Suchergebnisse

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Siddapura Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 493 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm of which about 254 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 74 per cent is covered by soils, 25 per cent by forest and one per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 24 soil phases (management units) and 9 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 65 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 8 per cent not suitable for agriculture.  About 21 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 53 per cent are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 16 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 56 per cent loamy soils and two per cent area has sandy soils.  About 51 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 23 per cent has very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 57 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) available water capacity.  About 65 per cent area is very gently sloping (1-3% slope) to gently sloping (3- 5%) lands and moderately sloping (5-10%) lands.  An area of about 41 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 24 per cent moderately eroded (e2) and 8 per cent soils are severely eroded (e3).  An area of about 2 per cent has soils that are slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5); 14 per cent area has neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and maximum area of about 80 per cent has soils that are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) to strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 35 per cent of the soils are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 2 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in a very small area of less than one per cent.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 33 per cent area, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 39 per cent area and high (>1.0 ppm) in less than one per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 47 per cent area and sufficient in 27 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 78 (16) 115 (23) Sapota 88 (18) 14 (3) Maize 88 (18) 105 (21) Guava 88 (18) 14 (3) Redgram 88 (18) 65 (13) Banana 80 (16) 18 (4) Horsegram 88 (18) 120 (24) Jackfruit 88 (18) - Field bean 80 (16) 63 (13) Jamun 80 (16) 8 (2) Groundnut 208 (42) 155 (31) Musambi 88 (18) - Sunflower 70 (14) 18 (4) Lime 88 (18) - Cotton 70 (14) 113(23) Cashew 88 (18) 14 (3) Onion 80 (16) 113 (23) Custard apple 88 (18) 136 (27) Potato 80 (16) 113 (23) Amla 88 (18) 136(27) Beans 80 (16) 113 (23) Tamarind 80 (16) 8 (2) Beetroot 80 (16) 113 (23) Marigold 88 (18) 120 (24) Turmeric 80 (16) 113 (23) Chrysanthemum 80 (16) 113 (23) Mango 80 (16) 8 (2) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 9 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub-marginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Siddapura micro-watershed (Annurkeri sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11041' – 11043' North latitudes and 76039' – 76041' East longitudes, covering an area of about 584 ha. The micro-watershed is bounded by Maguvinahalli, Kebbepura, Hullepura, Kaligaudanahalli and Karle villages, with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Siddapura micro-watershed (Annurkeri subwatershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators  Male and female ratio is 47.7 to 52.3 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 54.5 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 72.7 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 40.0 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 90.0 per cent.  About 50.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (20.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 50.0 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 18.3 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 2.3 per cent of farm households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 30 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 1.2 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land of 58.9 % and irrigated land 41.1 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 79.6 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 15.9 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.15613 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 6597 per household, about 50 per cent of sample farmers own plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 24550 per household; about 52.8 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 610.5 grams (1319.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 64.1 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 105779 per household. About 60.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1374. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.774 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.280107 per year for the total area of 492.6 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 30297/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in onion (Rs. 97066) followed by turmeric (Rs. 92988), maize (Rs. 24497), groundnut (Rs. 18437), sunflower (Rs. 11174), ragi (Rs. 17365), cotton (Rs. 6712), horse gram (Rs. 2392) and sorghum (Rs. 2654).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 1227/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 1885/ha) followed by sorghum (Rs. 1780), horse gram (Rs. 1086), groundnut (Rs. 741) and ragi (Rs. 642).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water is maximum in cotton (Rs. 49758) followed by turmeric (Rs. 47298), maize (Rs. 46680), turmeric (Rs. 47298), 3 sunflower (Rs. 39492), onion (Rs. 26823), groundnut (Rs. 24050), horse gram (Rs. 21601) and ragi (Rs. 13066). Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is sunflower (10.5%), and cotton (5.2%), groundnut (5.2%), onion (6.1%), ragi (6.0%), safflower (0.9%), sorghum (14.2%), turmeric (23.2%), maize (18.6 %), sorghum (6.0%) and horse gram (10.1%).  In Siddapura Microwatershed, major soil of Hindupura (HDR) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 20.36 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing horse gram (13.9 %), maize (36.6 %), sorghum (21.8 %) and sunflower (27.8%), Shivapura (SPR) are also having shallow soil depth cover around 7.81 % of area, the crops are onion (40.1%), and turmeric (59.9 %). Hallipura (HPR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 10.09 % of areas, crops are cotton (50.0 %) and groundnut (50.0 %). Magoonahalli (MGH) soil series having moderately shallow soil cover around 5.46 % of area, crops are horse gram. Kallipura (KLP) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 1.59 % of area. the major crops grown are turmeric. Kalligoudanahalli (KDH) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 11.63 % of area, the major crop grown is horse gram (3.8 %), maize (21.5 %), onion (10.7 %), ragi (24.8 %) and sorghum (24.8 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for onion ranges between Rs.137827/ha in KDH soil (with BCR of 2.69) and Rs.8226/ha in SPR soil (with BCR of 1.08).  In turmeric the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 11526/ha in SPR soil (with BCR of 1.33) and Rs.95749/ha in KLP soil (with BCR of 2.23).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs 36699/ha in KDH soil (with BCR of 1.02) and Rs.13355/ha in MGH soil (with BCR of 1.03).  In maize the cost of cultivation range between Rs 45404/ha in HDR soil (with BCR of 1.30) and Rs.25557/ha in KDH soil (with BCR of 3.53).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation in HDR soil is Rs.22877/ha (with BCR of 1.24).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation in HDR soil is Rs.20053/ha (with BCR of 2.0).  In cotton the cost of cultivation in HDR soil is Rs 38983/ha (with BCR of 1.17).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation in HPR soil is Rs 23059/ha (with BCR 1.83) and ragi the cost of cultivation in HPR soil is Rs 14713/ha (with BCR of 2.22).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. 4  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in onion (69.8 to 49.4 %), turmeric (14.0 %), horse gram (32.5 to 24.1 %), maize (55.9 to 40.5 %), sorghum (49.7 %), sunflower (31.7 %), cotton (27.7 %) and ragi (64.9 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Channamallipura Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 622 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagara district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 539 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 84 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 27 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from 3rdweek of June to 3rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 27 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 80 percent of area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture and 3 per cent not suitable for agriculture, but, well suited for other alternate use.  About 52 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 32 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 33 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 51 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 54 per cent area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 9 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 30 per cent area very low (0.75).  About 38 per cent of the area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 56 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 27 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 2 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in an area of about 37per cent, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 44 per cent and high (>1.0 ppm) in 4 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 83 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 43 per cent of the soils in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 215(35) 120(19) Guava 122(20) 39(6) Maize 131 (21) 44(7) Mango 25(4) 98(16) Redgram 131(21) 193(31) Sapota 122(20) 39(6) Horsegram 131(21) 237(38) Jackfruit 122(20) - Sunflower 47(7) 244(39) Jamun 282(45) - Cotton 206(33) 53(9) Musambi 282(45) 34(6) Beans 122(20) 212(34) Lime 282(45) 34(6) Field beans 122(20) 212(34) Cashew 239(38) 30(5) Onion 122(20) 212(34) Custard apple 282(45) 87(14) Beetroot 122(20) 53(9) Amla 282(45) 87(14) Groundnut 9(1) 196(32) Tamarind 282(45) 30(5) Banana 122(20) 168(27) Marigold 131(21) 233(38) Potato 122(20) 53(9) Chrysanthemum 122(20) 212(34) Turmeric 122(20) 53(9) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Channamallipur Microwatershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11045' – 11047' North latitudes and 76032' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 622 ha, bounded by Masahalli, Hongahalli, Maddur, Kannigala and Lakkipur villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Channamallipur micro-watershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk and Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 54.9 to 45.1 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 56.8 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 64.7 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 40 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 90 per cent.  About 90 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 70 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 9.8 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 50 per cent of households. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.30 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land of 39.3 per cent and 2 irrigated land 60.7 per cent of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 52.9 per cent and agriculture is the main agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 45.1 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.10246 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.71959 per household, about 70 per cent of sample farmers having plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.21993 per household; among all sample households are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 642.9 grams (1478.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 90 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.54887 per household. About 60 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1024. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.573 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 298568 per year for the total area of 622.25 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 25359/ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in turmeric (Rs.45068) followed by onion (Rs. 41159), beans (Rs. 40766), maize (Rs. 37913), bengal gram (Rs. 22624), ginger (Rs. 14589), groundnut (Rs. 1967) and marigold is negative return.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 376/ ha/year in groundnut.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in beans (Rs. 319783) followed by maize (Rs. 219516), bengal gram (Rs.62255), ginger (Rs. 53384), turmeric (Rs. 41108), groundnut (Rs. 19596) and onion (Rs. 16796). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is turmeric (31.1 %) followed by marigold (15.5 %), horse gram (15.4 %), groundnut (14.8 %), onion (7.9 %), sunflower (5.7 %), bengal gram (3.6 %), ginger (3.0 %) and beans (2.6 %).  In Channamallipur Microwatershed, major soil is Annurkeri (ARK) series is having very deep soil depth cover around 3.9 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing beans (50 %) and marigold (50 %), soil of very dark greyish brown to dark grey and very dark brown clayey soils of Beemanabeedu (BMB) are also having very deep soil depth cover 25.6 % of area, the crops are turmeric (56.8 %), onion (15.1%), beans (10.1 %), marigold (10.1 %), ginger (5.8 %) and maize (2.1 %). Hullipura (HPR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 7.1 % of areas, crops are groundnut (67.6 %), beans (16.2 %) and marigold (16.2 %). Shivapura (SPR) soil series having shallow soil depth cover around 11.6 % of area, crops are bengal gram (25.2 %), marigold (25.2 %), turmeric (24.8 %) and beans (24.8 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for beans ranges between Rs.26324/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.92) and Rs.16994/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 3.45).  In marigold the cost of cultivation range between Rs 76119/ha in HPR soil (with of 1.1) and Rs.35758/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.64).  In turmeric the cost of cultivation range between Rs.145477 /ha in SPR soil (with BCR of 1.51) and Rs. 99630/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.46).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation in SPR soil is Rs.29730/ha (with BCR of 1.08).  In ginger the cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs.85285/ha (with BCR of 1.17).  In maize the cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs.82575/ha (with BCR of 1.17) and onion cultivation in BMB soil is Rs 51466/ha (with BCR of 1.8).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthen institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthen agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in marigold (24.1 to 29.7 %), onion (74.7 %), bengal gram (38.4 %), ginger (34 %) and maize (27.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Navule Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 684 ha in Chikkanayakanahalli taluk of Tumkur district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 700 mm, of which about 378 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 179 mm during north-east and the remaining 143 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 94 per cent is covered by soils and six per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 29 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of July to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 61 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm), 30 per cent moderately deep and 3 per cent moderately shallow.  