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This case study examines contemporary experiences of conflict in four contexts: Papua New Guinea, with particular reference to the island of Bougainville and the Highlands region; Solomon Islands; and Vanuatu. We find common themes in these experiences, despite the regions famous sociolinguistic diversity, fragmented geography and varied experience of globalization. Melanesia offers distinctive lessons about how conflict may be understood, promoted and avoided. The paper is organized in two broad parts. The first part is contextual. It provides a brief account of conflict and violence in social life before and after colonization. It then tracks, largely chronologically, through the local, national and transnational dimensions of contemporary conflict, how it was avoided, how it has changed, and how it has been managed in different contexts. Particular attention is given to global and regional influences, and to how governments, local people, and external security, development and commercial actors, have worked to mitigate and, at times, exacerbate conflict. The second part of the case study is more analytical. It steps back from the particulars to address themes and propositions in the overall conceptual framing of World Development Report (WDR) 2011 about the nature of conflict, and the underlying stresses and interests that may render it more likely. Part two draws lessons from the histories and contexts discussed in part one. The report organizes these around three themes that reflect views shared with us by people during consultations. The first highlights the need to recognize conflict as an inherent part of social change and thus the need to distinguish between socially generative social contest, and forms of conflict that are corrosive and destructive. The second examines how the ways people 'see' and understand the world directly shapes systems of regulation and 'the rules of the game' and thus directly affect responses to conflict. The third theme argues that capable and legitimate institutions to regulate social contest requires not just capable state institutions, but as much, relationships with local and international agents and organizations operating below and above the state.

This report seeks to inform the development of a framework for addressing governance reform in fragile and conflict affected environments through are view of international experiences. The report analyzes the experience both of countries that sustained a transition to peace and those that fell back into conflict. Pertinent lessons will be drawn selectively from a range of fragile and conflict affected countries, including Haiti, Cambodia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Mozambique, Liberia, Timor-Leste, Afghanistan, Rwanda, Indonesia, Sierra Leone, and Angola. No specific typologies have been adopted or formed in order to assess these lessons, because typologies can be limiting and experiences can be better assessed based on the specificity of each country's context. The first section of the report sets out broadly accepted definitions of key terms such as governance, state building, and fragility. The second section reviews experiences with diverse governance dimensions and explores the objectives, opportunities, and constraints associated with each.

FCL and AS were supported by the Swedish Research Council (Vetenskapsrådet, grant no. 2018-01272). FCL conducted the work with this article as a Pro Futura Scientia XIII Fellow funded by the Swedish Collegium for Advanced Study through Riksbankens Jubileumsfond. WT was supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG, TE 613/3-1). AD received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement no. 677152). AH was supported by Riksbankens Jubileumsfond (grant no. IN20-0026). MD-D was funded by the Dutch Research Council (Nederlandse organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek, grant no. 016.Veni.195.502). TK, MR, and UB were supported the SustES project – "Adaptation strategies for sustainable ecosystem services and food security under adverse environmental conditions" (CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000797). LS was supported by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany's Excellence Strategy – EXC 2150 ROOTS – 390870439. FL was supported by a European Research Council (ERC) Synergy Grant (4-OCEANS; grant agreement no. 951649) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme. ; Although variations in building activity are a useful indicator of societal well-being and demographic development, historical datasets for larger regions and longer periods are still rare. Here, we present 54,045 annually precise dendrochronological felling dates from historical construction timber from across most of Europe between 1250 and 1699 CE to infer variations in building activity. We use geostatistical techniques to compare spatiotemporal dynamics in past European building activity against independent demographic, economic, social and climatic data. We show that the felling dates capture major geographical patterns of demographic trends, especially in regions with dense data coverage. A particularly strong negative association is found between grain prices and the number of felling dates. In addition, a significant positive association is found between the number of felling dates and mining activity. These strong associations, with well-known macro-economic indicators from pre-industrial Europe, corroborate the use of felling dates as an independent source for exploring large-scale fluctuations of societal well-being and demographic development. Three prominent examples are the building boom in the Hanseatic League region of northeastern Germany during the 13th century, the onset of the Late Medieval Crisis in much of Europe c. 1300, and the cessation of building activity in large parts of central Europe during armed conflicts such as the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648 CE). Despite new insights gained from our European-wide felling date inventory, further studies are needed to investigate changes in construction activity of high versus low status buildings, and of urban versus rural buildings, and to compare those results with a variety of historical documentary sources and natural proxy archives. ; Publisher PDF ; Peer reviewed

