Suchergebnisse

International audience ; Islands were studied for a long time as simple peripheral territories, territories which flesh out the seamless continuation of continental logic, meaningless territories without the prism and perspective of metropolitan power. Through the field of the island studies, critical questions cross various island experiences and their context of development and their configurations; or otherwise study specific temporalities, connectivities and materialities, in the context of globalization. To study islands requires taking the measure of these territories, far from any monolithic vision, to analyze their space with regard to their social and political realities, to identify their economic clout and their context of development and the legacies of the history, in consideration of their geographical neighbourhood. It is a question of considering the exogenous logics which make the island and interrogate its internal dynamics.The subject of study is the island, "island" as object, the island in the management of its space, the definition of its territorial project, the positioning of the island in its environmental perspective and the opportunities it enjoys and the strategies it deploys in the globalized economy. The wealth of scholarship of and about islands and island societies extends beyond the simple spatial frame of the island; 'the Island' can be understood as a synecdoche, a convenient, manageable and reasonable microcosm of the continent. ; Les îles ont longtemps été étudiées comme de simples lieux périphériques, inscrits dans le prolongement de logiques continentales ; des espaces dépourvus de sens en dehors du prisme des puissances métropolitaines. A travers le champ des études insulaires, il s'agit désormais de croiser les différentes expériences insulaires, de poser les contextes de développement et d'étudier les configurations et les temporalités spécifiques des îles. Étudier les îles nécessite de prendre la mesure de ces territoires -loin de toute vision monolithique-, d'analyser leur espace au regard des réalités sociale et politique, de cerner leur poids économique et leur contexte de développement, des héritages de l'histoire à la prise en compte de leur voisinage géographique. Il s'agit de prendre en considération les logiques exogènes qui font l'île et d'interroger les dynamiques internes.Le sujet d'étude est l'île, l'objet «île », l'île dans la gestion de son espace, la définition de son projet territorial, le positionnement de l'île dans son environnement respectif et les opportunités et stratégies dans l'économie mondialisée. La richesse des enseignements des territoires et des sociétés insulaires débordent le simple cadre spatial de l'île qui peut être entendue comme une synecdoque, un microcosme commode et raisonnable du continent.

The role of the housing market in the everyday life of society is difficult to overestimate. The housing rents and prices directly affect standard of living of virtually every person. Housing loans constitute the largest liability of households and account for a large proportion of bank lending. In Germany, the housing accounts for more than a half of wealth of private households. It is well known that speculative price bubbles on real-estate markets are likely to trigger financial crises, which can, in turn spill, over to the real economy by producing deep recessions accompanied by huge employment reductions. Since the end of 2010, after more than a decade of falling real housing prices, strong rent and especially price increases have been observed in Germany. This raised doubts and fears in German society. On the one hand, it is feared that Germany can follow the path of Spain, Ireland, and other bubble countries that ended in a severe economic crisis. On the other hand, the tenants that constitute a majority of German population are afraid of substantial rent increases that will erode their welfare. The tenants' discontent takes a form of massive protests and manifestations endangering political stability in the country. For this reason of the major issues debated in during recent elections and ongoing coalition negotiations among two leading German parties CDU/CSU and SPD is the housing policy. Therefore, it is very important to be able to predict the dynamics of home rents and prices in the nearest future. In this paper, we evaluate the forecasting ability of 115 indicators to predict the prices and rents for existing and new housing in 71 German cities with population exceeding 100,000 persons. Above all, we are interested in whether the local business confidence indicators can allow substantially improving the forecasts, given the local nature of real-estate markets. The forecast accuracy of different predictors is tested in a framework of a quasi out-of-sample forecasting. Its results are quite heterogeneous. No single indicator appears to dominate all others for all cities and market segments. However, there are several predictors that are especially useful, namely business confidence at the national level, consumer confidence, and price-to-rent ratios. Even better forecast precision can be achieved by combining individual forecasts. On average, the forecast improvements attain about 20%, measured by reduction in RMSFE, compared to autoregressive model. In separate cases, however, the magnitude of improvement is about 50%.