About 23 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 67 per cent loamy soils.  About 34 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m).  About 80 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1- 3% slope) lands and 13 per cent gently sloping (3-5%).  An area of about 69 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 24 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 24 per cent has soils that are slightly acid (pH 5.0-6.5) to moderately acid, 38 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 32 per cent slightly to moderately alkaline.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 3 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is high (>10 ppm) in about 12 per cent area and medium (10- 20 ppm) in about 79 per cent area and low (4.5 ppm) in 91 per cent and deficiant in 3 per cent area.  Available manganese, copper and zinc are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure,marked price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 144 (21) 274(40) Guava 16 (2) 350 (51) Fodder Sorghum 144 (21) 274(40) Pomogranate 16 (2) 348 (51) Maize 144 (21) 48 (7) Banana 16 (2) 348 (51) Upland paddy 144 (21) 298 (44) Jackfruit 16 (2) 307 (45) Finger millet 144 (21) 126 (18) Jamun 16 (2) 226 (33) Redgram 144 (21) 274 (40) Musambi 16 (2) 402 (32) Horse gram 144 (21) 472 (69) Lime 16 (2) 402 (32) Field bean 144 (21) 274 (40) Cashew 16 (2) 350 (51) Cowpea 144 (21) 274 (40) Custard apple 164 (24) 453 (56) Groundnut 144 (21) 246 (36) Amla 144 (21) 472 (69) Sunflower 16 (2) 402 (59) Tamarind 16 (2) 226 (33) Onion 144 (21) 143 (21) Marigold 144 (21) 274 (40) Chilli 144 (21) 274 (40) Chrysanthemum 144 (21) 274 (40) Brinjal 144 (21) 274 (40) Jasmine 144 (21) 274 (40) Tomato 144 (21) 274 (40) Coconut 16 (2) 176 (26) Mango 16 (2) 600 (88) Arecanut 16 (2) 176 (26) Sapota 16 (2) 176 (26) Mulberry 68 (10) (3247) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This helps in maintaining ecological balance and contribute to mitigating climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Navule micro-watershed (Anekatte sub-watershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk, Tumkur district) is located in between 13025' – 13026' North latitudes and 76033' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 684.17 ha, bounded by Muddenahalli, Shavashettyhalli, Katenahalli, Navule, Yarehalli, Aralikere and Muddhenahalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days.We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Navule micro-watershed (Anekatte subwatershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk, Tumkur district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 49 to 51 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 49 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 95.8 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 10.0 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 20.0 per cent.  About 80.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (60.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities among all the sample households.  Institutional participation is only 6.3 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 10 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.64 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small farmers. The rainfed land is around 48.6 % and irrigated land is around 51.4 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 4.3 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 61.7 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 12134 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average farm assets value is around Rs. 103179 per household, about 30.0 per cent of sample farmers having plough and sprayer.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 47000 per household; among all household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 693.4 grams (1638.3 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 83358 per household. About 60 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1328. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 484 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 310009 per year for the total area of 451.5 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grains production is around Rs. 28636/ha/year. Per hectare food grains production services is maximum in coconut (Rs. 87821) followed by maize (Rs.21942), ragi (Rs. 11884), green gram (Rs. 6969), sorghum and horse gram are negative return  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around sorghum (Rs. 3437) followed by ragi (Rs. 2408), horse gram (Rs. 2058), maize (Rs. 1825), green gram (Rs. 396) and coconut (Rs. 127).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in coconut (Rs. 317967) followed by greengram (Rs. 37276), horse gram (Rs. 23758), maize (Rs. 22303), sorghum (Rs. 19640) and ragi (Rs. 16479). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is greengram (27.9 %) followed by ragi (22.9 %), coconut (20.6 %), maize (14.7 %), areca nut (6.2 %), cardamom (6.2 %), horse gram (0.6 %) and sorghum (0.6 %).  In Navule micro-watershed, major soil is Gollarahatti (GHT) soil are moderately deep well drained, around 21.55 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing coconut. Balapur (BPR) soil series having soils are deep soil depth cover around 12.41 % of areas; crops are greengram (40.6 %), maize (30.3 %) and ragi (29.1 %). Giddadapalya (GDP) and Nagalapur (NGP) are also having soils are deep soil depth cover around 7.52 % and 5.53 % of area, respectively; the crops are greengram and ragi. Shirur (SRR) soil having are deep moderately well drained, around 11.29 % of area; crops are horse gram (29.4 %) and sorghum (70.6 %). Muradi (MRD) and Thondigere (TDG) soil series having are very deep soil depth covered around 2.35 % and 13.81 % of area, respectively. The major crops grown are coconut and ragi.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for coconut ranges between Rs.102779/ha in TDH soil (with BCR of 1.63) and Rs. 31404/ha in GHT (with BCR of 3.79).  In ragi the cost of cultivation of range between Rs. 59287/ha in TDG soil (with BCR of 1.13) and Rs. 26060/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.65).  In green gram the cost of cultivation range between and Rs. 38449 in GDP soil (with BCR of 1.00) and Rs. 22173/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.53).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation in SRR soil is Rs.31605/ha (with BCR of 1.51).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation in SRR soil is Rs 15995/ha (with BCR of 1.14) and maize the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is Rs 10910 /ha (with BCR of 3.18)  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in coconut (20.9 to 42.9 %), ragi (57.4 to 77.0%), green gram (30.5 to 36.6 %), horse gram (40.9 %), maize (78.0 %) and sorghum (29.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

The White House released its budget proposal for Fiscal Year 2025 on March 11th, and the news was depressingly familiar: $895 billion for the Pentagon and work on nuclear weapons at the Department of Energy. After adjusting for inflation, that's only slightly less than last year's proposal, but far higher than the levels reached during either the Korean or Vietnam wars or at the height of the Cold War. And that figure doesn't even include related spending on veterans, the Department of Homeland Security, or the additional tens of billions of dollars in "emergency" military spending likely to come later this year. One thing is all too obvious: a trillion-dollar budget for the Pentagon alone is right around the corner, at the expense of urgently needed action to address climate change, epidemics of disease, economic inequality, and other issues that threaten our lives and safety at least as much as, if not more than, traditional military challenges.Americans would be hard-pressed to find members of Congress carefully scrutinizing such vast sums of national security spending, asking tough questions, or reining in Pentagon excess — despite the fact that this country is no longer fighting any major ground wars. Just a handful of senators and members of the House do that work while many more search for ways to increase the department's already bloated budget and steer further contracts into their own states and districts.Congress isn't just shirking its oversight duties: these days, it can't even seem to pass a budget on time. Our elected representatives settled on a final national budget just last week, leaving Pentagon spending at the already generous 2023 level for nearly half of the 2024 fiscal year. Now, the department will be inundated with a flood of new money that it has to spend in about six months instead of a year. More waste, fraud, and financial abuse are inevitable as the Pentagon prepares to shovel money out the door as quickly as possible. This is no way to craft a budget or defend a country.And while congressional dysfunction is par for the course, in this instance it offers an opportunity to reevaluate what we're spending all this money for. The biggest driver of overspending is an unrealistic, self-indulgent, and — yes — militaristic national defense strategy. It's designed to maintain a capacity to go almost everywhere and do almost anything, from winning wars with rival superpowers to intervening in key regions across the planet to continuing the disastrous Global War on Terror, which was launched in the wake of the 9/11 attacks and never truly ended. As long as such a "cover the globe" strategy persists, the pressure to continue spending ever more on the Pentagon will prove irresistible, no matter how delusional the rationale for doing so may be.Defending "the Free World"?President Biden began his recent State of the Union address by comparing the present moment to the time when the United States was preparing to enter World War II. Like President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1941, Joe Biden told the American people that the country now faces an "unprecedented moment in the history of the Union," one in which freedom and democracy are "under attack" both at home and abroad. He disparaged Congress's failure to approve his emergency supplemental bill, claiming that, without additional aid for Ukraine, Russian President Vladimir Putin will threaten not just that country but all of Europe and even the "free world." Comparing (as he did) the challenge posed by Russia now to the threat that Hitler's regime posed in World War II is a major exaggeration that's of no value in developing an effective response to Moscow's activities in Ukraine and beyond.Engaging in such fearmongering to get the public on board with an increasingly militarized foreign policy ignores reality in service of the status quo. In truth, Russia poses no direct security threat to the United States. And while Putin may have ambitions beyond Ukraine, Russia simply doesn't have the capability to threaten the "free world" with a military campaign. Neither does China, for that matter. But facing the facts about these powers would require a critical reassessment of the maximalist U.S. defense strategy that rules the roost. Currently, it reflects the profoundly misguided belief that, on matters of national security, U.S. military dominance takes precedence over the collective economic strength and prosperity of Americans.As a result, the administration places more emphasis on deterring potential (if unlikely) aggression from competitors than on improving relations with them. Of course, this approach depends almost entirely on increasing the production, distribution, and stockpiling of arms. The war in Ukraine and Israel's continuing assault on Gaza have unfortunately only solidified the administration's dedication to the concept of military-centric deterrence.Contractor Dysfunction: Earning More, Doing LessIronically, such a defense strategy depends on an industry that continually exploits the government for its own benefit and wastes staggering amounts of taxpayer dollars. The major corporations that act as military contractors pocket about half of all Pentagon outlays while ripping off the government in a multitude of ways. But what's even more striking is how little they accomplish with the hundreds of billions of taxpayer dollars they receive year in, year out. According to the Government Accountability Office (GAO), from 2020 to 2022, the total number of major defense acquisition programs actually declined even as total costs and average delivery time for new weapons systems increased.Take the Navy's top acquisition program, for example. Earlier this month, the news broke that the Columbia-class ballistic missile submarine is already at least a year behind schedule. That sub is the sea-based part of the next-generation nuclear (air-sea-and-land) triad that the administration considers the "ultimate backstop" for global deterrence. As a key part of this country's never-ending arms buildup, the Columbia is supposedly the Navy's most important program, so you might wonder why the Pentagon hasn't implemented a single one of the GAO's six recommendations to help keep it on track.As the GAO report made clear, the Navy proposed delivering the first Columbia-class vessel in record time — a wildly unrealistic goal — despite it being the "largest and most complex submarine" in its history.Yet the war economy persists, even as the giant weapons corporations deliver less weaponry for more money in an ever more predictable fashion (and often way behind schedule as well). This happens in part because the Pentagon regularly advances weapons programs before design and testing are even completed, a phenomenon known as "concurrent development." Building systems before they're fully tested means, of course, rushing them into production at the taxpayer's expense before the bugs are out. Not surprisingly, operations and maintenance costs account for about 70% of the money spent on any U.S. weapons program.Lockheed Martin's F-35 is the classic example of this enormously expensive tendency. The Pentagon just greenlit the fighter jet for full-scale production this month, 23 years (yes, that's not a misprint!) after the program was launched. The fighter has suffered from persistent engine problems and deficient software. But the official go-ahead from the Pentagon means little, since Congress has long funded the F-35 as if it were already approved for full-scale production. At a projected cost of at least $1.7 trillion over its lifetime, America's most expensive weapons program ever should offer a lesson in the necessity of trying before buying.Unfortunately, this lesson is lost on those who need to learn it the most. Acquisition failures of the past never seem to financially impact the executives or shareholders of America's biggest military contractors. On the contrary, those corporate leaders depend on Pentagon bloat and overpriced, often unnecessary weaponry. In 2023, America's biggest military contractor, Lockheed Martin, paid its CEO John Taiclit $22.8 million. Annual compensation for the CEOs of RTX, Northrop Grumman, General Dynamics, and Boeing ranged from $14.5 and $22.5 million in the past two years. And shareholders of those weapons makers are similarly cashing in. The arms industry increased cash paid to its shareholders by 73% in the 2010s compared to the prior decade. And they did so at the expense of investing in their own businesses. Now