) Sunflower 4 (<1) 83 (13) Musambi 4 (<1) 265(41) Cotton 4 (<1) 123(19) Lime 4 (<1) 285 (44) Red gram - 70 (10) Cashew - 246 (38) Bengalgram 61 (9) 108 (17) Custard apple 9 (1) 503 (78) Chilli - 96 (17) Amla 4 (<1) 508 (79) Tomato 23 (4) 73 (11) Tamarind - 38 (6) Drumstick - 166 (26) Marigold - 129 (20) Mulberry - 400 (62) Chrysanthemum - 129 (20) Mango - - Jasmine - 92 (14) Sapota - 233 (36) Crossandra - 92 (14)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SILENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The results indicated that among 35 famers 11 (22.45%) were marginal farmers, 14 (31.82 %) were small farmers, 9 (20.45 %) were semi medium farmers and 5 (11.36 %) was medium farmer. Apart from these 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 98 (52.69%) men and 88 (47.31%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of marginal farmers was 4, small farmer was 4, semi medium farmer was 5, medium farmers were 3 and for landless farmers it was 4.  The data indicated that 32 (17.20 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 81 (43.55%) were in 16-35 years of age, 59 (31.72 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (7.53 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Abbagiri Tanda-2 had 33.87 per cent illiterates, 1.61 per cent functional literates, 23.12 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.75 per cent of them had middle school education, 14.52 per cent of them had high school education, 5.91 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.54 per cent of them had ITI, 1.08 per cent them had Diploma education, 4.84 per cent of them had degree education and 3.76 per cent of them had other education. The results indicated that, 81.82 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 9.09 per cent of the household heads were general labours.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 56.45 per cent of the household members, 2.15 per cent were agricultural labourers, 5.91 per cent were general labours, 1.61 percent were in government service, 2.15 per cent of them were in private sector, 0.54 per cent of them were trade and business, 20.43 per cent of them were students and 2.69 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 50 per cent were general labours, 5 per cent were in private service and 35 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 71.79 per cent were agriculturist, 2.56 percent were agricultural labour and general labour and 17.95 per cent were students. In case of small farmers, 62.07 per cent of the household members were practicing agriculture and 20.69 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 58.54 per cent of the household members were practicing agriculture and 21.95 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers, 60.71 per cent of the household members were performing agriculture.  The results showed that 4.30 per cent of them participated in self help groups, 1.08 per cent of them participated in user group and 94.62 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Marginal, small farmers and semi medium farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions. 2  The results indicated that 68.18 per cent of the households possess Katcha house. 100 percent of the landless farmers possess Katcha house.  The results showed that 68.18 per cent of the households possess TV, 36.36 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 22.73 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 43.18 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 77.27 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 2.27 per cent of the households possess refrigerator.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs.4800, mixer grinder was Rs.1400, refrigerator Rs.15000, bicycle Rs.1727, motor cycle was Rs.30350 and mobile phone was Rs.1220.  The results showed that, about 15.91 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 27.27 per cent of them possess plough, 2.27 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 9.09 per cent of the households possess tractor, 20.45 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 15.91 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 50 per cent of the households possess weeder, 6.82 per cent of the households possess harvester, 2.27 per cent of the households possess thresher and 11.36 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1318, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17000, the average value of power tiller Rs. 100000, the average value of tractor Rs. 300000, the average value of sprinkler Rs.3192, the average value of was sprayer Rs.2409, the average value of weeder Rs. 72, the average value of harvester Rs.4662 and the average value of chaff cutter Rs.3000.  The results indicated that, 31.82 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.36 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6.82 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 2.27 per cent of the households possess sheep and goat respectively. In case of marginal farmers, 27.27 per cent of the households possess bullock. In case of small farmers, 42.86 per cent of households possess bullock, 14.29 per cent possess local cow and buffalo and 7.14 per cent possess sheep and goat respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 44.44 per cent of the households possess bullock, 11.11 per cent possess local cow and buffalo correspondingly. In medium farmers 20 per cent of the households possess bullock and 40 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro-watershed was 1.53, average own labour (women) available was 1.26, average hired labour (men) available was 11 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.82. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.36, average own labour (women) was 1.09, average hired labour (men) was 6 and average hired labour (women) available was 6. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.46, average own labour (women) was 1.08, average hired labour 3 (men) was 10.23 and average hired labour (women) available was 12.38. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.88, average own labour (women) was 1.63, average hired labour (men) was 19.38 and average hired labour (women) available was 20. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 1.50, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.50.  The results indicated that77.27 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate About 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 92.86 per cent of small, 88.89 per cent of semi medium and 40 per cent of the medium farmers have opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, 2 person was migrated from micro-watershed that belonged to small and semi medium farmer category. Total migration in the microwatershed was only 1.08 per cent. The results indicated that, people have migrated on an average of 375 Kms and average duration was 6.50 months. Small farmers have migrated 150 kms and on an average for 6months and semi medium farmers have migrated 600 kms and on an average for 7 months. The results indicated that, job/work was the only reason for migration for all the migrants.  The results indicated that, households of the Abbagiri Tanda-2 micro-watershed possess 21.53 ha (40.38 %) of dry land and 31.79 ha (59.62%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.83 ha (95.08%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (4.92%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.27 ha (69.10%) of dry land and 5.04 ha (30.90 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.43 ha (16.18%) of dry land and 12.58 ha (83.82 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 13.76 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 264642.86 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 380532.21. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 370372.28 for dry land and Rs. 741000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 221643.93 for dry land Rs. 713643.66 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 123500 for dry land and Rs. 389414.42 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 239735.29 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 21 functioning and 12 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, there was only 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 47.73 per cent of the farmers and open well was source of irrigation source for 2.27 per cent of the farmers. The results indicated that, marginal farmers having 0.81 per cent of irrigated land. In case of small farmers there were 5.17 ha of irrigated land, semi 4 medium farmers were having 15.08 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 11.34 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown Bajra (12.61 ha), Bengal gram (0.91 ha), Chilly (0.81 ha), Ground nut (1.62 ha), Kanakambara (0.40 ha), Maize (21.16 ha), Navane (3.24 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha), Papaya (1.67 ha) and Tomato (0.87 ha) in kharif season and Bengal gram (1.21 ha), Ground nut (1.74 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha) and Red gram (1.46 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, Navane and Kanakambara. Small farmers have grown Bajra, Maize, Navane, Tomato, Water melon and Groundnut. Semi medium farmers have grown Bajra, Bengal Gram, Chilly, Groundnut, Maize, Paddy and Papaya. Medium farmers have grown Groundnut and Maize.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Abbagiri Tanda-2 microwatershed was found to be 95.82 per cent. In case of Marginal farmers, small farmers and medium farmers it was 100 per cent and in case of semi medium farmers it was 87.26 per cent.  The results indicated that, 61.36 per cent of the households have bank account and savings respectively. Landless farmers 80 percent of them possess both bank account and savings. 81.82 per cent of marginal farmers possess both bank account and savings correspondingly. Small farmers possess 71.43 per cent of both bank account and savings and medium category of farmers possess 44.44 per cent of bank account and also savings in that order.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of landless, 81.82 per cent of marginal, 14.29 per cent of small and 44.44 per cent semi medium have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, 20.83 per cent have availed loan in Commercial bank, 50 per cent of the households availed loan in Grameena bank, 45.83 per cent have availed loan from money lender and 12.50 per cent have availed loan from SHGs/CBOs.  The results indicated that, landless, marginal, small and semi medium have availed Rs. 26,250, Rs. 50,000, Rs. 177,000, and Rs. 137,500 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro-watershed is 97,666.67.  The results indicated that, 93.75 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production and 6.25 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for Social functions like marriage. The results indicated that, agriculture production, bore well/irrigation related equipments, construction-house, construction-cattle shed, household consumption and other reasons were the main purpose for which marginal, small farmers, semi medium farmers borrowed loan. 33.33 per cent of the household's barrowed loan for agriculture production, 8.33 per cent of the household's barrowed loan for Bore well/irrigation related equipments, 5 Construction-house, Construction-cattle shed respectively and 25 per cent of them took loan for household consumption.  The data regarding the repayment status of credit borrowed from institutional sources by households in Abbagiri Tanda-2 showed that 47.06 per cent of the households partially their loan and 52.94 per cent of the households have unpaid their loan. Results indicated that 64.29 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially, 21.43 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 7.14 per cent of them fully paid their loan.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 12086.76. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26429.00. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 14342.24, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.19. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 16778.52. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31106.06. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs.14327.53, and the income generated from red gram was Rs.1613.22, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.85.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 11950.89. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26799.50. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 14848.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.24. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for crossandra was Rs. 54865.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 173888.00. The net income from crossandra cultivation was Rs.119022.92. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.17.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 32635.87. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 76962.18. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 44326.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.36. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 42105.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 70296.94. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 28191.18. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.67.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 49859.57. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 222300.00. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 172440.43. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.46. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50482.00. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 81510.00. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 31028.00. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.61.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 13048.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32933.33. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 19885.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 6 1:2.52. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Papaya was Rs. 44258.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 575534.00. The net income from Papaya cultivation was Rs. 531275.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:13.0.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Tomato was Rs. 24942.81. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs.111150.00. The net income from Tomato cultivation was Rs. 86207.19. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.46. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Watermelon was Rs. 32084.97. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 526018.50. The net income from Watermelon cultivation was Rs. 493933.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:16.39.  The results indicated that, 27.27 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 2.27 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate also the data revealed that 22.73 per cent of the farmers opined that green fodder is adequate.  