A social enterprise is situated in the context of business ventures that lead to sustainable human development. It is sustainable because it encourages the constant and increasing activity of domestic and communitarian economy, in harmony with the environment. From this point of view, the proposed strategy for microcredits, managed by Quinuapata commune, can be understood as a social enterprise. Additionally, this type of business venture is protected under the Ecuadorian Political Constitution and the Republic's Legal framework. Quinuapata commune is a prototype of social-communitarian development, evidenced by its microcredit, payment collection and credit assignment strategies. In order for this to work, it is required that people know each other, that their word is trusted over signed documents, that there exists an environment conductive of mutual support, and that achievements are shared with neighbors. These demands are based upon the ancestral teaching: ama llulla, ama quilla y ama shua. [Quichua for to not lie, to not be lazy, to not steal]. The self-improvement technique devised by the residents, in itself, is a criticism to the worldwide capitalist system, for which the capital must be prioritized over human beings and the planet's destruction is a tolerable mean to reach an ultimate end (capital accumulation). ; Una empresa social se ubica en el marco de los emprendimientos tendientes al desarrollo humano sustentable. Es sustentable porque promueve la actividad creciente y constante de la economía doméstica y comunitaria, en armonía con el ecosistema. Desde esta óptica, la estrategia de microcréditos propuesta y manejada por la comuna de Quinuapata se puede catalogar como una empresa social. Además este tipo de emprendimiento está protegido por la Constitución Política del Ecuador y las Leyes de la República.La comuna de Quinuapata es un prototipo de desarrollo social-comunitario, por el tipo de microcrédito que maneja, la estrategia de cobranza aplicada y la forma de asignación del mismo. Para ello se requiere que las personas se conozcan, que la palabra dada esté por sobre los documentos escritos, que haya un clima de apoyo mutuo y que los logros se compartan con los vecinos. Estas exigencias se fundan en las enseñanzas ancestrales: ama llulla, ama quilla y ama shua.El estilo de superación ingeniada por estos pobladores, en sí mismo, es una crítica al sistema capitalista de orden mundial, para el que el capital está por sobre los seres humanos y la devastación del planeta es un medio tolerable para alcanzar el fin (acumulación del capital).

Una empresa social se ubica en el marco de los emprendimientos tendientes al desarrollo humano sustentable. Es sustentable porque promueve la actividad creciente y constante de la economía doméstica y comunitaria, en armonía con el ecosistema. Desde esta óptica, la estrategia de microcréditos propuesta y manejada por la comuna de Quinuapata se puede catalogar como una empresa social. Además este tipo de emprendimiento está protegido por la Constitución Política del Ecuador y las Leyes de la República. La comuna de Quinuapata es un prototipo de desarrollo social-comunitario, por el tipo de microcrédito que maneja, la estrategia de cobranza aplicada y la forma de asignación del mismo. Para ello se requiere que las personas se conozcan, que la palabra dada esté por sobre los documentos escritos, que haya un clima de apoyo mutuo y que los logros se compartan con los vecinos. Estas exigencias se fundan en las enseñanzas ancestrales: ama llulla, ama quilla y ama shua. El estilo de superación ingeniada por estos pobladores, en sí mismo, es una crítica al sistema capitalista de orden mundial, para el que el capital está por sobre los seres humanos y la devastación del planeta es un medio tolerable para alcanzar el fin (acumulación del capital). ; A social enterprise is situated in the context of business ventures that lead to sustainable human development. It is sustainable because it encourages the constant and increasing activity of domestic and communitarian economy, in harmony with the environment. From this point of view, the proposed strategy for microcredits, managed by Quinuapata commune, can be understood as a social enterprise. Additionally, this type of business venture is protected under the Ecuadorian Political Constitution and the Republic's Legal framework. Quinuapata commune is a prototype of social-communitarian development, evidenced by its microcredit, payment collection and credit assignment strategies. In order for this to work, it is required that people know each other, that their word is trusted over signed documents, that there exists an environment conductive of mutual support, and that achievements are shared with neighbors. These demands are based upon the ancestral teaching: ama llulla, ama quilla y ama shua. [Quichua for to not lie, to not be lazy, to not steal]. The self-improvement technique devised by the residents, in itself, is a criticism to the worldwide capitalist system, for which the capital must be prioritized over human beings and the planet's destruction is a tolerable mean to reach an ultimate end (capital accumulation).