they expect taxpayers to bail them out to ramp up weapons production for Ukraine and Israel.Reining in the Military-Industrial ComplexOne way to begin reining in runaway Pentagon spending is to eliminate the ability of Congress and the president to arbitrarily increase that department's budget. The best way to do so would be by doing away with the very concept of "emergency spending." Otherwise, thanks to such spending, that $895 billion Pentagon budget will undoubtedly prove to be anything but a ceiling on military spending next year. As an example, the $95 billion aid package for Ukraine, Israel, and Taiwan that passed the Senate in February is still hung up in the House, but some portion of it will eventually get through and add substantially to the Pentagon's already enormous budget.Meanwhile, the Pentagon has fallen back on the same kind of budgetary maneuvers it perfected at the peak of its disastrous Afghan and Iraq wars earlier in this century, adding billions to the war budget to fund items on the department's wish list that have little to do with "defense" in our present world. That includes emergency outlays destined to expand this country's "defense industrial base" and further supersize the military-industrial complex — an expensive loophole that Congress should simply shut down. That, however, will undoubtedly prove a tough political fight, given how many stakeholders — from Pentagon officials to those corporate executives to compromised members of Congress — benefit from such spending sprees.Ultimately, of course, the debate about Pentagon spending should be focused on far more than the staggering sums being spent. It should be about the impact of such spending on this planet. That includes the Biden administration's stubborn continuation of support for Israel's campaign of mass slaughter in Gaza, which has already killed more than 31,000 people while putting many more at risk of starvation. A recent Washington Post investigation found that the U.S. has made 100 arms sales to Israel since the start of the war last October, most of them set at value thresholds just low enough to bypass any requirement to report them to Congress.The relentless supply of military equipment to a government that the International Court of Justice has said is plausibly engaged in a genocidal campaign is a deep moral stain on the foreign-policy record of the Biden administration, as well as a blow to American credibility and influence globally. No amount of airdrops or humanitarian supplies through a makeshift port can remotely make up for the damage still being done by U.S.-supplied weapons in Gaza.The case of Gaza may be extreme in its brutality and the sheer speed of the slaughter, but it underscores the need to thoroughly rethink both the purpose of and funding for America's foreign and military policies. It's hard to imagine a more devastating example than Gaza of why the use of force so often makes matters far, far worse — particularly in conflicts rooted in longstanding political and social despair. A similar point could have been made with respect to the calamitous U.S. interventions in Iraq and Afghanistan that cost untold numbers of lives, while pouring yet more money into the coffers of America's major weapons makers. Both of those military campaigns, of course, failed disastrously in their stated objectives of promoting democracy, or at least stability, in troubled regions, even as they exacted huge costs in blood and treasure.Before our government moves full speed ahead expanding the weapons industry and further militarizing geopolitical challenges posed by China and Russia, we should reflect on America's disastrous performance in the costly, prolonged wars already waged in this century. After all, they did enormous damage, made the world a far more dangerous place, and only increased the significance of those weapons makers. Throwing another trillion dollars-plus at the Pentagon won't change that.This article was republished with permission from TomDispatch.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Babulgaon-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 404 ha in Babulgaon-2 microwatershed in Humnabad taluk of Bidar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 811 mm, of which about 609 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 93 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and three per cent is covered by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 34 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 2nd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture.  About 87 per cent of the soils are moderately deep to deep and very deep (75- >150 cm) and 10 per cent are shallow (25-50 cm) soils.  An area of 75 per cent has clayey soils at the surface and 22 per cent soils are loamy at the surface.  About 80 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 17 per cent gravelly to very gravelly (15-60% gravel) soils.  About 18 per cent of the area are very high (>200mm/m), 32 per cent medium (100- 150 mm/m) and 47 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) to very low (0.75%) in organic carbon and 5 per cent medium (0.5-0.75%) in organic carbon.  Major area of 85 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in about 2 per cent area.  About 30 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) and 4 per cent is deficient in available iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  About 27 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 71 (18) 185 (46) Sapota 23 (6) 212(53) Maize - 185 (46) Jackfruit 97 (24) 151 (38) Red gram - 256 (64) Jamun 97 (24) 222 (55) Sunflower 71 (18) 185 (46) Musambi 23 (6) 296 (74) Cotton 65 (16) 187 (46) Lime 23 (6) 296 (74) Sugarcane - 185 (46) Cashew 103 (25) 136 (34) Soybean 71 (18) 200(50) Custard apple 181 (45) 144 (36) Bengalgram 71 (18) 185 (46) Amla 178 (44) 147 (36) Guava 23 (6) 212(52) Tamarind 97(24) 89 (22) Mango - 100 (25) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This helps in maintaining an ecological balance and also helps in mitigating the climate change.Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Babulgaon-2 micro-watershed (Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk, Bidar district) is located in between 17040' – 17042' North latitudes and 77014' – 77016' East longitudes, covering an area of about 404 ha, bounded by Mustari, Udbal, Bannahalli and Bilkhera villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Babulgaon-2 micro-watershed in Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk and Bidar district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 68.1 to 31.9 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age group of 18 to 30 populations is around 57.5 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 85.1 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 50 per cent.  Fire wood and liquefied petroleum gas is the source of energy for a cooking among 70 per cent.  About 40 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 30 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system are among all households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities, among all these study area household are not having toilet facilities.  Women participation in decisions making are around 90 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.63 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belonging to marginal and small farmers. The total cultivated area by dry land condition of among all sample households. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 19.1per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 42.6 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 20229 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.42667 per household; about 66.9 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 827grams (1879 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 82.9 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.31803 per household. Among all farm households are comes under the below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs. 2039. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 1406 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 548361 per year for the total area of 403 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 22424/ ha/year. Per hector food grain production services is maximum in redgram (Rs. 35746) followed by sugarcane (Rs. 26202) and maize (Rs. 5324).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in sugarcane (Rs. 146532) followed by redgram (Rs.63166) and maize (Rs. 25152). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is maize (17.3 %) followed by redgram (53.8%) sugarcane (25.5 %).  In Babulgaon-2 micro watershed, major soils of Babulgoan (BGN) series are having very soil depth cover around 17.7 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram. Mudhanal (MNL) are also having deep soil depth cover around 3.7 % of area, major crops are redgram. Muthangi (MTN) soil series having moderately soil depth cover around 19.7 % of areas, crops are sugarcane. Mustarwadi (MWD) and soil series having very deep soil depth cover 24.7 % of areas crops are maize (29 %) and redgram (71%). 3  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for redgram ranges between Rs. 66484/ha in MNL soil (with of BCR of 0.83) and Rs. 41914/ha in MWD soil (with of BCR 1.15).  In sugarcane the cost of cultivation in MTN soil is Rs. 123820/ha (with of BCR 1.21).  In maize the cost of cultivation Rs. 23492/ha in MWD soil (with BCR of 1.23)  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (2.7 to 48%) followed by sugarcane (10.7%) and maize (75.2%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Khurgunta-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 603 ha in Sedam taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 839 mm, of which about 639 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 91 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 481 ha (80%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 6 ha (1%) area covered by railway and 117 ha (19%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 3 soil series and 6 soil phases (management units), and 2 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of June to 3rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 80 percent of area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 71 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 9 per cent soils are shallow (25-50 cm) in depth.  About 80 per cent area of the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  About 79per cent area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 9 per cent area is low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 80 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently (1-3% slope) sloping lands.  An area of about 59 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 21 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded to severely eroded.  An area of about 80 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is low (2-4 dSm-1) in 80 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 69 per cent soils are medium (0.5-0.75%) and 11 per cent is high (>0.75%) in soil organic carbon content.  About 78 per cent of the area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 80 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is sufficient in 3 per cent and deficient in 76 per cent of soils in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 413(68) 13(2) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Redgram - 426(71) Jamun - 426(71) Sunflower 413(68) 13(2) Musambi 413(68) 13(2) Cotton 413(68) 13(2) Lime 413(68) 13(2) Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean 413(68) 13(2) Custard apple 413(68) 13(2) Bengal gram 413(68) 68(11) Amla 413(68) 13(2) Guava - - Tamarind - 426(71) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also help in mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Khurgunta-2 micro-watershed (Adki sub-watershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 1709'–17011' North latitudes and 77019'–76021' East longitudes, covering an area of about 603.11 ha, bounded by Khurgunta, Sedam and Madhakal villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Khurgunta-2 micro-watershed (Adki subwatershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 52.8 to 47.2 Per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is 66.6 around per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 79.2 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) 60 percent.  Liquefied petroleum gas is the source of energy for a cooking among 80 per cent.  About 10.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 10.0 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 40 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making is among all the households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.19 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land is total cultivated land area among all the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 83.3 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation around 4.2 percent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.19277 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.7483 per household, about 80 per cent of sample farmers having plough and bullock cart (30 %).  The average value of livestock is around Rs.33666 per household; about 30.0 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 827 grams (1970 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 60 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.48361 per household. About 50.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.2558 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.685 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.329794 per year for the total area of 603 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 14354/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in red gram (Rs.18647) and bengal gram (Rs.10421).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 57776) and bengalgram (Rs. 46909). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is red gram (86.5 %) and bengal gram (13.4 %).  In Khurgunta-2 micro-watershed, major soil series are grown on Dhoandothi soils are very deep soil depth covers around 36.38 % of area major crops are red gram and bengalgram. Dargah soils are moderately deep soil depth covers around 34.19 % of area. on these soil farmers are presently growing red gram. Adki soils are shallow soil depth covers around 9.06 % of area major crops are red gram. 3  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs. 28187/ha in ADK soil (with BCR of 1.89) and Rs. 22489/ha in DRG soil (with BCR of 1.84).  In bengalgram the cost of cultivation in DDT soil is Rs. 16749/ha (with BCR of 1.62).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (16.9 to 18.4 %) and bengalgram (53.6 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Totlur-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 501 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 488 ha (97%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 14 ha (3%) by rock outcrops. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 7 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 25 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 to >150 cm), 48 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 43 per cent are moderately (e2) eroded and 55 per cent area is severely (e3) eroded.  