The results indicated that, Bajra, Bengal Gram, Chilly, Groundnut, Maize, Navane, Paddy, Papaya, Red Gram, Tomato, Water Melon and Kanakambara flower sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 10500, business Rs. 12727.27, wage Rs. 22340.91, agriculture Rs. 89061.36, dairy farm Rs. 1409.09 and goat farming was Rs. 454.55.  The results indicated that the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 340.91, business Rs. 4818.18, wage Rs. 8204.55, agriculture Rs. 52295.45, dairy farm Rs. 795.45 and goat farming was Rs. 386.36.The overall on an average expenditure was Rs.18800.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 36 coconut trees and 224 mango trees in their field.  The results indicated that, 40.91 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 81.82 per cent marginal farmers, 35.71 per cent small farmers and 44.44 per cent semi medium farmers.  The results indicate that, households have planted 3 Teak and Eucalyptus trees in field respectively, also grown 108 neem tree and 1 tamarind tree in the field.  The results indicated that for 38.64 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for land development. Similarly for the dependency was for irrigation facility 36.36 percent, 29.55 percent for improved crop production and only 2.27 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, Bajra, Bengal Gram, Chilly, Groundnut, Maize, Navane, Paddy, Papaya, Red Gram, Tomato, Water Melon and Kanakambara flower sold to the extent of 100 per cent. 7  The results indicated that, 31.82 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 52.27 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 22.73 per cent of the households sold their produce to agents/traders.  The results indicated that 77.27 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transport and 29.55 per cent have used cart.  The results indicated that, 54.55 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing i.e. 90.91 per cent of marginal farmers, 71.43 per cent of small farmers and 44.44 per cent of semi medium farmers have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 22.73 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, 54.55 per cent of the households have adopted summer ploughing and 9.09 per cent of the households have adopted dead furrow, mulching, contour cultivation and combination of deep and shallow root crops respectively. The results indicated that 15.91 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 2.27 per cent is constructed by other organization.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding opined that 100 per cent of the bunds required full replacement.  The results indicated that, 72. 73 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel, 25 percent of the households used LPG and 2.27 per cents of the households used Kerosene as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source for drinking water for 63.64 per cent of the households, 25 per cent of the households were using bore well and 2.27 per cent of the households were using open well as a source of drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light which was found to be 97.73 per cent and only 2.27 per cent of the people were using kerosene as a source of light.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 40 per cent of landless, 63.64 per cent of marginal, 50 per cent of small, 44.44 per cent of semi medium and 40 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 93.18 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 6.82 per cent of the sampled households not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 45.45 percent of the marginal, 21.43 per cent of the small, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium and 60 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 79.55 per cent, 34.09, 25 per cent, 2.27 per cent, 93.18 per cent, 84.09 per cent and 11.36 per cent of the households respectively. 8  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 20.45 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 61.36 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 75 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 63.64 per cent, milk was inadequate 2.27 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 4.55 per cent and meat was inadequate for 65.91 per cent of the households.  The data regarding farming constraints experienced by households in Abbagiri Tanda -2 micro-watershed is presented in Table 60. The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 45.45 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (77.27%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (75%), inadequacy of irrigation water (52.27%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (68.18%), high rate of interest on credit (54.55%), low price for the agricultural commodities (56.82%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (59.09%), inadequate extension services (54.55%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (56.82%), less rainfall (36.36%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper /TV/Mobile) (6.82). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

The article is focused on analyzing current state of land use by categories, regional economic and financial data to propose new robust model for economically efficient land use planning for commercial and non-commercial enterprises. The research results can serve as an important material for decision making process on how to develop the land and the City areas in context в new global economic development. It provides extensive overview of existing land use trends for in Kyiv city based on analytical data and scientific assumptions. The Author believe that this research will be beneficial for government, city government, international organizations, private institutions, and researchers. The goal of the research paper is to build a solid scientific model based on general understanding of underlying economic challenges of efficient land use considering past data, short term and in long term planning. The paper has an overview of city planning documentation and city statistical data in context of real estate, urban population, economic data, including research of real estate and currency exchange rate data to median salary in Kyiv starting from 2000s. It is important not to put too much focus on the existing models and systems, as they rely too much on the assumptions and complicated calculations, that are hard to make use of in real world planning. Instead we build our research on real-world data and developed a forecast of the size of investment in land use, average real estate prices for the next 5 years. The paper noted an existing problem of inconsistency of the existing norms and regulations in Ukraine concerning rational and effective land use and planning, especially for local authorities and commercial organizations. The author substantiates why the economy in the context of urbanization needs a new look. The paper uses the planning of the city of Kiev. It is a suitable example of a developing city, so the proposed model can be developed based on the city economical and land use data. This research can help solve the existing problems of urbanization in Ukraine and have a positive impact on the economic development of the city and the region.In present times large urban agglomerations serve as none of the major catalysts of economic trends. Urbanization, as process, plays key role in transformation of the local, regional and world economies. Urbanization should be considered an important factor in the development of the economy of both the city and the state. It dictates the path of development of micro- and macroeconomics of regions, although not directly. And in the context of long-term land use and spatial development, this process can play a significant role. The issues of suburban development, industrialization, post-industrialization, environmental problems and the issues of further existence and development of agricultural regions bordering on urban centers (urban agglomerations) cannot be excluded from the field of view. Alongside with new possibilities that arise from large urban economy, great number of challenges that need to be addressed appear. Besides to the economic related issues, irreversible ecology changes (rise of sea level, forest fires etc.) global pandemics and new technologies, manufacturing process must be included in urbanization research. This requires novel approach to how we view city, build economic models, and make forecasts for future development. In this paper we set initial stage for development of such robust economic model, while using data and statistics of Kyiv city. This city can serve as great test ground for proposed model, as it is relatively new urban center, that is part of the developing country economy.The goal of this research work is to analyze current and past land use patterns, outline existing issues and economical inefficiencies in those patterns in large urban city. In addition, we plan to look at land use from several viewpoints, that of the researcher, governmental institutions, commercial company, personal level. This will enable us to make correct assumptions and help build economical model for future land use development. Research work is based on official statistics data, provided by State Statistics Service of Ukraine, Kyiv city council, Municipal Enterprise "Kyivgenplan", private real estate companies, economists, and Public cadastral map of Ukraine. We used statistical analytics, mathematical correlation, polynomial and linear approximations, Ratio analysis, utility curves, profit curves and growth models. For predictions modeling key economic parameters were identified. This data was used to build linear dependency models of functions and plotted charts, diagrams based on calculations data.Ukraine does not stand aside from the global challenges of time related to globalization and urbanization. These are indicators such as: significant labor migration, outdated land legislation and inefficient use of land resources. Therefore, the author of the study analyzed the social, environmental, and economic factors influencing the development of the economy of individual united territorial communities of Ukraine with emphasis on the Kyiv city. The main reason for focusing research work on this city is general availability of statistical information and economic data from 2000s.In recent history several events have happened that made dramatic effects on Ukraine and Kyiv land use economics situation. Global financial crisis of 2008 has affected real estate price in Ukraine, in addition to Ukraine currency devaluation. In 2014 military conflict, war, in the east part of Ukraine and Russian annexation of Crimea, had it impact on the housing market, as well as further currency devaluation.Current land area of Kyiv is 82,64 thousand hectares with population of 2 967,4 million people. Land use in Kyiv is classified by following types: Residential buildings; Public buildings; Industrial, research and production and utility territories; Transport infrastructure; Green areas; Water resources; Agricultural companies and other. Analysis of the types of buildings in the capital shows that the largest share in the Residential housing are – private houses 3.76 thousand hectares, and high-rise buildings 8.4 thousand hectares. Non-residential real estate - buildings, premises that are not classified in accordance with the law to the housing stock, are divided into the following types: hotel buildings, office buildings, commercial buildings, garages, industrial buildings and warehouses, buildings for public performances, outbuildings and other buildings.To make better predictions and effectively analyze land use data, we will start with real estate data and general social information - such as monthly salary, average numebr of employees per company, followed by currency exchange rate, average office rent prices and average living apartments price in USD. According to official data, the average salary for full-time employees in 2020 was 16,186 UAH. As of 2018 the highest monthly wage was in the mining industry (44,405 UAH) and the lowest in construction (8,311 UAH), and health care (8,406 UAH). The prices in Kyiv suburbs are much lower than in the city, with average cost of sq. m being around 13,500 UAH.Based on the State Statistics Service of Ukraine Kyiv city data the housing stock in Kyiv in 2019 had a total area of 59.1 million m2, and an average of 20.2 m2 per person. The total number of apartments in Kyiv was 991.6 thousand. If we look at the state building codes as of 2019, the minimal the minimum area of a one-room apartment is 28 sq. m. At the same time according to State Statistics Service of Ukraine Kyiv city data in 2019 the average available housing area per single person living in Kyiv was 20,2 sq. m. Let's look at 26600 $ for 28 sq. meters apartment, with average monthly wage of 16,186 UAH, which is 575 $, for an average it will take 46 month to buy an apartment, if there will be no other expenses and salary is tax free. Median flat rent in Kyiv 2020 – 9.4 $ per sq. m., which makes 263.2$ for 28 sq. meters apartment per month or 7401 UAH.Afterwards we conducted study of enterprise operations statistics between 2018 and 2019. The following data was produced as a result - the number of business entities was 294,458 companies, number of full-time employees was 1,149,074 people, the volume of sold products produced by one (average) enterprise was 36,843.35 thousand UAH per year or 3070.2 thousand UAH per month, with the average number of employees in one company being 16 people. Today there are about 500,000 sq. m. of commercial real estate in Kyiv, and according to experts, by the end of 2020 this figure will increase by at least another 150,000 square meters. m.Based on available data we analyzed the average rent price that company need to pay for one month in Kyiv. If one office employee needs at least 6 sq. meters of office space, then the average company that consist of 16 employees will need to rent 96 sq. of office space. Using 2020 data, on average the monthly rent is 2400$ per month, so the company will need to pay 28,800$ per year. The study showed that the average cost of office space as following - 1200$ per sq. m in 2020; 1500$ per sq. m in 2019; 1300$ per sq. m in 2018; 903$ per sq. m in 2017.The author analyzed the dynamics of increasing the number of living apartments by year. In 1995 their number was (in thousands) - 889,4; 2000 – 926,9; 2005 - 984,4; 2010 - 1037,9; 2015 -1112,1; 2018 - 1081,7; 2019 - 991,6. It should be noted that since 2001 the total area is determined taking into account the summer premises with the established reduction factors. Since 2004, the total area of the housing stock and the number of apartments has included data on bankrupt enterprises and those that have completely ceased operations [stat data]. The population of Kyiv, according to official statistics is as following, by year: 1995 – 2643,8 thou. ppl.; 2000 – 2615,3 thou. ppl.; 2005 – 2666,4 thou. ppl.; 2010 – 2785,1 thou. ppl.; 2015 – 2888,0 thou. ppl.; 2018 – 2934,5 thou. ppl.; 2019 – 2950,8 thou. ppl.; 2020 - 2 967,4 thou. ppl. Total