People's expectations after the fall of the Berlin Wall 25 years ago and of reunification in 1990 were huge. The government promised to create "flourishing landscapes" within a few years. The euphoria of reunification came not only through the desire to finally become one country and one nation again but also had tangible economic reasons: the people from East Germany wanted better economic prospects, more opportunities to realize their potential, and ultimately to create more well-being for themselves and future generations. West Germans were hoping for a boom. This promise very quickly proved to be an illusion. And, solely from an economic perspective, economic policy errors were made, such as monetary union at an exchange rate that caused East Germany's economic competitiveness to fall rapidly and, at least initially, contributed to a sharp rise in unemployment. In addition, privatization through the Treuhandanstalt was probably premature. Nevertheless, did reunification fail from an economic policy perspective? It would be misguided to take the political promises of whirlwind prosperity as a measure of the success of reunification. It is difficult to answer the question as to what are realistic objectives and criteria for a systematic economic policy evaluation of reunification. The convergence of living conditions in eastern and western Germany is a measure that comes close to assessing this objective. It would be misleading, however, to equate convergence with complete equality of all economic indicators. Equality of income, productivity, or assets will never be achieved in any economy or country. There will always be differences between regions, and even within regions, in any small or highly integrated country. The different regions in western Germany have not undergone this process since 1945, which would have led to full economic convergence, had the country not been divided. Quite the contrary: there are often temporary divergences, i.e., diverging living and economic conditions, sometimes relatively poor regions transform into the most productive. Bavaria is just one example of western Germany experiencing such a process. Countries such as Italy and Spain have very large and persistent differences across regions that have not evened out for centuries but have actually become even greater through globalization. This present DIW Economic Bulletin is intended as an initial contribution to the economic policy evaluation of reunification. To what extent have income, productivity, and wages converged in western and eastern Germany? How has reunification influenced different population groups? How have assets and well-being developed in both parts of Germany? These are the key questions analyzed in the first part of this DIW Economic Bulletin. [.]

In India, 22 per cent of the population lives below the poverty line and 93 per cent is employed informally, despite the fact that India is the second fastest-growing economy after China. Nevertheless, in a positive trend, India´s welfare system has increasingly moved towards a rights-based approach, as opposed to treating India´s citizens as mere recipients of state-provided benefits. This paper discusses the key role of civil society mobilization and political support that has led to the implementation of the principles of the Right to Work (albeit mostly in rural areas), the Right to Education and the Right to Food in India. On the other hand, both India´s social insurance system and its public health system remain limited in coverage and fragmented in character. As large numbers of Indians remain vulnerable to poverty on account of health expenditures, it is imperative that all have access to universal preventive and public health services, and that, among those who work in the unorganized sector, at least the poor have full social insurance coverage (old age pensions, death and disability insurance, maternity benefits). Furthermore, in the absence of publicly provided health care, such insurance should give this segment of the population access to a preventive and basic curative health care package. Our paper touches only briefly upon the issue of social insurance because achieving this is a medium-term goal which the Indian welfare state must work towards within current fiscal constraints. We focus primarily on the performance and the weaknesses of the health system. We find that the government´s flagship health insurance scheme for the poor, the Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana, is ineffective in providing financial risk protection with respect to health care, has inadequate coverage, and does not cover out-of-hospital consultations. We argue on behalf of universal health coverage in India and suggest the following areas for immediate policy intervention in the health sector: First: All doctors should be required to serve in rural areas regardless of whether this is required for a post graduate degree. Second: There is a strong case for introducing a three-year course for rural practice in all states. Third: More regular staff and paramedics are needed to manage services and as front-end providers of services. Fourth: the essential drug procurement system needs to be revamped. Fifth: the safe sanitation programme must become more effective if the nutrition and health status of citizens is to improve.