An area of about 2 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 13 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 26 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 7 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 31 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8- 8.4), 16 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 2 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 42 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 70 per cent is low (20 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 13 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 66 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is deficient (0.2 ppm) in 86 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 1 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 27(5) 396(79) Sapota - 27(5) Maize 27(5) 228(46) Pomegranate - 195(39) Bajra 27(5) 450(90) Musambi - 195(39) Groundnut - 213(43) Lime - 195(39) Sunflower - 195(39) Amla 27(5) 450(90) Redgram - 195(39) Cashew - - Bengal gram 27(5) 396(80) Jackfruit - 27(5) Cotton - 423(84) Jamun - 126(25) Chilli - 423(84) Custard apple 27(5) 450(90) Tomato 27(5) 228(46) Tamarind - 126(25) Drumstick - 249(49) Mulberry - 81(16) Mango - - Marigold - 423(84) Guava - 27(5) Chrysanthemum - 423(84)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Totlur-3 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16041'–16043' North latitudes and 77017'-77019' East longitudes, covering an area of about 501.47 ha, bounded by Yaleri village with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Totlur-3 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 62.5 to 37.5 per cent of among sample households population. Majority of male ratio comes under marginal farmers having about 80 per cent. And majority of female ratio comes under small farmer size group having 41.4 per cent.  Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 67.5 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 25 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) are around 66.7 per cent, followed by 16.7 per cent belong to scheduled caste (SC) and 16.7 per cent belonging to general caste among the sample population.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample households.  About 16.7 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 83.3 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 16.7 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 95 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.50 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The account for dry land of 45.0 ha among the total cultivated land among the sample households2. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation is only 15.0 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 2.5 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.17542 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.4677per household, about 6.7 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.800 per household; about 100 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 1039.1 grams (2325.4 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 33 per cent of sample households are consuming more than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 34915 per household. About 100 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.3787. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. Rs.5558/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in redgram (Rs.10829) followed by green gram (Rs.8909), cotton (Rs.3240), sunflower (Rs.2558) and groundnut (Rs.2253).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The value of per hectare water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs.53319) followed by paddy (Rs.50006), cotton (Rs.48035), groundnut (Rs. 20615) and sunflower (Rs. 14268). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is red gram (51.43 %) followed by cotton (19.43 %), green gram (9.71 %), groundnut (9.71 %) and sunflower (9.71 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for Groundnut is Rs.71847/ha in marginal farmers (with BCR of 1.03).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation is Rs.45854/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.06).  In cotton the cost of cultivation is Rs. 38256/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.08),  In red gram the cost of cultivation is Rs. 17816/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.52) and Rs. 11534/ha in semi medium farmers (with BCR of 2.23). 3  In green gram the cost of cultivation is Rs.15791/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.56).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (29 %), green gram (42.2 %) sunflower (19 %) and red gram (46.4 to 53.2 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

The article analyses the state of the most popular and least popular professions and specialties in Ukraine. It's found that there are no specialties in the field of land management among them. It is also noted that at the legislative level the specialties "Land Management and Cadastre" and "Evaluation of land and real estate" were replaced by the specialty "Geodesy and land management", which belongs to the field of knowledge "Architecture and construction" (technical sciences). It is substantiated that the profession of land manager should relate to the field of knowledge of "Social and behavioural sciences". It's based on the provisions of the Law "On Land Management" and the study of world experience of the essence of the concepts of land management and land management planning (both have technical, socio-economic, legal and environmental focus).It is proved that the profession of land manager needs to be reprofiled. In this regard, there is a need to identify new specialties and specializations and add them into the state classifier DK 003: 2010. It's important to expand the training of specialists within: 1) specialty 193 "Geodesy and land management" specializations "Land Management and Land Use Administration" and "Cadastral Registrar"; 2) specialty 101 "Ecology" specialization "Land management and ecologization of landuse", 3) specialty 051 "Economics" specialization "Economics of land management and land use". It is proposed to add them to the classifier.Keywords. Profession "land manager", labour market, perspective specialties and specializations in land management, new qualifications. Formulation of the problem. The development of society at all times was associated with the arrangement of lands, which today remains the main means for the existence of mankind and a source of social wealth. The need to establish the limits disturb landowners from ancient times. This function is performed by land surveyors. When the first representatives of this profession appeared, it is certainly not known. But the land surveyor is now a profession demanded both in the village and in the city. In our country, the profession of land surveyor always respects honour because it is devoted to the invaluable treasures of Ukraine - land, which has always attached special significance.According to the research conducted in Ukraine, soon, the 10 most demanded professions include: programmers (C++, Java), food industry technologists, construction engineers, architects, designers of offices and interiors, personnel managers, recruiters, energy engineers, journalists, technologists of light industry products, financiers (specialization "banking") [1]. In addition, prospective include: hotel business managers, accountants, auditors, lawyers, marketers.According to the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, according to the results of the 2017 admission, the most popular specialties among the entrants for the Bachelor in Ukraine were Philology, Law, and Management. 85 thousand, 74 thousand and 59 thousand applications have been filed for the stated above specialties respectively. In addition, among the leaders are "Medicine", "Computer Science", "Tourism", "Secondary Education", "Psychology", "Economics". These specialties were desirable to enter by 40 to 46 thousand of entrants. The last step in the TOP-10 was "Software Engineering" with the result of 33 thousand applications (Fig. 1) [9]. Despite the stated above facts, it has been revealed that such specialties as "Law", "Management", "Tourism" and "Economics" remain among the most popular among entrants even though they are not in demand in the labour market. At the same time, the high levels in the ranking are occupied by important for the economy specialties, such as "Computer Science" and "Software Engineering". The least popular specialties are (fig. 2) "Theology" (185 applications excluding spiritual higher educational institutions) and "Hydropower" (193 applications for entry).However, specialties for the preparation of a specialist in land management are absent among the most and least popular. Therefore, with a caution we have to perceive the situation.The list of required occupations in the labour market is changing. Focus magazine has ranked the professions that will be promising in 5-10 years [10]. Before allocating the most promising specialties, the publication together with experts identified the areas of the economy that will actively develop in the near future. So, at first there was a list of 40 spheres of the economy, which, according to Focus, will successfully develop in the next 5-10 years. Experts evaluated the prospects for the development of these industries on a 10-point scale, giving each sector a mark from 1 to 10 points. At the same time, each expert could add to the list the industry that was not among the 40 listed, but whose potential he considers rather large.According to the obtained data, the rating of 15 most promising industries has been designed, and include: information technologies, telecommunications and communications, agriculture, pharmaceutical production and pharmacy business, banking, frying and processing industry, transport services, financial services, legal services, household services, metallurgy, alcohol production, energy, livestock, utilities.So, the 20 most promising professions of the next decade will be the following: the seller, the IT specialist, the automation engineer, the marketer, the municipal services engineer, the aeroengineer, the technologist in the production and processing of food products, the technologist of consumer services, logistics, the lawyer (economic and land law), power engineer veterinarian, pharmacologist, financier, communication engineer, practical psychologist, geneticist, biochemist, robotic technician, nanoengineer.In addition, agrarian countries are actively developing organic and farm farming. This will require the involvement of a large number of employees who are able to work on the ground - and thus, forms a serious niche. In general, the labour market trends in the coming years can be reduced to nine main directions [5]: engineers, IT specialists, nanotechnology specialists, marketers, service providers, logistics, environmentalists, chemists, and physicians.The Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine dated December 30, 2015, No. 1187, approved new Licensing conditions for the conduct of educational activities [7] concerning the further conduct of educational and scientific work in educational institutions. By the order of the Ministry of Education and Science dated November 6, 2015, No. 1151 "On the peculiarities of the introduction of the list of branches of knowledge and specialties [6], which are the training of applicants for higher education, approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine from April 29, 2015, No. 266" [8] approved Table of correspondence List of directions for training of specialists in higher educational establishments for the educational-qualifying level of bachelor (List 1), List of specialties, which was carried out training of specialists in higher education institutions for educational and qualification levels of a specialist and a master's degree (List 2).In the stated above Resolution, it is defined that instead of the specialties "Land Management and Cadastre" and "Land and Real Estate Valuation" – the specialty "Geodesy and Land Management" is established. The latter belongs to the field of knowledge "Architecture and Construction", which belongs to the technical sciences.At the same time, the Law of Ukraine "On Land Management" stipulates that land management is a set of socio-economic and environmental measures aimed at regulating land relations and rational organization of the territory of administrative-territorial units, economic entities carried out under the influence of social and productive relations and development of productive forces [2]. The same law (Article 1) stipulates that activities in the field of land management are the scientific, technical, production and management activities of state authorities, local governments, legal entities and individuals, which is carried out under land management. Land-use documentation (land management documentation) is the text and graphic materials approved in accordance with the established procedure, which regulate the use and protection of lands of state, communal and private property, as well as survey and land survey materials, author's supervision of project implementation, etc. Measures on land management – provided by documentation on land management on the rational use and protection of land, the formation and organization of the territory of the object of land management, taking into account their purpose, restrictions on the use and restrictions (encumbrances) on the rights of other persons (land servitudes), preservation and increase of fertility soils.This is evidence that the profession of land surveyor is more likely to belong to the field of knowledge of "Social and behavioural sciences" than to "Architecture and construction". Architecture (Greek αρχιτεκτονικη - construction) is both a science and the art of designing buildings, as well as a system of buildings and structures that form a spatial environment for the lives and activities of people in accordance with the laws of beauty. Land management, as stated in the Law of Ukraine "On Land Management" – a set of socio-economic and environmental measures aimed at regulating land relations and rational organization of the territory of administrative-territorial entities and economic entities on the ground.As the research of A.M. Tretiak and V.M. Tretiak shows, the concept and essence of land management has both a technical direction and socio-economic, legal and environmental.Land managers have worked and work in the structural subdivisions of the State Committee for Land Resources of Ukraine, the State Land Agency of Ukraine and the State Audit Office of Ukraine, state authorities and local self-government bodies, and ministries (where there are departments of land resources); in public and private design and valuation companies, real estate firms, agroholdings, agricultural enterprises; territorial communities, scientific institutions, institutions of legal direction. civic organizations.The land manager learns not only his professional knowledge, but also legal and natural sciences. For a profession it is necessary to have mathematical abilities, engineering approach, spatial imagination, ability to understand the legislation. The profession is extremely interesting and creative, which requires the ability to make informed decisions, communicate with people, requires care, clarity and responsibility. To become a successful specialist in this field, you need to be persistent, self-confident, active, have a well-developed intuition and logical thinking.According to the classification of professions, the professional activity of the land manager relates to professions such as "human-nature". To date, the land manager must have a higher education in the field of "Architecture and Construction" from the specialty "Geodesy and Land Management", according to the educational qualification level: a junior specialist, a bachelor's or a master's degree.Currently, land managers use