income per all officially employed in Kyiv city: 2010 - 5286,46 UAH, 2015 - 6255,92 UAH; 2018 - 13243,96 UAH; 2019 - 17546,89 UAH. The total share of business income and self-employment as compared to total income in Kyiv per year: 2010 – 8%; 2015 – 4,5; 2018 – 6.3%; 2019 – 6.2%.Another trend is the rapid reduction of vacancies in the Kyiv office centers. During the first half of 2019 the growth in demand and the small amount of new supply of office space led to a decrease in the average vacancy rate from 6.5 to 6%, this data was taken from international real estate agency report. In some office buildings the vacancy was in the range of 4-5%. For comparison: in 2016 on average 16% of the areas were vacant in Kyiv business centers, and in 2015 - more than 20% of spaces were vacant. We analyzed which types of industries have formed the highest demand for real estate office rent in Kyiv in recent years to form this trend. The highest percentage is 52% by IT technologies companies; professional services in various fields – 35%; FMCG – 7%; pharmaceutical companies – 3%, energy companies – 2% and agricultural companies – 1%.A new period of urban development requires new theories and qualitatively new research. It is an indisputable fact that urbanization is a process that will continue. Its pace will be determined by the state of the world and regional economy, as well as innovation and the results of the fourth industrial revolution. In our future research, special attention will need to be paid not only to the economic and social components of the urbanization process, but also to environmental factors. Environmental issues are one of the main problems in the process of urbanization. This is due to the rapid development of infrastructure, development of cities and adjacent areas. And as a result - an uncontrolled very rapid increase in population, an increase in the number of personal transport and the development of new enterprises. All these factors negatively affect the quality of life in cities and can reduce the attractiveness of real estate. Therefore, people do not move to such centers, but begin to build others. The proposed Index of economic feasibility of land use by purpose is a result of mathematical modeling of main economic parameters that include land use, such as land price, real estate prices, investments ratios and personal income levels. It will serve as a foundation to build a more robust economic model that will describe conditions needed for future economic growth, efficient land used patterns in urban and sub-urban areas. It should be noted that for making more accurate future predictions, land use patterns and economic data of close (up to 50 km) and distant sub-urban areas (region) should be studied and added to the model. ; У статті автор зосередив увагу на аналізі поточного стану землекористування за видами економічної діяльності підприємств, регіональними економічними та фінансовими даними, щоби запропонувати нову сучасну модель економічно ефективного планування землекористування для комерційних та некомерційних підприємств та установ. Результати досліджень можуть слугувати важливим матеріалом для процесу прийняття рішень про те, як розвивати наявні земельні ділянки та райони міста в контексті нового глобального економічного розвитку. Наведено детальний огляд нинішніх тенденцій землекористування в місті Києві на основі аналітичних даних та наукових гіпотез. Автор статті вважає, що це дослідження буде корисним для урядових організацій, органів місцевого самоврядування, міжнародних організацій, приватних установ та деяких науковців і дослідників.Метою цієї роботи є побудова сучасної наукової моделі, що ґрунтується на загальному розумінні основних економічних проблем ефективного землекористування з урахуванням нинішніх даних, а також короткострокового та довгострокового планування. У статті наведено огляд містобудівної документації та статистичних даних столиці в контексті інформації про нерухомість, міське населення, економічні дані, включно з дослідженнями даних про нерухомість і курс валют до середньостатистичної зарплати в Києві, починаючи з 2000 років. Важливо не надто суттєво зосередитися на нинішніх моделях і системах, оскільки вони занадто покладаються на припущення і складні розрахунки, які важко використовувати в реальному плануванні. Замість цього ми будуємо наші дослідження на реальних даних, тому розробляємо прогноз розміру інвестицій у землекористуванні та середні ціни на нерухомість на найближчі 5 років.У статті відзначено наявну проблему невідповідності сучасних норм і нормативно-правових актів в Україні щодо раціонального та ефективного землекористування та планування, особливо для місцевих органів влади та комерційних організацій. Автор дослідження обґрунтує, чому економіка в умовах урбанізації потребує нового погляду. У статті використовується інформація про планування міста Києва. Київ – вдалий приклад європейського міста, яке інтенсивно розвивається, тому запропоновану модель можна розробити на основі даних міського економічного планування та землекористування. Це дослідження може допомогти вирішити наявні проблеми урбанізації в Україні та позитивно вплинути на економічний розвиток міста та регіону.

학위논문 (박사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 공과대학 협동과정 도시설계학전공, 2020. 8. 김세훈. ; This dissertation investigated the spatial characteristics and social impact of 'urban shrinkage' and 'housing abandonment' in four separate but related papers focusing on the following sub-themes: (1) major paths of abandonment in the East Asian context, (2) distribution pattern and characteristics in terms of socio-spatial inequalities, (3) residents' perceptions of vacant houses, and (4) neighborhood-specific clusters of vacant houses. Studies have been conducted in Incheon, one of the cities experiencing both city-wide growth and the decline of the inner city. Paper 1_ Housing abandonment in shrinking cities of East Asia: Case study in Incheon, South Korea Despite growing signs of urban shrinkage in countries such as Korea, Japan and China, few studies have examined the generalizable pattern of urban shrinkage and its relationship to the characteristics of housing abandonment in the East Asian context. This study explores five major paths that may explain the emergence of vacant houses in declining inner-city areas, based on empirical observations in the city of Incheon, South Korea. The paths are: (1) strong government-led new built-up area development plans (pull factor for population movement); (2) delay and cancellation of indiscriminate redevelopment projects (push factor for population movement); (3) initial poor development and concentration of substandard houses; (4) aging of the elderly population; and (5) the outflow of infrastructure and services. These paths, also found in Japan or China, are expected to be combined in a local context, leading to more serious housing abandonment. This study suggests that it is important to take appropriate countermeasures based on the identification of the paths causing vacant houses. Paper 2_ Planned inequality of the locational pattern of housing abandonment in shrinking inner-city areas of Incheon, South Korea Housing abandonment is one of the most distinctive features of urban shrinkage associated with depopulation and a loss of neighborhood attractiveness. Previous studies investigated the scale and the process of housing abandonment in the former industrialized cities in the United States and Europe. Yet very little was known about the characteristics of housing abandonment in cities that have experienced rapid urbanization in terms of spatial unevenness. In the study, based on a unique parcel-level dataset of vacant houses in Incheon, South Korea, the firth's logistic regression analysis revealed that the building and parcel, urban neighborhood, economic, and socio-demographic determinants might explain the spatially selective occurrence of housing abandonment at intra-urban level. The results indicated that older, smaller, and inaccessible residential buildings developed with lower quality during the rapid urbanization period were more vulnerable to abandonment. The failure of indiscriminately planned redevelopment projects under the growth-oriented policies contributed to housing abandonment in concentrated areas. With the devastation of manufacturing and commercial areas due to the out-migration of households to the new suburbs, socially unsustainable environments, such as the concentration of elderly and less-educated people in the inner city, were significantly associated with the emergence of abandoned houses. Paper 3_ Perceptions of abandonment: Analyzing subjective perception on vacant houses using the photo-elicitation method Vacant houses have been regarded, in terms of the broken windows theory, as one of the signs of neighborhood disorder inducing prevalent violent crimes. Previous studies, mostly in the fields of public health and criminology, have indicated that vacant houses not only pose a threat to the physical health of residents but also deteriorate their mental health. However, little is known about the residents' experiences and interpretations of vacant houses in declining neighborhoods. In this study, the perceptions of vacant houses in shrinking inner-city neighborhoods of Incheon, South Korea, were analyzed utilizing the semi-structured questionnaire and photo-elicitation methods. The surveyed residents expressed that they had been suffering from persistent daily life problems, not from the issues caused by the simple presence of vacant houses. The survey revealed that the residents' degree of understanding and responsibility for neighborhoods and the level of experiences of and information on vacant houses affected subjective perceptions of vacant houses. Additionally, the photo-elicitation method involving both resident and non-resident groups revealed that the fear of vacant houses arose not only from the visible presence of abandonment but also from invisible wrongdoers or outsiders. The perception of how abandonment is managed also determined their feelings and responses toward vacant houses. The results suggest that suitable vacant house management and usage measures in shrinking cities should be provided for the remaining residents with pieces of broken windows. Paper 4_ The causes and characteristics of housing abandonment in an inner-city neighborhood: Focused on the Sungui-dong area, Nam-gu, Incheon The study aims to analyze the causes and characteristics of housing abandonment at a micro level and to draw the implications for urban design in the declining inner-city neighborhoods of Sungui-dong, Nam-gu, Incheon. This study created a theoretical frame explaining the mechanism between urban shrinkage and housing abandonment, and identified the spatial distribution pattern, characteristics, and causality of housing abandonment, applying qualitative methods. 80 vacant houses in Sungui-dong were distributed intensively in the four clusters. The results indicated that the different physical conditions of each cluster acted as driving forces influencing the pattern of housing abandonment. The clusters with poor physical environments, such as narrow streets and small parcels, attracted redevelopment's cancellation and spatial concentration of socially-vulnerable populations, leading to the proliferation of vacant houses. The maintenance of public areas surrounding vacant houses played a decisive role in the occurrence of additional decline and the formation of stigmatized neighborhood images. Additionally, residents perceived the seriousness of housing abandonment differently depending on their residence locations and social characteristics. Further studies could aim to conduct an in-depth analysis of the urban spatial characteristics of housing abandonment, prepare public domain management plans, and identify residents' awareness and behavior. ; 도시쇠퇴는 전 세계 수많은 도시들이 경험하고 있는 가장 두드러지는 도시현상들 중 하나이다. 도시쇠퇴는 공통적이면서도 차별화된 세계적 현상으로, 경제적·사회적·물리적 측면에서 특정 개발 논리를 따르는 한편, 국가 및 도시에 따라 다양한 동기, 유형, 접근방식을 가진다. 서구 도시들에서는 탈산업화, 교외화, 인구감소가 쇠퇴의 주요 패턴으로 이해되어 왔다. 도시쇠퇴의 가장 심각하고 명백한 공간적 발현으로는 주택 포기, 즉 빈집을 꼽을 수 있다. 빈집은 도시쇠퇴와의 하향적 악순환의 관계 안에서, 물리적 환경의 악화, 지역 활력도의 저하, 부동산 가치의 감소, 관리비용의 증가 등을 통해 추가적인 쇠퇴를 유도한다. 빈집은 건물 자체로는 쇠퇴도시의 황폐화된 건조환경을 나타내지만, 넓게는 분포패턴을 통해 구시가지와 신시가지 사이의 공간사회적 불균형을 드러낸다. 더불어 장기간 방치된 빈집은 쇠퇴근린에 자의적 또는 타의적으로 남겨진 주민들의 일상생활에 서서히 침투하여, 신체적 및 정신적 건강을 포함한 삶의 질에 악영향을 미친다. 한국의 경우, 통계청에 따르면 2017년 기준으로 총 주택 수의 7.4%에 해당하는 약 130만 채의 빈집이 집계되었으며, 이는 2010년의 약 80만 채 대비 59.3%가 증가한 수치였다. 한국 정부는 빈집 발생을 심각한 사회현상으로 인지함에 따라, 2017년에 「빈집 및 소규모주택 정비에 관한 특례법」을 제정하였다. 그런데 한국 쇠퇴도시 내 빈집현상에 대한 포괄적 논의의 필요성과 체계적 대책마련의 시급성에도 불구하고, 지금까지 대부분의 관련 연구들은 미국 또는 유럽의 사례들 그리고 그들의 시각에 초점을 맞춰왔다. 또한 지금까지 추진된 빈집 관련 정책 및 사업들은 단기적이고 일시적인 대책들을 제시하는 것을 우선시 해왔다. 이에 본 논문은 도시쇠퇴의 시기, 속도, 양상에 있어 서구와는 구별되는 징후들을 드러내는 동아시아 국가들, 그 중에서도 특히 한국 인천에서의 실증적 관찰을 기반으로 경로, 원인, 특성, 영향력, 주민인식을 포함한 빈집의 역학에 대해 분석하고자 했다. 결과적으로, 다음의 네 개의 연구를 통해 쇠퇴도시 내 악순환의 고리를 끊고, 빈집을 바람직하게 관리·활용하며, 남아있는 주민들의 삶의 질을 개선하기 위한 토대를 마련하고자 했다. 첫 번째 연구는 아직까지 동아시아 맥락에서 도시쇠퇴의 일반화 가능한 패턴과 이것의 빈집 발생의 특성과의 관계에 대해 조사한 연구는 거의 없다는 점에 착안하여, 한국 인천에서의 경험적 관찰을 기반으로 쇠퇴하는 구시가지에서 빈집 발생의 원인 및 양상을 설명하는 다섯 가지 주요 경로들을 분석하고자 했다. 먼저는 도시쇠퇴의 구조적 문제에 부정적으로 영향을 준 두 개의 정치경제적 측면의 경로들로, 각각 강력한 정부 주도의 신시가지 개발 및 공공기관의 이전 그리고 구시가지에서 무차별적으로 시행된 정비사업의 지연 및 취소에 해당되었다. 빈집 발생과 관련된 신시가지와 구시가지 사이의 인구이동에 있어 전자는 유인요인, 후자는 배출요인으로 작용하였으며, 특히 후자는 빈집 클러스터를 야기하는 역할을 하였다. 세 번째 경로는 압축 성장 하의 급격한 도시화의 기간 동안 불충분한 기반시설을 바탕으로 개발된 열악한 건물들과 이들의 가속화된 노후화와 관련되었다. 네 번째 경로는 급격한 사회구조의 변화 및 심각한 고령화 현상에서 비롯되었으며, 유지관리의 부족으로 황폐화된 건조환경에 취약계층이 집중됨에 따라 공간적 불균형이 고착화되고 새로운 인구의 유입을 저해하였다. 마지막 경로는 낙인 찍힌 지역에서 기반시설, 서비스, 젊은 인구층의 유출로 인해 남아있는 주민들의 삶의 질이 저하되고 빈집 발생의 악순환이 지속됨을 드러내었다. 각각의 경로들은 지역적 맥락에서 서로 밀접하게 관계를 맺고 동시에 그 영향력 행사함으로써, 보다 극심한 빈집 문제를 초래할 것으로 예상되었다. 더불어 동아시아적 관점에서, 이와 같은 경로들은 국가주도의 도시개발을 통한 고도경제성장을 경험한 일본과 중국에서도 유사하게 발견됨과 동시에, 도시계획 관련 법 및 정책, 도시개발의 시기 및 방식에 따라 그 양상의 차이를 보임을 확인할 수 있었다. 본 연구의 다섯 가지 경로들에 대한 탐색은 빈집의 주요 원인에 따라 발생 특성이 상이하기에, 적절한 빈집 관리 방안의 마련과 추후 급증에 대한 예방을 위해서는 빈집 발생의 주요 경로들과 그들의 상호관계를 이해하는 것이 중요함을 시사하였다. 두 번째 연구는 필지 수준의 데이터를 기반으로 퍼스(firth)의 로지스틱 회귀분석을 활용하여 짧은 시간 내에 도시화 및 경제성장을 경험한 지역에서 빈집 발생이 공간적 불균형의 측면에서 어떤 특성을 지니는지에 대해 분석하고자 했다. 2017년 기준으로, 연구 대상지인 인천 구시가지에는 인천 전체 빈집의 3/4에 해당하는 약 1,600여 채의 빈집이 위치했으며, 건물 및 필지, 도시근린, 경제적, 인구사회적 측면의 결정요인들이 빈집의 공간선택적인 발생 패턴을 설명할 수 있을 것이라 예상되었다. 분석결과에 따르면, 급속한 도시화의 시기에 저품질로 개발된 보다 오래되고, 규모가 작고, 접근성이 떨어지는 주거용 건물들이 빈집으로의 전환에 더 취약했다. 성장 지향적 정책 하에서 무차별적으로 계획된 정비사업의 실패는 빈집 밀집지역을 초래했으며, 실제 구시가지 빈집의 약 64%가 정비구역에 위치했다. 제조업의 영세화와 상업지역의 황폐화는 지역 경제활동과 커뮤니티의 활력을 약화시킴으로써, 인구유출에 기반한 빈집 발생을 촉진시켰다. 더불어, 구시가지로의 노인 및 저학력 인구의 집중과 같은 사회적으로 지속 불가능한 환경의 조성은 근린의 낙인 찍힌 이미지를 형성함과 동시에, 고학력의 젊은 인구층의 이탈을 통한 빈집 출현에 기여했다. 본 연구는 앞선 분석결과를 기반으로 도시설계 및 계획의 관점에서 더욱 심도 있게 논의되어야 할 세 가지 이슈를 제시하였다. 첫째, 뚜렷한 공간적 불균형이 도시 내, 구시가지 내, 근린 내, 심지어 도시블록 규모와 같이 점점 더 작은 공간단위에서 발현되고 있다는 것이다. 둘째, 구시가지 내에서 지연되거나 취소된 정비사업 구역이 빈집 밀집지역의 온상이 되고 있다는 것이다. 셋째, 이미 잘 알려진 경제적 불평등 및 이와 관련된 주거지 분리에 더해, 왜곡된 인구구조가 사회적 지속가능성을 위협하는 공간적 양극화를 심화시키고 있다는 것이다. 세 번째 연구는 지속적·점진적인 쇠퇴를 경험하는 도시에서 도시설계 및 계획의 렌즈를 통해 빈집에 대한 주민들의 경험 및 해석에 대해 탐색한 연구는 거의 없다는 점에 착안하여, 설문조사 및 사진유도기법(photo-elicitation)을 활용하여 인천 남구의 쇠퇴하는 구시가지 근린에서 빈집에 대한 인식을 분석하고자 했다. 지금까지 빈집은 주로 공중보건 및 범죄학의 분야에서 깨진 유리창 이론의 관점을 통해, 폭력범죄의 만연을 유도하는 근린 무질서의 징후들 중 하나로 간주되어 왔다. 