Significant opportunities, a wide choice and saturation of the market with goods and services make it difficult for consumers to make decisions about buying certain goods. Companies, experiencing high competition, actively use all possible approaches and methods of marketing. Often consumers do not rely on rational factors, but on their own subconscious motivations caused by marketing incentives. Therefore, companies pay considerable attention to research into consumer behavior and tastes to bring the end consumer closer to the product, convincing him of the need for its consumption. Most domestic companies continue to use the tools of classical marketing, despite the emergence of innovative methods of promotion. Traditional marketing research yields results that can be ineffective and deviate significantly from reality, so companies are beginning to look for alternative ways to study consumer behavior. One of the modern directions of research on consumer behavior is neuromarketing, whose methods exacerbate the problem of ethics of neuroscience. The purpose of this article is to analyze the possibilities of neuromarketing tools to study consumer behavior and determine the ethical aspects of the use of neuromarketing in today's market conditions. This goal involves the following tasks: 1) to reveal the relevance of the use of neuromarketing; 2) define the concept of neuromarketing and its types; 3) compare traditional marketing research and neuromarketing; 4) define the concept of neuroethics; 5) consider the problems of neuroethics in marketing; 6) consider the role of the code of ethics on the example of the NMSBA Code of Ethics; 7) identify solutions to ethical problems of neuromarketing. It has been found that neuromarketing is a promising marketing tool because it provides new information that cannot be obtained through traditional marketing research. It uses neurobiology to identify consumers' subconscious decision-making processes and to understand the true stimuli for their behavior. Neuromarketologists conduct research to determine consumer actions that occur under the influence of their feelings, thoughts, and subconscious processes. Therefore, neuromarketing makes it possible to increase the value of products for consumers and society, provided that it simplifies the relationship between consumers and products. Unlike traditional marketing research, neuromarketing research allows to obtain results with smaller deviations from reality due to the ability to study consumers' subconscious processes. Brain research for medical and commercial purposes involves the need to study ethical, legal and social issues and consequences that may arise in the research process. These questions are studied by a science called neuroethics. The most common ethical problems of neuromarketing are autonomy, informed consent, consumer confidentiality, and privacy. But if you follow the rules of the code of ethics, the use of these tools can be more effective.

Significant opportunities, a wide choice and saturation of the market with goods and services make it difficult for consumers to make decisions about buying certain goods. Companies, experiencing high competition, actively use all possible approaches and methods of marketing. Often consumers do not rely on rational factors, but on their own subconscious motivations caused by marketing incentives. Therefore, companies pay considerable attention to research into consumer behavior and tastes to bring the end consumer closer to the product, convincing him of the need for its consumption. Most domestic companies continue to use the tools of classical marketing, despite the emergence of innovative methods of promotion. Traditional marketing research yields results that can be ineffective and deviate significantly from reality, so companies are beginning to look for alternative ways to study consumer behavior. One of the modern directions of research on consumer behavior is neuromarketing, whose methods exacerbate the problem of ethics of neuroscience. The purpose of this article is to analyze the possibilities of neuromarketing tools to study consumer behavior and determine the ethical aspects of the use of neuromarketing in today's market conditions. This goal involves the following tasks: 1) to reveal the relevance of the use of neuromarketing; 2) define the concept of neuromarketing and its types; 3) compare traditional marketing research and neuromarketing; 4) define the concept of neuroethics; 5) consider the problems of neuroethics in marketing; 6) consider the role of the code of ethics on the example of the NMSBA Code of Ethics; 7) identify solutions to ethical problems of neuromarketing. It has been found that neuromarketing is a promising marketing tool because it provides new information that cannot be obtained through traditional marketing research. It uses neurobiology to identify consumers' subconscious decision-making processes and to understand the true stimuli for their behavior. Neuromarketologists conduct research to determine consumer actions that occur under the influence of their feelings, thoughts, and subconscious processes. Therefore, neuromarketing makes it possible to increase the value of products for consumers and society, provided that it simplifies the relationship between consumers and products. Unlike traditional marketing research, neuromarketing research allows to obtain results with smaller deviations from reality due to the ability to study consumers' subconscious processes. Brain research for medical and commercial purposes involves the need to study ethical, legal and social issues and consequences that may arise in the research process. These questions are studied by a science called neuroethics. The most common ethical problems of neuromarketing are autonomy, informed consent, consumer confidentiality, and privacy. But if you follow the rules of the code of ethics, the use of these tools can be more effective.