This dissertation makes contributions to the field of sociology of development and globalization. It addresses how Iran was able to obtain the state capacity to develop the automobile industry, and how Iran transferred the technology to build an industry with autonomous, indigenous technical capacity Most theories of the developmental state assume that industrial transformation requires capable and coherent development bureaucracies that are "autonomous"— insulated from particularistic private interests yet benefiting from networks connecting them to relevant private industrial actors. Scholars agree that political factionalism and Islamic institutions have transformed Iran into an economically incoherent and rent-seeking predatory state. Iran's success in developing an automobile industry with high local manufacturing content while becoming the world's eleventh-largest producer of passenger cars and the fifth-largest in the global south seems to contradict this perspective. This dissertation offers two contributions to existing theories of the developmental state: First, it shows that nationalists with a project of industrialization can decouple a key set of organizations sufficiently from other parts of the state apparatus to create an effective "island of efficiency" within a specific industrial sector. Second, sequencing in the evolution of the state's role may be important in facilitating effective development. Construction of Iran's auto industry resulted from a process of collective action by elite managers within the industry to first establish elite autonomous alliances within the state and then to establish network connections to economic actors outside the state who could help defend the project from predatory opponents.Recent network centered development scholarship has emphasized the role of ties to multinational enterprises, foreign direct investment, and R&D centers as the primary conduits through which technology is transferred to build indigenous local technical capacity in the current global economy. This dissertation builds on these observations by introducing engineering consulting firms as key network actors for the development of automobile industries. I will show that a country can develop an industry with greater indigenous, local technical capacity if it establishes ties to engineering consulting firms whose core task is to transfer ownership of the technology to local firms. This case suggests that the development of an automobile industry does not require reliance on multinational investment as a primary source of technology. In addition, by establishing ties to engineering consultancies, even countries isolated from global institutions can engage in more rapid technological learning and industrial upgrading when more conventional ties to sources of technology are unavailable.

Целью статьи является раскрытие сущности генезиса современных методов бюджетного прогнозирования и обоснование наиболее перспективного методологического подхода к разработке долгосрочных бюджетных прогнозов. При анализе и систематизации современных методов прогнозирования показателей доходной и расходной части бюджета раскрыты недостатки и преимущества основных методов бюджетного прогнозирования. Отмечена необходимость доработки и адаптации современных методов бюджетного прогнозирования, которые апробированы в странах с развитой экономикой, к условиям стран с развивающимися рынками. В результате исследования было доказано, что в условиях неопределенности, социальных стрессов, политической конъюнктуры и других институциональных факторов, которые имеют значительное влияние на формирование макроэкономических тенденций, существенно возрастет роль формализированных методов прогнозирования, которые базируются на опыте и интуиции квалифицированных экспертов. Обоснована необходимость дополнения классических (формализированных) методов прогнозирования экспертными оценками с целью повышения их эффективности и удобства применения в конкретных практических ситуациях. Перспективой дальнейших исследований в данном направлении является доведение необходимости применения генетического подхода при выборе методов прогнозирования, который предусматривает моделирование процессов трансформации, происходящих в экономике, и сводится к перенесению зависимостей, характерных для прошлого и нынешнего состояния объекта исследования, на будущее на основе установленных причинно-следственных связей. ; The aim of the article is the disclosure of the genesis of modern methods of budgetary forecasting and the study of the most promising methodological approach to develop long-term budget predictions. During the analysis and systematization of modern methods of forecasting performance of the revenue and expenditure side of the budget the shortcomings and advantages of the major methods of budgetary forecasting were revealed. The necessity of revision and adaptation of modern methods of budgetary forecasting was outlined, which have been tested in the advanced economies, according to the conditions of countries with developing markets. The study proved that in the face of uncertainty, social tensions, political conditions and other institutional factors that have a significant influence on the formation of macroeconomic trends to increase significantly the role of formalized forecasting methods which are based on experience and intuition of qualified experts. The necessity to complement the classical (formalized) methods of forecasting with expert estimates in order to increase their effectiveness and ease the application in individual cases. The prospect for further research in this area is to bring the need for a genetic approach in the selection of prediction methods, which provides simulation of the transformation taking place in the economy, and reduced to the transference dependency characteristic of the past and the current state of the object of the study, in the future on the basis of established cause-and-effect relations.

