This is the fifth volume in a series charting the causes of war from 3000 BCE to the present day,written by a leading international lawyer.While contextualised in the conflicts and patterns of the period, this work, as drawn directly from the treatiesand the negotiations which led up to them, shows what made both war and peace. The period covered inthis volume, 1800 to 1850, brings this series into the start of the modern world.From the Napoleonic Wars through to the international mechanisms that followed, the first efforts at globalcooperation to maintain peace between the major powers were unique. So too, the spread of colonialism, theexpansion of the United States, the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, and the disintegration and reforming of South America. Each of these external actions that were often linked to war, were mirrored by changes within societies, as the values each society fought for often became just as contentious within countries, as they were between them.
There has been a significant policy shift in Germany's energy transition – the Energiewende – resulting from Russia's invasion of Ukraine and the subsequent war. The Easter Package, rolled out in Spring 2022, set a series of ambitious renewable energy targets and laws to enable both climate action and energy security. These are to be implemented in tandem with existing laws such as the Coal Exit Law and the Federal Climate Change Act. Aligning policies and targets to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and ensure energy reliability and affordability requires concerted policy coherence, a policy process to pursue multiple goals in a way that maximises synergies and minimises trade-offs. Reducing trade-offs (and their consequences) is especially crucial if the energy transition is to be just for all and become a vehicle towards a broader Just Transition, as well as to achieve the aims of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (including "leaving no one behind") and the Paris Agreement. This policy brief first examines some of the most important policies – and (in)coherences – pertaining to the Energiewende, with a specific focus on the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), one of Germany's main coal-mining regions. The brief then goes on to explore the main political drivers – through the lens of ideas, interests and institutions – of policy (in)coherence in two parallel Energiewende policy processes that are particularly relevant to the electricity sector: the coal phase-out and the phase-in of onshore wind. Although solar power and green hydrogen are also key to a successful Energiewende, these are not the subject of this brief. Our insights derive from policy document analysis and 28 semi-structured interviews. To move towards a Just Transition, the following recommendations are made to promote coherence in Germany's Energiewende and inform the ongoing revision of the NRW Sustainability Strategy (last updated in 2020). The recommendations may also be of interest to the newly appointed NRW Advisory Board on Sustainability: • Mitigate ideological, institutional and interest-based barriers to ambitious climate action by ensuring a political commitment to policy coherence. In NRW in particular, this means meeting recent promises to deliver a coal phase-out by 2030 and lift the 1,000 metre (m) "rule" (i.e. 1 kilometre (km) between residential buildings and wind turbines), as well as mitigating arising conflicts between residents' interests, particularly around the sharing of profits. Such commitments should be made explicit in the revised NRW Sustainability Strategy and legislated. Promote greater political equality in all Energiewende policy-making decision processes at all governance levels (i.e. federal, state and municipal) in consultative and participatory mechanisms towards greater energy democracy. Reducing political in-equality is key to increase the public's acceptance of renewable energy projects (e.g. through cooperatives) – one of the aims of the latest NRW Sustainability Strategy. • Integrate notions of social and climate justice into Energiewende policy to ensure the German energy transition is a just one for all individuals, and not just for German coal workers. Notions of procedural, distribution and recognition justice are featured here and should be highlighted in the updated NRW Sustainability Strategy.