Abstract. Problem. The issue of the impact of construction projects on the environment is extremely relevant and complex. Analysis of publications. The study of the negative impact of rolling stock, dust, noise, vibration, emissions during the operation of engines, as well as the impact of construction processes on the environment were engaged in such scientists as I.Ye. Evgeniev, RA Kizima, D.W. Зерка-лов, М.В. Немчинов, О.Л. Boychenko and others [1, 3, 4, 8, 9]. The aim is to assess the degree of impact of the road and transport on the environment. Presenting main material. Consumer properties of roads are a set of indicators that directly meet the needs of road users: safety, speed, continuity, comfort of traffic; road capacity, in particular the ability to pass cars and road trains with permitted axle loads, total weight and dimensions; ecological and aesthetic condition of the road; level of service and information support [2]. Ecological safety of the highway depends on the technical level, operational condition of the road and road structures, intensity and composition of traffic and characterizes the impact of the road on the environment within the limits of environmental standards, including harmful vehicle emissions, noise pollution, migration of animals, reptiles etc. [6]. Cars with gasoline engines are especially harmful in this regard. Diesel engines have a much lower level of toxicity and contain much less harmful substances. On the entire area of land occupied by the road and the construction of the road complex, on temporarily allotted land for reserves, quarries and other developments should be removed fertile layer of soil with bulldozers that cut and move the soil some distance. In the course of performance of this work the soil is exposed to mechanical disturbance. The construction area becomes a category of disturbed lands, which include lands with a removed or covered humus layer, not suitable for agricultural and forestry use without prior restoration of fertility [3, 7, 10, 11]. Conclusions. In order to protect the environment, many countries around the world are introducing laws designed to limit the negative impact of vehicles on the state of the biosphere, which requires the creation of modern environmental legislation and regulatory framework for environmental safety. ; Анотація. У процесі будівництва та експлуатації автомобільних доріг створюється додаткове екологічне навантаження на навколишнє середовище, яке спричиняє погіршення екологічної рівноваги. Основними джерелами забруднень є: вирубка лісу, пошкодження ґрунтового шару, змив забруднень з місць проведення будівельних робіт, створення надмірного шуму, викиди двигунів під час руху автомобілів та ін. Врахування цих факторів буде створювати умови для поліпшення екологічної складової споживчих властивостей.