Актуальность и цели. Теоретическая экономика находится в кризисе. Междисциплинарные исследования, проводимые на стыках разных наук, считаются сейчас наиболее перспективными. Они позволяют сформулировать новые методы анализа, увидеть состояние конкретной науки с точки зрения другой сферы знаний. Цель работы проанализировать влияние различных наук и методов на возможности использования в экономике и получение выгоды от них. Материалы и методы. В рамках данной статьи рассматриваются следующие методы из различных наук: математики, военного дела, технических наук, физики, информационных технологий, биологии, психологии, политики. Результаты. Быстрое развитие технологий и меняющиеся экономические условия бросают вызов специалистам. Хороший экономист должен в совершенстве владеть аппаратом математического анализа, математической логики, уметь пользоваться статистическими методами, разбираться в информационных технологиях. Выводы. Современную экономику развитых стран характеризуют как экономику знаний. Возможность использования знаний и новых технологий могут стать одним из конкурентных преимуществ страны. Сложные проблемы экономики целесообразно решать не только эмпирическими методами, но также применять методы и знания других наук, т.е. использовать весь багаж знаний, накопленных человечеством. Особенно это важно для России. Такой подход позволит создать новые технологии управления и скорее перейти к экономике знаний. ; Background. Theoretical Economics is in crisis. Interdisciplinary research now is considered to be the most promising way. They allow us to formulate new methods of analysis, observe the status of economics as a particular science from the viewpoint of another spheres of knowledge. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the impact of various scientific methods of natural sciences and other sciences on evolution of the economic science. Materials and methods. The article considers the methods from mathematics, military science, technical sciences, physics, information technology, biology, psychology, political science. Results. Modern economics in the developed countries is the knowledge economics. The article demonstrates that economists should use suitable knowledge from all areas of sciences to solve modern economic problems. Economists have to know and apply mathematical analysis, logics, statistical methods and information technologies. Conclusions. The ability to use knowledge and new technologies can become one of the competitive advantages of the country. It is advisable to solve complex problems of the economy not only by empirical methods, but also to apply methods and knowledge of other sciences, i.e. use the entire store of knowledge accumulated by mankind. It is especially important for Russia. This approach allows to develop new management technologies and transfer the traditional economics to the knowledge economics faster.

International audience ; Islands were studied for a long time as simple peripheral territories, territories which flesh out the seamless continuation of continental logic, meaningless territories without the prism and perspective of metropolitan power. Through the field of the island studies, critical questions cross various island experiences and their context of development and their configurations; or otherwise study specific temporalities, connectivities and materialities, in the context of globalization. To study islands requires taking the measure of these territories, far from any monolithic vision, to analyze their space with regard to their social and political realities, to identify their economic clout and their context of development and the legacies of the history, in consideration of their geographical neighbourhood. It is a question of considering the exogenous logics which make the island and interrogate its internal dynamics.The subject of study is the island, "island" as object, the island in the management of its space, the definition of its territorial project, the positioning of the island in its environmental perspective and the opportunities it enjoys and the strategies it deploys in the globalized economy. The wealth of scholarship of and about islands and island societies extends beyond the simple spatial frame of the island; 'the Island' can be understood as a synecdoche, a convenient, manageable and reasonable microcosm of the continent. ; Les îles ont longtemps été étudiées comme de simples lieux périphériques, inscrits dans le prolongement de logiques continentales ; des espaces dépourvus de sens en dehors du prisme des puissances métropolitaines. A travers le champ des études insulaires, il s'agit désormais de croiser les différentes expériences insulaires, de poser les contextes de développement et d'étudier les configurations et les temporalités spécifiques des îles. Étudier les îles nécessite de prendre la mesure de ces territoires -loin de toute vision monolithique-, d'analyser leur espace au regard des réalités sociale et politique, de cerner leur poids économique et leur contexte de développement, des héritages de l'histoire à la prise en compte de leur voisinage géographique. Il s'agit de prendre en considération les logiques exogènes qui font l'île et d'interroger les dynamiques internes.Le sujet d'étude est l'île, l'objet «île », l'île dans la gestion de son espace, la définition de son projet territorial, le positionnement de l'île dans son environnement respectif et les opportunités et stratégies dans l'économie mondialisée. La richesse des enseignements des territoires et des sociétés insulaires débordent le simple cadre spatial de l'île qui peut être entendue comme une synecdoque, un microcosme commode et raisonnable du continent.