modern equipment in their work: electronic instruments; new technologies of geographic information systems. Significant problems arise when making managerial decisions due to the imperfection of the regulatory framework - when three different land managers can have three different views on the same issue. At the same time, for professionals it is extremely important to come to a joint decision. But how can the problems of legislation be explained to an ordinary peasant? It's a shame when you can not help a person in solving his question, and even more - when you do not know how to explain the impossibility of solving a particular problem. The disadvantage of the profession is also that there is little free time for personal life, family and wage mismatch in modern times. The advantages include: work is interesting, lots of communication, new knowledge in land law, and more.At the same time, we consider it necessary to stay on the proposals of A. Martyn outlined in the scientific paper "Directions of adaptation of the content of land management education to the needs of the national and world economy" [3], where he publishes "bad news" for land management education – whether we are ready for them? He states: "Most of our graduates will not develop landuse documentation at all; the number of jobs in the industry is quite limited; the overwhelming part of the "modern" Ukrainian land management is a terrible mix of fairly archaic rules, a crazy bureaucracy and meaningless rituals, in order to master the development of primitive land management documentation, it takes 2-3 weeks of practical training, but not 5 years at the university, and a significant part of cadastral registrar are lawyers.Some of these reservations agreeable. Therefore, his thoughts emphasize once again the need for serious changes in the training of land management specialists.Thus, all of the above stipulates the need for changes in the classification of occupations DK 003: 2010 and the definition of new specialties and specialization training of land management specialists.In our opinion, it is expedient to extend the training of specialists in land surveying in the following areas: 1) specialty 193 "Geodesy and land management" of the specializations "Land Management and Land Use Administration" and "Cadastral Registrar"; 2) specialty 101 "Ecology" specialization "Land management and ecologization of land use"; 3) specialty 051 "Economics" specialization "Economics of land management and land use".At the same time, we consider it expedient to add the following qualifications to the classifier of professions DK 003: 2010: in section 8 "Main specialists – heads of scientific research units and subdivisions on scientific and technical preparation of production and other managers" – Chief land surveyor; in section 14 "Managers of enterprises, institutions, organizations and their subdivisions" – Manager of land management, Manager in the field of operations with land, Manager in the field of research in the land market; in section 25 "Agronomists, hydraulic engineering, forest managers and professionals of related professions" – Land manager; in section 33 "Assistant veterinarians, junior specialists in agronomy, forestry, water management and nature conservation" – Land Resources Inspector; in section 34 "Other technical specialists in the field of management" – State Inspector for the use and protection of land; in section 249 "Professionals not included in other classification groups". Land manager-ecologist, Land manager-designer.Conclusions.Summing up, we note that the assignment of the specialty "Geodesy and land management" to the field of knowledge "Architecture and Construction" (engineering science) does not comply with the provisions of the Law "On Land Management", the study of world experience of the essence of the concepts of land management, which determined that they are inherent in technical, as well as socio-economic, legal and environmental trends. In this connection it is proved that the profession of land manager belongs to the field of knowledge of "Social and behavioral sciences".In view of this, the need for re-engineering the directions of land management training is urgent. Therefore, we must work ahead and make changes to the classification of professions DK 003: 2010 regarding the definition of new specialties and specialization training of specialists in land management. We consider it expedient to expand the training of specialists within: 1) specialty 193 "Geodesy and land management" of the specialties "Land Management and Land Use Administration" and "Cadastral Registrar"; 2) specialty 101 "Ecology" specialization "Land management and ecologization of land use"; 3) specialty 051 "Economics" specialization "Economics of land management and land use" (qualification "Land Management Manager"). It is proposed to make changes to the list of qualifications. ; У пропонованій статті проаналізовано стан найзатребуваніших і найменш популярних професій, спеціальностей в Україні та виявлено, що спеціальності для підготовки фахівців землевпорядного профілю серед них відсутні. Також відзначено, що на законодавчому рівні спеціальності «Землеустрій та кадастр», «Оцінка землі та нерухомого майна» з підготовки зазначених фахівців замінено на спеціальність «Геодезія та землеустрій», яку віднесено до галузі знань «Архітектура та будівництво» (технічні науки). Обґрунтовано, що професія землевпорядника має відноситись до галузі знань «Соціальних та поведінкових наук», підставою чого слугували положення ЗУ «Про землеустрій» та дослідження світового досвіду сутності понять землеустрою і землевпорядкування (мають як технічне, так і соціально-економічне, правове й екологічне спрямування). Доведено, що професія землевпорядника потребує перепрофілювання. У цьому зв'язку існує необхідність у визначенні нових спеціальностей і спеціалізацій та внесенні їх до класифікатора професій ДК 003:2010. Вказано на доцільність розширення підготовки фахівців в межах: 1) спеціальності 193 «Геодезія та землеустрій» спеціалізацій «Землеустрій та адміністрування землекористування» і «Кадастровий реєстратор»; 2) спеціальності 101 «Екологія» спеціалізації «Землевпорядкування та екологізація землекористування», 3) спеціальності 051 «Економіка» спеціалізації «Економіка землевпорядкування та землекористування». Запропоновано внести до класифікатора й перелік нових кваліфікацій.Ключові слова. Професія «землевпорядник», ринок праці, перспективні спеціальності та спеціалізації у сфері землевпорядкування,нові кваліфікації.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Madkal Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 466 ha in Sedam taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 839 mm, of which about 639 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 91 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 366 ha (79%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 80 ha (17%) is covered by stone quarry and about 19 ha (4%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of June to 3rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 19 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 79 percent of area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 35 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 44 per cent soils are very shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 20 per cent area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 33 per cent area is very low (0.75) in organic carbon.  About 10 per cent of the area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in an area of about 38 per cent and low (4.5 ppm) in 73 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 31 per cent of the soils in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 162(35) 54(12) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Redgram - 216(46) Jamun - 161(35) Sunflower 162(35) 54(12) Musambi 127(27) 34(7) Cotton 162(35) 54(12) Lime 127(27) 34(7) Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean 162(35) 54(12) Custard apple 162(35) 54(12) Bengal gram 216(46) 137(29) Amla 162(35) 54(12) Guava - - Tamarind - 161(35) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Madkal micro-watershed (Adki sub-watershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 1708'–17010' North latitudes and 77020'–77022' East longitudes, covering an area of about 465.92 ha, bounded by Khurgunta, Madhakal, Sedam villages and Telangana state with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for The Madkal Microwatershed (Adki subwatershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 54.8 to 45.2 Per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is 60.0 around per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 62 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 77.7 per cent.  Firewood is the source of energy for a cooking among 66.6 per cent.  About 11.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Farm households are having MGNREGA card only 22 per cent for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 89 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 56 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making is among all the households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.97 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land is total cultivated land area among all the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 91.0 per cent and agriculture is the main and govt service is a subsidiary occupation is around 2.3 per cent among the sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 17343 per household. Mobile and television are popular mass media communication.  The average farm assets value is around Rs. 8066 per household, about 33 per cent of sample farmers having plough and bullock cart.  The average livestock value is around Rs. 38791 per household; about 57.1 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 913 grams (2098 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 60 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 36655 per household. About 77.7 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1658. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 685 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 329794 per year for the total area of 603 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 19077/ ha/year in red gram.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 52882). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is red gram (100 %).  In Madkal micro-watershed, major soil series are Dargah soils series are deep soil depth covers around 21.7 % of area major crops are red gram. Adki soils are shallow soils depth covers around 15.6 % of area. on this soil farmers are presently growing red gram. Mathumuda series having soils are moderately deep covers around 10.6 % of area and Dhandothi soils are very deep covers around 4.6 % of area. major crops are redgram.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for Red gram ranges between Rs. 28153/ha in MTM soil (with BCR of 1.93) and Rs. 20449/ha in DDT soil (with BCR of 1.81). 3  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (19.0 to 24.1 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Over the past 25 years, Uganda has experienced sustained economic growth, supported by a prudent macroeconomic framework and propelled by consistent policy reforms. Annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth averaged 7.4 percent in the 2000s, compared with 6.5 in the 1990s. Economic growth has enabled substantial poverty reduction, with the proportion of people living in poverty more than halving from 56 percent in the 1992 to 23.3 percent in 2009. However, welfare improvements have not been shared equally; there is increasing urban rural inequality and inequality between regions. Revitalizing economic growth and tackling persistent poverty will require addressing a number of challenges. These include alleviating infrastructure bottlenecks; increasing agricultural productivity; managing land, water and other natural resources; addressing demographic challenges; and confronting governance issues. The development and management of water resources is intimately linked to Uganda's continued development ambitions. Water can be both a positive force-providing productive input to agriculture, industry, energy and tourism, and sustaining human and environmental health-as well as a destructive one-to which the devastating consequences of floods and droughts can attest. The National Water Resources Assessment (NWRA) estimates that Uganda's total renewable water resources are about 43 million cubic meters (MCM), less than was estimated in the Ministry of Water and Environment's (MWE's) Sector Investment Plan (SIP) in 2009. About 13 percent of this is sustainable groundwater (5.67 MCM) and the balance is surface water (37.41 MCM). About one half of all districts in Uganda experience annual rainfall deficits-the difference between evapotranspiration and rainfall-ranging from slightly above zero to 400 mm. The frequency of rainfall anomalies below normal (or long-term annual average) is significantly greater than the frequency of rainfall anomalies higher than normal. The Uganda water Country Assistance Strategy (CAS) aims to assist the Government of Uganda (GoU) in identifying priority actions for building on successful outcomes, tackling remaining challenges, and exploiting opportunities in Uganda's water sector. The objective of the water CAS is to define the World Bank's strategic role in supporting GoU to better manage and develop its water resources. The recommendations of the water CAS are complementary to the World Bank Uganda Country Assistance Strategy (CAS) 2011-15 priorities for Uganda and consistent with the country's development objectives as defined in the National Development Plan (NDP) and water and related sector plans and strategies, which form the foundation of the World Bank Uganda CAS.

The Country Environmental Analysis (CEA) for Timor-Leste identifies environmental priorities through a systematic review of environmental issues in natural resources management and environmental health in the context of the country's economic development and environmental institutions. Lack of data has been the main limitation in presenting a more rigorous analysis. Nevertheless, the report builds on the best available secondary data, presents new data on the country's wealth composition, and derives new results on the costs of water and air pollution. The CEA calls for urgent attention to gaps in the environmental management framework, the lack of capacity to implement the few regulations in place, and the high cost of indoor air pollution and poor water, sanitation, and hygiene. Timor-Leste is a young country that regained independence in 2002, and it has emerged from a bitter past burdened by colonialism and violent conflicts. It is still a fragile state facing enormous challenges. The report also points out the lack of clean water, appropriate sanitation, and hygiene as an environmental priority. The CEA estimates that this imposes an economic cost of about $17 million per year by way of illness and premature death. The CEA also looks at outdoor air pollution and at natural resource management for land, forestry, and coastal and marine resources. Outdoor air pollution is not a serious problem for the time being, but it could become so in the long run if the economy grows rapidly, urbanization continues, heavy industry emerges, and motorization increases rapidly. This underlines the need for good forward territorial and development planning. In conclusion, much good work has already been done to enhance the quality of the environment in Timor-Leste. Efforts are under way to improve the data base for environmental management.