하지만 본 연구는 무질서에서 범죄로의 전환 가능성, 무질서가 발생하는 지역의 주요 인구사회학적 및 건조환경의 특성을 검토함으로써, 이 이론을 한국의 쇠퇴도시에서 재맥락화 하고자 했다. 연구의 첫 번째 단계에서는 인천 남구의 93명의 주민들을 대상으로 빈집 인식과 관련된 설문조사를 진행하였다. 빈집에 대한 인식은 신체적 및 정신적 건강, 행동적 대응, 공동체 활동에의 참여의 세 가지 측면을 통해 확인되었으며, 인구사회학적 특성, 개인적인 경험, 공동체 상호작용과 관련된 요인들이 인식의 이질성을 형성하는 데 관여했다. 두 번째 단계에서는 인천 남구 숭의동의 주민 10명과 비주민 10명을 대상으로 사진유도조사를 실시함으로써, 총 13장의 빈집 사진에 대해 두 집단이 두려움을 느끼는 정도와 이유에 대해 비교하였다. 연구결과는 쇠퇴도시 내 빈집들을 효율적으로 관리하고 남아있는 주민들의 삶의 질을 개선하기 위해 다음의 네 가지 이슈들을 제시하였다. 첫째, 주민들은 지속적인 쇠퇴를 경험하는 구시가지 근린에서 강력범죄보다는 고착화된 빈집들에서 기인한 쓰레기, 먼지, 악취 등의 일상생활의 문제들로부터 끈질기게 영향을 받아왔다. 둘째, 근린에 대한 이해 및 책임의 정도, 빈집에 대한 경험 및 정보의 수준이 빈집에 대한 주민인식에 있어 차이를 형성했다. 셋째, 단순히 빈집의 존재가 아닌, 건조환경 측면에서 관리의 유무를 암시하는 물리적 요소들이 빈집에 대한 감정 및 대응을 결정지었다. 넷째, 빈집에 대한 두려움의 감정은 가시적인 건조환경뿐만 아니라 비가시적인 사회적 환경에서도 기인했다. 네 번째 연구는 빈집의 체계적인 관리 및 활용을 위해서는 도시근린과 같은 미시적 공간 차원에서의 빈집 발생 메커니즘에 대한 파악이 필수적이라는 점을 바탕으로, 쇠퇴현상을 겪고 있는 인천 남구 숭의동 내 근린, 특히 빈집 클러스터를 중심으로 빈집 발생의 원인 및 특성을 분석하고자 했다. 정성적인 연구 방법론을 활용하여 도시쇠퇴와 빈집 사이의 반복 및 누적되는 악순환의 고리를 드러내는 메커니즘을 이론적 틀로 정리한 후, 빈집의 분포 현황 및 특성, 그리고 인과관계를 탐색하였다. 남구의 공가현황 자료 및 현장답사를 기반으로, 숭의동에는 약 80여 채의 빈집이 4개의 클러스터에 집중 분포되어 있는 것을 확인하였다. 각 클러스터의 서로 다른 건축적·도시공간적 특성들이 빈집 발생 양상의 차이를 만들어내는 요인으로 작용하고 있었다. 클러스터 1은 열악한 물리적 환경으로 인해 재개발 취소의 영향력이 심화된 구역이었으며, 클러스터 2는 양호한 물리적 환경을 보유했지만 재개발에 대한 기대 심리를 기반으로 빈집이 발생하게 된 구역이었다. 클러스터 1과 2의 경우 동일하게 재정비촉진지구로 지정된 후 해제되었지만, 기존의 도시·건축적 특성의 차이로 인해 빈집의 밀도, 건물 및 가로의 상태에 있어 서로 다른 양상과 영향력을 드러냈다. 더불어 클러스터 3은 사회취약계층의 공간적 집중과 가로변 건물들의 개보수로 인해 상대적 쇠퇴가 심화된 구역이었으며, 클러스터 4는 열악한 기반시설 및 대규모 기피시설이 빈집 발생을 유도한 구역이었다. 연구결과에 따르면, 폐쇄적 블록, 협소한 가로, 소규모 필지 등의 열악한 물리적 환경이 재정비촉진지구의 해제, 사회취약계층의 공간적 집중 등과 결합됨에 따라 빈집현상의 심화 및 확산으로 연결되었다. 또한 빈집 인근 공적영역의 유지관리 여부가 추가적인 쇠퇴의 진행 및 쇠퇴 이미지 형성에 중요한 역학을 하고 있었다. 한편 연구결과를 통해 거주위치 및 거주특성에 따라 주민들이 빈집문제의 심각성을 인식하고 대응하는데 있어 차이가 존재함을 확인할 수 있었다. ; Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Housing abandonment in shrinking cities of East Asia: Case study in Incheon, South Korea 5 1. Introduction 5 2. Theoretical Framework and Research Site 10 3. Results 14 4. Discussion 26 5. Conclusion 35 Chapter 2. Planned inequality of the locational pattern of housing abandonment in shrinking inner-city areas of Incheon, South Korea 37 1. Introduction 37 2. Literature Review 41 3. Data and Methods 47 4. Results 58 5. Discussion 70 6. Conclusion 76 Chapter 3. Perceptions of abandonment: Analyzing subjective perception on vacant houses using the photo-elicitation method 78 1. Introduction 78 2. Literature Review 83 3. Methods 90 4. Results 96 5. Discussion 119 Chapter 4. The causes and characteristics of housing abandonment in an inner-city neighborhood: Focused on the Sungui-dong area, Nam-gu, Incheon 125 1. Introduction 125 2. Theoretical Consideration 136 3. Results 143 4. Discussion 162 5. Conclusion 164 Conclusion 167 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 174 REFERENCES 175 ABSTRACT IN KOREAN 184 ; Doctor

학위논문 (박사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 공과대학 협동과정 도시설계학전공, 2020. 8. 김세훈. ; This dissertation investigated the spatial characteristics and social impact of 'urban shrinkage' and 'housing abandonment' in four separate but related papers focusing on the following sub-themes: (1) major paths of abandonment in the East Asian context, (2) distribution pattern and characteristics in terms of socio-spatial inequalities, (3) residents' perceptions of vacant houses, and (4) neighborhood-specific clusters of vacant houses. Studies have been conducted in Incheon, one of the cities experiencing both city-wide growth and the decline of the inner city. Paper 1_ Housing abandonment in shrinking cities of East Asia: Case study in Incheon, South Korea Despite growing signs of urban shrinkage in countries such as Korea, Japan and China, few studies have examined the generalizable pattern of urban shrinkage and its relationship to the characteristics of housing abandonment in the East Asian context. This study explores five major paths that may explain the emergence of vacant houses in declining inner-city areas, based on empirical observations in the city of Incheon, South Korea. The paths are: (1) strong government-led new built-up area development plans (pull factor for population movement); (2) delay and cancellation of indiscriminate redevelopment projects (push factor for population movement); (3) initial poor development and concentration of substandard houses; (4) aging of the elderly population; and (5) the outflow of infrastructure and services. These paths, also found in Japan or China, are expected to be combined in a local context, leading to more serious housing abandonment. This study suggests that it is important to take appropriate countermeasures based on the identification of the paths causing vacant houses. Paper 2_ Planned inequality of the locational pattern of housing abandonment in shrinking inner-city areas of Incheon, South Korea Housing abandonment is one of the most distinctive features of urban shrinkage associated with depopulation and a loss of neighborhood attractiveness. Previous studies investigated the scale and the process of housing abandonment in the former industrialized cities in the United States and Europe. Yet very little was known about the characteristics of housing abandonment in cities that have experienced rapid urbanization in terms of spatial unevenness. In the study, based on a unique parcel-level dataset of vacant houses in Incheon, South Korea, the firth's logistic regression analysis revealed that the building and parcel, urban neighborhood, economic, and socio-demographic determinants might explain the spatially selective occurrence of housing abandonment at intra-urban level. The results indicated that older, smaller, and inaccessible residential buildings developed with lower quality during the rapid urbanization period were more vulnerable to abandonment. The failure of indiscriminately planned redevelopment projects under the growth-oriented policies contributed to housing abandonment in concentrated areas. With the devastation of manufacturing and commercial areas due to the out-migration of households to the new suburbs, socially unsustainable environments, such as the concentration of elderly and less-educated people in the inner city, were significantly associated with the emergence of abandoned houses. Paper 3_ Perceptions of abandonment: Analyzing subjective perception on vacant houses using the photo-elicitation method Vacant houses have been regarded, in terms of the broken windows theory, as one of the signs of neighborhood disorder inducing prevalent violent crimes. Previous studies, mostly in the fields of public health and criminology, have indicated that vacant houses not only pose a threat to the physical health of residents but also deteriorate their mental health. However, little is known about the residents' experiences and interpretations of vacant houses in declining neighborhoods. In this study, the perceptions of vacant houses in shrinking inner-city neighborhoods of Incheon, South Korea, were analyzed utilizing the semi-structured questionnaire and photo-elicitation methods. The surveyed residents expressed that they had been suffering from persistent daily life problems, not from the issues caused by the simple presence of vacant houses. The survey revealed that the residents' degree of understanding and responsibility for neighborhoods and the level of experiences of and information on vacant houses affected subjective perceptions of vacant houses. Additionally, the photo-elicitation method involving both resident and non-resident groups revealed that the fear of vacant houses arose not only from the visible presence of abandonment but also from invisible wrongdoers or outsiders. The perception of how abandonment is managed also determined their feelings and responses toward vacant houses. The results suggest that suitable vacant house management and usage measures in shrinking cities should be provided for the remaining residents with pieces of broken windows. Paper 4_ The causes and characteristics of housing abandonment in an inner-city neighborhood: Focused on the Sungui-dong area, Nam-gu, Incheon The study aims to analyze the causes and characteristics of housing abandonment at a micro level and to draw the implications for urban design in the declining inner-city neighborhoods of Sungui-dong, Nam-gu, Incheon. This study created a theoretical frame explaining the mechanism between urban shrinkage and housing abandonment, and identified the spatial distribution pattern, characteristics, and causality of housing abandonment, applying qualitative methods. 80 vacant houses in Sungui-dong were distributed intensively in the four clusters. The results indicated that the different physical conditions of each cluster acted as driving forces influencing the pattern of housing abandonment. The clusters with poor physical environments, such as narrow streets and small parcels, attracted redevelopment's cancellation and spatial concentration of socially-vulnerable populations, leading to the proliferation of vacant houses. The maintenance of public areas surrounding vacant houses played a decisive role in the occurrence of additional decline and the formation of stigmatized neighborhood images. Additionally, residents perceived the seriousness of housing abandonment differently depending on their residence locations and social characteristics. Further studies could aim to conduct an in-depth analysis of the urban spatial characteristics of housing abandonment, prepare public domain management plans, and identify residents' awareness and behavior. ; 도시쇠퇴는 전 세계 수많은 도시들이 경험하고 있는 가장 두드러지는 도시현상들 중 하나이다. 도시쇠퇴는 공통적이면서도 차별화된 세계적 현상으로, 경제적·사회적·물리적 측면에서 특정 개발 논리를 따르는 한편, 국가 및 도시에 따라 다양한 동기, 유형, 접근방식을 가진다. 서구 도시들에서는 탈산업화, 교외화, 인구감소가 쇠퇴의 주요 패턴으로 이해되어 왔다. 도시쇠퇴의 가장 심각하고 명백한 공간적 발현으로는 주택 포기, 즉 빈집을 꼽을 수 있다. 빈집은 도시쇠퇴와의 하향적 악순환의 관계 안에서, 물리적 환경의 악화, 지역 활력도의 저하, 부동산 가치의 감소, 관리비용의 증가 등을 통해 추가적인 쇠퇴를 유도한다. 빈집은 건물 자체로는 쇠퇴도시의 황폐화된 건조환경을 나타내지만, 넓게는 분포패턴을 통해 구시가지와 신시가지 사이의 공간사회적 불균형을 드러낸다. 더불어 장기간 방치된 빈집은 쇠퇴근린에 자의적 또는 타의적으로 남겨진 주민들의 일상생활에 서서히 침투하여, 신체적 및 정신적 건강을 포함한 삶의 질에 악영향을 미친다. 한국의 경우, 통계청에 따르면 2017년 기준으로 총 주택 수의 7.4%에 해당하는 약 130만 채의 빈집이 집계되었으며, 이는 2010년의 약 80만 채 대비 59.3%가 증가한 수치였다. 한국 정부는 빈집 발생을 심각한 사회현상으로 인지함에 따라, 2017년에 「빈집 및 소규모주택 정비에 관한 특례법」을 제정하였다. 그런데 한국 쇠퇴도시 내 빈집현상에 대한 포괄적 논의의 필요성과 체계적 대책마련의 시급성에도 불구하고, 지금까지 대부분의 관련 연구들은 미국 또는 유럽의 사례들 그리고 그들의 시각에 초점을 맞춰왔다. 또한 지금까지 추진된 빈집 관련 정책 및 사업들은 단기적이고 일시적인 대책들을 제시하는 것을 우선시 해왔다. 이에 본 논문은 도시쇠퇴의 시기, 속도, 양상에 있어 서구와는 구별되는 징후들을 드러내는 동아시아 국가들, 그 중에서도 특히 한국 인천에서의 실증적 관찰을 기반으로 경로, 원인, 특성, 영향력, 주민인식을 포함한 빈집의 역학에 대해 분석하고자 했다. 결과적으로, 다음의 네 개의 연구를 통해 쇠퇴도시 내 악순환의 고리를 끊고, 빈집을 바람직하게 관리·활용하며, 남아있는 주민들의 삶의 질을 개선하기 위한 토대를 마련하고자 했다. 첫 번째 연구는 아직까지 동아시아 맥락에서 도시쇠퇴의 일반화 가능한 패턴과 이것의 빈집 발생의 특성과의 관계에 대해 조사한 연구는 거의 없다는 점에 착안하여, 한국 인천에서의 경험적 관찰을 기반으로 쇠퇴하는 구시가지에서 빈집 발생의 원인 및 양상을 설명하는 다섯 가지 주요 경로들을 분석하고자 했다. 먼저는 도시쇠퇴의 구조적 문제에 부정적으로 영향을 준 두 개의 정치경제적 측면의 경로들로, 각각 강력한 정부 주도의 신시가지 개발 및 공공기관의 이전 그리고 구시가지에서 무차별적으로 시행된 정비사업의 지연 및 취소에 해당되었다. 빈집 발생과 관련된 신시가지와 구시가지 사이의 인구이동에 있어 전자는 유인요인, 후자는 배출요인으로 작용하였으며, 특히 후자는 빈집 클러스터를 야기하는 역할을 하였다. 세 번째 경로는 압축 성장 하의 급격한 도시화의 기간 동안 불충분한 기반시설을 바탕으로 개발된 열악한 건물들과 이들의 가속화된 노후화와 관련되었다. 네 번째 경로는 급격한 사회구조의 변화 및 심각한 고령화 현상에서 비롯되었으며, 유지관리의 부족으로 황폐화된 건조환경에 취약계층이 집중됨에 따라 공간적 불균형이 고착화되고 새로운 인구의 유입을 저해하였다. 마지막 경로는 낙인 찍힌 지역에서 기반시설, 서비스, 젊은 인구층의 유출로 인해 남아있는 주민들의 삶의 질이 저하되고 빈집 발생의 악순환이 지속됨을 드러내었다. 각각의 경로들은 지역적 맥락에서 서로 밀접하게 관계를 맺고 동시에 그 영향력 행사함으로써, 보다 극심한 빈집 문제를 초래할 것으로 예상되었다. 더불어 동아시아적 관점에서, 이와 같은 경로들은 국가주도의 도시개발을 통한 고도경제성장을 경험한 일본과 중국에서도 유사하게 발견됨과 동시에, 도시계획 관련 법 및 정책, 도시개발의 시기 및 방식에 따라 그 양상의 차이를 보임을 확인할 수 있었다. 본 연구의 다섯 가지 경로들에 대한 탐색은 빈집의 주요 원인에 따라 발생 특성이 상이하기에, 적절한 빈집 관리 방안의 마련과 추후 급증에 대한 예방을 위해서는 빈집 발생의 주요 경로들과 그들의 상호관계를 이해하는 것이 중요함을 시사하였다. 두 번째 연구는 필지 수준의 데이터를 기반으로 퍼스(firth)의 로지스틱 회귀분석을 활용하여 짧은 시간 내에 도시화 및 경제성장을 경험한 지역에서 빈집 발생이 공간적 불균형의 측면에서 어떤 특성을 지니는지에 대해 분석하고자 했다. 2017년 기준으로, 연구 대상지인 인천 구시가지에는 인천 전체 빈집의 3/4에 해당하는 약 1,600여 채의 빈집이 위치했으며, 건물 및 필지, 도시근린, 경제적, 인구사회적 측면의 결정요인들이 빈집의 공간선택적인 발생 패턴을 설명할 수 있을 것이라 예상되었다. 분석결과에 따르면, 급속한 도시화의 시기에 저품질로 개발된 보다 오래되고, 규모가 작고, 접근성이 떨어지는 주거용 건물들이 빈집으로의 전환에 더 취약했다. 성장 지향적 정책 하에서 무차별적으로 계획된 정비사업의 실패는 빈집 밀집지역을 초래했으며, 실제 구시가지 빈집의 약 64%가 정비구역에 위치했다. 제조업의 영세화와 상업지역의 황폐화는 지역 경제활동과 커뮤니티의 활력을 약화시킴으로써, 인구유출에 기반한 빈집 발생을 촉진시켰다. 더불어, 구시가지로의 노인 및 저학력 인구의 집중과 같은 사회적으로 지속 불가능한 환경의 조성은 근린의 낙인 찍힌 이미지를 형성함과 동시에, 고학력의 젊은 인구층의 이탈을 통한 빈집 출현에 기여했다. 본 연구는 앞선 분석결과를 기반으로 도시설계 및 계획의 관점에서 더욱 심도 있게 논의되어야 할 세 가지 이슈를 제시하였다. 첫째, 뚜렷한 공간적 불균형이 도시 내, 구시가지 내, 근린 내, 심지어 도시블록 규모와 같이 점점 더 작은 공간단위에서 발현되고 있다는 것이다. 둘째, 구시가지 내에서 지연되거나 취소된 정비사업 구역이 빈집 밀집지역의 온상이 되고 있다는 것이다. 셋째, 이미 잘 알려진 경제적 불평등 및 이와 관련된 주거지 분리에 더해, 왜곡된 인구구조가 사회적 지속가능성을 위협하는 공간적 양극화를 심화시키고 있다는 것이다. 세 번째 연구는 지속적·점진적인 쇠퇴를 경험하는 도시에서 도시설계 및 계획의 렌즈를 통해 빈집에 대한 주민들의 경험 및 해석에 대해 탐색한 연구는 거의 없다는 점에 착안하여, 설문조사 및 사진유도기법(photo-elicitation)을 활용하여 인천 남구의 쇠퇴하는 구시가지 근린에서 빈집에 대한 인식을 분석하고자 했다. 지금까지 빈집은 주로 공중보건 및 범죄학의 분야에서 깨진 유리창 이론의 관점을 통해, 폭력범죄의 만연을 유도하는 근린 무질서의 징후들 중 하나로 간주되어 왔다. 하지만 본 연구는 무질서에서 범죄로의 전환 가능성, 무질서가 발생하는 지역의 주요 인구사회학적 및 건조환경의 특성을 검토함으로써, 이 이론을 한국의 쇠퇴도시에서 재맥락화 하고자 했다. 연구의 첫 번째 단계에서는 인천 남구의 93명의 주민들을 대상으로 빈집 인식과 관련된 설문조사를 진행하였다. 빈집에 대한 인식은 신체적 및 정신적 건강, 행동적 대응, 공동체 활동에의 참여의 세 가지 측면을 통해 확인되었으며, 인구사회학적 특성, 개인적인 경험, 공동체 상호작용과 관련된 요인들이 인식의 이질성을 형성하는 데 관여했다. 두 번째 단계에서는 인천 남구 숭의동의 주민 10명과 비주민 10명을 대상으로 사진유도조사를 실시함으로써, 총 13장의 빈집 사진에 대해 두 집단이 두려움을 느끼는 정도와 이유에 대해 비교하였다. 연구결과는 쇠퇴도시 내 빈집들을 효율적으로 관리하고 남아있는 주민들의 삶의 질을 개선하기 위해 다음의 네 가지 이슈들을 제시하였다. 첫째, 주민들은 지속적인 쇠퇴를 경험하는 구시가지 근린에서 강력범죄보다는 고착화된 빈집들에서 기인한 쓰레기, 먼지, 악취 등의 일상생활의 문제들로부터 끈질기게 영향을 받아왔다. 둘째, 근린에 대한 이해 및 책임의 정도, 빈집에 대한 경험 및 정보의 수준이 빈집에 대한 주민인식에 있어 차이를 형성했다. 셋째, 단순히 빈집의 존재가 아닌, 건조환경 측면에서 관리의 유무를 암시하는 물리적 요소들이 빈집에 대한 감정 및 대응을 결정지었다. 넷째, 빈집에 대한 두려움의 감정은 가시적인 건조환경뿐만 아니라 비가시적인 사회적 환경에서도 기인했다. 네 번째 연구는 빈집의 체계적인 관리 및 활용을 위해서는 도시근린과 같은 미시적 공간 차원에서의 빈집 발생 메커니즘에 대한 파악이 필수적이라는 점을 바탕으로, 쇠퇴현상을 겪고 있는 인천 남구 숭의동 내 근린, 특히 빈집 클러스터를 중심으로 빈집 발생의 원인 및 특성을 분석하고자 했다. 정성적인 연구 방법론을 활용하여 도시쇠퇴와 빈집 사이의 반복 및 누적되는 악순환의 고리를 드러내는 메커니즘을 이론적 틀로 정리한 후, 빈집의 분포 현황 및 특성, 그리고 인과관계를 탐색하였다. 남구의 공가현황 자료 및 현장답사를 기반으로, 숭의동에는 약 80여 채의 빈집이 4개의 클러스터에 집중 분포되어 있는 것을 확인하였다. 각 클러스터의 서로 다른 건축적·도시공간적 특성들이 빈집 발생 양상의 차이를 만들어내는 요인으로 작용하고 있었다. 클러스터 1은 열악한 물리적 환경으로 인해 재개발 취소의 영향력이 심화된 구역이었으며, 클러스터 2는 양호한 물리적 환경을 보유했지만 재개발에 대한 기대 심리를 기반으로 빈집이 발생하게 된 구역이었다. 클러스터 1과 2의 경우 동일하게 재정비촉진지구로 지정된 후 해제되었지만, 기존의 도시·건축적 특성의 차이로 인해 빈집의 밀도, 건물 및 가로의 상태에 있어 서로 다른 양상과 영향력을 드러냈다. 더불어 클러스터 3은 사회취약계층의 공간적 집중과 가로변 건물들의 개보수로 인해 상대적 쇠퇴가 심화된 구역이었으며, 클러스터 4는 열악한 기반시설 및 대규모 기피시설이 빈집 발생을 유도한 구역이었다. 연구결과에 따르면, 폐쇄적 블록, 협소한 가로, 소규모 필지 등의 열악한 물리적 환경이 재정비촉진지구의 해제, 사회취약계층의 공간적 집중 등과 결합됨에 따라 빈집현상의 심화 및 확산으로 연결되었다. 또한 빈집 인근 공적영역의 유지관리 여부가 추가적인 쇠퇴의 진행 및 쇠퇴 이미지 형성에 중요한 역학을 하고 있었다. 한편 연구결과를 통해 거주위치 및 거주특성에 따라 주민들이 빈집문제의 심각성을 인식하고 대응하는데 있어 차이가 존재함을 확인할 수 있었다. ; Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Housing abandonment in shrinking cities of East Asia: Case study in Incheon, South Korea 5 1. Introduction 5 2. Theoretical Framework and Research Site 10 3. Results 14 4. Discussion 26 5. Conclusion 35 Chapter 2. Planned inequality of the locational pattern of housing abandonment in shrinking inner-city areas of Incheon, South Korea 37 1. Introduction 37 2. Literature Review 41 3. Data and Methods 47 4. Results 58 5. Discussion 70 6. Conclusion 76 Chapter 3. Perceptions of abandonment: Analyzing subjective perception on vacant houses using the photo-elicitation method 78 1. Introduction 78 2. Literature Review 83 3. Methods 90 4. Results 96 5. Discussion 119 Chapter 4. The causes and characteristics of housing abandonment in an inner-city neighborhood: Focused on the Sungui-dong area, Nam-gu, Incheon 125 1. Introduction 125 2. Theoretical Consideration 136 3. Results 143 4. Discussion 162 5. Conclusion 164 Conclusion 167 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 174 REFERENCES 175 ABSTRACT IN KOREAN 184 ; Doctor