9 pags., 7 figs., 2 tabs. ; Semi-transparent solar cells are the next step for photovoltaics into our daily life. Over the last years, kesterite-type material has attracted a special attention to be used as an absorber in thin-film solar cells because of its low toxicity and earth abundant constituents. Here, Cu2ZnGeSe4 (CZGSe) thin films are grown by co-evaporation and subsequent annealing at a maximum temperature of 480 ◦C or 525 ◦C onto Mo/V2O5/FTO/glass stacks. The goal of this work is to investigate the influence of the annealing temperature on the composition, morphology, vibrational properties, and transmittance of CZGSe layers, the formation of secondary phases, and distribution of elements within the absorber layer as well as on the optoelectronic properties of the corresponding solar cell devices. Raising the annealing temperature to 525 ◦C leads to a more uniform distribution of Cu, Zn, Ge and Se throughout the absorber layer, a reduction of the presence of the GeSe2 secondary phase, which is mainly detected at 480 ◦C, a larger grain size and the formation of a thicker MoSe2 layer at the CZGSe/back contact interface. The strategy of increasing the annealing temperature allows for improved J–V characteristics and higher spectral response resulting in an enhanced device performance of 5.3% compared to 4.2% when using 525 ◦C and 480 ◦C, respectively. Both absorber layers present an optical band gap energy of 1.47 eV. Furthermore, higher annealing temperature has beneficial effect to the CZGSe-based devices without losses in total transmitted light because of the higher diffuse transmittance. This work shows first promising semi-transparent CZGSe-based solar cells possibly open up new routes of applications. ; This work was supported by Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities Project WINCOST (ENE2016-80788-C5-2-R), Project RTI (2018-096498-B-I00, AEI/MICINN/ERDF) and European Project INFINITE CELL (H2020-MSCA-RISE-2017-777968). Authors from IREC belong to the SEMS (Solar EnergyMaterials and Systems) Consolidated Research Group of the 'Generalitat de Catalunya' (Ref 2017 SGR 862).MG and MP acknowledge the financial support from Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities within the Juan de la Cierva (IJC2018-038199-I) and Ramón y Cajal (RYC-2017-23758) Fellowships respectively. MGP also acknowledges funding from AEI/MICINN (PTA2019-016763-I). The authors acknowledge the service from the MiNa Laboratory at IMN-CSIC, and funding from CM (project S2018/NMT-4291 TEC2SPACE), MINECO (project CSIC13-4E-1794) and European Union (FEDER, FSE). ; Peer reviewed

Putul Mahanta,1 Deepjyoti Kalita,2 Chiranjita Phukon,3 Ranjumoni Konwar,4 Kahua Das,5 Md Kalim Ullah,6 Dhirendra Singh Yadav,7 Sangeeta Deka2 1Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Assam Medical College and Hospital, Dibrugarh, Assam, India; 2Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India; 3Department of Medicine, Tezpur Medical College and Hospital, Tezpur, Assam, India; 4Department of Radiology, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed Medical College and Hospital, Barpeta, Assam, India; 5Department of Physiology, Tezpur Medical College and Hospital, Tezpur, Assam, India; 6Department of Dentistry, Tezpur Medical College and Hospital, Tezpur, Assam, India; 7Central Forensic Science Laboratory, Directorate of Forensic Science Services, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, Bhopal, IndiaCorrespondence: Putul MahantaDepartment of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Assam Medical College and Hospital, Dibrugarh, Assam, 786002, IndiaTel +919435017802Email drpmahanta@gmail.comIntroduction: It becomes a challenge for a teacher to find a student-friendly approach to teach too many students in a class. The teaching methods used during medical education have a significant impact on learning among medical students. A practical and informative teaching technique is considered an essential component of that education. The present study aimed to determine the best interactive teaching method based on Indian medical undergraduates' perceptions.Materials and Methods: The current investigation was a cross-sectional descriptive study that included 100 undergraduate medical students. A structured sample class on a specified topic was conducted using Microsoft PowerPoint (PPT) and a "chalk and talk" (CNT) method. Students' opinions of the class were assessed via a Likert scale questionnaire in which, for each of the two methods, the students were asked to rank twelve comments on a four-point scale: strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree. Descriptive statistics were calculated to evaluate the distributions of their responses. The z test for two proportions was used to test a significant difference in respondents' proportions towards various perceptions regarding the two teaching methods under study. The data were analyzed using SPSS software version 22.Results: Students understood the lesson content better when the teacher used the CNT approach (p< 0.005). The CNT method was also associated with better interaction than the PPT technique (p=0.03) and facilitated better student concentration and retention of the class content (p=0.03). The students reported that there was less eye contact associated with the PPT technique (61%) but found the content thus delivered fascinating (78%), informative (91%), and organized (85%) as compared to the CNT approach.Conclusion: The traditional CNT approach is an effective classroom teaching method. The current study highlights student preferences for a combined teaching method that includes CNT and PPT.Keywords: classroom technique, medical education, student perspective, interactive teaching