Рынок жилья представляет собой сложную систему взаимоотношений по созданию, перераспределению и эксплуатации объектов жилищной недвижимости. Учитывая значительную дифференциацию объектов рынка и различные интересы субъектов, ведущих деятельность на рынке жилья, актуально конкретизировать роль и необходимую степень участия государства в операциях, осуществляемых на рынке жилья. В данном исследовании рассмотрены теоретические подходы, определяющие роль и место государства в экономике. С использованием кейнсианской теории обоснована политическая роль государства, выражающаяся в определении стратегического развития территорий через градостроительное регулирование и реализацию государственных программ развития жилищного строительства. Через понятие «государственного сектора» раскрыта социальная функция государства, направленная на обеспечение жильем малоимущих граждан. Рассмотрена аллокация финансовых ресурсов государственными институтами развития, позволяющими привлекать средства на рынок жилья в целях решения задач реновации жилищного фонда и стимулирования спроса на жилье через механизмы ипотечного кредитования. Посредством положений институциональной теории обоснованы правовая и организаторская функции государства, выражающиеся в формировании необходимых норм правил и институтов рынка жилья. В результате проведенного исследования выявлены сегменты излишнего и недостаточного государственного участия.The housing market is a complex system of mutual relationships for creation, redistribution and exploitation of objects of the housing property. Taking into account the significant differentiation of the objects of market and different interests of subjects that carry out the activities on the housing market, it is topical to concretize the role and the necessary degree of involvement of the state in operations that are realized on the housing market. The theoretical approaches that define the role and the place of the state in economy were considered in this research. Using the Keynesian theory, the political role of the state was substantiated. This role was expressed in the definition of the strategic development of territories through the town-planning regulation and realization of the government programs for the development of the housing construction. The social function of the state, which was directed on the housing provision of low-income citizens, was disclosed through the concept of "the public sector". The allocation of the financial resources by government development institutions, which allow to attract funds to the housing market with the aim of to solve problems of renovation of the housing fund and to stimulate the housing demand through the mechanisms of the mortgage lending, was considered. Legal and managerial functions of the state were substantiated by provisions of the institutional theory, which were expressed in the formation of the necessary norms, rules and institutions of the housing market. Segments of excessive and insufficient government participation were revealed as a result of this research.

Рассматривается проблема вовлечения женского труда в промышленность Сибири в 1920-е гг. в связи с переходом от аграрного к индустриальному обществу. Он стал впервые массово внедряться во все отрасли народного хозяйства, что ставило перед государством многочисленные проблемы, связанные с регулированием этих процессов. Проблемы расширения производственной и общественной занятости женщин, повышения их квалификационного и общеобразовательного уровня, улучшения бытовых условий были обязательными в деятельности государственных органов, профсоюзных и комсомольских организаций. В Сибири удельный вес женщин-работниц был в целом ниже, чем по стране. Большинство женщин были заняты на мелких предприятиях. Для работы среди женщин во всех звеньях государственной политической системы были созданы специальные органы. Большое внимание уделялось повышению квалификации женского труда, так как это было одной из причин слабого участия женщин в производстве. Низкому уровню квалификации соответствовала и низкая заработная плата. ; The subject of the article is the problem of the involvement of women's labor in the industry of Siberia in the 1920s in connection with the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society. For the first time it began to be massively involved in all sectors of the economy, making the state to solve numerous problems associated with the regulation of these processes. The problems of expanding production and public employment of women, of increasing their qualification and level of general education, of improving their living conditions took an important place in the activities of public authorities, trade union and Komsomol organizations. In Siberia, the proportion of working women was generally lower than in the country because of the predominantly agricultural nature of the region. A low percentage of women among workers was explained by the fact that the industries where female labor traditionally predominated (such as textile, clothing manufacture) were underdeveloped in Siberia. Most of women worked at small enterprises. To conduct work among the women the special organizations was set up at all levels of the state's political system. In 1924, the People's Commissariat of Labor organized the Commission on Comprehensive Improvement and Study of Female Labor in Production. Similar commissions were set up in the regions. Their tasks were to analyze the status of women's employment in industry, to care of the professional development of working women', to employ of the unemployed, to control the observance of labor legislation, etc. Much attention was paid to the improvement of qualification of working women, because it was one of the reasons for the weak involvement of women in production. To improve the qualifications of working women the individual, group and brigade apprenticeship was used. Low wages corresponded to low qualification levels.