Businesses often engage in long-term relationships with firms and people they trust and know, in which they informally sell and exchange information and services (Baker, Gibbons, & Murphy, 2002). As postulated by Arrow (1972, p. 357), "virtually every commercial trans-action has within itself an element of trust". Within these relations, trust is defined as the belief that market actors adhere to informal contract arrangements. Particularly in lower-income countries, which are often described by distortions – such as inefficient institutions (e.g., contract enforcement), imperfect markets (e.g., access to credit), and market distortions created by firms (e.g., lobbying) (Atkin & Khandelwal, 2020) – such relational contracts are important for commercial interactions locally and internationally and are an important complement to formal contracts. In low-income economies, how are relational contracts used to foster economic activity? What policy measures can be used to aid trust-based relational contracts, or to address its inefficiencies? This Policy Brief presents the results from a study on the Rwandan coffee chain, which surveyed coffee mills, farmers and exporters on their performance and relational contracts. The main findings are that relational contracts are an important component at two levels of the chain: (a) between cooperatives, washing stations and mills, and its members, and (b) between mills and buyers. Mills, for example, offer informal provisions to its farmers to ensure timely delivery of high-quality beans. Exporters and mills invest in trust-based relationships with buyers by spending on getting market access and productivity-increasing activities (e.g., investing in new machinery) in anticipation of future buyer demand and prior to formal contracting. Buyers likewise invest in creating and maintaining relational contracts to local firms by providing informal technical and financial support. With the exception of certification programmes, few of the activities that both mills and buyers undertake are formally enforced through contracts but instead are done at the discretion of producers and buyers. Such informal relations are important and necessary because in low-income countries there can be market risks (e.g., limited access to inputs for farmers) that, if not addressed, affect the coffee supply and quality. The coffee sector in Rwanda is to a large extent com-parable to the coffee sector in other countries and other agricultural supply chains in low-income countries (like labour- and quality-intensive products, such as tea and cocoa). Therefore, this study may offer some valuable lessons to policy makers:1. Promote brokerage services to support trust-based relationships between local firms and international buyers. Brokerage services include programmes (either by governments of international organisations) that bring together and facilitate buyer-supplier linkages. These services have proven successful in creating long-term buyer-supplier relationships, while also facilitating financial and technical support for local firms and market access. There is a role for both international organisations and national governments to provide financing or facilitate such services.2. Use certification to formalise quality upgrading and market access. Certification programmes include credible, internationally recognised standards and evaluation protocols that are used across multiple commodities. Certification can help formalise some of the quality upgrading and market access activities that firms and farmers otherwise would receive informally through relational contracts. There are roles for national governments to promote and subsidise certification practices and for international organisations and certification providers to expand such services.
Panajotis Kondylis, der griechische Philosoph und Ideentheoretiker, wusste: Nur durch einen totalen existenziellen Einsatz, eine wachsame Beobachtung konkreter, stets geschichtlich bedingter Situationen und lebendiger, um ihre Selbsterhaltung und dabei notgedrungen auch um die Erweiterung ihrer Macht bestrebter Menschen sowie durch eine unaufhaltsame Filtrierung der Beobachtungen mit strenger Reflexion, die vor keinem Vorurteil kapituliert und keinen Konflikt scheut, gelangt der Geist zur Reife und entgeht der normativen Bindung. In den drei in den 1990er-Jahren geführten Interviews präsentiert sich dieses Wissen in praktischer Vollendung und bietet zugleich einen grundlegenden Einstieg in das Denken Kondylis' – ein Denken, das sich Philosophie, Anthropologie, Ökonomie und Geschichte zunutze macht, ohne sich den Disziplinengrenzen zu beugen. Ein Denken, das die politisch-ideologischen Strömungen und Theorien der Vergangenheit durchleuchtet, um ihre Bedeutung für die Gegenwart und den Einfluss, den sie auf das Heute haben, offenzulegen. Ein Denken, das an kein Ende kommt und sich als ein geradezu planetarisches erweist. (Verlagstext)
Title page -- TABLE OF CONTENTS -- MEMORIES OF A SOLDIER'S LIFE -- FOREWORD -- CHAPTER I - IN THE CRIMEA -- CHAPTER II - AUSTRALIA -- CHAPTER III - TIGER SHOOTING IN INDIA -- CHAPTER IV - (1860 to 1886) - A TRIP TO CHYNEPORE -- CHAPTER V - REGIMENTAL LIFE IN INDIA -- CHAPTER VI - THE AGRA DURBAR -- CHAPTER VII - HOME AGAIN -- CHAPTER VIII - THE ZULU CAMPAIGN -- CHAPTER IX - ULUNDI -- CHAPTER X - 1880-1885 - THE BURMAH CAMPAIGN -- CHAPTER XI - IN COMMAND OF THE NAGPORE DISTRICT -- CHAPTER XII - SECUNDERABAD AND BANGALORE -- CHAPTER XIII - JAMAICA AND ALDERSHOT.
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"One of the most contentious developments in contemporary international affairs has been the increase in uses of force-short-of-war, such as targeted killings, limited airstrikes, and no-fly zones. On the one hand, uses of force-short-of-war appear more compartmentalized and containable, but on the other hand, they have encouraged a more frequent recourse to arms. How, then, are we to make moral sense of this shift toward the small-scale uses of force? This debate has divided just-war theorists, but author Christian Nikolaus Braun offers a new perspective. He evaluates comprehensively the ethics framework jus ad vim (the just use of force-short-of-war) as a pillar of just war theory and as a practical matter of deciding when military interventions below the level of war can and cannot be justified. The book's moral argument will rely on a historical reading of the just-war thought of Thomas Aquinas"--