학위논문 (박사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 공과대학 기계항공공학부, 2020. 8. 민경덕. ; Abstract The Effect of Turbulent Flow on the Combustion Cyclic Variation in a Spark Ignition Engine using Large-Eddy Simulation Insuk Ko Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering The Graduate School Seoul National University At the present, the problem of worldwide air pollution has emerged as an important issue and many countries are trying to solve the problem. Emission regulations have been tightened around the world in an effort to reduce emissions from internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. From 2014, Tier 3 emissions standards in the United States (U.S.) and EURO6 regulations in the European Union (EU) are adopted. Currently, CO2 is also being strongly enforced annually. To meet the tightened CO2 regulations, the development of high efficiency engines is actively being carried out by each vehicle manufacturer. In the development of high efficiency engines, the key point is the increase in thermal efficiency. Many technologies have been developed to increase thermal efficiency and are being applied to mass-production engines. However, there is currently a cycle-to-cycle variation (CCV) of combustion as the biggest obstacle to engine development. Therefore, research on the CCV is also being actively carried out. Because the causes that affect the cycle deviation are various and complex, it is difficult to conduct detailed research on the source of the CCV through experimental studies. Therefore, the 3D simulation is actively carried out as an alternative. In the present study, the CCV phenomenon of combustion was reproduced using large-eddy simulation (LES) approach and the investigation on the source of CCV are conducted. Currently, the engine simulation using LES is immature. Therefore, it is necessary to consider each sub-model for accurate simulation. First, three Sub-grid scale (SGS) turbulence models were evaluated with particle image velocimetry (PIV) data from the single-cylinder transparent combustion chamber (TCC-III) engine. The dynamic structure model (DSM) was adopted for this study, based on the analysis of the flow field and the predicted SGS turbulent velocity compared to the PIV data. Secondly, the G-equation was employed as a combustion model. The model can be used in the corrugated flamelets regime and the thin reaction flamelets regime. The turbulent burning velocity of the model is quite complicated to simulate the turbulent flame included in the two regimes. Therefore, in this study, the combustion regime of the target engine operating condition was found by using Reynolds averaged navier-stokes equation (RANS) approach and was identified to the corrugated flamelets regime. Thus, the G-equation was modified for the corrugated flamelets regime. Thirdly, an ignition model reflecting the characteristics of LES was developed. The lagrangian particles were employed to realize the ignition channel and the secondary electric circuit model was implemented to predict the spark energy, restrikes phenomena and the end of ignition time. The one of the key features of the ignition model developed in this study is that a simplified empirical function is implemented to realize the thermal diffusion during arc phase. After ignition phase, the channel grows by chemical reaction and the flame propagation progresses. The turbulent flame brush thickness term is introduced to predict the transition state between the laminar flame propagation and the turbulent flame propagation. Finally, when the channel is grown sufficiently, flame is propagated in the 3D field by the G-equation Finally, 30 LES cycles were performed to identify the cause of the CCV and validated against the experimental data. The sources of the CCV are mainly from the small scale turbulent flow and the large scale turbulent flow. The small scale turbulent flow effect was investigated and the fact that the small scale turbulent flow is related to the tumble motion is identified. In terms of the large scale turbulent flow, the effect of the local vortex on the flame propagation was found through the detailed analysis of the flow field. In particular, the vortex produced by wall flow on the secondary tumble plane is an important factor. A new piston shape was designed to strengthen the vortex formation by wall flow. The result of new piston case shows the reduced combustion CCV than the base case. This research provides the guide how to investigate the sources of the combustion CCV and how to reduce the combustion CCV for the future engine development Keywords: SI engine, LES, CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics), CCV (Cycle-to-cycle variation), Ignition model, SGS model Student Number: 2013-20641 ; 국 문 초 록 현재 전 세계 대기오염 문제가 중요한 이슈로 떠오르고 많은 나라들이 이 문제를 해결하기 위해 노력하고 있다. 내연기관 차량의 배기 가스 배출량을 줄이기 위해 전 세계적으로 배출가스 규제가 강화되었다. 2014년부터 미국은 Tier 3 배기배출물 규정을 유럽연합은 EURO 6 규정을 채택하고 있다. 현재 연비 규제인 CO2도 매년 강력하게 강화되고 있다. 강화된 CO2 규정을 충족시키기 위해, 고효율 엔진의 개발은 각 차량 제조사에 의해 활발하게 이루어지고 있다. 고효율 엔진 개발에서 핵심은 열효율 증가이다. 열효율을 높이기 위해 많은 기술이 개발되어 양산 엔진에 적용되고 있다. 그러나 현재 엔진 개발에 가장 큰 장애물로 연소 사이클 간 편차가 있다. 따라서 사이클 편차에 대한 연구도 활발히 진행되고 있다. 사이클 편차에 영향을 미치는 원인은 다양하고 복잡하기 때문에, 실험 연구를 통해 사이클 편차의 근본 원인에 대한 상세한 연구를 실시하기 어렵다. 따라서 대안으로 3D 시뮬레이션을 활용한 연구가 활발히 진행되고 있다. 본 연구에서는, 연소의 사이클 편차 현상을 Large-Eddy Simulation (LES) 유동 해석 방법을 이용하여 재현하고 사이클 편차의 원인에 대한 연구를 진행한다. 현재 LES를 이용한 엔진 시뮬레이션은 아직까지 미숙한 단계이다. 따라서 정확한 시뮬레이션을 위해 각 물리적 현상을 구현할 수 있는 모델을 구현해야 한다. 먼저, 3개의 sub-grid scale (SGS) 난류 모델을 단기통 광학 엔진의 (TCC-III) particle image velocimetry (PIV) 측정 결과로 평가하였다. PIV 데이터와 비교한 유동장 및 예측된 SGS 난류속도에 대한 분석을 바탕으로 본 연구에서는 dynamic structure model (DSM)이 채택되었다. 둘째로, G-equation 모델을 연소 모델로 선택하였다. G-equation 모델은 Pitsch[1]에 의해 LES 적용 가능 하도록 개발되었다. 이 모델은 corrugated flamelets regime과 thin reaction flamelets regime에서 사용될 수 있다. 연소 속도 모델은 두 연소 환경에 포함된 난류 연소를 모사하기 위해 상당히 복잡하다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 RANS 를 이용하여 대상 엔진 작동 조건의 연소 환경을 찾아 내었고, 연소 환경은 corrugated flamelets regime에 속한 것을 확인 하였다. 따라서 기존의 G-equation 연소 모델을 corrugated flamelets regime에 맞도록 변경 하였다. 셋째로, LES의 특성을 반영한 점화 모델이 개발되었다. Lagrangian 개념을 이용하여 점화 채널을 구현하고, 2차 전기 회로 모델을 이용하여 점화 에너지, 리스트라이크, 점화 시간 종료 등을 예측하였다. 본 연구에서 개발된 점화 모델의 주요 특징 중 하나는 아크 페이즈 중 열 팽창 현상을 구현을 위해 간단한 경험 함수를 이용한다는 것이다. 아크 페이즈 후, 점화 해널은 화학 반응에 성장하고 화염 전파가 진행된다. 난류 화염 두께는 층류 화염 전파와 난류 화염 전파 사이의 천이 상태를 예측하기 위해 도입되었다. 마지막으로 점화 채널이 충분히 커지면 G-equation 의해 3D 계산 영역에서 화염 전파가 구현된다. 마지막으로 30개의 LES 사이클을 수행하여 연소의 사이클 편차 원인을 분석하고 실험 데이터를 이용하여 시뮬레이션의 정확도를 검증하였다. 연소의 사이클 편차의 원인은 주로 작은 규모의 난류 유동과 큰 규모의 난류 유동에서 나온다. 난류 모델로 구현된 작은 규모의 난류 유동과 큰 규모의 난류 유동에 속한 텀블 값을 같이 분석 하였다. 작은 규모의 난류 유동은 텀블 값과 관계가 있다는 사실을 파악 하였다. 큰 규모 난류 유동 측면에서는 국부적인 유동의 소용돌이가 화염 전파에 미치는 영향을 유동장을 상세히 분석하여 확인되었다. 특히 2차 텀블면에서 벽면 유동에 의해 생성되는 소용돌이가 연소의 사이클 편차에 미치는 중요한 요인임을 밝혀 내었다. 벽면 유동에 의한 소용돌이 형성을 강화하기 위해 새로운 피스톤 현상을 설계 하였다. 새로운 피스톤 형상의 결과는 베이스 피스톤보다 연소의 CCV가 줄어들었다. 본 연구는 향후 엔진 개발을 위해 연소 CCV의 원인을 조사하는 방법과 연소 CCV를 줄이는 방법에 대한 방법론을 제시한다. 주요어: 전기점화 엔진, LES, 전산유체역학, 사이클 편차, 점화모델, 난류모델 학 번: 2013-20641 ; Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Background and Motivation 1 1.2 Literature Review 10 1.2.2 Turbulence Modeling 12 1.2.3 Combustion Modeling 16 1.3 Research Objective 20 1.4 Structure of the Thesis 22 Chapter 2. Sub-grid Scale Turbulence Model 24 2.1 The Fundamentals of Turbulent Flow 23 2.1.1 The Energy Cascade 23 2.1.2 The Energy Spectrum 27 2.2 Sub-grid Scale Turbulence Model 29 2.2.1 Zero-equation Model 31 2.2.1.1 Smagorinsky Model 31 2.2.1.2 Dynamic Smagorinsky Model 32 2.2.2 One-equation and Non-viscosity Model 34 2.2.2.1 Dynamic Structure Model 34 2.3 Evaluation of Turbulence Models 37 2.3.1 Numerical Configuration 40 2.3.2 Comparison of Sub-grid Scale Model 45 Chapter 3. Modeling of Gasoline Surrogate Fuel 59 3.1 Literature Review 55 3.2 Determination of Surrogate Component 56 Chapter 4. Combustion Model for LES 63 4.1 The Laminar Burning Velocity 59 4.1.1 Literature Review 59 4.1.2 The Correlation for the Laminar Flame Speed 62 4.2 G-equation Model for LES 69 4.3 Sub-filter Turbulent Burning Velocity 73 Chapter 5. Lagrangian Ignition Model 82 5.1 Literature Review 77 5.2 Modeling of Ignition 81 5.2.1 Initialization of Particles 82 5.2.2 Channel elongation 83 5.2.3 Electric circuit model 83 5.2.4 Plasma channel expansion. 88 5.2.5 Ignition channel development 94 5.2.6 Restrike 95 5.2.7 Transition between ignition and flame propagation 96 Chapter 6. Experimental and Numerical Setup 106 6.1 Experimental Setup 99 6.2 Numerical Setup 104 Chapter 7. Simulation Results of Combustion CCV 116 7.1 Validation of Simulation Results 109 7.2 Correlation between Combustion Phase and Peak Pressure 115 7.3 Investigation of turbulent flow effect on CCV 121 7.3.1 Small Scale Turbulent Flow Effect on CCV 121 7.3.2 Large Scale Turbulent Flow Effect on CCV 127 7.4 Method for Reduction of CCV 156 7.4.1 Investigation of the Controllable Source of CCV 156 7.4.2 Result of New Designed Piston 166 Chapter 8. Conclusions 182 Chapter 9. Bibliography 186 국 문 초 록 201 ; Doctor

Over the past decade, the metal matrix nanocomposites (MMNCs) have been used in many applications, owing to their competing properties such as high strength to weight ratio, high corrosion resistance, and fatigue strength. The reduction in vehicle weight or increasing the strength to weight ratio of the materials used, provides both fuel efficiency and reducing the CO2 emissions. The fabricate of such composites should be carried out through fulfilling two main considerations; the constitutes (matrix and reinforcement nanoparticles) and the fabrication method. Aluminum alloys, as a matrix, possess remarkable properties of low density, good corrosion resistance, and low thermal expansion. Such characteristics make them attractive chose to perform as matrices in the world of MMNCs. The conventional aluminum alloys are usually used in automotive, aerospace industry, and structural materials owing to their higher performance either mechanically, or functionally. The aluminum features do not end at this point, but it is also characterized by excellent recyclability which makes aluminum a good environment friend by different means of reducing the energy consumption for their production, emissions accompanied with production, and the consumption of fresh raw materials. In this concern, Al6061 was utilized in this research as a matrix, due to its wide range of applications in automotive and ground transportation, thermal management, aerospace, industrial, recreational and infrastructure industries, as well as advanced military systems. Choosing the reinforcement nanoparticles too is subjected to many aspects of durability, cost considerations, ease of introducing into the matrix, and phase stability. With high strength elastic modulus, good wettability, and low thermal expansion coefficient, was Alumina (Al2O3) a promising candidate in the MMNCs synthesizing in this work. The reinforcing role of the nanoparticles raise from the fact of their small size which enables them to direct to the lattice defects like dislocations and reveal several strengthening mechanisms such as load bearing, Hall-Pitch, difference in elastic