Abstract. Problem. The issue of the impact of construction projects on the environment is extremely relevant and complex. Analysis of publications. The study of the negative impact of rolling stock, dust, noise, vibration, emissions during the operation of engines, as well as the impact of construction processes on the environment were engaged in such scientists as I.Ye. Evgeniev, RA Kizima, D.W. Зерка-лов, М.В. Немчинов, О.Л. Boychenko and others [1, 3, 4, 8, 9]. The aim is to assess the degree of impact of the road and transport on the environment. Presenting main material. Consumer properties of roads are a set of indicators that directly meet the needs of road users: safety, speed, continuity, comfort of traffic; road capacity, in particular the ability to pass cars and road trains with permitted axle loads, total weight and dimensions; ecological and aesthetic condition of the road; level of service and information support [2]. Ecological safety of the highway depends on the technical level, operational condition of the road and road structures, intensity and composition of traffic and characterizes the impact of the road on the environment within the limits of environmental standards, including harmful vehicle emissions, noise pollution, migration of animals, reptiles etc. [6]. Cars with gasoline engines are especially harmful in this regard. Diesel engines have a much lower level of toxicity and contain much less harmful substances. On the entire area of land occupied by the road and the construction of the road complex, on temporarily allotted land for reserves, quarries and other developments should be removed fertile layer of soil with bulldozers that cut and move the soil some distance. In the course of performance of this work the soil is exposed to mechanical disturbance. The construction area becomes a category of disturbed lands, which include lands with a removed or covered humus layer, not suitable for agricultural and forestry use without prior restoration of fertility [3, 7, 10, 11]. Conclusions. In order to protect the environment, many countries around the world are introducing laws designed to limit the negative impact of vehicles on the state of the biosphere, which requires the creation of modern environmental legislation and regulatory framework for environmental safety. ; Анотація. У процесі будівництва та експлуатації автомобільних доріг створюється додаткове екологічне навантаження на навколишнє середовище, яке спричиняє погіршення екологічної рівноваги. Основними джерелами забруднень є: вирубка лісу, пошкодження ґрунтового шару, змив забруднень з місць проведення будівельних робіт, створення надмірного шуму, викиди двигунів під час руху автомобілів та ін. Врахування цих факторів буде створювати умови для поліпшення екологічної складової споживчих властивостей.

Die vorliegende Diplomarbeit beschäftigt sich mit dem besonderen Schutz des StGB für Personen, die für die Allgemeinheit tätig werden und für Beamte. Vor allem im Bereich der Körperverletzungsdelikte (§§ 83 Abs 3, 84 Abs 2 und 87 Abs 1a und Abs 2 StGB) wird dieser besondere Schutz im Wege von erhöhten Strafdrohungen bei den zuvor genannten Personen bemerkbar. Außerdem wird ein tätlicher Angriff (§§ 91a und 270 StGB) an sich bei diesen Personengruppen unter Strafe gestellt. Dieser besondere strafrechtliche Schutz ist an sich nicht neu und tritt immer mehr in den Fokus der Medien und der Politik. Durch solche besonderen Strafnormen und Strafdrohungen sollten laut den Gesetzesmaterialien zu den entsprechenden Delikten die vermehrten Übergriffe auf die geschützten Personen vermindert werden. Das erste Kapitel dieser Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit dem strafrechtlichen Schutz von Angehörigen des Gesundheits- und Rettungswesens, der Feuerwehr und Bediensteten einer dem öffentlichen Verkehr dienenden Anstalt. Darunter wird die zuvor genannte Personengruppe näher definiert und die einschlägigen Paragraphen (§§ 83 Abs 3 und 91a StGB) werden näher beleuchtet. Am Ende des entsprechenden Kapitels wird auf allfällige Abgrenzungs- und Konkurrenzprobleme eingegangen. Das zweite Kapitel widmet sich dem strafrechtlichen Schutz von Beamten. Auch hier wird der Beamtenbegriff näher definiert und die einschlägigen Paragraphen (§ 84 Abs 2, 87 Abs 1a und Abs 2 und 270 StGB)werden behandelt. Zuletzt unter diesem Kapitel werden anfallende Abgrenzungs- und Konkurrenzprobleme näher beleuchtet. Im dritten Kapitel wird auf den Sonderfall von Amts-, Anstalts- und Spitalsärzte (Beamte im privatwirtschaftlich medizinischen Bereich), welche nicht durchwegs vom Schutz der betreffenden Beamtenqualifikationen in den entsprechenden Delikten erfasst werden, näher behandelt. ; This diploma thesis deals with the special legal protection of groups who serve the public interest by the Austrian Criminal Code. Especially in the sector of offenses occasioning bodily harm (§§ 83 Abs 3, 84 Abs 2 and 87 Abs 1a and Abs 2 StGB), this special legal protection becomes noticeable through higher threat of punishment. Moreover, the Austrian Criminal Code makes a violent assault (§§ 91a and 270 StGB) a punishable offense on these protected groups. This special legal protection by itself is not new and becomes more and more the4 focus of the media and the policy. Based on the legal material special offense and higher threat of punishment should avoid the increased attacks. The first chapter of this diploma thesis deals with the special legal protection of members of healthcare, emergency services, fire brigade and employees who are entrusted with tasks of an institution which serves public transportations. This chapter defines, among other things, the aforementioned groups of persons and the relevant paragraphs (§§ 83 Abs 3 and 91a StGB) are illuminated as well. At the end of this chapter possible demarcation and competitive problems are analyzed. The second chapter is dedicated to special legal protection of public officials. This group is closely defined and the relevant paragraphs (§§ 84 Abs 2, 87 Abs 1a and Abs 2 and 270 StGB) are analyzed. At the end of this chapter possible demarcation and competitive problems are illuminated. The third chapter puts emphasis on the special case of public, institutional and hospital doctors (civil servants in the private medical sector), who are not consistently covered by the protection of the civil servant qualifications concerned in the relevant offenses. ; vorgelegt von Nadine Haag ; Abweichender Titel laut Übersetzung des Verfassers/der Verfasserin ; Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, Diplomarbeit, 2021 ; (VLID)5884131