Global economic governance stands for the institutions, regulations and mechanisms that manage the increasing interdependency of global challenges in the world economy and forms the foundation of stable global economic development. However, global economic governance remains largely mired in "silo thinking": it is broken down too distinctly into different subject areas, despite the fact that globalisation has led to an increasing overlap in policy areas, with political decisions in one area also affecting others. For these close interrelations, the handling of trade finance and the parallel lack of coordinated and coherent global economic governance are important examples. Trade finance stands at the interface between trade policy and financial market regulation. Despite this, the relevant institutions, in particular the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Bank for International Settlements (BIS), do not liaise with one another to an adequate extent. During the financial and economic crisis, there was a dramatic slump in trade finance. The inadequate availability of trade finance has been a significant barrier to trade since then, and it may inhibit economic development in developing and emerging countries in particular. The G20 consequently saw the need to act promptly. In 2009 it organized support to the amount of US$ 250 billion to reduce the gaps in trade financing opportunities that had emerged. The global financial and economic crisis raised the need for a reform of the global banking regulation system. The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision of the BIS consequently initiated the Basel III reform package, designed to make the banking and finance systems more resilient. During the past months, there has been intense debate regarding the extent to which Basel III could inhibit trade finance, and therefore international trade flows. Although financial regulation does not constitute a focal point of the mandate of the WTO, the organisation should nonetheless have an interest in closer cooperation with the BIS and the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. The WTO does indeed serve as a discussion forum for relevant players in the field of trade finance; however, cooperation between the WTO and the BIS is not adequately institutionalised, and key actors such as developing countries are not sufficiently involved in the decision-making process. The insufficiently coordinated and incoherent regulatory framework has resulted in a lack of uniformity in implementing Basel III in different regions. Such a fragmentation of banking regulations presents a problem, as it results in regulatory arbitrage and can serve to undermine the conditions for fair competition. Therefore, there is an urgent need for action, if the anticipated growth in world trade following the latest WTO conference in Bali is also to be financed.

Los sistemas de potencia son conjuntos de redes e instalaciones que ofrecen un servicio público de suministro de energía eléctrica esencial para la sociedad y su economía. Una falla en estos sistemas tiene repercusiones de índole económica, ambiental, política o social. Luego de los atentados terroristas del 11 de Septiembre en los Estados Unidos, ha aumentado la importancia de determinar la vulnerabilidad de los sistemas eléctricos de potencia mediante la implementación de metodologías para su análisis. En este trabajo se propone una nueva metodología de análisis de vulnerabilidad de sistemas de potencia. La metodología toma en cuenta aspectos del Proyecto VEGA de Salmeron, Wood y Baldick, y de la Tesis de Evaluación del Riesgo de Tranchita. Se utiliza la Lógica Difusa tipo 2 para modelar la incertidumbre tanto en variables lingüísticas como en variables numéricas. Las variables lingüísticas modelan los factores del entorno geográfico mientras que las variables numéricas modelan los parámetros del sistema de potencia. La metodología implementa un modelo de optimización binivel entera-mixta. En el nivel inferior se minimizan los costos asociados a la generación de energía y a la penalidad por deslastre de carga (objetivo del operador del sistema), mientras que en el nivel superior se maximiza el daño en el sistema de potencia representado por el deslastre de carga (objetivo del atacante). ; Abstract. A Power System is a set of networks and assets offering a service of public nature essential for society and its economy. A single fault in a component of the electrical system may have negative economic, environmental, political or social effect on society. After September 11th terrorist attacks in the United States has increased the importance of assessing the Vulnerability of Power Systems to intentional attacks. In this thesis a new methodology for assessing Power System Vulnerability to intentional attacks is proposed. This new methodology takes into account aspects from Salmeron, Wood and Baldick VEGA Project and from Tranchita Risk Assessment Thesis. Type-2 Fuzzy Logic Systems are used to model the uncertainty of linguistic and numerical variables. Linguistic variables model geographical variables of the power system area. Numerical variables model power system parameters. The new methodology implements a mixed-integer optimization model. In the lower level generation costos plus load sheading penalties are minimized in the electrical network (system operator's objective). In the upper level load shedding resulting from the attack is maximized in the system (attacker's objective). ; Maestría