ABSTRACT - Background: Immigrants' lives are shaped by the Social Determinants of Health (SDOH) along with the migratory phases. The SDOH are the social, economic and environmental conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work and age that influence the health of individuals and populations. Immigrants are more vulnerable to social exclusion (SE) as they suffer from certain types of discrimination, higher levels of unemployment, precarious jobs, deepening levels of poverty, differential access to housing, and limited political and social participation; being all of these factors SDOH themselves. Even though migration is an emerging and increasing social, political and public health issue, very few studies applied the lens of SDOH to understand immigrants' experiences in Europe. Also, the empirical evidence on social exclusion is still scarce. Aim: To examine the association between independent and overall dimensions of social exclusion and poor self-rated health (PSRH) and self-reported depressive symptoms (SRDS) in the immigrant population in Europe. Also, to analyze inequalities in SRDS between natives and immigrant groups according to their length of residence in Europe, and to test the mediating role of SE in explaining these differences. Objectives: The thesis comprises four studies. In Study I (Chapter 3), the objective was to summarize existing literature on the relationship between SE and health outcomes in the immigrant population in Europe. In Study II (Chapter 5), the objective was to analyze inequalities in SRDS between natives and immigrant groups according to their length of residence in Europe and to test the mediating role of SE in explaining these differences. In Study III (Chapter 6), the objective was to examine the association between independent and overall dimensions of SE and SRDS in the immigrant population in Europe; stratifying the analysis by sex. Finally, in Study IV (Chapter 7), the objective was to analyze the association between multidimensional SE and PSRH in the immigrant population in Europe. Methods: In Study I, a scoping review was conducted and quantitative articles that analyzed SE as a multidimensional concept but also in each of its dimensions, were included. Study II was based on cross-sectional data from the 7th round of the European Social Survey 2014 (sample of 1792 Immigrants and 22557 native-born Europeans). The dependent variable was SRDS. Independent variables were: immigrant background and social exclusion factors that were classified into four groups (economic, social, cultural and political factors). Socially excluded individuals were those less advantaged in each factor. All analyses were stratified by the length of residence. The independent and overall associations between SE and health outcomes were examined using Robust Poisson regression models (PR; OR; IC 95%). Study III was based on cross-sectional, including 1816 economically active immigrants (European Social Survey, 2014). The dependent variable was SRDS. The independent variables were economic, social, cultural, and political SE factors. The association between SE factors and SRDS were tested by robust Poisson regression models (PR; OR; IC 95%). Study IV used cross-sectional data, including 1268 economically active immigrants (European Quality of Life Survey 2016). The dependent variable was PSRH . The independent variables were economic, social, cultural, and political SE factors. The association between SE factors and PSRH were tested by robust Poisson regression models (PR; OR; IC 95%). Results: In Study I, a total of nine studies, analyzed the multidimensionality SE and its association with health outcomes among the immigrant population in Europe. Besides, 26 studies analyzed factors related to the social, economic and cultural dimensions of SE and their associations with immigrants' health. Interactions were found between the economic, cultural and social factors in their associations with poor mental health and mental health. Other studies, analyzed structural indicators of SE based on country level integration policies. This review also found that SE factors such as material deprivation, precarious working conditions, discrimination, and low social support were associated with immigrants' poor mental and self-rated health. In Study II, immigrants had a higher prevalence of SRDS than natives; those residing in Europe for 1-10 years and ≥20 years had the highest prevalence. In the mediation regression analysis, immigrants residing in Europe for 1-10 years and ≥20 years were eligible for mediation because of their significant associations (PR:1.36; 95%CI: 1,20-1,53 for 1-10 years and PR: 1,44; 95%CI: 1,30-1,60 for >20 years). Multidimensional SE factors analyzed together completely explained these differences for immigrants residing in Europe for 1-10 years (PR: 1,09; CI: 0,96-1,23) and partially for immigrants residing for ≥20 years (PR: 1,23; CI: 1,11-1,36). In Study III, women had higher prevalences of SRDS than men (38.8% vs 26.4%). In women, those who found it difficult to live with household income (PR: 1.08; CI:1.01-1.13), who faced housing problems (PR: 1.09; CI:1.01-1.17), were unemployed (PR:1.20; CI:1.08-1.34), had low institutional trust (PR: 1.09; CI:1.02-1.17), who did not have citizenship (PR: 1.12; CI: 1.04-1.20), and with ≥20 years of residence (PR: 1.12; CI:1.02-1.26) were more likely to report SRDS. In men, those who found it difficult to live with household income (PR: 1.21; CI: 1.12-1.30), faced housing problems (PR: 1.08; CI: 1.02-1.17), and were economically inactive ( PR: 1.21; CI: 1.10-1.32) were more likely to report SRDS. In Study IV, about 22% of the immigrant population reported poor SRH. Immigrants facing housing problems (PR: 1.46; CI95%:1.20-1.78), those unemployed (PR:1.48; CI95%1.32-1.95) and economically inactive (PR:1.98; CI95%: 1.56-2.51), with poor formal social contacts (PR:1.70; CI95%:1.16-2.52), who did not politically participate (PR:1.78; CI95%: 1.25-2.59), and those who did not felt a connection with society (PR: 1.40; CI95%: 1.13-1.73) had a higher probability of reporting PSRH. Conclusions: Policies should offer migrants the possibility to settle in good social and economic condition, promote efforts to eliminate social exclusion and prevent the associated health inequalities. Thus, immigrants might be able to achieve their development potential and contribute to the social and economic development of their countries of origin and destination. This is especially important in the context of the economic crisis in Europe, and its impact on health might be the cause for the loss of the healthy immigrant effect especially in countries that have been particularly affected by this crisis. Besides, the results in this thesis reflect the need for gender-oriented social and integration policies. Immigrant women and men are particularly exposed to economic exclusion (insufficient income, unemployment). This integration and immigration policies should challenge the dominant perception of 'unskilled' migrants, seek to improve skills recognition, improve working conditions and help in regulating the informal economy of both the feminized low paid domestic care work and the informal work among men. ; RESUMO - Antecedentes: A vida dos imigrantes é moldada pelos Determinantes Sociais da Saúde (DSS), juntamente com as fases migratórias. Os DSS são as condições sociais, econômicas e ambientais em que as pessoas nascem, crescem, vivem, trabalham e envelhecem e influenciam a saúde de indivíduos e populações. Os imigrantes são mais vulneráveis à exclusão social (ES), pois sofrem com certos tipos de discriminação, níveis mais altos de desemprego, empregos precários, níveis mais altos de pobreza, acesso diferenciado à moradia e participação política e social limitada; sendo todos esses DSS eles mesmos. Embora a migração seja uma questão social, política e de saúde pública emergente e crescente, poucos estudos aplicaram a abordagem do DSS para entender as experiências dos imigrantes na Europa. Além disso, as evidências empíricas sobre exclusão social ainda são escassas. Objetivo geral: Examinar a associação entre as dimensões independentes e globais da exclusão social e a pobre autoavaliação da saúde (PAS) e os sintomas depressivos autorreferidos (SDA) na população imigrante na Europa. Além disso, analisar as desigualdades no SDA entre grupos de nativos e imigrantes de acordo com o tempo de residência na Europa e testar o papel mediador do ES na explicação dessas diferenças. Objetivos específicos: A tese compreende quatro estudos. No Estudo I (Capítulo 3), o objetivo era resumir a literatura existente sobre a relação entre SE e resultados de saúde na população imigrante na Europa. No Estudo II (Capítulo 5), o objetivo era analisar as desigualdades no SDA entre grupos de nativos e imigrantes de acordo com o tempo de residência na Europa e testar o papel mediador do SE na explicação dessas diferenças. No Estudo III (Capítulo 6), o objetivo era examinar a associação entre as dimensões independentes e globais de ES e SDA na população imigrante na Europa; estratificando a análise por sexo. Finalmente, no Estudo IV (Capítulo 7), o objetivo foi analisar a associação entre ES multidimensional e PAS na população imigrante na Europa. Métodos: No Estudo I, foi realizada uma revisão exploratória e artigos quantitativos que analisaram a ES como um conceito multidimensional, mas também em cada uma de suas dimensões foram incluídos. O Estudo II foi baseado em dados transversais da 7ª rodada da Pesquisa Social Europeia de 2014 (amostra de 1792 imigrantes e 22557 europeus nativos). A variável dependente foi SDA. As variáveis independentes foram: origem imigrante e fatores de exclusão social que foram classificados em quatro grupos (fatores econômicos, sociais, culturais e políticos). Indivíduos socialmente excluídos foram os menos favorecidos em cada fator. Todas as análises foram estratificadas pelo tempo de residência. As associações independentes e gerais entre ES e resultados de saúde foram examinadas usando modelos de regressão de Robust Poisson (PR; OR; IC 95%). O estudo III foi baseado em dados transversais, incluindo 1816 imigrantes economicamente ativos (European Social Survey, 2014). A variável dependente foi SDA. As variáveis independentes foram fatores econômicos, sociais, culturais e políticos de ES. A associação entre fatores de ES e SDA foi testada por modelos robustos de regressão de Poisson (PR; OR; IC 95%). O estudo IV utilizou dados transversais, incluindo 1268 imigrantes economicamente ativos (European Quality of Life Survey 2016). A variável dependente foi PAS. As variáveis independentes foram fatores econômicos, sociais, culturais e políticos de ES. A associação entre fatores de ES e PAS foi testada por modelos robustos de regressão de Poisson (PR; OR; IC 95%). Resultados: No Estudo I, um total de nove estudos analisou a multidimensionalidade SE e sua associação com os resultados de saúde entre a população imigrante na Europa. Além disso, 26 estudos analisaram fatores relacionados às dimensões sociais, econômicas e culturais da SE e suas associações com a saúde dos imigrantes. Foram encontradas interações entre os fatores econômicos, culturais e sociais em suas associações com problemas de saúde mental e saúde mental. Outros estudos analisaram indicadores estruturais da SE baseados em políticas de integração em nível de país. Esta revisão também constatou que fatores de SE, como privação material, condições precárias de trabalho, discriminação e baixo apoio social, estavam associados a problemas de saúde mental e autoavaliação dos imigrantes. No Estudo II, os imigrantes apresentaram maior prevalência de SDA do que os nativos; aqueles que residem na Europa entre 1 e 10 anos e ≥ 20 anos tiveram a maior prevalência. . Na análise de regressão da mediação, os imigrantes residentes na Europa por 1 a 10 anos e ≥ 20 anos foram elegíveis para mediação por causa de suas associações significativas (RP: 1,36; IC 95%: 1,20-1,53 por 1 a 10 anos e RP: 1,44; IC95%: 1,30-1,60 por> 20 anos). Os fatores multidimensionais de ES analisados em conjunto explicaram completamente essas diferenças para imigrantes residentes na Europa por 1 a 10 anos (PR: 1,09; IC: 0,96-1,23) e parcialmente para imigrantes residentes por ≥ 20 anos (PR: 1, 23; IC: 1,11-1,36). No Estudo III, as mulheres apresentaram maiores prevalências de SDA do que os homens (38,8% vs 26,4%). Nas mulheres, aqueles que acharam difícil viver com renda familiar (RP: 1,08; IC: 1,01-1,13), que enfrentavam problemas de moradia (RP: 1,09; IC: 1,01-1,17), estavam desempregados (RP: 1,20; IC: 1,08-1,34), possuían baixa confiança institucional (RP: 1,09; IC: 1,02-1,17), que não possuían cidadania (RP: 1,12; IC: 1,04-1,20) e com ≥20 anos de residência (RP: 1,12; CI: 1,02-1,26) apresentaram maior probabilidade de SDA. Nos homens, aqueles que acharam difícil viver com renda familiar (RP: 1,21; IC: 1,12-1,30), enfrentaram problemas de moradia (RP: 1,08; IC: 1,02-1,17) e eram economicamente inativos (RP: 1,21; IC : 1.10-1.32) eram mais propensos a relatar SDA. No Estudo IV, cerca de 22% da população imigrante relataram uma PAS. Imigrantes que enfrentam problemas habitacionais (RP: 1,46; IC95%: 1,20-1,78), desempregados (RP: 1,48; IC95% 1,32-1,95) e economicamente inativos (RP: 1,98; IC95%: 1,56-2,51), com problemas sociais formais contatos (RP: 1,70; IC95%: 1,16-2,52), que não participaram politicamente (RP: 1,78; IC95%: 1,25-2,59) e aqueles que não sentiram conexão com a sociedade (RP: 1,40; IC95%: 1,13-1,73) apresentaram maior probabilidade de relatar PAS. Conclusões: As políticas devem oferecer aos migrantes a possibilidade de se estabelecerem em boas condições sociais e econômicas, promover esforços para eliminar a exclusão social e impedir as desigualdades de saúde associadas. Assim, os imigrantes podem ser capazes de atingir seu potencial de desenvolvimento e contribuir para o desenvolvimento social e econômico de seus países de origem e destino. Isso é especialmente importante no contexto da crise econômica na Europa, e seu impacto na saúde pode ser a causa da perda do efeito saudável dos imigrantes, especialmente nos países que foram particularmente afetados por essa crise. Além disso, os resultados desta tese refletem a necessidade de políticas sociais e de integração orientadas para o gênero. Mulheres e homens imigrantes estão particularmente expostos à exclusão econômica (renda insuficiente, desemprego). Essas políticas de integração e imigração devem desafiar a percepção dominante de migrantes 'não qualificados', buscar melhorar o reconhecimento de habilidades, melhorar as condições de trabalho e ajudar a regular a economia informal do trabalho doméstico de baixa remuneração entre mulheres e o trabalho informal entre homens.