Importance. Innovation infrastructure is a special area of activity that provides support functions for the innovative development of the region. According to the concept of formation of innovation systems at the national and regional levels, innovation infrastructure should include two complex elements: "infrastructure of diffusion of innovations" and "innovative infrastructure of society". Moreover, the first element pays serious attention not only to the spread of innovations, but also to cooperation and partnership of participants in the innovation process in the region. The second element, respectively, reflects the General conditions for the development of innovative potential for economic entities. A serious support function from the innovative infrastructure can become a driver of innovative development of the territory, a mechanism for the formation of an up-to-date innovative culture in the innovative environment of the region.Objectives. Study of issues of creating and maintaining elements of innovative infrastructure to solve the problem of innovative development of the region based on the existing theoretical and methodological background and practical experience.Methods. In the process of studying the issues of functioning and development of innovation infrastructure in Russian theory and practice, General scientific methods of knowledge, statistical research methods, as well as principles and methods of the system approach were used.Results. The article considers aspects of building a regional economy of an innovative type, tools and institutions that ensure the continuity of the innovation process. The analysis of the existing Russian experience in the formation of innovative infrastructure confirms the importance of the mechanism for supporting innovative projects. It is proved that innovative infrastructure is the driver of innovative development in the region. in this regard, the prospects for stimulating innovation and expanding network interaction are particularly important.Conclusions and Relevance. The regional economy of the innovation type implies an active transition to the knowledge economy, open innovation models, and a four-link spiral, which requires the formation of an integrated system for converting new knowledge into new technologies, products, and services in the regions. It is the regions that should become the activator of innovation at the national level. Therefore, to strengthen the regional aspect of innovative development, it is necessary to create favourable conditions provided with innovative infrastructure. Only by taking into account the tasks of developing the required level of innovation infrastructure can we talk about achieving the goals of implementing the innovation policy and innovation strategy of the region. The problem of coordinating the interests of participants in the innovation process, including through mechanisms for creating and maintaining elements of the innovation infrastructure, remains a complex issue.