The Article is devoted to study of customs cooperation in the frameworks of Belarus and Russia integration process leading tc formation of common customs and economic environment in perspective. It submits comprehensive analysis of formation of customs union of Belarus and Russia, reflects specifics of its functioning in the context of customs union member states entry to the system of European and World economic relations. International processes on the territory of the ex-USSR are the natural result of the development of the former Soviet republics. The modern level of economic development and political relations between Belarus and Russia testifies to a steady Increase of international processes and coordination of the economy and policy of the two states. ; Šiuo metu muitinių bendradarbiavimas yra viena iš labiausiai išplėtotų Baltarusijos ir Rusijos ekonominės integracijos krypčių. Baltarusijos Respublika aktyviai įgyvendina muitinės politiką, nukreiptą į integraciją ir glaudų abiejų šalių muitinių bendradarbiavimą. Pasaulinių ekonominės integracijos tendencijų kontekste ypač daug dėmesio nusipelno Baltarusijos ir Rusijos muilų sąjungos analizė. Šis straipsnis skirtas muitinių bendradarbiavimui, kaip Baltarusijos - Rusijos integracijos proceso daliai tirti, kuris ateityje gali tapti bendra muitų ir ekonomikos sąjunga. Straipsnio tikslas - atlikti visapusišką Baltarusijos ir Rusijos muitų sąjungos kūrimo proceso analizę ir parodyti šio proceso specifiką Europos ir pasaulio ekonominių ryšių plėtros kontekste. Pagrindinis tarpvalstybinis Baltarusijos ir Rusijos muitinių bendradarbiavimo dokumentas yra Susitarimas dėl Baltarusijos Respublikos ir Rusijos Federacijos muitų sąjungos. Šis dokumentas pasirašytas abiejų valstybių vyriausybių 1995 m. sausio 6 d, įsigaliojo 1995 m. gruodžio 30 d. Tokių susitarimų pasirašymas rodo abiejų šalių siekį plėtoti darnius ir abipusiai naudingus santykius, tarptautinių normų, tokių kaip GATT/PPO, pripažinimą ekonominiuose santykiuose ir siekį sudaryti palankias sąlygas muitų sąjungos valstybėms narėms veikti pasaulio rinkoje. Dabartiniame raidos etape svarbiausias Baltarusijos Respublikos tarptautinių ekonominių santykių uždavinys yra įsitraukti į Europos ir tarptautinių ekonominių santykių ir integracinių procesų sistemą. Tai lemtų stabilų šalies ekonominį augimą. Pirmiausia kalbama apie Baltarusijos įstojimą į Pasaulio prekybos organizaciją, kuri yra pagrindinė tarptautinės prekybos reguliavimo organizacija. Šio uždavinio įgyvendinimas padėtų Baltarusijos Respublikai bendradarbiauti su kitomis regioninėmis šalių sąjungomis, taip pat dalyvauti tarptautinėse ekonominėse ir finansinėse organizacijose. Spręsdamos dvišalio bendradarbiavimo klausimus, Baltarusija ir Rusija turi atsižvelgti į savo prekybinių partnerių interesus NVS, Europos Sąjungos ir kitose šalyse, taip pat į individualius įsipareigojimus tarptautinėms organizacijoms. Tik derybomis ir darant kompromisus galima pasiekti interesų suderinimo ir sukurti patikimą ekonominį Baltarusijos ir Rusijos integracijos pagrindą.