Purpose Religion has always been an important part of human civilization and has largely determined its paths. When speaking of tourism, religion has been one of the oldest motives for traveling. That kind of traveling found its place in the complex mechanism of touristic migrations as a selective tourism type called religious or faith tourism. Although Croatia as a country full of historical and art valuables has great potential for further religious tourism development, there is a lack of scientific and objective analysis of this specific area. Like any other form of selective tourist offer, it is also required to manage religious tourism in order to ensure efficient and sustainable economic development. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the religious tourism destinations, to look at the parameters that influence the effective synergy of the religious tourism destination factors, and to consider the needs of guests - religious tourists, in order to ensure positive economic effects with sustainable development in the destinations. Accordingly, the focus of the planned research is to find an optimal model for strategic management of religious tourism destinations. Methodology Various different methods of scientific research and suitable combinations thereof are employed when conducting scientific research, formulating and presenting results relevant for the defence of a doctoral thesis. For the empirical part of the research, a scientific model for the development of religious tourism was formulated and tested. Scientific research, formulation and presentation of research results in this doctoral dissertation has been accomplished by application of general methodological principles, commonly used in economic research. Acquired data has been analysed using methods of descriptive and inferential statistics. For the purpose of examining the sample of respondents that participated in conducted surveys, distributions according to gender, age groups, marital status, household income, employment status and degree of education have been determined. Distribution according to place of residence has also been determined for respondents who have gone on a religious journey at least once and responded to the survey. Distribution of respondents according to aforementioned characteristics is presented by simple bar charts. In addition to their application in describing the sample, descriptive statistical methods have been used to provide insight into research variables. For this purpose, three measures of central tendency (arithmetic mean, median and mode), as well as two measures of dispersion (standard deviation and interquartile range) have been calculated. Distribution of responses has also been presented by way of multiple bars. Considering that the responses were measured by ordinal scale, differences in evaluations and attitudes among individual groups have been analysed by means of nonparametric statistical tests. The Mann–Whitney test was used to test the significance of difference between two groups. The Kruskal–Wallis test was used to analyse differences between three or more groups. In cases where latter determined that there were at least two analysed groups with a significant difference, the Dunnin test was used for the purpose of their identification. It should be noted that empirical significance levels adjusted by Bonferroni correction are given alongside all Dunnin test results. Differences confirmed at a significance level below 5% were considered statistically significant for the purpose of this research. Statistical analysis of data was performed using statistical packages SPSS and Statistica, while graphical representations were generated using Microsoft Excel. Findings Two questionnaire surveys have been conducted for research purposes. A survey of attitudes of people who have gone on at least one religious journey or pilgrimage was conducted on a sample of 502 respondents, and a survey of attitudes and the level of involvement of local population in the management and application of sustainable tourism criteria in religious tourism destinations, as well as their level of satisfaction with the quality of living in the same observed religious destinations, was conducted by means of an online questionnaire, created using Google Forms, on a sample of 315 respondents. The survey was conducted in eleven selected religious destinations in the Republic of Croatia, namely: Ilača, Aljmaš, Slavonski Brod, Pleternica, Voćin, Ludbreg, Marija Bistrica, Krašić, Trsat, Sinj and Blato on the island of Korčula. The survey focused on the local population of a religious destination and on pilgrims, religious travellers and visitors of Croatian sanctuaries, keeping in mind the creation of a representative sample within the statistical dataset. The survey was conducted using a structured questionnaire in Croatian language. Statistical data analysis has been performed on questionnaires collected from pilgrims and religious travellers in religious tourism destinations and the results are presented in this paper. The results of conducted analyses of collected questionnaires show that the majority of residents of religious destinations have indicated a presence of unplanned tourism development within their destination and they predominantly agree with the assertion that unplanned tourism development has a negative impact on balanced economic and sustainable social development, which may lead to significant negative economic and social trends within their destination. It has been determined that local residents of religious destinations mostly agree that a synergetic effect of a religious destination's strategic management with the local community and higher-ranked church officials has an impact on the efficiency of strategic management, whereas pilgrims and religious travellers somewhat agree with this statement. The majority of residents who live in religious tourism destinations, including those involved in the hospitality and tourism industries, believe that religious tourism generates positive effects on their communality and agree that religious tourism benefits the development of their community in different ways. Almost 90% of respondents agree that tourism creates new job opportunities for the local population and contributes to youth employment, while over 90% of respondents agree that tourism has a significant impact on the town's aesthetics. Almost 88% of respondents agree that tourism increases sales of local products, thereby improving the quality of life of local residents through the development of events and infrastructure, while more than three quarters of respondents agree that tourism raises the level of environmental awareness and fosters conservation and renovation of cultural and sacral heritage. While local residents somewhat agreed with most assertions concerning the negative effects of tourism, such as that tourism effects an increase in the price of goods and services, causes an increase in number of seasonal workers, reduction in the number of permanently employed persons and precipitates an abundant production of waste, the majority of residents disagreed with the assertion that tourism development bears a negative impact on the development of other economic sectors. Survey respondents agreed with most of the statements evaluating the importance of factors which impact the defining of a tourism product of a religious tourism destination, such as statements concerning the spiritual significance of a religious destination (67%), the spiritual need of an individual worshipper (77%), and religious destination safety (64%), while only one factor was deemed irrelevant for the definition of a religious tourism destination's tourism product by the majority of respondents (63%), namely the importance of the opportunity of travelling with pets. Pilgrims and religious travellers somewhat agreed with most of the claims regarding the impact of the parish community on the volume of tourists at a religious tourism destination, whereas they mostly agreed with the assertion that the proactivity of the parish priest and his ability to motivate parishioners significantly affects the number of pilgrimages and the number of pilgrims. Residents of a religious destination have indicated a lack of synergy among religious tourism stakeholders in the process of making decisions on the development of religious tourism and for the most part agree (84%) that successful tourism management of their destination requires strategic planning with the broader local community and involvement of all religious tourism stakeholders in tourism development decision-making, which is functionally tied to success in properly drawing up and implementing a sustainable strategic plan of development of the destination. In-depth interviews have also been conducted for the purpose of the doctoral dissertation. The interviews were formulated as semi-structured and were conducted with priests who manage church shrines at six religious destinations, namely: Aljmaš, Ilača, Voćin, Ludbreg, Marija Bistrica and Trsat. The second part of the research also involved in-depth interviews, but with directors of the tourist associations of the city of Rijeka, Vukovar-Srijem County, Marija Bistrica, Ludbreg, Osijek-Baranja County, and Sinj. In-depth interview contributors were selected for being the most competent representatives of their institutions, able to provide answers to questions posed within the scope of the subject being analysed, and for having the most practical experience in dealing with the aforementioned issues, thus they were the most relevant persons to provide answers. Upon analysing the responses obtained through in-depth interviews conducted with priests, church sanctuary managers and tourist association directors, one can conclude that all research questions have been answered, stating that religious tourism in Croatian destinations is not sufficiently valued, that insufficient attention is paid to ensure sustainable development of religious tourism in religious destinations and noting a lack of mutual cooperation between tourist associations and managers of sanctuaries, who are the key stakeholders of religious tourism in religious destinations. A proposal of a model for strategic management of a religious tourism destination is presented at the end of the paper. A vital part of the model involves the establishment of a strategic management structure for a religious destination which should certainly be unbiased and have executive power. Strategic management structure for a religious destination established in this manner should certainly be local enough to involve all key religious tourism stakeholders, such as representatives of local government, the church institution, the private sector, the local population, associations, pilgrims, religious travellers and tourists as key stakeholders of sustainable tourism development, encouraging them to cooperate in matters of sustainable tourist development of a religious destination. Such a structure should be strong enough and large enough so that its successfully established communication and coordination can determine a common development strategy and other instruments of religious tourist destination management which are founded on balanced principles of sustainable tourism development. Originality The scientific contribution of the doctoral dissertation is polysemantic. It can be viewed in the determination of certain economic rules, but also in the theoretical and applicative sense, which is evident in the presented results and conclusions of conducted research on selected religious destinations in the Republic of Croatia. In the theoretical sense, the contribution to the economic science is evident in the comprehensive and detailed overview of extensive, primarily foreign, scientific literature based on which key concepts pertaining to the topic of this paper have been systematized and defined. The analysis of reviewed scientific literature enabled the interpretation of important economic patterns, which emphasises the theoretical contribution of this paper. Unfortunately, domestic authors do not pursue the observed subject matter to a sufficient degree, and thus domestic literature dealing with the subject matter of this doctoral dissertation ‒ religious tourism ‒ is lacking, so this doctoral dissertation has at least partly filled the existing void in domestic scientific and technical literature. The paper's scientific contribution in the theoretical sense can be expressed through better understanding of the role and importance of sacral heritage and religious events on the successfulness of a religious tourism destination, as well as through cognitive facts resulting from research which can serve as a basis for defining models for religious tourism events founded on sacral heritage that can significantly impact the improvement of level of satisfaction of pilgrims, religious travellers, tourists and the local population with the ultimate goal of improvement of the economic impact on the religious destination, but also the economy as a whole. The theoretical impact is emphasised through the use of a valid and reliable measurement instrument (survey questionnaire and in-depth interview) used in the collection of primary data, so the scientific contribution is also emphasised through the applicability of statistical methods in the analysis of research data. Based on analyses of conducted research, by implementing the research results in its development strategies, planning and establishment of a religious and tourism events offering focusing on religion, culture, tradition and sacral heritage while ensuring sustainability, the management of a tourist destination can devise and implement models of religious and tourism events in accordance with the requirements of pilgrims, religious travellers, tourists and the religious destination itself. In the applicative sense of the scientific contribution, research results can aid the management and all stakeholders in religious destinations, serving as guidelines for strategic management, planning and implementation of tourism events based on religion, culture, tradition and sacral heritage, which will have a significant impact on the preservation of originality of culture, tradition and sacral heritage and its promotion on the tourism market, thus creating a unique religious tourism product and ensuring the recognisability of a religious destination. So with the approach of strategic management of a religious tourism destination, development of religious tourism going forward must be founded on criteria of sustainable development, i.e. on development of religious tourism which caters to the needs of attending pilgrims, religious travellers, tourists and the domestic population, satisfying economic, social, environmental and aesthetic requirements of the society, at the same time preserving religious and cultural identity and environmental processes, as well as resources of future development. Significant economic and non-economic effects will be achieved through sustainable development of the religious tourism offering and strategic management of a tourism destination.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gopalagiri Colony-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 550 ha in Gopalagiri Colony-1 microwatershed in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm. Maximum of 254 mm precipitation takes place during south–west monsoon period from June to September, the north-east monsoon contributes about 268 mm and prevails from October to early December and the remaining 212 mm takes place during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soils and 5 per cent by waterbodies, settlements, forest and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 35 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 95 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 5 per cent is not suitable for agriculture but well suited for forestry, pasture, agroforestry, silvi-pasture, recreation, installation of wind mills and as habitat for wildlife.  About 41 per cent of the soils are very deep (>150 cm), 22 per cent deep to moderately deep (75 - 150 cm), 33 per cent are moderately shallow to shallow (25-75 cm).  About 65 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 26 per cent loamy soils and 3 per cent sandy soils at the surface.  About 47 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity and about 54 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 34 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 9 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 85 per cent high (>337kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  About 70 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 27 major crops (agricultural and horticultural) grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Gopalagiri Colony-1 Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Sorghum 246 (1745) 150 (27) Guava 140 (25) 118 (21) Maize 205 (37) 109 (20) Mango 140 (25) 94 (17) Red gram 203(37) 210 (38) Sapota 140 (25) 118 (21) Groundnut 32 (6) 305(51) Jackfruit 140 (25) 94 (17) Sunflower 101 (18) 187 (34) Jamun 140 (25) 176 (32) Cotton 183 (33) 172 (31) Musambi 140 (25) 176 (32) Onion 140 (25) 256 (46) Lime 140 (25) 176 (32) Beans 140 (25) 256 (46) Cashew 140 (25) 118 (21) Potato 140 (25) 174(32) Custard apple 205 (37) 203 (37) Beetroot 140 (25) 174 (32) Amla 203 (37) 257(37) Turmeric 140 (25) 168 (31) Tamarind 140 (25) 176(32) Horse gram 203 (37) 257 (47) Marigold 203 (37) 216(39) Field bean 140 (25) 256 (46) Chrysanthemum 140 (25) 256(46) Banana 140 (25) 176 (32) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Gopalagiri Colony-1 micro-watershed (Basavapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11043' – 11044' North latitudes and 76035' – 76037' East longitudes, covering an area of about 550 ha, bounded by Kannagal, Honnegaudanahalli, Hangala and Hosalhalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Gopalagiri Colony-1 micro-watershed Basavapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district are presented here. Social Indicators  Male and female ratio is 59.5 to 40.5 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age groups 18 to 50 years group of population is around 54 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 78.4 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 77.8 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 88.9 per cent.  About 44.4 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 11.1 per cent farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 88.9 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities is among all the sample households.  Institutional participation is only 24.3 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 18.9 per cent of farm households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 66.8 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 0.66 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal farmers. The dry land account for 65.1 % and irrigated land 34.9 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 90.6 per cent and agriculture is the main and non-agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 28.1 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.8070 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets a value is around Rs.11850 per household, about 44.4 per cent of sample farmers own plough.  The average livestock value is around Rs.26600 per livestock; about 100 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 641.6 grams (1561 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 77.8 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 45088 per household. Among all farm sample households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1242. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.773 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 402711 per year for the total area of 550.02 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 19780/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in banana (Rs. 96601), followed by turmeric (Rs. 45085), maize (Rs. 26807), red gram (Rs. 19672), horse gram (Rs. 6623), bajra (Rs. 4432), groundnut (Rs. 2961).