The U.S. nonprofit sector spends $2.54 trillion each year. If the sector were a country, it would have the eighth largest economy in the world, ahead of Brazil, Italy, Canada, and Russia. The government provides nonprofits with billions in tax subsidies, but instead of evaluating the quality of their work, it leaves this responsibility to nonprofit managers, boards, and donors. The best nonprofits are laboratories of innovation, but unfortunately some are stagnant backwaters, which waste money on out-of-date missions and inefficient programs. To promote more innovation and less stagnation, this Article makes two contributions to the literature. First, this Article breaks new ground in identifying sources of inefficiency at nonprofits. The literature focuses on incentives, arguing that managers and board members are less motivated to run a nonprofit efficiently because they cannot keep its profits. In response, this Article emphasizes that the problem is not just motivation, but also information. Measuring success is harder at nonprofits. Instead of tracking profitability, they use metrics that are less reliable and harder to measure. These measurement challenges complicate the efforts even of dedicated and competent managers to operate efficiently. While this information problem is familiar, another has been largely overlooked in the literature: When success is hard to measure, incompetence and self-interested practices are less visible, and thus are harder to stop. For example, if managers regularly overpay vendors, the consequence at a for-profit firm (lower profits) is easier to observe than at a nonprofit (less effective service for beneficiaries). Second, this Article recommends a response to this underappreciated source of inefficiency: better analysis and disclosure as a strategy for organizational change. In principle, nonprofits are supposed to maximize social return, but how can they operationalize this abstract principle? To help them do so, this Article recommends three questions that nonprofits should answer every year: first, how important are the challenges the nonprofit is trying to address?; second, how effective are the nonprofit's responses to these challenges?; and third, is the nonprofit the right organization to respond to these challenges? These questions press nonprofit managers and boards to be more explicit about priorities, monitor progress, improve and expand high-value programs, and fix or shut down ineffective ones. This Article also recommends that nonprofits should disclose this analysis to the public, even though current law does not require them to do so. This disclosure would empower donors and rating agencies to be more effective monitors. It also would help donors make better informed philanthropic choices and would enable charities to borrow innovative ideas from each other more easily.

2 .pdf files: File 1. Author's article final version, Post-Print (19 Pags.- 4 Figs.- 2 Tabls.). File 2. Supplementary Materials (3 Figs.- 2 Tabls.- 1 Model Equation). ; Aim Previous work demonstrated the global variability of synchrony in tree growth within populations, that is, the covariance of the year‐to‐year variability in growth of individual neighbouring trees. However, there is a lack of knowledge about the causes of this variability and its trajectories through time. Here, we examine whether climate can explain variation in within‐population synchrony (WPS) across space but also through time and we develop models capable of explaining this variation. These models can be applied to the global tree cover under current and future climate change scenarios. Location Global. Time period 1901–2012. Major taxa studied Trees. Methods We estimated WPS values from a global tree‐ring width database consisting of annual growth increment measurements from multiple trees at 3,579 sites. We used generalized linear mixed effects models to infer the drivers of WPS variability and temporal trends of global WPS. We then predicted WPS values across the global extent of tree cover. Finally, we applied our model to predict future WPS based on the RCP 8.5 (2045–2065 period) emission scenario. Results Areas with the highest WPS are characterized by a combination of environments with both high mean annual temperature (>10°C) and low precipitation (<300 mm). Average WPS across all temperate forests has decreased historically and will continue to decrease. Potential implications of these patterns include changes in forest dynamics, such as higher tree growth and productivity and an increase in carbon sequestration. In contrast, the WPS of tropical forests of Central and South America will increase in the near future owing to reduced annual precipitation. Main conclusions Climate explains WPS variability in space and time. We suggest that WPS might have value as an integrative ecological measure of the level of environmental stress to which forests are subjected and therefore holds potential for diagnosing effects of global climate change on tree growth. ; E.T. and M.V. were partially supported by National Science Foundation ‐ Partnership in International Research and Education (OISE‐1743738) and National Science Foundation ‐ Paleo Perspectives on Climate Change (AGS‐1702439). R.S.‐N. is funded by a "Juan de la Cierva" postdoctoral grant FJCI‐2017‐31595. E.T., M.S., R.S.‐N. and M.D.L. are supported by the Government of Aragón through the "Program of research groups" (group H38, "Clima, Agua, Cambio Global y Sistemas Naturales"). A.L. was supported by grant EVA4.0, No. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000803, financed by OP RDE and by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service. ; Peer reviewed