modulus and thermal expansion coefficient, and Orowan mechanisms. Consequently, the hybrid materials (Aluminum Matrix Nanocomposites (AMNCs)) attract attention to design lightweight materials with improved mechanical, metallurgical and physical properties. Choosing a compatible manufacturing technique is of the same importance degree as choosing the matrix and the reinforcement nanoparticles. Proper method for nanoparticles addition should guarantee uniform, simplicity, and homogenous destruction of the reinforcements over the matrix and ability of use on large scale. Therefore, stir casting is considered is probably the simplest and most economical technique used to produce MMNCs by a liquid state route. However, the process is restricted by the high agglomeration rates resulted from the poor wettability of the nanoparticles and the air entrapment, which occurred during stirring with a tendency of the nanoparticles to sink or float due to the density difference between the matrix and particles. The present study focuses on the fabrication and characterization of the AMNCs. The AMNCs synthesizing is carried out through stir casting using Al2O3 nanoparticles and Aluminum 6061 as a matrix. The proposed research provides robust empirical approaches to overcome the main restrictions of AMNCs fabrications such as poor wettability, agglomeration, porosity, inhomogeneous distribution, high production costs, and durability. The objective of this research is to investigate the process feasibility, the effective reinforcement weight fraction (over which the properties deteriorate), and the fabricated hybrid materials properties (at room and elevated temperature (300°C)) compared to the monolithic alloy. Furthermore, the metallurgical/mechanical/and functional behavior of the produced materials were evaluated utilizing different mechanical tests (tensile, hardness, fatigue and creep tests) and microstructure investigation techniques (optical and scanning electron microscopy). For further enhancement of the fatigue and the functional behavior of the AMNCs, the mechanical surface treatments (MSTs), namely shot peening and roller burnishing, were conducted. The impact of the shot peening and roller burnishing on the fatigue and the creep behavior was unveiled. The wear and corrosion behavior of the different composites were tested, as well. Furthermore, the weldability of the AMNCs was investigated using the rotary friction welding technique. The optimization of the welding parameters was carried out based on the design of experiment method using Minitab 17. Economically, the recyclability of the AMNCs was clarified by re-fabrication of the produced AMNCs through investigating the change of their behavior compared to unreinforced alloy. The nanocomposites exhibited finer grain size with enhanced mechanical behavior. The yield strength and ultimate tensile strength are improved by 50% and 32% respectively compared to the unreinforced alloy. Moreover, the nanocomposites represented an enhancement in the fatigue life (Electropolished) about 26% and 64% in air and 3.5% NaCl electropolished condition with improved creep rate and corrosion resistance, with further improvement after conducting mechanical surface treatments such as shot peening and roller burnishing to reach 37% and 127% after conducting shot peening in air and 3.5% NaCl compared to the electropolished unreinforced alloy, while it reaches 48% and 154% after conducting roller burnishing. Besides, the AMNCs show higher creep life than the unreinforced alloy not only without further mechanical surface treatments, but also after conducting shot peening. The tribological properties and corrosion resistance of the AMNCs are also enhanced compared to the unreinforced matrix. The AMNCs proved good durability not only by the good weldability, but also by the competed properties obtained after recycling. In conclusion, an analytic model is proposed to reach a simple equation which could describe and detect the expected behavior of the AMNCs based on the weight fraction and both matrix and reinforcements properties. The experimental results show good agreement and effectiveness of the model to predict the mechanical properties of the AMNCs. ; In den letzten zehn Jahren wurden die Metall-Matrix-Nanocomposites (MMNCs) aufgrund ihrer konkurrenzfähigen Eigenschaften, wie zum Beispiel der hohen spezifischen Festigkeit, der sehr guten Korrosionsbeständigkeit und Dauerfestigkeit, in vielen Anwendungen eingesetzt. Die Reduzierung des Fahrzeuggewichts durch die Erhöhung der spezifischen Festigkeit dieser Composite sorgt sowohl für eine höhere Kraftstoffeffizienz als auch für eine Reduzierung der CO2-Emissionen. Die Herstellung und Entwicklung solcher Verbundwerkstoffe sollte sich an den folgenden zwei Gesichtspunkten orientieren der Komponenten (Matrix- und Verstärkungsnanopartikel) und der Herstellungsmethode. Aluminiumlegierungen besitzen, als Matrix, bemerkenswerte Eigenschaften wie die gute Korrosionsbeständigkeit, die geringe Dichte und die geringe Wärmeausdehnung. Solche Eigenschaften machen sie attraktiv, wenn sie als Matrix in der Welt der MMNCs eingesetzt werden. Die konventionellen Aluminiumlegierungen werden aufgrund ihrer höheren mechanischen und funktionellen Leistungsfähigkeit in der Regel in der Automobil-, Luft- und Raumfahrtindustrie zur Herstellung von Strukturwerkstoffen eingesetzt. Weiterhin zeichnet sich Aluminium durch seine ausgezeichnete Recyclingfähigkeit aus, welche es zu einen umweltfreundlichen Werkstoff macht, da sich der Energieverbrauch bei der Herstellung, die mit der Produktion verbundenen Emissionen und der Verbrauch von frischen Rohstoffen reduziert. In diesem Zusammenhang wurde die Aluminiumlegierung Al6061 in dieser Forschungsarbeit als Matrix verwendet, da sie ein breites Anwendungsspektrum in den Bereichen Automobil, Wärmemanagement, Luft- und Raumfahrt, Industrie, Freizeit, Infrastruktur sowie fortschrittliche militärische Systeme bietet. Die Wahl der Verstärkungs-Nanopartikel unterliegt vielen dabei Aspekten. Diese können sein: Haltbarkeit, Kostenbetrachtung, einfache Einführung in die Matrix und die Phasenstabilität. Mit hohem Elastizitätsmodul, guter Benetzbarkeit und niedrigem Wärmeausdehnungskoeffizienten stellt Aluminiumoxid (Al2O3) eine viel versprechende Option dar um MMNCs in dieser Forschungsarbeit künstlich zu erzeugen. Die verstärkende Wirkung der Nanopartikel ergibt sich aus ihrer geringen Größe, die es ihnen ermöglicht sich auf Gitterdefekte wie Versetzungen zu platzieren und dort verschiedene Verstärkungsmechanismen wie zum Beispiel Tragfähigkeit, Hall-Pitch, Differenz von Elastizitätsmodul und thermische Ausdehnungskoeffizient und Orowan-Mechanismen zu bewirken. Die Hybridmaterialien (Aluminum-Matrix-Nano-Composites (AMNCs)) erlangen deshalb zunehmend Bedeutung, wenn es um Leichtbauwerkstoffe mit verbesserten mechanischen, metallurgischen und physikalischen Eigenschaften.geht Die Wahl eines kompatiblen Herstellungsverfahrens ist ebenso wichtig wie die Wahl der Matrix und der Verstärkungs-Nanopartikel. Die Methode für die Zugabe von Nanopartikeln muss eine gleichmäßige, einfache und homogene Verteilung der Verstärkungsnanopartikeln über die Matrix und die Fähigkeit zur Verwendung in großem Maßstab gewährleisten. Daher wird das Rührgießen als die wahrscheinlich einfachste und wirtschaftlichste Technik zur Herstellung von MMNCs betrachtet. Der Prozess wird jedoch durch die hohen Agglomerationsraten eingeschränkt, die aus der schlechten Benetzbarkeit der Nanopartikel und der Lufteinschlüsse resultieren. Aufgrund der Dichtedifferenz zwischen der Matrix und den Partikeln kam es beim Rühren nur teilweise zum Schweben, teilweise aber auch zum Herabsinken der Nanopartikel. Die vorliegende Studie konzentriert sich auf die Herstellung und Charakterisierung der AMNCs. Die Synthese der AMNCs erfolgt durch Rührgießen mit Al2O3-Nanopartikeln und Aluminiumlegierung 6061 als Matrix. Die vorliegende Arbeit bietet empirische Ansätze zur Überwindung der Hauptrestriktionen der AMNC-Fertigung wie schlechte Benetzbarkeit, Agglomeration, Porosität, inhomogene Verteilung, hohe Produktionskosten und geringe Haltbarkeit. Ziel dieser Forschung ist es, die Machbarkeit des Verfahrens, den effektiven Gewichtsanteil der Verstärkung (über den sich die Eigenschaften verschlechtern) und die Eigenschaften der hergestellten Hybridmaterialien bei Raum- und erhöhter Temperatur (300°C) im Vergleich zur monolithischen Legierung zu untersuchen . Darüber hinaus wurde das metallurgische, mechanische und funktionelle Verhalten der hergestellten Werkstoffe mittels verschiedener mechanischer Tests (Zug-, Härte-, Ermüdungs- und Kriechversuche) und Mikrostrukturuntersuchungen (Licht und Rasterelektronenmikroskopie) bewertet. Zur weiteren Verbesserung des Ermüdungs- und des Funktionsverhaltens der AMNCs wurden die mechanischen Oberflächenbehandlungen (MSTs) Kugelstrahlen und Festwalzen durchgeführt. Der Einfluss des Kugelstrahlens und des Festwalzens auf das Ermüdungs- und das Kriechverhalten wurde ermittelt. Auch das Verschleiß- und Korrosionsverhalten der verschiedenen Verbundwerkstoffe wurde getestet. Weiterhin wurde die Schweißbarkeit der AMNCs für das Rotations-Reibschweißverfahren untersucht. Die Optimierung der Schweißparameter erfolgte auf Basis der Versuchsplanung mit Minitab 17. Ökonomisch wurde die Recyclingfähigkeit der AMNCs durch ein erneutes Vergießen der produzierten AMNCs hinsichtlich Untersuchung der Veränderung ihres Verhaltens im Vergleich zu unverstärkten Legierungen untersucht. Die Nanocomposites zeigten eine feinere Korngröße mit verbessertem mechanischem Verhalten als die unverstärkte Legierung. Die Streckgrenze und die Zugfestigkeit wurden gegenüber der unverstärkten Legierung um 50 % bzw. 32 % verbessert. Darüber hinaus erzielten die Nanocomposites eine Erhöhung der Ermüdungslebensdauer in Luft um 26 % (elektropoliert) und um 64 % in 3,5 % NaCl (elektropoliert) mit einer zusätzlich verbesserten Kriechrate und Korrosionsbeständigkeit. Nach der Durchführung der mechanischen Oberflächenbehandlungen wie Kugelstrahlen und Festwalzen konnte eine weitere Verbesserung auf 37 % in Luft und 127 % in 3,5% NaCl nach dem Kugelstrahlen und dem entsprechend 48 % und 154 % nach dem Festwalzen erreicht werden. Zudem weisen die AMNCs nicht nur ohne weitere mechanische Oberflächenbehandlung, sondern auch nach dem Kugelstrahlen eine höhere Kriechfestigkeit auf, als die unverstärkte Legierung. Auch die tribologischen Eigenschaften und die Korrosionsbeständigkeit der AMNCs werden gegenüber der unverstärkten Matrix verbessert. Die gute Einsatzbarkeit der AMNC resultiert nicht nur aus der guten Schweißbarkeit, sondern auch aus den interessanten Eigenschaften nach dem Recycling . Abschließend wird ein analytisches Modell vorgeschlagen, um eine einfache Gleichung ableiten zu können, die das erwartete Verhalten der AMNCs auf der Grundlage des Gewichtsanteils und der Matrix- und Verstärkungseigenschaften beschreibt. Die experimentellen Ergebnisse zeigen eine gute Übereinstimmung und beweisen die Zuverlässigkeit des Modells zur Vorhersage der mechanischen Eigenschaften der AMNCs .