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2806/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in horse gram (Rs. 5472) followed by ragi (Rs. 3800), sorghum (Rs. 3529), maize (Rs. 2609), groundnut (Rs. 1051) and bajra (Rs. 374).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in banana (Rs. 185838) followed by turmeric (Rs. 54978), sorghum (Rs. 53775), bajra (Rs. 52269), red 3 gram (Rs. 51718), sunflower (Rs. 39261), maize (Rs. 37562), groundnut (Rs. 23392), horse gram (Rs. 22578) and ragi (Rs. 15479). Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is bajra (29.8 %) followed by horse gram (12.8 %), groundnut (10.9 %), red gram (10.8 %), maize (10.4 %), sunflower (10.4 %), turmeric (6.2 %), banana (5.4%), safflower (2.3 %) and sorghum (0.9 %).  In Gopalgiri colony 1 micro-watershed, major soils are Annurkeri (ARK) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 18.25 per cent of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing groundnut (46.8 %), turmeric (26.78 %) and bajra (26.5 %). Bheemanabeedu (BMB) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 14.9 per cent of area; the major crops grown are sunflower (83.3 %) and sorghum (16.7 %), Devarahalli (DRH) having moderately shallow soil depth covers around 10.83 per cent of area and the major crops grown are bajra (39.4 %), red gram (39.4 %) and banana (21.2 %). Hullipura (HPR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover 4.96 per cent of area. On this soil crops are horse gram and ragi. Kannigala (KNG) soil series having moderately deep soil depth cover around 4.29 per cent of area in this soil maize (50 %) and sunflower (50 %) are grown. Maddinahundi (MDH) soil series having deep soil cover 5.29 per cent of area. In this soil bajra and horse gram.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area sunflower range between Rs. 57430/ha in BMB soil (with of 0.98) and Rs. 34393/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 1.26).  In turmeric the cost of cultivation is Rs. 220347/ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 1.2).  In banana the cost of cultivation is in DRH soil Rs. 115113/ha (with BCR of 1.8).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation is Rs. 39081/ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 1.1).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation is Rs 42790/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.07).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between MDH soil is Rs. 20809/ha (with BCR of 1.74) and Rs 32697/ha in HPR soil (with BCR value of 1.3).  In red gram the cost of cultivation is in DRH soil is Rs 21177/ha (with BCR of 1.9) and ragi cost of cultivation Rs in HPR soil is 54721/ha (with BCR of 1.1).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthen agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bajra (11.2 % to 28.8%), banana (39.8%), red gram (22.1 %), horse gram (14.6% to 35.1 %), ragi (55.8 %), maize (63.0 %), sunflower (24.1 % to 32.5 %), ground nut (50.8 %) and sorghum (37.1%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chilkadabetta-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 476 ha in Chilkadabetta-1 microwatershed in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm. Maximum of 254 mm precipitation takes place during south–west monsoon period from June to September, the north-east monsoon contributes about 268 mm and prevails from October to early December and the remaining 212 mm takes place during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and 3 per cent by waterbodies, settlements, forest and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 28 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 77 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 23 per cent is not suitable for agriculture but well suited for forestry, pasture, agroforestry, silvi-pasture, recreation, installation of wind mills and as habitat for wildlife.  About 24 per cent of the soils are very deep (>150 cm), 12 per cent moderately deep (75 - 100 cm), 61 per cent moderately shallow to shallow (25-75 cm).  About 32 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 52 per cent loamy soils and 13 per cent sandy soils at the surface.  About 9 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity and about 73 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) and very low (337kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  Available zinc is deficient in all the soils  The land suitability for 27 major crops (agricultural and horticultural) grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Chilkadabetta-1 Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 82 (17) 186 (39) Guava 78 (16) 57 (12) Maize 101 (21) 155 (33) Mango 78 (16) 23 (5) Red gram 78(16) 83 (18) Sapota 78 (16) 57 (12) Groundnut 35 (7) 221(47) Jackfruit 78 (16) 23 (5) Sunflower 70 (15) 77 (16) Jamun 78 (16) 35 (7) Cotton 82 (17) 155 (33) Musambi 78 (16) 35 (5) Onion 78 (16) 190 (40) Lime 78 (16) 35 (5) Beans 78 (16) 190 (40) Cashew 78 (16) 57 (12) Potato 78 (16) 178 (37) Custard apple 78 (16) 193 (40) Beetroot 78 (16) 178 (37) Amla 78 (16) 193(40) Turmeric 78 (16) 178 (37) Tamarind 78 (16) 35(5) Horse gram 78 (16) 180 (38) Marigold 78 (16) 190(40) Field bean 78 (16) 190 (40) Chrysanthamum 78 (16) 190(40) Banana 78 (16) 69 (50) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that are edible, ecological and produce lot of biomass which helps in restoring the ecological balance in the micro watershed. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Chilakadabetta-1 Microwatershed (Shivapura sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11041' – 11042' North latitudes and 76040' – 76042' East longitudes, covering an area of about 476 ha, bounded by Hullipura, Belavadihundi, Mangala and Shivapura villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Chilakadabetta-1 micro-watershed (Shivapura sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk and Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators  Male and female ratio is 61.2 to 38.8 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 55.1 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 71.4 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 30 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 90 per cent.  About 60.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Around 30.0 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 80 per cent.  Institutional participation is only 8.2 per cent.  Rural migration to urban centre for employment is prevalent among 10 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 30 per cent of sample households. 2 Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 0.8 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal farmers. The dry land account for 72.1 % and irrigated land is 27.9 % of total cultivated land of the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 79.6 per cent and agriculture is the main agriculture labour is the subsidiary occupation around 10.2 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 93314 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs 74219 per household, about 50.0 per cent of sample farmers are having sprayer.  The average value of livestock is around Rs 25750 per household; about 58.3 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 588.3 grams (1253.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 36529 per household. All sample farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1401. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 900 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 505064 per year for the total area of 475.8 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 16231/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in tomato (Rs. 43260) followed by beans (Rs. 18914), maize (Rs. 16914), sorghum (Rs. 16401), horse gram (Rs. 7824), sunflower (Rs. 5818) and groundnut (Rs. 4485).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 449/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in groundnut (Rs. 675) followed by horse gram (Rs. 472), sunflower (Rs. 329) and sorghum (Rs. 318).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in beans (Rs. 538092) followed by tomato (Rs. 49965), sorghum (Rs. 48561), maize (Rs. 36220), sunflower (Rs. 30947), horse gram (Rs. 20349) and groundnut (Rs. 20287). 3 Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is horse gram (29.9 %) followed by sorghum (19.4 %) groundnut (18.1 %), sunflower (16.7 %), maize (8.7 %) and beans (3.6 %).  Chilakadabetta-1 Micro watershed, major soils are soil Hindupur (HDR) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 6.5 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing sunflower (50.0 %) and sorghum (50.0%). Hullipura (HPR) are also having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 16.6 % of area, the crops are beans (5.5 %), horse gram(44.5%), sorghum(44.5%) and tomato was 5.5 % each. Shivapura (SPR) soil series having shallow soil depth cover around 14.6 % of areas, crops are groundnut (50.0 %) and horse gram (50.0 %). Kannigala (KNG) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 11.7 % per cent of area. The major crops grown are groundnut (31.7%) and horse gram (68.3%). Annurkeri (ARK) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 7.4 % of area, the major crop grown is beans (13.1%), groundnut (36.9%), sorghum (36.9%) and tomato (13.1%). Kalligaudanahalli (KDH) and Beemanabeedu (BMB) soil series having very deep soil depth cover 7.3 % and 2.5 % of areas respectively; crops are maize, sunflower and horse gram.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for groundnut ranges between Rs.18746/ha in SPR soil (with BCR of 1.0) and Rs.30525/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 1.04).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs 6371/ha in SPR soil (with of 2.62) and Rs. 28728/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.57).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 11171/ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 2.53) and Rs. 18249/ha in HDR soil (with BCR of 1.71).  In tomato the cost of cultivation range between is Rs.118609 /ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 1.25) and Rs331873 in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.28).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation range between is Rs 17602/ha in HDR soil (with BCR of 1.94) and Rs. 33353/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.03).  In beans the cost of cultivation range between is Rs 112311/ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 1.23) and Rs. 126088/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.02).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in groundnut (56.6 to 58.7 %), horse gram (24.1 to 45.8 %), sorghum (38.2 to 53.1 %), sunflower (31.7 to 39.3 %) and tomato (44.9 to 64 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Shivapura-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 596 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm of which about 254 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soils, four per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 24 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 96 per cent area is suitable for agriculture.  About 8 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 87 per cent are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 34 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 40 per cent loamy soils and 22 per cent area has sandy soils.  About 7 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 39 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 49 per cent has very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 88 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) available water capacity.  About 86 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 10 per cent is under gently sloping (3-5%) to moderately sloping (5- 10%) lands.  An area of about 64 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 22 per cent moderately eroded (e2) and 10 per cent soils are severely eroded (e3).  An area of about 2 per cent has soils that are slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5); 14 per cent area has neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and maximum area of about 80 per cent has soils that are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) to strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 40 per cent of the soils are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 12 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in 5 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 51 per cent area and sufficient in 44 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 8 (1) 183 (31) Sapota 36 (6) 6 (1) Maize 36 (6) 147 (25) Guava 36 (6) 6 (1) Redgram 36 (6) 16 (3) Banana 36 (6) 8 ( 1 ) Horsegram 36 (6) 163 (27) Jackfruit 36 (6) - Field bean 36 (6) 163 (27) Jamun 36 (6) 8 (1) Groundnut - 189 (32) Musambi 36 (6) 8 (1) Sunflower - 44 (7) Lime 36 (6) 8 (1) Cotton 8 (1) 147 (25) Cashew - 16 (3) Onion 36 (6) 155 (26) Custard apple - 108 (18) Potato 36 (6) 147 (25) Amla - 108 (18) Beans 36 (6) 155 (26) Tamarind 36 (6) 8 (1) Beetroot 36 (6) 147 (25) Marigold 36 (6) 161 (27) Turmeric 36 (6) 147 (25) Chrysanthemum 36 (6) 155 (26) Mango 36 (6) - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Shivapura-1 micro-watershed (Shivapura sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11041' – 11043' North latitudes and 76040' – 76042' East longitudes, covering an area of about 596 ha, bounded by Hullepura, Siddapura and Hundipura villages with an length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Shivapura-1 micro-watershed (Shivapura sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here Social Indicators  Male and female ratio is 54.8 to 45.1 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 64.5 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 80.6 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 44.4 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 90.0 per cent.  About 66.6 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Farm households (44.4 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 88.8 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 55.5 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 9.6 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 12.9 per cent of farm households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 82.1 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 1.1 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 66.3 % and irrigated land 33.7% of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 12.9 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 38.7 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 101589 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average farm assets value is around Rs.71651 per household, about 55.5 per cent of sample farmers owen of Irrigation pump and sprayer (44.4 %).  The average value livestock is around Rs.36667 per household; about 77.7 per cent of households are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 651.5 grams (1638.6 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 88.9 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.65433 per household. About 55.5 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1142. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 765 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 436466 per year for the total area of 595.6 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs. 30601/ ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in banana (Rs. 45422) followed by sunflower (Rs. 12945), cotton (Rs. 9384), horse gram (Rs. 6715), sorghum (Rs. 5915) and maize (Rs. 5902).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 904/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs. 1091) followed by and horse gram (Rs. 717).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in banana (Rs. 117195) followed by cotton (Rs. 58112), sorghum (Rs. 41407), sunflower (Rs. 35645), maize (Rs. 23218) and horse gram (Rs. 21933). 3 Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is sunflower (33.1 %) followed by sorghum (25.4 %), horse gram (15 %), banana (11.9 %), cotton (4.9 %), maize (4.7 %) and safflower (4.7 %).  In Shivapura 1 micro-watershed, major soil is soil of Shivapura (SPR) series is having shallow soil deep cover around 5.65 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing maize (50.0%) and sunflower (50 %), Hindupur (HDR) soil are also having shallow soil depth cover (45.0 %) of area, the crops are horse gram (24 %), sorghum (45 %) and sunflower (31.0 %). Devarhalli (DRH) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 31.66 per cent of areas, crops are sorghum (50 %) and sunflower (50.0 %). Hullipura (HPR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 19 % of area; crops are banana (38), cotton (16 %), sorghum (23 %) and sunflower (11.0 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sorghum range between Rs. 24166/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.30) and Rs. 20250/ha in HDR soil (with BCR of 1.34).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs 18606/ha in HPR soil (with of 1.26) and Rs.16253/ha in HDR soil (with BCR of 1.52).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 40912/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.03) and Rs. 16518/ha in DRH soil (with BCR of 2.22).  In maize the cost of cultivation is Rs. 24498/ha in SPR soil (with BCR of 1.24).  In banana the cost of cultivation is Rs. 62539/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.69) and cotton cultivation in HPR soil is Rs.74271/ha (with BCR of 1.13).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. 4  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in horse gram (28.5 to 24.1 %), sorghum (53.8 to 47.2%), sunflower (41.4 to 24.1 %), banana (62 %), cotton (15.6 %) and maize (77.1 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanekal-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 494 ha in Kanekal-4 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 13 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  Small area of less than 1 per cent are shallow (25-50 cm), 24 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 18 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100cm) and about 57 per cent soils are deep (100-150cm) to very deep (>150 cm) soils.  About 58 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 39 per cent loamy soils and 2 per cent sandy soils at the surface.  An area of about 77 per cent has non-gravelly and 22 per cent are gravelly.  About 56 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 6 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 16 per cent low (51-100mm/m) and about 20 per cent very low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 13 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 97 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 2 per cent high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in about 3 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 15 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Kanekal-4 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 385 (78) Sapota - 50 (10) Maize - 12 (2) Guava - 50 (10) Red gram - 370 (75) Pomegranate - 370 (75) Bajra - 381 (77) Jackfruit - 47 (9) Ground nut - 62 (12) Jamun - 301(61) Sunflower - 62 (12) Musambi - 370 (75) Cotton 219 (44) 120 (24) Lime - 369 (75) Bengalgram 238 (48) 100 (20) Cashew - - Chilli - 216 (44) Custard apple - 385 (78) Tomato - 62 (12) Amla - 386 (78) Drumstick - 370 (75) Tamarind - 301 (61) Mulberry - 47 (9) Marigold - 389 (79) Mango - 53(11) Chrysanthemum - 389 (79) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges, that are edible and produce lot of biomass that helps to restore the ecological balance in the microwatershed. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kanikal-4 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16035' – 16036' North latitudes and 770 15' – 76016' East longitudes, covering an area of about 494.19 ha, bounded by Kanikal, Rampura, Sydhapura, Neelahalli and Kudlura villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kanikal-4 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 61.2 to 38.8 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 51.8 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 61.2 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste / scheduled tribes are around 47.1 per cent  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 88.2 per cent.  