A great deal of studies on the environmental fate and transport of legacy explosives such as cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX), 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazoctane (HMX) has been conducted. However, less is known about the behaviour of Insensitive High Explosive (IHE) constituents being brought into military service such as 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) and 5-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-3-one (NTO) in soil and water environmental compartments. Typically fate and transport of explosives are often performed under controlled laboratory conditions. However, experimental data are often limited to a particular soil type under specific climatic conditions (i.e. pH, soil saturation, temperature), which are not always representative of genuine environments. For example, several studies have addressed the dissolution mechanisms of energetic compounds on soil surfaces; many, however, have addressed dissolution of individual IHE without considering formulations with multiple constituents. Such results may have limited applicability for dissolution of residues on soils at impact zones or firing ranges because IHE often contain mixtures of energetic materials e.g. DNAN, RDX, and NTO, as well as small quantities of other chemicals such as stabilisers, which may alter physico-chemical properties compared to the pure compound. Therefore, computational modelling software is increasingly being used as an additional tool to simulate real scenarios. However, models are limited by the quality of the empirical data used to predict the temporal and spatial behaviour e.g. rate of transport of IHE to an aquifer. This is a particular problem for the prediction of the behaviour of IHE in the environment where key experimental data has not been obtained for a wide variety of soils and environments, and whose compounds are frequently investigated in isolation even though they are used in combination in IHE formulations. Therefore, the aim of this study is to review and assess two predictive models including GoldSim Simulation Software and Hydrus-1D for a representative range of soil-IHE combinations, and to develop a standardised method for the prediction of the behaviour of IHE in the environment. To date the GoldSim simulations have been compared to soil columns under controlled laboratory conditions to estimate the accuracy of the model developed. GoldSim was initially chosen due to its flexibility, which enabled the use of experimentally determined empirical data for specific soil types and IHE constituents. Initial comparisons were undertaken with DNAN and a simple quartz sand medium to determine which empirical data gave the most accurate predictions e.g. soil adsorption coefficient, degradation rates and solubility. The comparisons will be extended to include mixtures of IHE constituents in a variety of soil types e.g. sandy, loamy, and silty under various climatic conditions.

This research was aimed to develop and to evaluate the quality of the innovative multimedia through social lab to promote perception of good citizenship according to democratic values, to evaluate the perception results, to evaluate the sampling group&rsquo;s satisfaction towards the development of innovative multimedia and to evaluate the feedback by the organizer. The sampling group in this study consisted of 2 groups. The first group was 30 state enterprise entrepreneurs from the Community under the Bridge Zone 1 at soi Pracha-Utit 76, the Community at the Back of the Suanthonburirom Park and the Community Moo 3 in the Bang Mod area. They were chosen using purposive sampling method out of those who were filmed in a short film and were willing to be models for a desk calendar and to fill out the questionnaires. The second group was 50 students from the ETM 358 Marketing Communication course and the ETM 361 Presentation Skill 2 course in the second semester of the academic year 2018. They were chosen using purposive sampling method out of those who participated in at least 2 social labs and participated in all the short film events at the cinema. The statistical methods in this research were mean score, standard deviation and feedback by the organizer. The results from the research and development were as follows:

The results from the development of the innovative multimedia through social lab to promote perception of good citizenship according to democratic values contained 3 phases with the following major media, minor media and supporting media: short film, desk calendar and facebook page, vinyl banner for publicity with QR code and events to preview the short film and to screen the film at Major Cineplex cinema at Tesco Lotus Bangpakok. The quality of the media contents as evaluated by the expert panel was at a good level (x &nbsp;= 4.25, S.D. = 0.72). The quality of the media presentation as evaluated by the expert panel was at a very good (x &nbsp;= 4.61, S.D. = 0.32). The sampling group&rsquo;s perception of the innovative multimedia was at a high level ( x &nbsp;= 4.42, S.D = 0.68). The sampling group&rsquo;s satisfaction towards the innovative multimedia was at a high level ( x &nbsp;= 4.36, S.D = 0.72). These values confirmed the research hypotheses. The feedback or after action review by the learners showed that the majority had a good attitude towards service learning in conjunction with community-based learning in accordance with the research hypothesis. It was found that social work made students stronger and allowed them to think, analyze and engage in real work. They could communicate collaboratively through presentation and social media network for this course.