This thesis focuses on the role of forests and forest management in providing global environmental and climate services. The study analyzes multiple dimensions of forest-sector policy development, with a special focus on interactions between policies, livelihoods and land-use processes at sub-national levels in Vietnam. The Lam Dong and Bac Kan provinces are considered to be representative of the variations in forest-cover dynamics in the country, namely those of a frontier (deforestation) zone, and a forest mosaic (reforestation) zone. The study applied interdisciplinary conceptual frameworks, including institutional theory, political ecology and livelihoods theory, to investigate the research objectives. It also used Forest Transition (FT) theory as a narrative framework to understand the trajectories of forest-cover dynamics and policy processes. An interdisciplinary methodological approach was applied to respond to the research objectives of the study. The results may have important implications for emerging forest and environmental policy frameworks such as payments for environmental services (PES) and Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+). The findings reveal that 'second-generation' policy approaches, such as PES and REDD+, are unlikely to represent a paradigm shift in the history of forest management in Vietnam. As a result of institutional reproductions and 'path dependency', there is a rather high risk of prolonging existing approaches. Larger and more fundamental policy reforms, such as independence, the collectivization processes after the Second World War, and the market liberalization and decentralization reforms from the late 1980s onwards, were identified as fundamental explanatory factors for land-use dynamics in the contemporary history of the country. Furthermore, one-dimensional and reductionist land-use change explanation models, inherent to many of the emerging policy schemes such as PES, REDD+ and forest enhancement, risk overlooking the complexities of land use, livelihoods and underlying dimensions of the drivers of change. Complex institutional factors and the interests of more – or less – powerful actors, in the process of creating institutional bricolages, contribute to modifying and transforming policy programs and schemes into local adaptations. The thesis presents four individual but interrelated papers that address different aspects and scales of policy development processes and impacts. Paper 1: Analyzing the transformation of forest PES in Vietnam: Implications for REDD+ The paper analyzes the transformation of market-resembling environmental policy processes, exemplified by the implementation of forest PES in Vietnam. The paper applies a critical institutional path dependency framework to analyze the processes of institutional reproduction in PES encounters with actors and institutions at multiple levels, from the national to the local. PES policies did not enter an institutional vacuum, but instead were transformed through a process of reproducing existing institutional structures. This reflects not only established norms and values about 'best-ways' of organizing forest management, but also existing structures of power, tenure and the control by some groups over forest resources. In this sense, from a path dependency perspective, new and 'innovative' market-based approaches, such as PES, do not at all represent 'critical junctures'. The findings of this study may have important implications for the prospects of implementing similar initiatives, such as REDD+, both in Vietnam and beyond. Thus future PES and REDD+ schemes should take into account the limitations and challenges of institutional reproduction, interplay and path dependency, to a higher degree in their planning and implementation. Paper 2: Sub-national forest transitions in Vietnam This paper compares forest transitions (FT), policy reforms and forest cover change in the Bac Kan and Lam Dong provinces of Vietnam. The country has seemingly been able to shortcut the perceived FT stages by quickly moving to the reforestation phase, which makes it an interesting case country. Provincial level forest cover and socio-economic trends are, however, not necessarily comparable and compatible within a FT analytical framework. Bac Kan is one of the poorest provinces, but has experienced forest regrowth and expansion of forest cover during the past couple of decades. In contrast, Lam Dong province has both higher GDP and population levels, but has had higher levels of deforestation, particularly linked to the expansion of perennial crops. This is quite contrary to what could be expected from a conventional FT hypothesis. The FT turnaround and land use dynamics were found to be linked to the overall and all-encompassing policy shift related to de-colonization, state-control and collectivization, and the new shift of "market-led socialism", decentralization and land tenure reforms. The findings demonstrate that policies can trump typical FT patterns linked to general development trends. This provides a sense of relief in the way that the FT-trajectory is not unavoidable. Policies can make a difference. Yet, these policies have not primarily been guided by forest conservation concerns, but have rather been a side-effect of economic development and political objectives. Paper 3: Livelihoods and land uses in environmental policy approaches: The case of PES and REDD+ in the Lam Dong Province of Vietnam This paper explores assumptions about the drivers of forest cover change in a PES and REDD+ context in the Lam Dong Province in Vietnam. In policy discourses, deforestation is often linked to 'poor' and 'ethnic minority' households and their unsustainable practices such as the expansion of coffee production (and other agricultural activities) into forest areas. The paper applies a livelihood framework to discuss the links between livelihoods and land use amongst small-scale farmers in two communities. The findings of the livelihood survey demonstrate no clear linkages between poverty levels and unsustainable practices. In fact, the poorest group of households was found to deforest the least. The ways in which current PES and REDD+ approaches are designed do not provide appropriate solutions to address the underlying dimensions of issues at stake. The paper criticizes one-dimensional perspectives of the drivers behind deforestation and forest degradation often found in public policies and discourses. We suggest more comprehensive analyses of underlying factors encompassing the entire coffee production and land use system in this region. Addressing issues of land tenure and the scarcity of productive lands, and generating viable off-farm income alternatives seem to be crucial. Sustainable approaches for reducing deforestation and degradation could be possible through engaging with multiple stakeholders, including the business-oriented households in control of the coffee trade and of land transactions. Paper 4: Cultivating forests: Exploring the productive values of forest land in a reforestation zone of northern Vietnam The paper challenges the predominant forest-agriculture dichotomy perception in policy-making and research in Vietnam. Such dichotomies are not endemic to Vietnam, but permeate the whole climate and forest debate globally. This standpoint encompasses a perception that forests are of higher value kept standing and that agricultural practices, forest conservation and the sustainable use of forests are mutually exclusive activities. This study is based on a survey carried out in the province of Bac Kan in northern Vietnam, and applies a livelihoods framework (LF) to investigate the multiple values of forest lands in household economies. The case demonstrates the complexities of adaptations to forest-sector policies, namely that households in different institutional and agro-ecological locations create and use landscapes differently along a forest-agriculture continuum. The findings on the multipurpose uses of forests may have important implications for climate-related forest policies, such as REDD+ and reduced emissions from all land uses (REALU). Policy makers need to engage with people and local communities, their social institutions and agricultural practices, and consider context-specific approaches for integrating the objectives of conserving trees, increasing carbon stocks, and enhancing the total productivity and total outcomes and values of landscapes. The study recommends inter-sectoral and multi-stakeholder policy approaches to integrate and mainstream multiple objectives, including forestry, agriculture, energy, and environmental services such as food production, carbon capture and storage, water provision, and biodiversity conservation. The study concludes that predominant REDD+ discourses, such as those of ecological modernization and green governmentality, encompass presumptions and risks of one-dimensional and reductionist explanation models of the drivers of land-use change processes. In other words, there is an inherent logic – and need – to identify actors of change who must to be compensated for refraining from cutting down trees, and supported in planting new ones. In reality, however, developing and implementing forest conservation and enhancement policies are highly complex processes, influenced by multiple sets of institutional and agro-ecological factors. Policy implementation and land-use change linked to livelihood processes are multifaceted and dynamic imperatives, influenced by multiple institutional structures and actors, with different interests and agendas. The need to act for more sustainable management of tropical forests seems to be indisputable; however in order to make REDD+ policies more efficient, effective and equitable, the institutional complexity and interests of multiple stakeholders need to be taken into account. ; NMBU; Nansen Fund/UNIFOR - University of Oslo

The Lake Chad Climate resilience action plan outlines the concept that there is a need to turn Lake Chad into a rural hub for regional development in parallel to the restoration of peace and security. The Plan intends to contribute significantly to food security, employment, and the social inclusion of the youth by improving, in a sustainable way, the living conditions of populations settled on the Lake's banks and islands as well as the resilience of a system characterized by a strong demographic growth, high hydrological variability, and climate uncertainty. To achieve it, the Action Plan proposes actions in seven Priority Themes based on observations and knowledge currently available. The four riparian States plus the Central African Republic and Libya, local powers (local governments or customary authorities), Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC), and the civil society will be responsible for implementing the proposed actions. The Plan includes enhancing the capacity of LCBC in terms of data collection, sharing of information, and carrying out analyses useful to governance of the basin`s shared natural resources. The success of this Plan requires continuing on-going efforts to strengthen the LCBC. The tentatively estimated cost of the Lake Chad Action Plan is about 916 million Euros.