About 29.4 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 11.8 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 94.1 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 31.2 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 23.5 per cent of farm households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 47.1 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.4 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The account for 80.3 per cent of dry land 2 and 19.7 per cent of irrigated land of total cultivated land among the sample households.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 17.6 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 51.8 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.184954 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets a value is around Rs.115647 per household, about 28 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average livestock value is around Rs.32666 per household; about 64 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 1081.2 grams (2483.9 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 23.5 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 37155 per household. About 29.4 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs. 2816. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 2236.2 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 1093504 per year for the total area of 494.2 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 8645/ ha/year. Per hector food production services is maximum in bajra (Rs. 25693) followed by maize (Rs. 5267), redgram (Rs. 5048), greengram (Rs. 5032), groundnut (Rs. 4863) and cotton (Rs. 3792).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.1555/ ha/year. Per hector fodder production services is maximum in bajra (Rs 2717) followed by paddy (Rs 2083), groundnut (Rs.1049) and maize (Rs 370).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bajra (Rs. 110557) followed by greengram (Rs. 51173), red gram (Rs. 33808), cotton (Rs. 31928), maize (Rs. 20751) and groundnut (Rs.18037). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (47.2 %) followed by cotton (17.6 %), groundnut (16.0 %), greengram (4.8 %), maize (4.8 %), paddy (8.0 %), and bajra (1.6 %) 3  In Kanikal-4 micro watershed, major soils are soil of alluvial landscape of Sambara (SBR) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 25.57 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cotton (56.2 %), maize (25.0 %) paddy (6.2 %), and redgram (12.5 %). Soil of granite and granite gneiss landscape of Nagalapur (NGP) are also having deep soil deep cover around 0.97 % of area, the crops are paddy (11.1 %), and redgram (88.9 %). Madhwara (MDR) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 23.42 % of areas, crops are redgram (100 %). Hosalli (HSL) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 15.53 per cent of area, respectively. The major crops grown are paddy (16.7 %) and redgram (83.3 %). Kadechoor (KDH) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth covers around 3.31 % of area, the major crop grown is bajra (8.3 %), cotton (12.5 %), greengram (16.7 %), groundnut (45.8 %) and redgram (16.7 %). Mylapura (MYP) and Rachanalli (RHN) soil series having very deep and moderately deep soil depth cover 1.54 % and 0.41 % of areas respectively; crops are cotton, greengram, maize, redgram, groundnut and paddy.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.35018/ha in MYP soil (with BCR of 1.18) and Rs.25702/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.07).  In maize the cost of cultivation range between Rs 35615/ha in MYP soil (with BCR of 1.14) and Rs.16683/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.48).  In paddy the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 74662/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.51) and Rs. 20967/ha in RHN soil (with BCR of 1.06).  In redgram cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 29997/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.48) and Rs 8160 in NGP soil (with BCR of 1.02).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation range between is Rs 23485/ha in KDH soil (with BCR of 1.22) and Rs.13831/ha in RHN soil (with BCR of 1.63).  In greengram the cost of cultivation in MYP soil is Rs.33499/ha (with BCR of 1.24).  In bajra the cost of cultivation in KDH soil is Rs.66931/ha (with BCR of 1.43).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. 4 Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (46 to 64.6 %), maize (67.4 % to 72 %), paddy (34% to 78 %), red gram (27.3 % to 86.4 %), groundnut (26.6 % to 30.6 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bisarahalli-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 571 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 105 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils, three per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 14 soil series and 21soil phases (management units) and 9 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 200mm/m) available water capacity.  About 84 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands and 12 per cent area has nearly level (0-1%) lands.  An area of about 85 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 12 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 41 per cent has soils that are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 26 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 8 per cent has very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0). A very small area of about 2 per cent is neutral (2%) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of about 50 per cent low (57 kg/ha) available phosphorus.  About 54 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha), low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in about 71 per cent area and about 26 per cent area is high (>10 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 79 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 18 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 47 per cent area and sufficient in 50 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient in about 76 per cent area and sufficient in 21 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 20 (3) 287 (50) Jackfruit 44 (8) 56 (10) Maize 17(3) 163(28) Jamun - 174(30) Cotton 3(<1) 373(65) Musambi 47 (8) 179(31) Redgram 17(3) 225(39) Lime 47 (8) 179(31) Bengal gram 3(<1) 381 (67) Cashew 44 (8) 85(15) Bajra 92 (16) 96(17) Custard apple 166(29) 248 (43) Groundnut 11 (2) 229(40) Amla 92 (16) 321(56) Chilli 54 (9) 127 (22) Tamarind - 126(22) Drumstick 44 (8) 251(34) Marigold 17(3) 290(51) Mulbery 92 (16) 239 (42) Chrysanthemum 17(3) 290(51) Pomegranate 44 (8) 182(32) Jasmine 17(3) 164(28) Tomato 54 (9) 127(22) Crossandra 17(3) 285(50) Guava 44 (8) 56(10) Mango - 52(9) Sapota 44 (8) 56(10) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 9 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Bisarahalli-1 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk, and district) is located in between 15015' – 15016' North latitudes and 7603' – 7605' East longitudes, covering an area of about 571.40 ha, bounded by Bisarahalli and Bikanahalli villages. Agro Ecological Region (AER) – 3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed Red and Black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Bisarahalli-1 Microwatershed in Koppal taluk and district are presented here Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 52.8 to 47.2 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 52 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 61 per cent.  Social groups belong to SC/ST is around 32.3 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 94.8 per cent.  About 75 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (75 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 92.7 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 87.5 per cent.  Institutional participation is only 3.9 per cent.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 4.7 per cent.  Women participation is decisions making are around 35.3 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.8 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land account for 70.4 % and irrigated land 9.8 % of total cultivated land among the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 16.1 per cent and Agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 61.7 per cent.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 43462 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets a value is around Rs 147511 per household, about 9.4 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average livestock value is around Rs 19645 per livestock; about 43.7 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 754.4 grams (1799.1 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 17.7 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 30895 per household. About 15.5 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 485 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 9574.8 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 66276 per year for the total area of 571.4 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs.10363/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in chillies (Rs.60584) followed by onion (Rs.16554), green gram (Rs.13308), red gram (Rs.9023), cotton (Rs.6411), groundnut (Rs.5170), sunflower (Rs.5069), black gram (Rs.4409), sorghum (Rs.2120), bengal gram (Rs.1445), bajra (Rs.696) and maize is negative returns.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 3978/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs 5641) followed by bajra (Rs 5468), groundnut (Rs 3188) and sorghum (Rs 1616).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in green gram (Rs 85289) followed by cotton (Rs.61368), bajra (Rs.56254), black gram (Rs.51173), bengal gram (Rs.51173), red gram (Rs.44643), sunflower (Rs.31952), sorghum (Rs.31723), groundnut (Rs.27684), maize (Rs.20862), onion (Rs.11197), ragi (Rs.10564) and chillies (Rs.8126). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is maize (32.2 %) followed by red gram (17 %), groundnut (16.4 %), bajra (13.8 %), sunflower (8.8 %), cotton (4.8 %), sorghum (3 %), onion (1.1 %), bengal gram (0.6 %), black gram (0.6 %), chillies (0.6 %), green gram (0.6 %) and ragi (0.6 %).  The distribution of major soil series are Muttal (MTL) and Chikkasavanur (CSR) soil series having shallow soil depth covering an area around 21.36 per cent and 2.94 per cent of area respectively. The moderately shallow soil depth of soil series were Hatti (HTI) of share of area 10.56 %, Kethanapura (KTP) is 0.64 % and Mukhadahalli (MKH) is 4.28 %. The soil series having moderately deep soil depth are Dambarahalli (DRL) of 9.3 %, Bisarahalli (BSR) of 6.4 %, Bidanagere (BDG) of 5.14 % and Gollarahatti (GHT) of 1.98 %. Gatareddihal (GRH) of 12.82 %, Balapur (BPR) of 12.07 %, Kumchahalli (KMH) of 7.78 %, this soil series having deep soil depth and Niduvalalu (NDL) soil series very deep soil depth which area is 1.36 per cent.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for bajra is Rs.22148/ha (with BCR of 1.27).  In bengal gram the cost of cultivation is Rs 21526/ha (with BCR of 1.07).  In black gram the cost of cultivation is Rs 21526/ha and benefit cost ratio is 1.20.  The cost of cultivation of chillies is Rs.53036/ha (with BCR of 1.30).  In cotton the cost of cultivation is Rs 34715/ha (with BCR of 1.17).  In green gram the cost of cultivation is Rs.43502/ha (With BCR of 1.30).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation is Rs. 31317/ha (with BCR of 1.31).  The total cost of cultivation for maize is Rs. 28054/ha (with BCR of 1.30).  In onion the cost of cultivation is Rs.24942/ha (with BCR of 1.25).  In ragi the cost of cultivation is Rs.14965/ha (with BCR of 1.44).  In red gram the cost of cultivation is Rs 20950/ha (with BCR of 1.58).  In sorghum cost of cultivation is Rs. 15920/ha (with BCR of 1.21) and sunflower cultivation is Rs 25139/ha (with BCR of 1.19).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of Farm Yard Manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. Fertilizer applications are deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in chillies (92.4 %), onion (81.5 %), maize (71.2 %), red gram (44.4 %), ragi (43.5 %), sorghum (37.8 %), black gram (34.8 %), bengal gram (16.7 %), cotton (14.2 %), sun flower (13.1 %) and bajra (10.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gopalapur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 571 ha in Gopalapur microwatershed in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm. Maximum of 254 mm precipitation takes place during south–west monsoon period from June to September, the north-east monsoon contributes about 268 mm and prevails from October to early December and the remaining 212 mm takes place during the rest of the year. An area of about 74 per cent is covered by soils and 26 per cent by waterbodies, settlements, forest and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 22 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval by using kriging method.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 74 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 18 per cent is not suitable for agriculture but well suited for forestry, pasture, agroforestry, silvi-pasture, recreation, installation of wind mills and as habitat for wildlife.  About 41 per cent of the soils are very deep (>150 cm) to deep (100 - 150 cm), 9 per cent moderately deep (75 - 100 cm), 30 per cent are moderately shallow to shallow (25-75 cm).  About 54 per cent of the area has clayey soils and 25 per cent loamy soils at the surface.  About 45 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity and about 53 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 28 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus  About 39 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 40 per cent high (>337kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in available sulphur.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  About 72 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 27 major crops (agricultural and horticultural) grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Gopalapur microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 246 (43) 83 (15) Guava 211 (37) 71 (12) Maize 272 (48) 57 (10) Mango 149 (26) 82 (23) Red gram 272(48) 57 (10) Sapota 211 (37) 71 (12) Groundnut 123 (22) 206(36) Jackfruit 211 (37) 71 (12) Sunflower 123 (22) 149 (26) Jamun 149 (26) 82 (14) Cotton 123 (22) 180 (31) Musambi 211 (37) 71 (12) Onion 149 (26) 180 (31) Lime 221 (39) 61 (11) Beans 149 (26) 180 (31) Cashew 211 (37) 71 (12) Potato 149 (26) 180 (31) Custard apple 272 (48) 114 (20) Beetroot 149 (26) 180 (31) Amla 262(46) 67(12) Turmeric 149 (26) 180 (31) Tamarind 149 (26) 82(14) Horse gram 272 (48) 57 (10) Marigold 272 (48) 57(10) Field bean 149 (26) 180 (31) Chrysanthemum 149 (46) 180 (31) Banana 149 (26) 133 (26) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Gopalapur micro-watershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11043' – 11045' North latitudes and 76034' – 76036' East longitudes, covering an area of about 584 ha, bounded by Kannagal, Lakkipur and Kallipura villages With length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Gopalapur micro-watershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators  Male and female ratio is 56.7 to 43.3 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 59.4 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 81.0 per cent.  Social groups belong to schedule caste (SC) is around 30.0 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) gas is the source of a cooking among sample households.  About 40.0 per cent of households have a Yashaswini health card.  Only 10 per cent of the sample farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 40 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 90 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 13.4 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 10.0 per cent of farm households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 55 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 0.98 ha that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land account for 81.9 % and irrigated land 18.1 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation and agriculture is the main agriculture labour is the subsidiary occupation of 45.9 per cent and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 35.2 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.17498 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average farm assets value is around Rs.44759 per household, about 100 per cent of sample farmers owen plough and sprayer (20 %).  The average livestock value is around Rs.18687 per household; about 66.7 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 536.44 grams (1357.4 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Among all sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 91083 per household. About 60 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs. 834. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.1080 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 487243 per year for the total area of 570.84 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 83589/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in turmeric (Rs. 343218) followed by horse gram (Rs. 22618), tomato (Rs. 194638), maize (Rs. 8734), sunflower (Rs. 7053), sorghum (Rs. 4952) and ragi (Rs. 3913).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 1381/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production service is maximum in sorghum (Rs. 2806) horse gram (Rs. 1853) and maize (Rs. 617) and ragi (Rs. 247).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in tomato (Rs. 100314) followed by turmeric (Rs. 81856), sorghum (Rs. 43655), sunflower (Rs. 34682), maize (Rs. 30183), horse gram (Rs. 22808) and ragi (Rs. 12073). 3 Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is sorghum (34.6 %) sunflower (27.9 %), followed by sunflower (27.9 %), turmeric (11.8 %), horse gram (7.8 %), ragi (7.8 %) and maize (4.7 %).  In Gopalapur micro-watershed, major soil series are soil of alluvial landscape of Hundipur (HDR) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 33.2 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing maize. Devarahalli (DRH) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 8 % of area, crops are sorghum (27 %) and turmeric (73 %). Kallipura (KLP) soil series are having deep soil cover around 13 % of area, respectively. The major crops grown are sorghum (43 %), sunflower (46 %) and tomato (12 %). Annurkeri (ARK), Honnegaudanahalli (HGH) and Kalligaudanahalli (KDH) series is having very deep soil depth cover around 13%, 4% and 9 % of area, respectively. On this soil farmers are presently growing horse gram, ragi, sorghum and sunflower.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for maize ranges between Rs. 33256/ha in HDR soil (with BCR of 1.28).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs.49825/ha in KDH soil (with BCR of 1.15) and Rs.28702/ha in KLP soil (with BCR of 2.13).  In tomato the cost of cultivation Rs 86618/ha in KLP soil (with of 3.25).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 49825/ha in KDH soil (with of 1.15) and Rs.28702/ha in KLP soil (with BCR of 2.13).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs.59730/ha in KDH soil (with BCR of 1.14) and Rs.35323/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.64).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation is Rs.11364/ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 3.15) and ragi the cost of cultivation is Rs. 32970/ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 1.19).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. 4  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in maize (70.2 %), sorghum (54.9 to 44.3%), ragi (67.6), tomato (8.5%), sunflower (47.2 to 32.3%) and horse gram (24.1%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project