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Abstract
This paper examines how left-behind children influence migration duration in China. We first present a simple illustrative model that incorporates economic and non-economic motives to migration duration. Using individual data from a survey carried out in Wuwei county (Anhui province) in 2008, we find that migrant parents of children in primary school tend to delay their return, a result we interpret as illustrating the need for migrant parents to accumulate money for their offspring's education. In contrast, parental time appears substitutable by coresiding grandparents who contribute to delay the parents' return, especially mothers, when they have children below the age of 12.

JEL classification: J61, J13, C41, O53

This ground-breaking work is the result of research by Plan International China and the China Agricultural University on children who have been left behind in their rural villages when their parents migrate to cities in search of work. When evaluating and studying the huge impact of migration in China understanding the situation of left-behind children offers many valuable lessons

"The unprecedented rural-to-urban migration in China over the past three decades has placed the social phenomenon of "left-behind children" at the forefront of sociological inquiry. One unintended consequence of this mass migration is the exponentially increased size of left-behind children-children whose parents migrated to more developed areas and who live with one parent or other extended family members. The daily lives of these children, including caretaking arrangement, parent-child bonding and communication, and schooling, are fraught with distractions and uncertainties. Paying special attention to this marginalized group, this book investigates shaping family dynamics and children's general wellbeing, including school performance, delinquency, resilience, feelings of ambiguous loss, and other psychological problems. Blending theory, empirical research, and real-world interviews with left-behind children, China's Left Behind Children provides a uniquely close look at these children's lives while also providing the larger national context that defines and shapes their everyday lives"--

In this study we investigated the television cognition of 53 "left-behind" children. We examined explicit cognition using the Television Virtual and Real Life Questionnaire (Geng & Zhou, 2011) and used the Brief Implicit Association Test (BIAT; Sriram & Greenwald,
2009) to examine implicit cognition toward television virtual and real life. The results showed that the left-behind children in our study had weak explicit abilities to discriminate between television virtual and real life and had relatively strong implicit abilities to discriminate between
television virtual and real life. In other words, their explicit and implicit discrimination abilities were different. Based on our findings, we give suggestions about education aimed at improving the television cognition of left-behind children.

We examined peer relationships and loneliness of children who have experienced separation from their parent(s) and compared them with children who have never had that experience. Chinese boys and girls (N = 232) aged 10 to 14 completed the Children's Loneliness Scale and the
Friendship Quality Questionnaire, and were asked to complete a peer nomination procedure designed to measure peer acceptance status. Results showed that 127 (54.7%) of the survey participants had experienced separation from their parent(s) because of parental migration for work (left-behind
children). The score for loneliness was higher in the group of left-behind children than in children without left-behind experience, but the scores of the two groups did not differ either on friendship quality or for peer acceptance status. Moreover, among the group of children who had experience
of being left behind, their loneliness scores were highly correlated with their scores for both friendship quality and peer acceptance status, but among the group who had no experience of being left behind there was a high correlation of their loneliness score only with their friendship quality
score.

Chinese scholars focused on the status of children's subjective well-being. However, one significant gap is the need to measure comprehensive child well-being in China's backward economic rural areas. The study adopted a multidimensional child well-being approach and child-centred perspective to measure rural left-behind children's material, physical, educational, psychological, and social well-being and present the multidimensional well-being of left-behind children in rural China. The study adopted a quantitative approach, and the survey method was the preferred approach for this study. A multistage random sampling technique was used to choose the geographical location of the study, study area, and children as survey respondents. Four hundred eighty left-behind children aged 10 to 16 in Sichuan province, China, were selected for the study. The selected left-behind children experienced a high level of well-being domains, except for moderate educational well-being. However, pocket money, physical exercise, academic achievement, child welfare for education, social services, coping strategies, and activity engagement were the core targets to promote the left-behind children's well-being through improving social expenditure on children, empowering the child welfare system, and providing sufficient social services in school in China.